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Notes

Introduction: the Regal Theater and Black Culture 1. Dempsey Travis, one of ’s most prominent African American businessmen, who achieved his success in the field of real estate, has also made important contributions as an independent scholar of Chicago’s Black political and cultural history. In his several works in the field, Travis provides important information and insight on the Regal Theater. See, for example, Dempsey J. Travis, An Autobiography of Black Chicago (Chicago: Urban Research Institute, 1981) and Autobiography of Black (Chicago: Urban Research Institute, 1983). 2. Chicago Defender, January 14, 1928, pt. 1, p. 8. 3. Ibid.; Chicago Defender, January 14, 1928, pt. 1, p.1. 4. Ibid., February 7, 1959, p. 18. 5. Ibid. 6. , September 6, 1973, sec. S4A, p. 2. 7. W. Augustus Low and Virgil A. Clifts, eds., Encyclopedia of Black America (New York: Da Capo Press, 1981), pp. 412, 421, 441. 8. Ibid. pp. 515, 735; Jessie Parkhurst Guzman, ed., Negro Year Book: A Review of Events Affecting Negro Life, 1941-1946 (Tuskegee, Alabama: Tuskegee Institute, 1947), p. 17. Also see “Chicago Renaissance 1932–1950: Images and Documents from the Vivian G. Harsh Research Collection, Charlemae Hill Rollins,” accessed March 14, 2003, from Chicago Public Library Digital Collection: http://www.chipublib.org/digital/chiren/instrollins.html 9. See John N. Ingham and Lynne B. Feldman, African–American Business Leaders: A Biographical Dictionary (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994), p. 492. 10. See, for example, “Doctor with Big Heart,” Ebony Magazine, Janauary 1958, pp. 51–53, 56; Chicago Defender, December 28, 1957, p. 20; “Theodore K. Lawless,” accessed on-line May 3, 2003 from African American Biographical Data Base (Ann Arbor, Michigan: Chadwyck-Healy, ProQuest Information and Learning Company, 2003): http://80-aabd.chadwyck.com.ezproxy.emich.edu/. 11. Cosmopolitan Community Church provided a brief historical account of Dr. Mary G. Evans in its serial publication, The Flame vol. 23, no. 1 (Winter 1995), edited by a long-time church member, Bessie Chatman. 228 NOTES

12. Howard Reich, “The Drill Sergeant of Du Sable,” Chicago Tribune Magazine, September 6, 1998; Thomas Hennessey, From Jazz to Swing: African-American Jazz Musicians and Their Music, 1890–1935 (: Wayne State University Press, 1994), p. 70. 13. The Flame; Earl Calloway, “Dr. Joyner Dies at 98,” Chicago Defender, December 29, 1994, p. 1; Marjorie Stewart Joyner, interviewed by author, August 19, 1986, Chicago. Also see Ingham and Feldman, African American Business Leaders, pp. 634-640 for information on African American entrepreneur Annie Minerva Turnbo-Malone. Turnbo-Malone built a hair and personal care business prior to Walker’s that was equally as successful, if not more so. In fact, Walker may have worked for Turnbo-Malone before starting her own business. In 1930, Turnbo-Malone moved her business from St. Louis, Missouri to Forty- Fourth and South Parkway in Chicago, a few blocks from the Regal. Turnbo-Malone may have been the Black community’s greatest philan- thropist, contributing to numerous causes to aid . 14. Chicago Defender, May 26, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6; also see Roi Ottley, The Lonely Warrior: The Life and Times of Robert S. Abbott (Chicago: Henry Regnery Company, 1955). Ottley’s biography of Robert S. Abbott describes Abbott’s intense commitment to elevating Black community life. 15. See, for example, Ted Vincent, Keep Cool: The Jazz Activists Who Built the Jazz Age (London: Pluto Press, 1995), p. 20. 16 See Albert Fried, The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Gangster in America (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980), pp. 170–171. 17. See, for example, Ralph Cooper, Amateur Night at the Apollo (New York: HarperCollins, 1990), pp. 41, 44, 63–64; Harold Cruse, Crisis of the Negro Intellectual (New York: William Morrow, 1960), pp. 20, 86; Travis, Autobiography of Black Jazz, pp. 39–49; William J. Grimshaw, Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931–1991 (Chicago: Press, 1992), pp. 59, 82. 18. See Robert Staples, The Urban Plantation: Racism and Colonialism in the Post Civil-Rights Era (Oakland, California: Black Scholar Press, 1987), pp. 191–221. 19. Ibid., p. 10. 20. Ibid., p. 12. 21. See Clovis E. Semmes, Cultural Hegemony and African-American Development (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1992), pp. 1–32. 22. Ibid., pp. 105–107. 23. Ibid., pp. 111–138.

Chapter 1 The Opening: Separate but Equal 1. Michael Conant, Antitrust in the Motion Picture Industry: Economic and Legal Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), NOTES 229

p. 157; also see Regal Theater folder, Theater Historical Society, Elmhurst, . 2. See Carrie Balaban, “Opening Night at the Tivoli,” Marquee: The Journal of the Theatre Historical Society 17, no. 4 (1985): 10; Conant, Antitrust, p. 157. 3. Conant, Antitrust, pp. 157, 159. 4. Telephone interview with Bill Benedict of Theatre Historical Society of America, August 5, 1986. 5. See Christine Basque, “Paradoxes of Paradise: Elements of Conflict in Balaban & Katz Movie Palaces,” Marquee: The Journal of the Theatre Historical Society 27, no. 2 (1995): 7. 6. Oliver Cromwell Cox, “The Origin of Direct-Action Protest Among Negroes: The Chicago Experience,” n.d. TMs (microfiche), Kent State University Library. Kent, , p. 8. 7. Chicago Tribune, August 19, 1926, pt. 3, p. 1. 8. See data on “Louis Englestein” and “Harry Englestein,” accessed June 30, 2003, from AncestryPlus at Eastern Michigan University Library Databases Web site: http://gale.ancestry.com/ggmain.htm. Also see “Englewood Map During the 1920s–1930s,” accessed June 30, 2003, from Jazz Age Chicago Web site: http://www.suba.com/~scottn/ explore/district/southtwn/southtw2.htm; “South Center Department Store,” accessed June 30, 2003, from Jazz Age Chicago Web site: http://www.suba.com/~scottn/explore/sites/d_stores/socenter.htm; “Becker- Ryan/Sears Roebuck,” accessed June 30, 2003 from Jazz Age Chicago Web site: http://www.suba.com/~scottn/explore/ sites/d_stores/becker. 9. Cox, “Origin of Direct Action Protest,” p. 10. 10. Ibid., pp. 10–11. 11. See E. Franklin Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie: The Rise of the New Middle Class (New York: The Free Press, 1957), pp. 55–56. 12. Interview with Scotty Piper, August 26, 1986; W. Augustus Low and Virgil A. Clift, eds., Encyclopedia of Black America (New York: Da Capo Press, 1981), p. 478; Thomas Yenser, ed., Who’s Who in Colored American, 1941–1944, 6th ed. (New York: Thomas Yenser, 1942), p. 299; Roi Ottley, Lonely Warrior: The Life and Times of Robert S. Abbott (Chicago: Henry Regnery Company, 1955), pp. 200, 315 . 13. Cox, “Origin of Direct Action Protest,” p. 11. 14. Ibid., pp. 228–229, 247–248, 250–251, 255–256; also see M. R. Werner, : The Life of a Practical Humanitarian (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1939), p. 278. 15. Ibid., p. 263. 16. Werner, Julius Rosenwald, pp. 274–275. 17. See Douglas Gomery, Shared Pleasures: A History of Movie Presentation in the (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), pp. 41–44. 18. See Werner, Julius Rosenwald; and Edwin R. Embree and Julia Waxman, Investment in People: The Story of the Julius Rosenwald Fund (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1949). 230 NOTES

19. Chicago Defender, December 24, 1927, pt. 1, p. 7; November 9, 1929, pt. 1, p. 7; , October 22, 1927, section 2, p. 3; Chicago Tribune, August 29, 1926, pt. 3, p. 1; Dempsey Travis, An Autobiography of Black Jazz (Chicago: Urban Research Institute, Inc.), pp. 98, 101. 20. Norma Miller with Evette Jensen, Swingin’ at the Savoy: The Memoir of a Jazz Dancer (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996), pp. 28, 31; e-mail correspondence with Terry Monaghan, Harlem Savoy historian, August 28, 2000; Chicago Defender, September 29, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6; November 17, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6; November 24, 1928, pt. 1, p. 4; Fess Williams as told to Harrison Smith, “The Fess Williams Story,” Record Research 3 (October/November 1957): 5. 21. Thomas J. Hennessey, From Jazz to Swing: African American Jazz Musicians and Their Music, 1890–1935 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994), p. 72; Travis, Autobiography of Black Jazz, pp. 84–86. 22. Ted Vincent, Keep Cool: The Black Activists Who Built the Jazz Age (London: Pluto Press, 1995), pp. 69–79. 23. Chicago Defender, September 29, pt. 1, p. 6. 24. Ibid., December 31, 1927, pt. 1, p. 6. 25. Interview with Jimmy Luckette, August 17, 1986; Travis, Autobiography of Black Jazz, pp. 79–80; Chicago Defender, December 24, 1927, pt. 1, p. 8. 26. Pittsburgh Courier, November 12, 1927, section 1, p. 6. 27. Chicago Defender, May 26, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 28. Ibid., November 24, 1928, pt. 1, p. 4; Travis, Autobiography of Black Jazz, p. 92. 29. Chuck Menville, The Harlem Globetrotters: An Illustrated History (New York: The Benjamin Company, Inc., 1978), pp. 9–10. 30. Chicago Defender, December 24, 1927, pt. 1, p. 7. 31. Ibid., September 29, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 32. Ibid., February 18, 1928, pt. 1, p. 4. 33. Ibid., December 24, 1927, pt. 1, p. 6. 34. Frederick L. Lights, “Memories: The Chicago Regal,” Marquee: Journal of the Theatre Historical Society 5, no. 4 (1973). 35. Dempsey Travis, “The Regal That I Remember,” Chicago Weekend 13, no. 3 (February 8, 2001): p. 30. 36. Lights, “Memories”; Travis, Autobiography of Black Jazz, pp. 144–155. 37. Lights, “Memories.” 38. Interview with Jimmy Luckette. 39. Lights, “Memories.” 40. Interview with Jimmy Luckette. 41. Chicago Defender, January 14, 1928, pt. 1, p. 8; Lights, “Memories”; Travis, “Regal That I Remember”; Travis, Autobiography of Black Jazz, p. 150. NOTES 231

42. Chicago Tribune, February 4, 1928, p. 16. 43. See Ibid., June 2, 1928, p. 16. 44. Chicago Defender, Local, January 14, 1928, pt. 1, p. 8. 45. Ibid., May 26, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 46. Ibid., April 27, 1929, pt. 1, p. 6. 47. Ibid., November 3, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; July 21, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; August 11, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 48. Ibid., March 3, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; May 19, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6; November 10, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7. 49. Ibid., Local, January 21, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7. 50. Thomas J. Hennessey, “Chicago’s Black Establishment,” Journal of Jazz Studies 2, no. 1 (December 1974): 15–38; , The Music of Black Americans: A History (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1971), p. 355; John Chilton, Who’s Who of Jazz: Storyville to Swing (New York: Time-Life Record, 1978), p. 256. 51. See Hennessey, “Black Establishment,” pp. 16–17. Hennessey estab- lished the end of Peyton’s tenure at the Defender as August 24, 1929, but no byline or picture of Peyton was connected to the column after June 22, 1929, and the byline of Walter Barnes, Peyton’s successor, appeared September 21, 1929. 52. Chicago Defender, January 21, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6; March 3, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 53. Ibid. January 7, 1928, pt. 1, p. 8. 54. See for example, Marshall and Jean Stearns, Jazz Dance: The Story of American Vernacular Dance (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968). 55. , Black Manhattan (New York: Atheneum, 1972), p. 120; also see Vincent, Keep Cool, p. 63. 56. Ibid., pp. 122–124. 57. Chicago Defender, January 21, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 58. Williams and Harrison, “Fess Williams Story,” p. 5. 59. Williams and Harrison, Chicago Defender, November 24, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; December 22, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7. 60. Chicago Defender, February 11, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6; May 26, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6; June 23, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6; also see John Chilton, Who’s Who of Jazz, p. 33. 61. Chicago Defender, December 29, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 62. Ibid.; Chicago Defender, January 21, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 63. Ibid., February 18, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 64. See Dave Peyton’s comments when Fess Williams leaves the Regal; Chicago Defender, June 2, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 65. Chicago Defender, June 2, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 66. Ibid., May 26, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 67. Variety, Wednesday, February 15, 1928, p. 37; Chicago Defender, Local, January 21, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7. 232 NOTES

68. See for example, Chicago Defender, March 3, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; March 17, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6; March 24, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6; March 31, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; May 19, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; June 16, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 69. See the entertainment pages of throughout 1928. 70. Chicago Defender, April 28, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7. 71. Travis, Autobiography of Black Jazz, pp. 256–257; Chicago Defender, September 15, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7. 72. Chicago Defender, April 7, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7. 73. Ibid., May 26, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 74. Ibid., April 21, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 75. Ibid., December 12, 1925, p. 7. 76. Ibid. 77. Ibid. 78. Ibid. 79. Donald Spivey, Union and the Black Musician: The Narrative of William Everette Samuels and Chicago Local 208 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1984), p. viii. 80. Ibid., p. 32. 81. Chicago Defender, November 23, 1929, pt. 1, p. 7. 82. Spivey, Union and the Black Musician, pp. 32–37. 83. Ibid., p. 37. 84. Ibid., p. 53. 85. Ibid. 86. Vincent, Keep Cool, pp. 92–93, 134–137; Chicago Defender, June 23, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 87. Chicago Defender, March 10, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 88. Ibid., February 25, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7. 89. Ibid., September 3, 1927, pt. 1, p. 6. 90. Ibid., February 25, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7. 91. Ibid., March 10, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7. 92. Ibid., March 10, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; April 14, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; May 5, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; May 12, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7. 93. Ibid., July 21, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6; July 28, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 94. Ibid., August 18, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 95. Ibid., September 8, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6; September 22, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6. 96. Ibid., September 1, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7. 97. Ibid., October 13, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; October 27, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6; November 24, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7. 98. Ibid., February 9, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; December 22, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; February 16, 1929, pt. 1, p. 7; February 23, 1929, pt. 1, p. 7. 99. Ibid., December 1, 1928, pt. 1, p. 6; December 29, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; February 2, 1929, pt. 1, p. 7. 100. Ibid., February 16, 1929, pt. 1, p. 7; March 9, 1929, pt. 1, p. 7. NOTES 233

101. Ibid., February 9, 1929, pt. 1, p. 7; March 30, 1929, pt. 1, p. 7; April 6, 1929, pt. 1, p. 7. 102. Ibid., May 11, 1929, pt. 1, p. 7. 103. Ibid., May 4, 1929, pt. 1, p. 6; October 26, 1929, pt. 1, p. 7; December 28, 1929, pt. 1, p. 6.

Chapter 2 The Depression Years: Privilege in the Marketplace and Black Stewardship 1. John Douglas Eames, The Paramount Story (New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1985), p. 9; Douglas Gomery, Shared Pleasures: A History of Movie Presentation in the United States (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), p. 34; Anthony Slide, The New Historical Dictionary of the American Film Industry (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1998), p. 155. 2. Kristin Thompson and David Bordwell, Film History: An Introduction (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994), p. 70; Eames, Paramount Story, pp. 113–114; Neal Gabler, An Empire of Their Own: How the Jews Invented Hollywood (New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1988), pp. 41–43. 3. Thompson and Bordwell, Film History, pp. 70, 157; Exhibitors Herald, August 20, 1927, pp. 25–27. 4. Eames, Paramount Story, p. 36; Gomery, Shared Pleasures, p. 49; Michael Conant, Antitrust in the Motion Picture Industry: Economic and Legal Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), pp. 154–155; Thomas and Bordwell, Film History, pp. 157–158. 5. Gomery, Shared Pleasures, pp. 57, 60. 6. Thomas and Bordwell, Film History, p. 157. 7. Ibid., Eames, Paramount Story, p. 36. 8. Eames, Paramount Story, pp. 36–37; Gomery, Shared Pleasures, pp. 59, 61; Slide, American Film Industry, pp. 154–155. 9. See Gus Russo, The Outfit: The Role of Chicago’s Underworld in the Shaping of Modern America (New York: Bloomsbury, 2002), pp. 121–123, 125; Mike Nielsen and Gene Mailes, Hollywood’s Other Blacklist: Union Struggles in the Studio System (London: British Film Institute, 1995), pp. vii, 17; David W. Stowe, Swing Changes: Jazz in New Deal America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1944), p. 104. 10. See Russo, The Outfit, pp. 121–133, 135–138; Nielsen and Mailes, Hollywood’s Other Blacklist, pp. 16–21, 80–81; Robert J. Kelly, The Upperworld and the Underworld: Case Studies of Racketeering and Business Infiltration in the United States (New York: Kluwer 234 NOTES

Academic/Plenum Publishers, 1999), pp. 66–68; Albert Fried, The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Gangster in America (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980), pp. 169–171. 11. See , “How Gangsters Ran the Band Business,” Ebony September 4, 1949, pp. 40–47; Dempsey J.Travis, An Autobiobraphy of Black Jazz (Chicago: Urban Research Institute, 1981), pp. 124–138, 472; Rufus Schatzberg and Robert J. Kelly, African-American Organized Crime: A Social History (New York: Garland Publishing, 1996), pp. 95, 102; Brenda Dixon Gottschild, Waltzing in the Dark: African American Vaudeville and Race Politics in the Swing Era (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), pp. 87–91; Chicago Defender, August 26, 1939, p. 21; Ted Vincent, Keep Cool: The Black Activists Who Built the Jazz Age (London: Pluto Press, 1995), pp. 77–79, 174, 182. 12. E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro Family in Chicago (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932), pp. 91, 93–95, 101. 13. St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City, revised and enlarged ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), pp. 62–63. 14. Otis Dudley Duncan and Beverly Duncan, The Negro Population of Chicago: A Study of Residential Succession (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957), pp. 21–23, 34–35. 15. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, p. 12. 16. See Ibid., pp. 62–65; Dempsey J. Travis, An Autobiography of Black Chicago (Chicago: Urban Research Institute, 1981), pp. 37–40; William J. Grimshaw, Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931–1991 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp. 96–97. 17. See Irving Cutler, The Jews of Chicago: From Shtetl to Suburb (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1996), pp. 199, 204–205; Glen E. Holt and Dominic A. Pacyga, Chicago: A Historical Guide to the Neighborhoods, the Loop and South Side (Chicago: Chicago Historical Society, 1979), pp. 87–88; Dominic A. Pacyga and Ellen Skerrett, Chicago: City of Neighborhoods (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1986), pp. 338–341. 18. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, p. 432. 19. Chicago Fact Book Consortium, editors, Local Community Fact Book: Chicago Metropolitan Area, 1980 (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1984), p. 104. 20. Ibid.; Holt and Pacyga, Chicago, pp. 88–91. 21. Ibid. Also see Chicago Defender, December 31, 1938, pp. 1, 2; Grimshaw, Bitter Fruit, pp. 50–61, 96–97. 22. I reviewed the entertainment section of every issue of the national edition of the Chicago Defender printed during the life of the Regal Theater. From this procedure I noted the mention of stage shows and developed a rough count of the number of shows offered each month. Various articles offered information that helped to confirm the conclusion that a live show had or had not been presented that week. NOTES 235

This process provided an ordinal sense of the up-and-down years regarding the presentation of live shows at the Regal. 23. Lester V. Chandler, America’s Greatest Depression, 1929–1941 (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1970), p. 31. 24. Ibid., p. 1. 25. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, p. 78. 26. Chandler, America’s Greatest Depression, pp. 1–10. 27. Ibid., pp. 40–41, 45. 28. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, p. 84; John N. Ingham and Lynne B. Feldman, African-American Business Leaders: A Biographical Dictionary (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994), pp. 492, 495–496; Chicago Defender, August 9, 1930, p. 3. 29. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, pp. 84–85. 30. Gomery, Shared Pleasures, pp. 70, 73, 80–81. 31. Chicago Defender, December 13, 1930, p. 20. 32. Roi Ottley, The Lonely Warrior: The Life and Times of Roberts S. Abbott (Chicago: Henry Regnery Company, 1955), pp. 351–354. 33. Chicago Defender, December 20, 1930, p. 5. 34. Ibid., September 13, 1930, p. 5. 35. Ibid., January 11, 1930, p. 7. 36. Ibid. 37. Ibid. In a subsequent year, 1935, Bill Robinson and Earl Hines organized a benefit at the Regal to raise money for blind boxer Walcott Langford. The money was for an operation to restore Langford’s vision. See Chicago Defender, August 10, 1935, p. 7. 38. Ibid., February 1, 1930, p. 7. McClennon was also a comedian. Like most comedians of this period, he performed in blackface. 39. Ibid., February 8, 1930, p. 7. 40. Ibid., May 24, 1930, p. 10. 41. Ibid., June 21, 1930, p. 5. 42. Ibid., July, 5, 1930, p. 5; August 2, 1930, p. 5; August 9, 1930, p. 5. 43. Marshall Stearns and Jean Stearns, Jazz Dance: The Story of American Vernacular Dance (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968), pp. 290–291. 44. Ralph Cooper, Amateur Night at the Apollo (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1990), pp. 121–130, 146–147, 158–159; Florence Murray, The Negro Handbook (New York: Wendell Malliett and Company, 1942), p. 228. 45. Chicago Defender, August 23, 1930, p. 5; August 16, 1930, p. 5. 46. Ibid., September 6, 1930, p. 5. 47. Ibid., September 13, 1930, p. 5. 48. Cooper, Amateur Night, pp. 44, 70–71, 81–82. 49. Travis, Black Jazz, pp. 43–44; and Bryant Rollins, Of and Me (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1976), pp. 58–60; Cooper, Amateur Night, pp. 145–146. 50. Chicago Defender, May 3, 1930, pt. 2, p. 9; August 30, 1930, p. 5; Nadine Graves-George, The Royalty of Negro Vaudeville: The 236 NOTES

Whitman Sisters and the Negotiation of Race, Gender and Class in American Theater, 1900–1940 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), p. 122. 51. Chicago Defender, September 13, 1930, p. 5. 52. Ibid., September 6, 1930, p. 5; September 13, 1930, p. 5; September 20, 1930, p. 5; Stearns and Stearns, Jazz Dance, pp. 88–89. 53. Stearns and Stearns, Jazz Dance, pp. 85–89; George-Graves, Negro Vaudeville, pp. 44–45, 89–93, 96–98, 111; Chicago Defender, September 6, 1930, p. 5. 54. Chicago Defender, May 11, 1935, p. 6; January 4, 1936, p. 9. 55. Ibid., September 13, 1930, p. 5. 56. Ibid., February 15, 1930, p. 7. 57. Ibid. During his vaudeville performances, Washington “usually appeared as a well-dressed gentleman tramp.” See Anthony Slide, The Encyclopedia of Vaudeville (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994), p. 535. 58. William Russell, “,” in Jazzmen, ed. Frederick Ramsey Jr. and Charles Edward Smith (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1967), pp. 124–138; also see Thomas J. Hennessey, From Jazz to Swing: African American Jazz Musicians and Their Music, 1890–1935 (Detroit: Wayne State Press, 1994), pp. 76–81; Chicago Defender, February 15, 1930, p. 7; August 2, 1930, p. 5. 59. Chicago Defender, February 15, 1930, p. 7. 60. Ibid., June 14, 1930, p. 7. 61. Ibid. 62. Ibid., June 14, 1930, p. 7. 63. Ibid. 64. Ibid., July 5, 1930, p. 5. 65. Gary Null, Black Hollywood: The Black Performer in Motion Pictures (New York: Carol Publishing Group, 1990), pp. 27–36; Chicago Defender, November 22, 1930, p. 5. 66. Jesse Carney Smith, Notable Black American Women (Detroit: Gale Research, 1992), pp. 707–708; Stephen Bourne, “Nina Mae McKinney,” Films in Review 42 (January/February 1991): 24–28; Chicago Defender, December 13, 1930; August 9, 1930, p. 5. 67. Chicago Defender, October 11, 1930, p. 5. 68. and Henry Henderson, A History of African- American Artists: From 1792 to the Present (New York: Pantheon Books, 1993), pp. 136–139, 142. 69. Ibid., p. 137. 70. Bruce A. Linton, “A Radio Station Programming, 1921–1931, with Emphasis on Stations WMAQ and WGN” (Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1953), pp. 29–35. 71. Chicago Defender, June 21, 1930, p. 15. Station WIBO began broadcasting in Chicago in 1926 and was owned and operated by the Nelson Brothers Bond and Mortgage Company. Unable to survive the Depression, the station shut down in 1933. See C. George NOTES 237

Ericson, “Swedish Radio Services in Chicago,” Swedish Pioneer Historical Quarterly 24, no. 3 (1973): 157. 72. J. Fred MacDonald, Don’t Touch That Dial: Radio Programming in American Life, 1920–1960 (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1979), pp. 26–29, 33; Joseph Boskin, Sambo: The Rise and Demise of An American Jester (Oxford University Press: New York, 1986), pp. 166–175; William Barlow, “Commercial and Noncommercial Radio,” in Split Image: African Americans in the Mass Media, ed. Jannette L. Dates and William Barlow (Washington DC: Press, 1990), pp. 177–180. 73. Chicago Defender, August 2, 1930, p. 5; January 25, 1950, p. 6; Mark Newman, Entrepreneurs of Profit and Pride: From Black-Appeal to Radio Soul (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1988), pp. 59, 62, 66, 69–71; Barlow, “Commercial and Noncommercial Radio,” pp. 182, 185–186. 74. Barlow, “Commercial and Noncommercial Radio,” p. 185; Newman, Entrepreneurs of Profit, p. 66. 75. Chicago Defender, January 11, 1930, p. 6. 76. Ibid., January 25, 1930, p. 7; June 21, 1930, p. 5; Chris Albertson, Bessie (New York: Stein and Day Publishers, 1974), pp. 164, 168, 176. 77. Albertson, Bessie, pp. 166–167; Barlow, “Commercial and Noncommercial Radio,” p. 176. 78. Barlow, “Commercial and Noncommercial Radio,” p. 177; Hennessey, Jazz to Swing, pp. 131–132. 79. Chicago Defender, January 25, 1930, p. 6. 80. Ibid., January 10, 1931, p. 5; January 31, 1931, p. 5; March 21, 1931, p. 5; In September, Peyton’s 12-piece orchestra opened to a packed house at the Club Congo located in the Binga Building on 35th Street; he was managing director of the club. However, by December Peyton had resigned from this post and left the establishment. See Chicago Defender, September 19, 1931, p. 5; December 5, 1931, p. 5. 81. Chicago Defender, April 11, 1931, p. 5. 82. Ibid., May 16, 1931, p. 5. 83. Ibid., January 17, 1931, p. 5; March 7, 1931, p. 5. 84. Ibid., August 1, 1931, p. 5. 85. Ibid., September 5, 1931, p. 5; November 7, 1931, p. 5. 86. Ibid., May 19, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7; October 6, 1928, pt. 1, p. 7. 87. Ibid., November 7, 1931, p. 5. 88. Ibid., May 23, 1931, p. 5; June 13, 1931, p. 5. 89. Ibid., May 16, 1931, p. 5. 90. Ibid., August 16, 1930, p. 5. 91. Ibid., January 5, 1929, pt. 1, p. 1. 92. Ibid., April 25, 1931, p. 5. 93. Ibid., March 28, 1931, p. 5. 94. Ibid., July 4, 1931, p. 5. 95. Ibid., February 14, 1931, p. 5; February 21, 1931, p. 5; March 7, 1931, p. 5; March 14, 1931, p. 5; April 11, 1931, p. 5; May 23, 1931, p. 5; August 15, 1931, p. 10. 238 NOTES

96. Ibid., July 18, 1931, p. 5. 97. Ibid., August 8, 1931, p. 5; August 29, 1931, p. 5. 98. Ibid., November 28, 1931, p. 5. 99. Ibid., December 5, 1931, p. 5 100. Ibid., December 12, 1931, p. 5. 101. Ibid., December 26, 1931, p. 5. 102. Ibid., April 11, 1931, p. 5; August 8, 1931, p. 5; September 26, 1931, p. 5; October 24, 1931, p. 5; December 12, 1931, p. 5; June 13, 1931, p. 5. 103. Ibid., May 16, 1931, p. 5; July 4, 1931, p. 5. 104. Ibid., June 27, 1931, p. 5. 105. Ibid., January 30, 1932, p. 5. 106. Ibid., November 12, 1932, p. 5. 107. Ibid., December 17, 1932, p. 5; January 5, 1935, p. 8. 108. Ibid., December 24, 1932, p. 5. 109. Ibid. 110. Ibid., January 13, 1936, p. 7. 111. Ibid., December 17, 1932, p. 5. 112. See “Donald Mills, Last Member of the Mills Brothers, Succumbs,” Jet November 29, 1999, pp. 57–58; Louis Robinson, “The Eternal Mills Brothers,” Ebony, September, 1970, pp. 62, 64–65; Chicago Defender, April 8, 1933, p. 5; November 4, 1933, p. 5. 113. Chicago Defender, July 15, 1933, p. 5. 114. Ibid., July 29, 1933, p. 5; August 5, 1933, p. 5. 115. Ibid., August 19, 1933, p. 5; November 11, 1933, p. 15; December 23, 1933, p. 5. 116. Ibid., December 30, 1933, p. 5. 117. Ibid., February 27, 1932, p. 5; January 7, 1933, p. 5. 118. See Rosetta Reitz, “Hot Snow: Valaida Snow (Queen of the Trumpet Sings & Swings),” Black American Literature Forum 16 (Winter 1982): 158–160. 119. Chicago Defender, May 12, 1934, p. 8; August 25, 1934, p. 8; September 29, 1934, p. 8; December 1, 1934, p. 8; January 7, 1937, p. 21. Black female band and orchestra leaders and Black, all-female bands and orchestras were prominent throughout the 1930s. See D. Antoinette Handy, Black Women in American Bands and Orchestras, 2nd ed. (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1998), pp. 43–46; Chicago Defender, July 30, 1932, p. 5; September 5, 1936, p. 18. 120. Chicago Defender, October 27, 1934, p. 8; November 10, 1934, p. 8. 121. Chicago Defender, August 4, 1934, p. 8; August 11, 1934, p. 8; Slide, The Encyclopedia of Vaudeville, pp. 411–412. 122. Chicago Defender, March 31, 1934, p. 5; April 7, 1934, p. 8. 123. Ibid., April 14, 1934, p. 9. 124. Ibid., June 2, 1934, p. 6. 125. Ibid., July 7, 1934, p. 6; July 14, 1934, p. 8. 126. Ibid., June 30, 1934, pp. 8, 9; August 11, 1934, p. 8. NOTES 239

127. Ibid., October 13, 1934, p. 8; December 8, 1934, p. 8. 128. Ibid., December 1, 1934, p. 3. 129. Ibid., December 22, 1934, p. 9; December 29, 1939, pp. 9, 10. 130. Ibid., June 23, 1934, p. 9. 131. Ibid., February 3, 1934, p. 5; September 15, 1934, p. 9. 132. Ibid., January 6, 1934; p. 5; January 27, 1934, p. 5; February 10, 1934, p. 5. 133. Ibid., December 15, 1934, p. 9. 134. Ibid., July 7, 1934, p. 6; October 27, 1934, p. 9; November 3, 1934, p. 8; January 5, 1935, p. 8. 135. Ibid., January 5, 1935, p. 8; January 26, 1935, p. 9; February 16, 1935, p. 9. 136. Ibid., April 6, 1935, p. 11. 137. Ibid., May 25, 1935, p. 6; June 8, 1935, p. 6; June 15, 1935, pp. 6, 7; June 22, 1935, p. 6. 138. Ibid., November 2, 1935, p. 9. 139. Ibid., March 30, 1935, p. 8; July 6, 1935, p. 8. At some point the Grand Terrace Café also held a “Future Stars” night. See Ibid., November 23, 1935, p. 9. 140. Ibid., December 7, 1935, p. 9; December 14, 1935, pp. 8, 9; December 21, 1935, pp. 8. 9; December 28, 1935, p. 9. 141. Ibid., September 7, 1935, p. 8. 142. Ibid., January 2, 1932, p. 5; July 30, 1932, p. 5; September 3, 1932, p. 5; October 8, 1932, p. 5; April 1, 1933, p. 5; August 12, 1933, p. 5; September 2, 1933, p. 5; September 9, 1933, p. 5; October 7, 1933, p. 5; April 14, 1934, p. 8; October 20, 1934, p. 8; January 19, 1935, p. 8; August 10, 1935, p. 7; August 24, 1935, p. 7; September 14, 1935, p. 8; June 6, 1936, p. 11; August 1, 1936, p. 11; September 5, 1936, p. 18; October 10, 1936, p. 20; November 21, 1936, p. 20. Eddie Plicque promoted fights at the Savoy for 15 years, 1931–1946. Also, see Travis, Black Jazz, p. 98. Drake and Cayton reported that the use of the term Bronzeville, which became an alternative name for the Black Belt or Chicago’s South-Side Black community, originally came from an editor of the news- paper, which promoted a contest in 1930 for the Mayor of Bronzeville. When the editor joined the Chicago Defender a few years later, he brought the idea with him. Subsequently, “the ‘Mayor of Bronzeville’ grew into a community event with a significance far beyond that of a circulation stunt.” See Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, p. 383. 143. Chicago Defender, August 26, 1939, p. 21. 144. Ibid., July 22, 1939, p. 21. 145. Ibid., February 1, 1936, p. 8. 146. Ibid., February 1, 1936, p. 9; May 23, 1938, p. 11. 147. Ibid., August 29, 1936, p. 19. 148. Ibid., April 24, 1937, p. 21. 240 NOTES

149. Ibid., September 5, 1936, p. 18; August 26, 1939, p. 20; also see, Boskin, Sambo, pp. 175–197; J. Fred MacDonald, Blacks and White TV: Afro-Americans in Television Since 1948 (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1983), p. 23. 150. Chicago Defender, August 19, 1939, pp. 20–21. 151. Ibid., October 8, 1938, p. 19; October 15, 1938, p. 18. 152. Ibid., May 20, 1939, p. 20. 153. Ibid., October 14, 1939, p. 20. 154. Ibid., July 9, 1938, p. 19. 155. Ibid., April 16, 1938, p. 19. 156. See Robert D. Leiter, The Musicians and Petrillo (New York: Bookman Associates, 1953), pp. 54–55. 157. Chicago Defender, February 6, 1937, p. 21. 158. See for example, Stowe, Swing Changes, pp. 115–116, 122–123. 159. Chicago Defender, June 17, 1939, p. 22. “Television in the United States made its formal debut on Sunday, April 30, 1939, with the tele- casting of a speech by President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the opening of the World’s Fair in . The images were sent to receivers placed at strategic locations. It was claimed that the pictures were clear and steady.” See Albert Abramson, The History of Television, 1880–1941 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company, 1987), p. 252. 160. Chicago Defender, March 17, 1934, p. 5; Stearns and Stearns, Jazz Dance, p. 271. 161. Ibid., May 12, 1934, p. 8; March 30, 1935, p. 8; Stearns and Stearns, Jazz Dance, p. 231. 162. Chicago Defender, April 14, 1934, p. 8; Stearns and Stearns, Jazz Dance, p. 301. 163. Ibid., October 5, 1935, p. 8; Stearns and Stearns, Jazz Dance, pp. 305–307. 164. Ibid., January 16, 1937, p. 24. 165. Chicago Defender, May 30, 1936, p. 11; September 17, 1938, p. 19; May 13, 1939, p. 20; May 27, 1939, p. 20. 166. Ibid., September 12, 1936, p. 20; July 17, 1937, p. 11; September 11, 1937, p. 10; Stearns and Stearns, Jazz Dance, p. 194. 167. Ibid., February 6, 1937, p. 20; May 8, 1937, p. 21; July 24, 1937, p. 11. 168. Ibid., May 30, 1936, p. 11; June 6, 1936, p. 11; June13, 1936, p. 7. 169. Ibid., April 10, 1937, p. 11; also see, September 12, 1936, p. 20; May 8, 1937, p. 20. 170. Travis, Black Jazz, pp. 158–161. Travis also reported that when Blewett became manager of the Regal, Myron Wright, formerly the coassistant manager with Blewett, became manager of the Savoy. 171. Chicago Tribune, February 27, 1955; July 16, 1986. 172. Ibid., Chicago Sun-Times, July 15, 1986; Travis, Black Jazz, pp. 157–158. 173. Chicago Defender, May 28, 1938, p. 19; July 9, 1938, p. 18. 174. MacDonald, Don’t Touch That Dial, pp. 47–48. NOTES 241

175. Chicago Defender, November 21, 1936, p. 21. 176. Ibid.; Chicago Defender, November 28, 1936, p. 17; November 19, 1938, p. 12. 177. Ibid., November 27, 1937, p. 12; November 19, 1938, p. 12; December 2, 1939, p. 21. 178. Ibid., December 12, 1936, p. 21; December 19, 1936, pp. 20, 21; December 26, 1936, pp. 20, 21; December 18, 1937, pp. 18, 19; December 17, 1938, pp. 12, 18; December 1939, p. 20. 179. Ibid., May 15, 1937, p. 20. 180. Ibid., June 26, 1937, p. 11; November 19, 1938, p. 19. Also see John Chilton, Who’s Who in Jazz: Storyville to Swing Street (New York: Time-Life Records Special Edition, 1978), pp. 178–179, 344–345; Stearns and Stearns, Jazz Dance, pp. 245–246; and Nelson George, The Death of Rhythm and (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1988; Obelisk, 1989), pp. 19–20. 181. Ibid., November 11, 1939, p. 21. 182. Ibid., September 30, 1939, p. 20. 183. Ibid.; Chicago Sun-Times, July 15, 1986; Travis, Black Jazz, pp. 157–158.

Chapter 3 The End of Monopoly and the End of Swing 1. For a discussion of the decline of see David W. Stowe, Swing Changes: Big Band Jazz in New Deal America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), pp. 180–220. For informa- tion on management at the Regal see Chicago Defender, February 3, 1940, p. 20; July 6, 1940, p. 20; January 31, 1942, p. 21; and Dempsey J. Travis, An Autobiography of Black Jazz (Chicago: Urban Research Institute, 1983), p. 161. 2. Travis, Black Jazz, p. 94. 3. Ibid., pp. 94–106. 4. Ibid., p. 143; Bernard F. Dick, Engulfed: The Death of Paramount Pictures and the Birth of Corporate Hollywood (Lexington, : University Press of Kentucky, 2001), p. 38. 5. Michael Conant, Antitrust in the Motion Picture Industry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), pp. 58, 77–78, 154, 161, 166–167. 6. Ibid., pp. 172, 177. 7. Otis Dudley Duncan and Beverly Duncan, The Negro Population of Chicago: A Study of Residential Succession (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957), pp. 6, 21–23; William J. Grimshaw, Bitter Fruit: Black Politics and the Chicago Machine, 1931–1991 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 97. 8. Duncan, The Negro Population of Chicago, pp. 34, 41; Grimshaw, Bitter Fruit, p. 96. 242 NOTES

9. Grimshaw, Bitter Fruit, p. 97. 10. Ibid., Chicago Fact Book Consortium, editors, Local Community Fact Book: Chicago Metropolitan Area, 1980 (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1984), pp. 103–104. 11. Arthur R. Ashe Jr., A Hard Road to Glory: A History of the African- American Athlete, 1919–1945 (New York: Warner Books, 1988), pp. 18, 20, 328. 12. Chicago Defender, February 3, 1940, p. 20. 13. Ibid., February 10, 1940, p. 20; April 6, 1940, p. 21; May 18, 1940, p. 20; June 15, 1940, p. 21; July 13, 1940, p. 20; July 20, 1940, p. 20; July 27, 1940, p. 20; August 10, 1940, p. 21; August 17, 1940, p. 17; August 24, 1940, p. 20; September 7, 1940, p. 16; December 14, 1940, p. 21. 14. Ibid., November 23, 1940, p. 21. Also see Brenda Dixon Gottschild, Waltzing in the Dark: African American Vaudeville and Race Politics in the Swing Era (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), p. 24; and Jack Schiffman, Harlem Heyday (New York: Prometheus Books, 1984), p. 13. 15. Ibid., January 20, 1940, p. 21; April 13, 1940, p. 21. 16. Ibid., November 30, 1940, p. 21. 17. Ibid., March 21, 1942, p. 22. 18. The three smaller motion picture distribution firms, which did not own theaters, were Columbia Pictures Corporation, Universal Pictures Company, and United Artists Corporation. See Conant, Antitrust in the Motion Picture Industry, pp. 34–35, 49–50, 94, 106, 154. 19. Chicago Defender, December 13, 1930, p. 6; July 6, 1940, p. 20; August 17, 1940, p. 17; November 16, 1940, p. 20; December 14, 1940, p. 21; April 27, 1940, p. 20. 20. Mel Watkins, On the Real Side (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994; Touchstone Edition, 1995), pp. 154, 390; Elsie A. Williams, “Moms Mabley and the Afro-American Comic Performance,” in Women’s Comic Visions, ed. June Sochen (Detroit: Wayne State Press, 1991), pp. 158, 162, 164; Trudier Harris, “Moms Mabley: A Study in Humor, Role Playing, and the Violation of Taboo,” Southern Review 24, no. 4 (1988): 766, 767, 771, 772, 774. 21. Harris, “Study in Humor,” pp. 765–766; Williams, “Afro-American Comic Performance,” pp. 166–167. 22. Watkins, On the Real Side, p. 391. 23. Mabley Moms, “The Good Ole Days,” in Honey, Hush!: An Anthology of African American Women’s Humor, ed. Daryl Cumber Dance (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998), p. 334. 24. Harris, “Study in Humor,” p. 768. 25. Ibid., p. 767; Williams, “Afro-American Comic Performance,” p. 160. 26. Chicago Defender, February 24, 1940, p. 17; May 25, 1940, p. 20; August 17, 1940, p. 17; September 7, 1940, p. 17; November 16, 1940, p. 20; December 14, 1940, p. 21. NOTES 243

27. Additional examples were discussed in Chapter 2. 28. Chicago Defender, January 27, 1940, p. 21. 29. Ibid., February 17, 1940, p. 20. 30. Ibid., February 24, 1940, pp. 20–21; April 20, 1940, p. 21; December 7, 1940, p. 20. 31. Ibid., April 24, 1943, pp. 18–19; December 16, 1944, p. 7; April 7, 1945, p. 17; also see Rosetta Reitz, “Hot Snow: Valaida Snow (Queen of Trumpet Sings & Swings),” Black American Literature Forum 16, no. 4 (Winter 1982): 158–160. 32. Ibid., November 30, 1940, p. 21; May 10, 1941, p. 20. 33. Marv Goldberg, More Than Words Can Say: The Ink Spots and Their Music (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1998), pp. viii, ix, xiii, xv, 7, 12. 34. Ibid., pp. 31, 43, 46, 50–52, 54, 59. 35. Ibid., pp. 157–159, 169, 183, 215. 36. Marshall and Jean Stearns, Jazz Dance: The Story of American Vernacular Dance (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968), pp. 245–246; Chicago Defender, June 14, 1941, p. 21. 37. Chicago Defender, August 23, 1941, p. 21. 38. Ibid., August 30, 1941, p. 20; September 27, 1941, p. 21; November 8, 1941, p. 20. 39. Ibid., November 15, 1941, p. 19. 40. Ibid., March 15, 1941, p. 20. 41. Ibid., May 10, 1941, p. 20; May 17, 1941, p. 21; John Chilton, Who’s Who in Jazz: Storyville to Swing Street (New York: Time-Life Records Special Edition, 1978), p. 354. 42. Ibid., January 25, 1941, p. 21. 43. Ibid., January 10, 1942, p. 21; January 17, 1942, p. 20; Stearns and Stearns, Jazz Dance, p. 245. 44. Stearns and Stearns, Jazz Dance, p. 245; Chicago Defender, February 21, 1942, p. 20. 45. Chicago Defender, January 17, 1942, p. 20; February 7, 1942, p. 21; February 21, 1942, pp. 20, 21; Travis, Black Jazz, p. 245. 46. Chicago Defender, March 21, 1942, pp. 22, 23. 47. Ibid., April 4, 1942, p. 23. 48. Ibid., May 2, 1942, p. 23. 49. Ibid., July 11, 1942, pp. 22, 23. 50. Ibid., September 5, 1942, p. 20; September 12, 1942, p. 20. 51. Antoinette D. Handy, The International Sweethearts of Rhythm (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1983), p. 70; Chicago Defender, October 24, 1942, p. 21; November 28, 1942, p. 22. 52. Handy, International Sweethearts of Rhythm, pp. vii, 37, 43. 53. Ibid., pp. viii, 6, 70, 103, 108, 114, 137–138, 157, 167. For information on the emergence of the Swinging Rays of Rhythm see Chicago Defender, June 21, 1941, p. 20. For photos of the Sweethearts of Rhythm see Chicago Defender, October 31, 1942, p. 21; November 7, 1942, p. 21. 244 NOTES

54. See International Sweethearts of Rhythm, prod. and dir. Greta Schiller and Andrea Weiss, 30 min., Cinema Guild, 1986, videocassette; also see Handy, International Sweethearts of Rhythm. 55. Chicago Defender, November 14, 1942, p. 19. 56. Ibid. 57. Ibid., December 12, 1942, p. 13; December 26, 1942, p. 9; January 2, 1943, p. 9; January 9, 1943, p. 9; January 16, 1943, p. 18. 58. Ann Arbor News, March 30, 1999; April 1, 1999, p. D7; Travis, Black Jazz, pp. 169, 470. 59. Charles L. Sanders, “Requiem for Queen Dinah,” Ebony Magazine March 19, 1964, p. 148; Jerry Butler, Only the Strong Survive (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2000), p. 202; Ted Fox, Showtime at the Apollo (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1983), p. 150. 60. Donald Bogle, Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies, and Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American Film, 3d ed. (New York: Continuum Publishing Company, 1995), pp. 128–132; Chicago Defender, May 8, 1943, p. 18; August 14, 1943, p. 18. 61. Chicago Defender, April 24, 1943, p. 19; June 19, 1943, p. 10; June 26, 1943, p. 10; July 17, 1943, p. 10; also see Antoinette D. Handy, Black Women in American Bands and Orchestras, 2nd ed. (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1998), p. 168. 62. Chicago Defender, September 4, 1943, p. 10. 63. Ibid., January 9, 1943, p. 11; January 16, 1943, p. 19; January 23, 1943, p. 19; February 20, 1943, p. 18; March 30, 1943, p. 18; May 22, 1943, p. 18; July 10, 1943, p. 10; January 1, 1944, p. 12. 64. Ibid., August 21, 1943, p. 18; November 20, 1943, p. 18; December 4, 1943, p. 18. 65. Chicago Defender, February 13, 1943, p. 18. 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid., p. 19. 68. Ibid., pp. 455–460. 69. Ibid. 70. This was most apparent in 1944. Based on Chicago Defender reports, there seemed to be some reduction in the frequency of Regal stage shows in 1945. However, some ads in the Chicago Tribune suggest that the Defender was not always consistent in its reports regarding Regal stage shows, at least with regard to its national edition. I believe it is safe to conclude, however, that there was some decline in 1945. 71. Chicago Defender, May 13, 1944, p. 8. 72. Ibid., January 1, 1944, p. 12. 73. Ibid., January 15, 1944, p. 10; February 5, 1944, p. 8; March 4, 1944, p. 8; March 25, 1944, p. 8; April 29, 1944, p. 8; May 6, 1944, p. 8; July 8, 1944, p. 8; July 15, 1944, p. 6; July 29, 1944, p. 6; August 5, 1944, p. 6; September 9, 1944, p. 6; September 23, 2944, p. 7; NOTES 245

September 30, 1944, p. 8; October 21, 1944, p. 7; November 4, 1944, p. 16; November 18, 1944, p. 9; December 9, 1944, p. 7; December 30, 1944, p. 13. 74. Ibid., September 9, 1944, p. 6. 75. Ibid., October 14, 1944, p. 7; October 21, 1944, p. 7. 76. Ibid., October 7, 1944, p. 7. 77. Conant, Antitrust in the Motion Picture Industry, p. 157. 78. Chicago Defender, January 27, 1945, p. 13; February 3, 1945, p. 13; February 10, 1945, p. 17; March 17, 1945, p. 13; May 26, 1945, p. 17; July 21, 1945, p. 14; August 11, 1945, p. 14; September 22, 1945, p. 14. 79. Ibid., July 14, 1945, p. 15. 80. Ibid., April 20, 1946, p. 16. 81. Bill Jefferson, interviewed by the author, August 19, 1986, Chicago. 82. Ibid. 83. Ibid. 84. Ibid. 85. Ibid. 86. Chicago Defender, January 19, 1946, p. 14. 87. Ibid., January 26, 1946, p. 16; April 1, 1944, p. 8; July 13, 1946, p. 16. 88. Ibid., February 9, 1946, p. 16. 89. Ibid., March 9, 1946, p. 16; April 6, 1946, p. 14. 90. Ibid., April 13, 1946, p. 16. 91. Ibid., June 1, 1946, p. 10. 92. Ibid., June 8, 1946, p. 10; June 15, 1946, p. 10. 93. Ibid., April 20, 1946, p. 16. 94. Ibid., July 6, 1946, p. 16; July 13, 1946, p. 17; July 26, 1946, p. 16; September 7, 1946, p. 10; September 14, 1946, p. 10; October 5, 1946, p. 10; October 19, 1946, p. 10; October 26, 1946, p. 10; November 2, 1946, p. 10; December 28, 1946, p. 10. 95. Chicago Defender, January 12, 1946, p. 14; March 16, 1946, p. 16. 96. Travis, Black Jazz, pp. 113–114. 97. Chicago Defender, December 24, 2949, p. 26. 98. See, for example, Earl Hines, “How Gangsters Ran the Band Business,” Ebony September 4, 1949, pp. 40–47; Travis, Black Jazz, pp. 39–49; Ted Vincent, Keep Cool: The Black Activists Who Built the Jazz Age (London: Pluto Press, 1995), pp. 77–85. 99. Chicago Defender, October 12, 1946, p. 2; August 30, 1952, p. 2; Rufus Schatzberg and Robert J. Kelly, African-American Organized Crime: A Social History (New York: Garland Publishing, 1996), pp. 86, 95–96, 102; Albert Fried, The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Gangster in America (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1980), pp. 183–185; St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (Chicago: University of 246 NOTES

Chicago Press, 1993), p. 485; Gus Russo, The Outfit: The Role of Chicago’s Underworld in the Shaping of Modern America (New York: Bloomsbury, 2002), p. 184. 100. Chicago Defender, October 12, 1946, p. 2; also see Dempsey Travis, An Autobiography of Black Chicago (Chicago: Urban Research Institute, 1981), pp. 36–37. 101. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, pp. 484–490; Schatzberg and Kelly, African-American Organized Crime, p. 102; Grimshaw, Bitter Fruit, pp. 82–83; Travis, An Autobiography of Black Chicago, pp. 36–37. The Ben Franklin Store was a franchise developed by Chicago general merchandise wholesalers, Butler Brothers, in 1927. The chain was competitive with F. W. Woolworths and S. S. Kresge. In 1950, there were 1,590 Ben Franklin Stores throughout the United States. See Sandra S. Vance and Roy V. Scott, “Sam Walton and Wal-Mart Stores, IN: A Study in Modern Southern Entrepreneurship,” Journal of Southern History 58, no. 2 (May 1992): 233. 102. Ibid. 103. Ibid. Compare , The Autobiography of Quincy Jones (New York: Doubleday, 2001). 104. Mark H. Haller, “Policy Gambling, Entertainment, and the Emergence of Black Politics: Chicago from 1900–1940,” Journal of Social History 24, no. 4 (1991): 722–723; Henry T. Sampson, Blacks in Blackface: A Source Book on Early Black Musical Shows (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1980, p. 115. 105. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, p. 438. 106. Chicago Defender, May 4, 1946, p. 16. 107. Marjorie Stewart Joyner, interviewed by the author, August 19, 1986, Chicago. 108. See John N. Ingham and Lynne B. Feldman, African-American Business Leaders: A Biographical Dictionary (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994), pp. 634–638; L. Harper, “Mrs. Annie M. Pope Turnbo-Malone Founder and Owner Poro College,” n.d., Promised Land, Business Box 26, Document Number 4 (photo- copy), Vivian G. Harsh Collection, Carter G. Woodson Regional Library, Chicago, from Works Project Administration, Illinois Writers’ Project. 109. Ibid., Chicago Defender, May 4, 1946, p. 16. 110. Louis “Scotty” Piper, interviewed by the author, August 26, 1986, Chicago. 111. Ibid. 112. Louis “Scotty” Piper, interviewed by the author, August 26, 1986, Chicago. The Zoot suit of the early 1940s had a long jacket that extended halfway down the thigh. The jacket had broad padded shoulders and was flared at the bottom. The pants were pleated at the waist, cut very wide over the hips, and tapered to a narrow bottom. At times, the colors and designs were dramatic, and the NOTES 247

accessories often included two-tone pointed shoes, a wide-brim hat, large cuff links, and a long watch or key chain connected to the belt loop and placed into the pant pocket. Also see Robert McG. Thomas Jr., “Harold Fox, Who Took Credit for the Zoot Suit Dies at 86,” New York Times, August 1, 1996, p. D23. Also see Chicago Defender, October 16, 1982, p. 8; May 23, 1987, p. 4. 113. Chicago Defender, January 18, 1947, p. 10. 114. Ibid., July 5, 1947, p. 10; also see Stowe, Swing Changes, pp. 192–193. 115. Chicago Defender, May 17, 1947, p. 18; September 20, 1947, p. 18; October 11, 1947, p. 19; October 25, 1947, p. 18; December 13, 1947, p. 19. 116. Ibid., January 18, 1947, p. 10; April 19, 1947, p. 18; May 17, 1947, p. 18; May 24, 1947, p. 18; also see Charlene B. Regester, Black Entertainers in African American Newspapers, vol. 1: An Annotated Bibliography of the Chicago Defender, the Afro-American (Baltimore), the Sentinel and the , 1910–1950 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2002), no. 9811. 117. Chicago Defender, June 7, 1947, p. 19. 118. Regester, Black Entertainers, no. 9964. 119. Chicago Defender, June 28, 1947, p. 18; August 23, 1947, p. 10. 120. Ibid., August 23, 1947, p. 10; September 6, 1947, p. 10; October 11, 1947, p. 19. 121. Ibid., November 29, 1947, p. 14; December 13, 1947, p. 19. 122. Ibid., December 27, 1947, pp. 8, 9. 123. See Ibid., July 17, 1948, p. 8. 124. Ibid., December 27, 1947, p. 8. 125. Ibid., January 24, 1948, p. 8. 126. Ibid., January 24, 1948, pp. 8, 9; February 7, 1948, p. 9. 127. Ibid., February 21, 1948, p. 9. 128. Ibid., March 6, 1948, p. 8; March 13, 1948, p. 8. 129. Ibid., April 10, 1948, p. 9. 130. Ibid., May 15, 1948, p. 8; May 22, 1948, p. 8. 131. Ibid., March 20, 1948, p. 9. 132. Ibid., April 17, 1948, p. 9; May 15, 1948, p. 8; June 19, 1948, p. 9. 133. Ibid., July 24, 1948, p. 9; Chicago Defender, August 21, 1948, p. 8. Dempsey Travis gives July 6, 1948 as the day the Savoy closed. See Travis, Black Jazz, p. 109. Also, there is some argument that a wartime tax of 30%, later reduced to 20%, on establishments that permitted public dancing was a reason for a nationwide reduction in dance participation. However, there is no evidence to suggest that this tax reduced dance participation in the Black Belt or contributed to the demise of the Savoy. See Stowe, Swing Changes, p. 190. 134. Chicago Defender, June 19, 1948, p. 8. 135. Ibid., July 17, 1948, p. 9; July 24, 1948, p. 8. 136. Ibid., September 4, 1948, p. 9; September 18, 1948, p. 8. 137. Ibid., October 9, 1948, p. 22. 248 NOTES

138. Ibid., July 3, 1948, p. 8. 139. See Mark Newman, Entrepreneurs of Profit and Pride: From Black-Appeal to Radio Soul (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1988), p. 87. 140. Norman Spaulding, “History of Black Oriented Radio in Chicago: 1929–1963” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1981), p. 78. 141. Ibid., p. 79 142. Ibid., pp. 81–82, 92–93; Chicago Defender, May 22, 1948, p. 8. 143. Chicago Defender, February 19, 1949, p. 25; December 31, 1949, p. 26; January 7, 1950, p. 21. 144. Ibid., February 19, 1949, pp. 16, 25; March 26, 1949, p. 17; April 16, 1949, p. 16; May 7, 1949, p. 25. 145. Ibid., May 28, 1949, p. 25. 146. Ibid., June 11, 1949, p. 25. 147. Ibid., June 18, 1949, p. 25. 148. Ibid., July 2, 1949, p. 26; July 16, 1949, p. 25. 149. Ibid., August 13, 1949, p. 25; August 20, 1949, p. 25; August 27, 1949, p. 26. 150. Ibid., September 17, 1949, p. 25. 151. Ibid., September 24, 1949, p. 25. 152. Ibid., October 8, 1949, p. 25. Also see and Milton Meltzer, Black Magic: A Pictorial History of the African-American in the Performing Arts (New York: De Capo, 1967), p. 125; Loften Mitchell, Black Drama: The Story of the American Negro in the Theatre (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1967), pp. 122–123. 153. Chicago Defender, December 3, 1949, p. 26. 154. Ibid., October 8, 1949, p. 25; January 7, 1950, p. 21. 155. Ibid., March 26, 1949, p. 17; August 6, 1949, p. 26; August 20, 1949, p. 26; August 27, 1949, p. 25; November 5, 1949, p. 25; December 3, 1949, p. 26. An example of the regular appearance of top Black talent at a large venue was the 5th Annual Cavalcade of Jazz at Wrigley Field; see Chicago Defender, July 23, 1949, p. 25. 156. Ibid., August 17, 1940, p. 21; November 2, 1940, p. 19; November 16, 1940, p. 19; December 21, 1940, p. 20; December 28, 1940, p. 20. Also see Travis, Black Jazz, pp. 90, 245. 157. Conant, Antitrust in the Motion Picture Industry, pp. 4–5. 158. Dick, Engulfed, pp. 33, 36. 159. Conant, Antitrust in the Motion Picture Industry, p. 12.

Chapter 4 The Decline of Commercial Segregation and the Transition to Independence 1. Michael Conant, Antitrust in the Motion Picture Industry: Economic and Legal Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), p. 138. NOTES 249

2. Ibid., pp. 138–153. 3. Stage shows increased from nine in 1952 to twelve in 1953. The latter number included eleven shows that lasted for one week each and one show that lasted for one night. My discussion of the number of stage shows during the decade of the 1950s is based on reports in the entertainment pages of the national edition of the Chicago Defender and the movie section of the Chicago Tribune. 4. Chicago Defender, January 14, 1950, p. 21. 5. Ibid., January 21, 1950, p. 21; February 11, 1950, p. 20; also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, February 2, 1950. 6. Chicago Defender, May 6, 1950, p. 21; also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, April 21, 1950. 7. Chicago Defender, May 13, 1950, p. 21; see movie section, Chicago Tribune, May 18, 1950. 8. Chicago Defender, May 27, 1950, p. 20; also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, June 1, 1950. 9. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, June 15, 1950. 10. Chicago Defender, July 8, 1950, p. 21. 11. Ibid., August 19, 1950, p. 20. 12. Ibid., September 2, 1950, p. 20. 13. Ibid.; also see Chicago Defender, July 1, 1950, p. 20. 14. Chicago Defender, November 4, 1950, p. 21; November 25, 1950, p. 20; also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, November 16, 1950. 15. Chicago Defender, December 23, 1950, p. 21. Also see Nichelle Nichols, Beyond Uhuru (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1994), pp. 49–57. 16. Chicago Defender, June 24, 1950, p. 21. 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid., June 24, 1950, p. 21. 19. See New York Times, June 21, 1948, p. 29; January 11, 1949, p. 29; Oliver Read and Walter L. Welch, From Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph, 2nd ed. (: Howard W. Sams, 1976), pp. 350–352. 20. E. Franklin Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie: The Rise of a New Middle Class (New York: The Free Press, 1957), p. 171. Also, see Robert E. Weems Jr., Desegregating the Dollar: African American Consumerism in the Twentieth Century (New York: New York University Press, 1998), p. 51. 21. See for example, Chicago Defender, February 11, 1950, p. 12; February 18, 1950, p. 21; April 1, 1950, p. 21; October 21, 1950, p. 21; December 16, 1950, p. 20. 22. See Ibid., October 13, 1951, p. 17. 23. Ibid., February 3, 1951, p. 28. 24. See J. Fred MacDonald, Blacks and White TV: Afro-Americans in Television Since 1948 (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1983). 25. Chicago Defender, March 3, 1951, p. 21. 26. See MacDonald, Blacks and White TV, pp. 10–29. 27. Frazier, Black Bourgeoisie, p. 172. 250 NOTES

28. Ibid., pp. 53–59. 29. Chicago Defender, February 3, 1951, pp. 32, 33, 34; February 10, 1951, p. 32; February 17, 1951, pp. 14, 15. 30. Ibid., March 24, 1951, pp. 32, 33. 31. Ibid., April 21, 1951, p. 32. 32. Ibid., May 5, 1951, p. 32. 33. Ibid., May 26, 1945, p. 14. 34. Ibid., June 23, 1951, p. 14; June 30, 1951, pp. 32, 33. 35. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, August 9, 1951. 36. Chicago Defender, September 1, 1951, p. 23. 37. Ibid., October 6, 1951, p. 23. 38. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, October 18, 1951. 39. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, November 1, 1951. 40. Chicago Defender, November 17, 1951, p. 22; see movie section, Chicago Tribune, November 22, 1951. 41. Chicago Defender, May 26, 1951, p. 13. 42. Jet Magazine, November 8, 1999, p. 51; Chicago Defender, May 26, 1951, p. 13; phone interview with Jessie Spraggins, granddaughter of S. B. Fuller, July 22, 2003. 43. Chicago Defender, August 27, 1955, p. 4. 44. Ibid., January 20, 1951, p. 20; March 17, 1951, p. 15; March 31, 1951, p. 1; September 29, 1951, p. 22. 45. Ibid., January 27, 1951, p. 33; April 7, 1951, p. 32; May 5, 1951, p. 32; June 16, 1951, p. 32; December 1, 1951, p. 23. 46. Chicago Defender, June 2, 1951, p. 15. 47. Ibid., April 19, 1952, p. 22. 48. Ibid., October 11, 1952, pp. 22, 23. 49. Ibid., April 19, 1952, p. 22; June 21, 1952, p. 23. 50. Ibid., August 2, 1952, p. 23. 51. Ibid., January 26, 1952, p. 22. 52. Ibid., February 9, 1952, p. 22. 53. Ibid., March 22, 1952, p. 23. Also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, March 27, 1952. 54. Chicago Defender, May 10, 1952, p. 23. Also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, April 17, 1952. 55. Ibid., April 19, 1952, p. 22. 56. Ibid., June 21, 1952, p. 23; June 28, 1952, p. 22. 57. Ibid., November 15, 1952, p. 23; January 3, 1953, p. 23. Also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, November 27, 1952; January 1, 1953. 58. Ibid., January 6, 1951, pp. 1, 2. 59. Ibid., p. 2; Chicago Defender, July 7, 1951, pp. 1, 2. 60. Ibid., January 6, 1951, pp. 1, 2. 61. Ibid. Also see Chicago Defender, February 2, 1952, p. 3; August 16, 1952, pp. 1, 2, 4. 62. Ibid., August 16, 1952, p. 2. 63. Ibid., p. 4. NOTES 251

64. See “What Happened to the Jones Brothers,” Ebony Magazine, July 1953, pp. 63–70. 65. Chicago Defender, January 17, 1953, p. 23. 66. Ibid., January 17, 1953, p. 22. Also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, January 15, 1953. 67. Chicago Defender, February 7, 1953, p. 18. Also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, February 5, 1953. 68. Ibid.; Chicago Defender, April 11, 1953, p. 18. 69. Chicago Defender, June 13, 1953, p. 19; June 20, 1953, p. 18; July 4, 1953, p. 18. Also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, April 30, 1953; June 4, 1953. 70. Chicago Defender, October 24, 1953, p. 18. 71. Ibid., November 21, 1953, p. 19; November 28, 1953, p. 19. 72. Ibid., November 28, 1953, p. 19. 73. Ibid., December 26, 1953, p. 18. 74. Ibid., February 28, 1953, p. 19. Music critic Nelson George reported that Robie also owned a taxi cab company, the Bronze Peacock Club, which had one of the largest showrooms in the Southwest, and was suspected of engaging in various illegal enterprises. Robie had a gang- ster persona and maintained gun-toting bodyguards. See Nelson George, The Death of (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1988; Obelisk, 1989), p. 32. 75. See Robert Pruter, Chicago Soul (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1991, p. 3. 76. Chicago Defender, February 21, 1953, p. 18; February 28, 1953, 19; September 5, 1953, p. 18; October 24, 1953, p. 19; October 31, 1953, p. 18; November 7, 1953, p. 18. 77. Ibid., March 6, 1954, p. 18; May 1, 1954, p. 19. 78. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, April 22, 1954. 79. Chicago Defender, May 1, 1954, p. 19; also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, May 13, 1954. 80. Chicago Defender, October 30, 1954, p. 6; also movie section, Chicago Tribune, October 21, 1954. 81. A possible appearance by the Ernie Fields orchestra can’t be verified. See Chicago Defender, June 5, 1954, p. 19; see movie section, Chicago Tribune, November 25, 1954. 82. Chicago Defender, August 7, 1954, p. 18; August 28, 1954, p. 6. 83. See Travis, Autobiography of Black Jazz, p. 84; Scott A Newman, “Jazz Age Chicago: Trianon Ballroom,” accessed March 23, 2003, from Jazz Age Chicago Bookstore Web site: http://www.suba.com/~scottn/ explore/sites/ballroom/trianon.htm. 84. Chicago Defender, January 8, 1955, p. 6. 85. Ibid. 86. Ibid., February 5, 1955, p. 6. 87. Ibid., August 6, 1955, p. 18; September 10, 1955, p. 7; September 17, 1955, p. 6. 252 NOTES

88. Ibid., November 5, 1955, p. 7; November 26, 1955, p. 6; December 3, 1955, p. 6. 89. See Ibid., September 10, 1955, p. 7; September 17, 1955, p. 7; November 26, 1955, p. 6; movie section, Chicago Tribune, September 8, 1955; December 1, 1955. 90. Chicago Defender, March 12, 1955, p. 7. 91. Ibid., February 2, 1957, p. 14; also see Nelson George, The Death of Rhythm and Blues, pp. 62–63. 92. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, February 23, 1956. 93. Chicago Defender, March 24, 1956, p. 15; also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, March 29, 1956. 94. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, April 19, 1956; also see Mel Watkins, On the Real Side (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994; Touchstone Edition, 1995), p. 490. 95. Chicago Defender, January 5, 1957, p. 15; movie section, Chicago Tribune, January 3, 1957. 96. Chicago Defender, December 1, 1956, p. 14. 97. Ibid., December 8, 1956, p. 15. 98. Ibid., February 25, 1956, p. 14; July 28, 1956, p. 14; August 28, 1956, p. 15; April 28, 1956, p. 17; September 8, 1956, p. 14. 99. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, February 28, 1957; Chicago Defender, March 2, 1957, p. 14; Regal Theater folder, Theater Historical Society, Elmhurst, Illinois. 100. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, March 21, 1957; Chicago Defender, March 16, 1957, p. 8. 101. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, May 23, 1957; Regal Theater folder, Theater Historical Society, Elmhurst, Illinois. 102. Chicago Defender, August 31, 1957, p. 19. Also see Regal Theater folder, Theater Historical Society, Elmhurst, Illinois. 103. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, November 14, 1957. 104. Chicago Defender, November 23, 1957, p. 19; December 7, 1957, pp. 18, 19. 105. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, January 2, 1958. Also see Regal Theater folder, Theater Historical Society, Elmhurst, Illinois. 106. Chicago Defender, March 1, 1958, p. 18; March 8, 1958, p. 18; see movie section, Chicago Tribune, March 6, 1958. 107. Chicago Defender, May 3, 1958, p. 18; see movie section, Chicago Tribune, May 1, 1958. 108. St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), p. 794. 109. See Chicago Defender, August 3, 1957, p. 12. 110. See Regal Theater folder, Theater Historical Society, Elmhurst, Illinois. 111. Ibid. NOTES 253

112. Chicago Defender, January 11, 1958, p. 19; February 8, 1958, p. 18. 113. See Ibid., February 8, 1958, p. 18; March 22, 1958, p. 18. 114. Ibid., January 24, 1959, p. 19. 115. Ibid., January 31, 1959, p. 18. 116. Ibid. 117. Ibid., February 7, 1959, p. 18; February 21, 1959, p. 12. 118. Ibid., February 21, 1959, p. 12. 119. Ibid., February 7, 1959, p. 18; February 21, 1959, p. 12. 120. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, March 5, 1959; March 19, 1959; March 27, 1959. 121. There may have been as many as thirteen weeks of stage shows at the Regal. The Chicago Defender indicated that Jackie Wilson would appear on September eighteenth and with Toni Harper, Redd Foxx, and the Hines Kids (tap dancers, Maurice and Gregory Hines) would appear on November thirteenth. However, I found no other mention of these bookings, and I could not verify the dates by cross-referencing them with the Chicago Tribune. See Chicago Defender, August 22, 1959, p. 18; November 7, 1959, p. 19. 122. Chicago Defender, March 7, 1959, p. 12; March 21, 1959, p. 18; March 28, 1959, pp. 12, 18. 123. Ibid., April 18, 1959, p. 18; see movie section, Chicago Tribune, April 10, 1959. 124. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, April 24, 1959. 125. Chicago Defender, May 9, 1959, p. 19; May 16, 1959, p. 18. Also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, May 8, 1959. 126. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, May 29, 1959. 127. See movie section, Ibid., May 1, 1959. 128. Chicago Defender, July 11, 1959, p. 18; August 22, 1959, p. 19. The prominent group of theaters that informally became the country’s premier, Black-oriented movie-stage-show circuit was called the “ ‘Round the World” circuit and included the Apollo in New York, the Royal in Baltimore, the Earle and the Uptown in Philadelphia, the Regal in Chicago, and the Howard in Washington DC. Also, before the Apollo gained prominence as a Black entertainment outlet, New York’s Lafayette Theater occupied the Apollo’s position on . See for example, Ralph Cooper, Amateur Night at the Apollo (New York: HarperCollins, 1990), pp. 44, 61–62, 104; Tex Fox, Showtime at the Apollo, new revised edition (Rhinebeck, New York: Mill Road Enterprises, 2003), pp. 53, 98; Marc Taylor, The Original Marvelettes: Motown’s Mystery Girl Group (Jamaica, New York: Aloiv Publishing, 2004), pp. 44, 78, 79; and David Ritz, Aretha: From These Roots (New York: Villard, 1999), p. 114; B. B. King and David Ritz, Blues All Around Me (New York: Avon Books, 1996), p. 148. 129. Chicago Defender, August 29, 1959, p. 19. 130. See Ibid., August 29, 1959, p. 18. 254 NOTES

131. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, June 12, 1959; July 3, 1959; July 17, 1959; July 24, 1959. Also see Chicago Defender, July 18, 1959, p. 18; July 25, 1959, p. 18; August 1, 1959, p. 18. 132. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, August 7, 1959. 133. See movie section, Ibid., September 25, 1959; Chicago Defender, October 3, 1959, p. 18. 134. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, October 30, 1959. 135. See movie section, Ibid., November 2, 1959. 136. See movie section, Ibid., December 25, 1959; Chicago Defender, January 2, 1960, p. 18. 137. The Chicago Defender listed Al Benson’s address as 5638 Maryland. See Chicago Defender, January 24, 1959, p. 2.

Chapter 5 Rebirth, Black Ownership, and the Closing of the Palace 1. St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), pp. 808, 826. 2. See William J. Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996), p. 45. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. See Chicago Fact Book Consortium, ed., Local Community Fact Book: Chicago Metropolitan Area, 1980 (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1984), pp. 97, 104, 110. 6. See Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, pp. 807, 815. 7. Ibid., pp. 809, 815–816; and Wilson, When Work Disappears, pp. 26, 44–50. 8. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, p. 794. 9. See for example, Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh, American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), pp. 13–15, 18–25, 41–42. 10. Ibid., pp. 19–25. 11. See U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, Part 1 (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975), p. 400. 12. See Chicago Defender, May 28, 1960, p. 2; New York Times, May 20, 1960, p. 1. 13. Nelson George, The Death of Rhythm and Blues (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1988; Obelisk, 1989), pp. 66–68. 14. See Ralph Cooper, Amateur Night at the Apollo (New York: HarperCollins, 1990), pp. 186–192. 15. See New York Times, May 20, 1960, p. 62. 16. George, Death of Rhythm and Blues, p. 91. NOTES 255

17. See “Shakeup Reaches Chicago,” Down Beat, February 4, 1960, pp. 5–6; “Payola Pot Boils Merrily in Chi: Accusations Soar,” The Billboard, January 11, 1960, pp. 2, 52; Jack Pitman, “The Chicago Payola Story,” Variety, January 13, 1960, pp. 43, 48. 18. See Regal Theater folder, Theater Historical Society, Elmhurst, Illinois. 19. Chicago Defender, January 23, 1960, p. 19. 20. See Chicago Defender, January 30, 1960, p. 18; August 20, 1960, p. 18; August 27, 1960, p. 18; September 10, 1960, p. 18; November 12–18, 1960, p. 18. 21. The frequencies of stage shows were approximate since data sources were not always reliable. The Chicago Defender provided information about most stage shows from 1960 to 1963, but not all. The Chicago Tribune consistently carried ads for Regal stage shows during this period. However, after the Regal became Black owned in late 1963, Regal ads disappeared from the Chicago Tribune in 1964 and in subsequent years. Nevertheless, display ads for the Regal in the Chicago Defender became more consistent and a more accurate chron- icle of Regal stage shows. At all points in time, the Chicago Defender was the best source for extended articles on Regal stage shows and the best source for details on special stage shows that might not have had a commercial purpose or that were shorter or longer than the usual seven days. 22. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, February 12, 1960. Also see Chicago Defender, February 13, 1960, p. 18. 23. Chicago Defender, February 20, 1960, p. 19; February 27, 1960, p. 18. 24. Ibid., March 19, 1960, p. 18. Also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, March 11, 1960. 25. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, March 25, 1960. Also see Chicago Defender, April 2, 1960, p. 18. 26. Chicago Defender, April 9, 1960, p. 18. 27. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, May 13, 1960. Also see Chicago Defender, May 7, 1960, p. 44. 28. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, June 24, 1960. 29. See Chicago Defender, July 9, 1960, p. 19. Also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, July 8, 1960. 30. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, July 22, 1960. Also see Chicago Defender, July 23, 1960, p. 19. 31. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, August 5, 1960. 32. See movie section, Ibid., August 19, 1960. Also see Chicago Defender, August 20, 1960, p. 18. 33. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, September 30, 1960. Also see Chicago Defender, October 1, 1960, p. 18; October 15, 1960, p. 18. 34. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, October 14, 1960. Also see Chicago Defender, October 15, 1960, p. 19. 256 NOTES

35. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, October 21, 1960. 36. See Chicago Defender, October 22, 1960, p. 19. 37. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, November 11, 1960. 38. See movie section, Ibid., November 25, 1960. 39. See movie section, Ibid., January 30, 1961; Chicago Defender, January 21–27, 1961, p. 18. 40. See Chicago Defender, February 18–24, 1961, p. 19; movie section, Chicago Tribune, February 24, 1961. 41. See Chicago Defender, March 11–17, 1961, p. 18; movie section, Chicago Tribune, March 17, 1961. 42. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, March 31, 1961. 43. See Chicago Defender, April 15–21, 1961, p. 19; movie section, Chicago Tribune, April 21, 1961. 44. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, May 19, 1961; Chicago Defender, May 13–19, 1961, p. 10. 45. See Chicago Defender, June 24–30, 1961, p. 10; movie section, Chicago Tribune, July 7, 1961. 46. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, July 21, 1961. 47. See movie section, Ibid., August 11, 1961. 48. See movie section, Ibid., August 25, 1961. Also see Chicago Defender, July 29–August 4, 1961, p. 10; August 26-September 1, 1961, p. 10. 49. See Chicago Defender, September 30–October 6, 1961, p. 10; movie section, Chicago Tribune, October 6, 1961. 50. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, October 20, 1961; Chicago Defender, October 21–27, 1961, p. 10. 51. See Chicago Defender, October 28–November 3, 1961, p. 10; November 11–17, 1961, p. 10. Also see movie section, Chicago Tribune, November 10, 1961. 52. See Chicago Defender, December 23–29, 1961, p. 10; movie section, Chicago Tribune, December 22, 1961. 53. See Chicago Defender, January 6–12, 1962, p. 10; movie section, Chicago Tribune, January 12, 1962. 54. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, January 26, 1962; Chicago Defender, January 6–12, 1962, p. 10. 55. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, February 2, 1962. 56. See Chicago Defender, January 6–12, 1962, p. 10; movie section, Chicago Tribune, February 9, 1962. 57. Chicago Defender, January 27–February 2, 1962, p. 10; March 2–8, 1963, p. 10. 58. See Ibid., January 6–12, 1962, p. 10; movie section, Chicago Tribune, February 23, 1962. 59. See Chicago Defender, March 10–16, 1962, p. 10; movie section, Chicago Tribune, March 9, 1962. 60. See Chicago Defender, March 17–23, 1962, p. 10; movie section, Chicago Tribune, March 23, 1962. 61. Phone interview with Gene Chandler, June 23, 2003. NOTES 257

62. See Chicago Defender, April 7–13, 1962, p. 10; movie section, Chicago Tribune, April 20, 1962. 63. See Chicago Defender, September 29–October 5, 1962, p. 10; movie section, Chicago Tribune, October 19, 1962. 64. See Chicago Defender, October 27–November 2, 1962, p. 10; movie section, Chicago Tribune, November 9, 1962. 65. See Chicago Defender, December 8–14, 1962, p. 10; movie section, Chicago Tribune, December 21, 1962. 66. Chicago’s Black citizens were already talking about the fact that in 1962 the Illinois State Employment Service was found to be using a coded system that allowed White employers to indicate whether or not they would hire Black workers. See Chicago Defender, August 25–31, 1962, p. 1. 67. Chicago Defender, August 31–September 6, 1963, p. 10. 68. Ibid., October 26-November 1, 1963, p. 1. 69. See Ibid., January 5–11, 1963, p. 10; movie section, Chicago Tribune, January 18, 1963. 70. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, February 15, 1963; Chicago Defender, February 22, 1962, p. 10. 71. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, March 22, 1963. 72. See movie section, Ibid., April 19, 1963; Chicago Defender, March 30–April 5, 1963, p. 10. 73. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, July 12, 1963. 74. See movie section, Ibid., August 2, 1963; Chicago Defender, July 27–August 2, 1963, p. 10. 75. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, August 23, 1963; Chicago Defender, August 24–30, 1963, p. 10. 76. See movie section, Chicago Tribune, October 4, 1963. 77. See movie section, Ibid., October 25, 1963. 78. See movie section, Ibid., November 8, 1963. 79. See movie section, Ibid., December 27, 1963; Chicago Defender, December 14–20, 1963, p. 10. 80. Marc Taylor, The Original Marvelettes: Motown’s Mystery Girl Group (Jamaica, NY: Aloiv Publishing, 2004), p. 78. 81. Phone interviews with Robert Starks, July 15, 2003 and July 18, 2003. 82. See Chicago Defender, April 15–21, 1961, p. 19; July 22–28, 1961, p. 10. 83. Phone interview with Jerry Butler, July 25, 2003. 84. Ibid. 85. Charles Walton, “Al Benson—the Godfather of Black Radio in Chicago,” accessed March 7, 2003, from Jazz Institute of Chicago Web site: http://jazzinstituteofchicago.org/index.asp? targetϭ/jazzgram/ bronzeville/cytouff.asp. This document can also be found in the Vivian G. Harsh Collection of the Carter G. Woodson Regional Library, Chicago, IL. See the Charles Walton Papers, Box 1, Folders 2 and 3. Also see, Chicago Defender, April 27–May 3, 1963, p. 1; 258 NOTES

Norman Spaulding, “History of Black Oriented Radio in Chicago: 1929–1963” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1981), pp. 128–131. 86. Walton, “Al Benson.” 87. See for example, Chicago Defender, March 8–14, 1969, p. 39. 88. Ibid. Also see Chicago Defender, April 27–May 3, 1963, p. 1; Spaulding, “History of Black Oriented Radio in Chicago,” p. 67. 89. Chicago Defender, March 30–April 5, 1963, p. 10; September 21, 1963, p. 10. Also see Nadine Cohadas, Spinning Blues into Gold: The Chess Brothers and the Legendary (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), pp. 50, 212–224; Robert Pruter, Chicago Soul (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1991), p. 15; Pervis Spann with Linda C. Walker, The 40 Year Spann of WVON (Chicago: National Academy of the Blues, 2003), pp. 52, 120. 90. See Cohadas, Spinning Blues into Gold, pp. 222–224. 91. Walton, “Al Benson.” Also see Chicago Defender, April 27–May 3, 1963, p. 1; Pruter, Chicago Soul, p. 173. 92. See Chicago Sun-Times, June 6, 1974. 93. Pittsburgh Courier, June 29, 1963, pp. 1, 2. 94. Mary Lawrence, interviewed by the author, June 7, 1999, Chicago; also see Chicago Defender, November 26, 1949, p. 27; Joe Louis Barrow Jr., e-mail correspondence, February 7, 2005; Joe Louis Barrow Jr., phone interview by the author, February 8, 2005. 95. Pittsburgh Courier, June 29, 1963, pp. 1, 2; Chicago Defender, May 2–8, 1964, p. 7. 96. Chicago Defender, December 21–27, 1963, p. 5. 97. Phone interview with Mary Casey, July 22, 2003. 98. See John N. Ingham and Lynne B. Feldman, African-American Business Leaders: A Biographical Dictionary (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994), pp. 245–246. 99. Chicago Defender, May 2–8, 1964. 100. Ibid. 101. Bill Jefferson, interviewed by the author, August 19, 1986, Chicago. 102. See for example, Chicago Defender, March 12, 1960, pp. 18, 19; October 1, 1960, p. 8; October 14–20, 1961, p. 10; December 9–15, 1961, p. 10; April 7–13, 1962, p. 10; April 28–May 4, 1962, p. 10; March 16–22, 1963, p. 10; September 11–17, p. 15; December 18–24, 1965, p. 16; November 26–December 2, 1966, p. 15; January 28–February 3, 1967, p. 12; April 13–19, 1968, p. 12. 103. See for example, Ibid., March 16, 1960, pp. 18, 19; April 8–14, 1961, p. 18; September 16–22, 1961, p. 10; May 19–25, 1962, p. 10; November 2–8, 1963, p. 10; October 31–November 6, 1964, p. 10; July 31–August 6, 1965, p. 15; March 5–11, 1966, p. 15; September 3–9, 1966, p. 5; March 25–31, 1967, p. 13; February 10–16, 1968, p. 13; March 16–22, 1968, p. 13; May 25–31, 1968, p. 16. NOTES 259

104. See for example, Ibid., June 10–16, 1961, p. 10; July 1–7, 1961, p. 10; December 9–15, 1961, p. 10; April 7–13, 1962, p. 10; October 26-November 1, 1963, p. 10; February 15–21, 1964, p. 10. 105. Michael Conant, Antitrust in the Motion Picture Industry: Economic and Legal Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), p. 157. 106. Ingham and Feldman, African-American Business Leaders, pp. 246–247. Mary Lawrence, interviewed by the author, June 7, 1999, Chicago. 107. Chicago Sun Times, May 20, 1972. 108. Chicago Tribune, October 1, 1971. 109. Ibid. 110. Ingham and Feldman, African-American Business Leaders, p. 247. Also see Chicago Tribune, September 6, 1973. 111. See Chicago Defender, January 4–10, 1964, p. 10. 112. See Ibid., February 1–7, 1964, p. 10. 113. See Ibid., March 7–13, 1964, p. 10. 114. See Ibid., March 21–27, 1964, p. 10. 115. See Ibid., April 18–24, 1964, p. 10. 116. See Ibid., May 30-June 5, 1964, p. 10. 117. See Chicago Defender, July 4–10, 1964, p. 10. 118. See Ibid., July 11–17, 1964, p. 10. 119. See Ibid., July 18–24, 1964, p. 10. 120. See Ibid., August 8–14, 1964, p. 10; August 15–21, 1964, p. 10. 121. See Ibid., August 29-September 4, 1964, p. 10. 122. See Ibid., October 10–16, 1964, p. 10. 123. See Ibid., October 17–23, 1964, p. 10. 124. B. B. King with David Ritz, Blues All Around Me: The Autobiography of B. B. King (New York: Avon Books, 1996), pp. 221–222. 125. See Chicago Defender, November 14–20, 1964, p. 10. 126. See Ibid., December 5–11, 1964, p. 10. 127. See Ibid., December 12–18, 1964, p. 10. 128. See Chicago Defender, January 11–17, 1964, p. 1. 129. See Ibid., July 11–17, 1964, p. 10. 130. See Ibid., June 27-July 3, 1964, p. 1. 131. See Ibid., January 9–15, 1965, p. 10; January 16–22, 1965, p. 10. 132. See Ibid., January 30-February 5, 1965, p. 10; February 6–12, 1965, p. 10; February 13–19, 1965, p. 10. 133. See Ibid., February 20–26, 1965, p. 10; March 6–12, 1965, p. 10. 134. See Ibid., April 24–30, 1965. 135. See Ibid., June 5–11, 1965, p. 24. 136. See Ibid., June 19–25, 1965, p. 16. 137. See Ibid., July 10–16, 1965, p. 15. 138. See Ibid., July 31-August 6, 1965, p. 15. 139. See Ibid., August 21–27, 1965, p. 15. 260 NOTES

140. See Ibid., September 11–17, 1965, p. 15; September 18–24, 1965, p. 15. 141. See Ibid., October 2–8, 1965, p. 15. 142. See Ibid., October 23–29, 1965, pp. 14, 15. 143. See Ibid., November 6–12, 1965, p. 15; November 13–19, 1965, p. 15. 144. See Ibid., December 4–10, p. 14; December 11–17, 1965, p. 12; December 25–31, 1965, p. 21. 145. See Ibid., January 1–7, 1966, p. 21. 146. See Ibid., January 8–14, 1966, p. 15; January 15–21, 1966, p. 15. 147. See Ibid., February 5–11, 1966, p. 15; February 19–25, 1966, p. 13. 148. See Ibid., March 5–11, 1966, pp. 15. 149. See Ibid., March 26–April 1, 1966, p. 15; April 2–9, 1966, p. 13. 150. See Ibid., April 23–29, 1966, pp. 14, 15. 151. See Ibid., May 7, 1966, p. 15. 152. See Ibid., May 28–June 3, 1966, p. 15. 153. See Ibid., July 2–8, 1966, p. 14; July 9–15, 1966, p. 15; July 16–22, 1966, p. 13. 154. Ibid., July 16–22, 1966, p. 13; July 23–29, 1966, p. 13. 155. Ibid., July 30-August 5, 1966, p. 12; August 6–12, 1966, p. 13. 156. See Chicago Defender, August 20–26, 1966, pp. 13, 15; August 27–September 2, 1966, p. 15. 157. See Ibid., September 10–16, 1966, p. 13. 158. See Ibid., October 1–7, 1966, pp. 12, 13. 159. See Ibid., October 29–November 4, 1966, p. 13. 160. See Ibid., April 29–May 5, 1967, p. 23. 161. See Ibid., May 27–June 2, 1967, p. 15. 162. See Ibid., June 24–30, 1967, p. 13. 163. See Ibid., September 30–October 6, 1967, p. 13. 164. Aretha Franklin with David Ritz, Aretha From the Roots (New York: Villard, 1999), p. 118. In 1967 Franklin had been with long enough to gain the notoriety associated with the commercial success that she achieved with this label. Also, Franklin was clearly the headliner for the 1967 appearance. At her prior appearance at the Regal in 1966, Franklin was not the top featured vocalist. In addition, noted Chicago musician Phil Cohran played in the band at the Regal in 1966 when Aretha Franklin and were on the same stage. He did not recall Aretha receiving the “Queen of Soul” title at this time and suggested that the Regal audience did not warm to Aretha until she changed her choice of songs at the recommendation of Otis Redding. Phone conversation with Phil Cohran, May 19, 2004. Finally, records indicate that, after the 1967 stage show, Aretha did not appear at the Regal again. 165. See Chicago Defender, December 16–22, 1967, p. 25. 166. See Ibid., October 15–20, 1967, p. 13. NOTES 261

167. See Ibid., May 6–12, 1967, p. 13; phone interview with Eric Smith, January 6, 2003. 168. See Chicago Defender, January 6–12, 1968, p. 13. 169. See Ibid., January 27–February 2, 1968, p. 13. 170. See Ibid., February 24–March 1, 1968, p. 12. 171. See Ibid., March 2–8, 1968, p. 13. 172. See Ibid., June 15–21, 1968, p. 15. 173. See Ibid., June 29–July 5, 1968, p. 15. 174. See Ibid., July 13–19, 1968, p. 15. 175. See Ibid., July 27–August 2, 1968, p. 15; August 4–9, 1968, p. 13. 176. See Ibid., August 10–16, 1968, p. 15. 177. See Ibid., August 17–23, 1968, p. 15. 178. See Ibid., September 14–20, 1968, p. 35. An earlier article in the Chicago Defender stated that Chuck Jackson’s appearance at the Regal was part of the promotion for his first album, Chuck Jackson Arrives, on the Motown label. Other appearances pointed to one of several informal circuits that existed for African American entertain- ers. Jackson was to appear at the Regal in Chicago, the Apollo in New York, Leo’s Casino in , and the Twenty Grand in Detroit. See Chicago Defender, July 6–12, 1968, p. 15 179. See Chicago Defender, October 5–11, 1968, p. 15. 180. See Ibid., October 19–25, 1968, p. 17. 181. See Ibid., November 9–15, 1968, p. 15. 182. See Ibid., November 16–22, 1968, p. 15. 183. See Ibid., August 28-September, 1965, p. 15. 184. See Ibid., September 11–17, 1965, 15. 185. See for example, Chicago Defender, July 17–23, 1965, p. 15; May 27–June 2, 1967, p. 15; April 19–25, 1969, p. 17. 186. Phone interview with Severina Britto, June 24, 2003. 187. Ibid. E-mail correspondence with Severina Britto, June 28, 2003. 188. Ibid. 189. See Chicago Defender, January 22–28, 1966, pp. 1, 2; January 9–15, 1966, p. 1; January 16–22, 1966, p. 1. Also see John R. Fry, Locked Out. Americans: A Memoir (New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1973), pp. 15, 20–21; and Rufus Schatzberg and Robert J. Kelly, African-American Organized Crime: A Social History (New York: Garland Publishing, 1996), pp. 200, 202. 190. Bill Jefferson, interviewed by the author, August 19, 1986, Chicago. 191. See Chicago Defender, May 27–June 2, 1967, p. 15; April 5–11, 1969, p. 18. Phone interview with Jerry Butler, July 24, 2003. Also see “Palm Tavern,” accessed March 7, 2003, from Palm Tavern Web site: http://palmtavern.bizland.com/palmtavern/. 192. Chicago Tribune, October 1, 1971. 193. Chicago Sun-Times, May 20, 1972. 194. Ibid. Bibliography

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Spann, Pervis with Linda C. Walker. The 40-Year Spann of WVON. Chicago: National Academy of Blues, 2003. Spivey, Donald. Union and the Black Musician: The Narrative of William Everett Samuels and Chicago Local 208. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1984. Staples, Robert. The Urban Plantation: Racism and Colonialism in the Post Civil Rights Era. Oakland, California: The Black Scholar Press, 1987. Stearns, Marshall and Jean Stearns. Jazz Dance: The Story of American Vernacular Dance. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1968. Stowé, David W. Swing Changes: Big Band Jazz in New Deal America. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1994. Stuckey, Sterling. Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America. New York: Oxford, 1987. Thompson, Kristin and David Bordwell. Film History: An Introduction. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994. Travis, Dempsey J. The Life and Times of Redd Foxx. Chicago: Urban Research Press, 1999. ———. An Autobiography of Black Jazz. Chicago: Urban Research Institute, 1983. ———. An Autobiography of Black Chicago. Chicago: Urban Research Institute, 1981. US Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, Part 1. Washington, D. C.: US Government Printing Office, 1975. Venkatesh, Sudhir Alladi. American Project: The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2000. Vincent, Ted. Keep Cool: The Back Activists Who Built the Jazz Age. London: Pluto Press, 1995. Watkins, Mel. On the Real Side. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994; Touchstone edition, 1995. Weems, Robert E. Desegregating the Dollar: African American Consumerism in the Twentieth Century. New York: New York University Press, 1998. Werner, M. R. Julius Rosenwald: The Life of a Practical Humanitarian. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1939. Williams, Elsie. “Moms Mabley and the Afro-American Comic Performance.” In Women’s Comic Visions, ed. June Sochen, 158–178. Detroit: Wayne State Press, 1991. Yenser, Thomas, ed. Who’s Who in Colored America, 1941–1944. New York: Thomas Yenser, 1942.

Articles Barlow, William. “Black Music and Radio During the Jazz Age.” African American Review 29, no. 2 (Summer 1995): 325–328. 268 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ericson, George C. “Swedish Radio Services in Chicago.” Swedish Pioneer Historical Quarterly 24, no. 3 (1973): 157–162. Haller, Mark H. “Policy Gambling, Entertainment, and the Emergence of Black Politics: Chicago From 1900–1940.” Journal of Social History 24, no. 4 (1991): 719–739. Harris, Trudier. “Moms Mabley: A Study in Humor, Role Playing, and the Violations of Taboo.” Southern Review 24, no. 4 (1988): 765–776. Hennessey, Thomas J. “Chicago’s Black Establishment.” Journal of Jazz Studies 2, no. 1 (December 1974): 15–45. Hines, Earl. “How Gangsters Ran the Band Business.” Ebony, September 4, 1949, 40. Lights, Frederick L. “Memories: The Chicago Regal.” Marquee: Journal of the Theatre Historical Society 5, no. 4, 1973. “Payola Pot Boils Merrily in Chicago; Accusations Soar.” The Billboard. January 11, 1960, 2, 52. Pitman, Jack. “The Chicago Payola Story.” Variety, January 13, 1960, 43, 48. Reitz, Rosetta. “Hot Snow: Valaida Snow (Queen of the Trumpet Sings and Swings).” Black American Literature Forum 16, no. 4 (1982): 158–160. Sanders, Charles L. “Requiem for Queen Dinah.” Ebony, March 1964, 146–154. “Shakeup Reaches Chicago,” Down Beat, February 4, 1960, 5–6. Travis, Dempsey J. “The Regal That I Remember.” Chicago Weekend, August 2, 2001, 30. Vance, Sandra S. and Roy V. Scott. “Sam Walton and Wal-Mart Stores.: A Study in Modern Southern Entrepreneurship.” Journal of Southern History 58, no. 2 (May 1992): 231–252. Williams, Fess as told to Harrison Smith. “The Fess Williams Story.” Record Research 3, no. 3 (October/November 1957): 3–6.

Unpublished Manuscripts Cox, Oliver. “The Origins of Direct-Action Protest Among Negroes: The Chicago Experience,” n.d. Kent State University Library, Kent, Ohio. Linton, Bruce A. “A History of Chicago Radio Station Programming, 1921–1931, with Emphasis on Stations WMAQ and WGN.” Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University, 1953. Spaulding, Norman. “History of Black Oriented Radio in Chicago: 1929–1963.” Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1981.

Personal Interviews Barrow, Joe Louis Jr. Benedict, Bill Britto, Severina Brown, Oscar Jr. BIBLIOGRAPHY 269

Butler, Jerry Casey, Mary Chandler, Gene Chess, Marshall Cohran, Phil DeWiggins, Jack Grossman, Joseph Jefferson, Bill Jenkins, Judy Joyner, Marjorie Stewart Lawrence, Mary Logon, Jeni Lubliner, Robert Lucas, Ernestine G. Luckett, Jimmy Miller, Peter Piper, Louis “Scotty” Saunders, Warner Smith, Eric Spraggins, Janice Starks, Robert

Periodicals Chicago Defender, 1925, 1927–1969, and selected issues thereafter. Chicago Sun-Times, selected issues. Chicago Tribune, 1928–1964 and selected issues thereafter. Ebony Magazine, selected issues. Jet Magazine, selected issues. Exhibitors Herald, 1925–1928. Pittsburgh Courier, 1927 and selected issues thereafter.

Research Centers, Special Collections, and Data Bases AMG All Music Guide, online. AncestryPlus, online. Charles Walton Papers, Vivian G. Harsh Collection, Carter G. Woodson Regional Library, Chicago. Chicago Historical Society. Chicago Public Library Digital Collections, online. Chicago Title Insurance Company. Jazz Age Chicago, City of Chicago, online. Jazz Institute of Chicago, online. Library of Congress, online. 270 BIBLIOGRAPHY

New York Public Library, Digital Collection, online. Rosenwald Papers, University of Chicago Library, Special Collections. Theater Historical Society of America, Elmhurst, Illinois. Works Project Administration (Illinois), Illinois Writers’ Project, Vivian G. Harsh Collection, Carter G. Woodson Regional Library, Chicago.

Video Recording International Sweethearts of Rhythm. Produced and Directed by Greta Schiller and Andrea Weiss. 30 min. Cinema Guild, 1986. Videocassette. Index

Abbott, Robert S. 8, 52–3, 54–5, Anderson, Eddie “Rochester” 83, 78, 88, 89, 228 n14 99–100, 112, 127 ABC see American Broadcasting Anderson, Ernestine 167, 183 Company Anderson, Ivy (Ivie), 99, 116 ABC-Paramount 135–6, 162, 222 Anderson, Margie 152 Accardo, Anthony 149 Anderson, Marian 38, 62 Ace, Johnny 154 Anderson, Robert 153 Adams, Faye 156, 181 Andrews, Avis 75, 115 Adams, Jo Jo 147 A Night in Venice 54 “African Holiday” 180 Anna Lucasta 131 Afro-American Symphony 114 Annex Café 80 Aiken, Loretta Mary see Mabley, Antioch Missionary Baptist Church Jackie “Moms” 197 Aland and Angell 131 Apex Records 178 Alexandria, Lorez 167, 180 (Chicago) 38, Algiers Lounge 196 40–1 Alhambra Theater 55 Apollo Theater (New York) 3, 57, Alix, Mae 78 78, 97, 99, 104, 111, 137, Allen, Annisteen 136 146, 157, 167, 178, 180, 213, Allen, Hortense 147 253n128 Allen, Ricky 184 Apus and Estrellita 106, 136, 160 “All-Negro Hour” 67 Archway Supper Club 196 All State Record Distributing 178 Arie Crown Theater 196, 200 Sorority 160 Armstrong, Henry 96–7 Amazing Grace 102 Armstrong, Lil see also Mabley, Jackie “Moms” see Hardin, Lil Ambassadors 166 Armstrong, Louis 4, 41, 60–1, American Broadcasting Company 76, 80, 83, 89, 97, 99, 102–3, (ABC), 94, 222 106, 108–9, 111, 115, American Negro Theater 131 125, 141, 155 Ammons, Gene 7, 128, 131, Art Institute of Chicago 64 144, 181 Artistics 203, 206, 208 Amos “n” Andy 31, 66 Ascher, Harry 74–5, 76, 77, 86 Amusement Service Corporation Ash, Paul 28, 29, 30, 60 69 Association for the Study of Negro Anderson, Cat 127 Life and History 5 272 INDEX

As Thousands Cheer 79 Barthé, Richmond (Richard) 64–5 Atkins, Cholly 161, 166 Basie, Count 4, 81, 88, 97, 99, Atkins, Eddie 31 102, 103, 105, 108, 111, 112, Atlantic Records 206 115, 116, 119, 127, 128, 143, Auditorium Theater 89, 196 147–8, 153, 156, 161, 163, Austin, Sil 161, 167, 168 181, 208, 253n121 Avalons 198 Bass, Fontella 202, 203 Avendorph, Fred, and his Roseland Bassett, Jimmy Orchestra 74 see Lee and Bassett Azpiazu, Don and his Havana Bates, Lefty 166 Casino Orchestra 73 Bates, Peg Leg 75, 115, 131, 141, 155 Baby Lawrence (Laurence), 105 Bayron, Grace 110 Baby Leazar 56 Bayron, Judy 110 Baby Lloyd 202 Beavers, Louise 79 Bailey, Bill 102, 143, 151, 160 127 Bailey, Pearl 127, 151, 155, 160, Beck, Helen Gould 164, 166, 167 see Rand, Sally Bakay, Hal 41–2, 55 Becker Ryan Department Store Baker, Josephine 5, 145, 180 17–18 Baker, LaVern 156, 157, 161, Bee Hive Lounge 155 168, 181, 182, 184, 187, 203 Beige Beauts (Beauties), 131, 152, Baker, Yvonne and the Sensations 161 186 see also Smart Affairs Balaban and Katz (B & K) 4, 15, Bell, Archie and the Drells 208 16, 20, 21, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, Bell, Jimmy 31, 53, 73 33, 34, 43–5, 53, 55, 58, 59, Bell, William 209 60, 71–3, 74, 77, 80, 85, 86, Bellson, Louis 151, 155, 160, 166 87, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 97, Ben Franklin Variety Store 121–2, 99, 115–16, 126, 128, 135, 246n101 145, 146, 159–60, 162, 163, Bennett, Bobby 202 164–5, 166, 172, 221, 222, Benny, Jack 83 223 Benson, Al 129, 136, 138, 141, Balaban, Barney 44–5 157–8, 159, 160, 161–3, 167, Baldwin, James 207 168, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, Ball, Walter 24 182, 190–3, 210, 219 band polls 103, 107, 108, 118–19 Benson Beauties 167 Bankers State Bank 52 Bensonettes 179 Bank Night, at Regal 80 Benton, Brook 179, 181, 183, Banks, Margaret 208 184, 186, 198 Barefield, Eddie 108, 143 Beri, Ben 166 Barlow, William 66, 68 Berman, Morris 193–4, 195 Barnes, J. J., 205, 206 Bernard, Chuck 204 Barnes, Walter 37, 68–9, 70, Bernie, Ben 30 75–6, 80, 231n51 Berry, Ananias 76 Barnett, Charlie 113 Berry, Andrew 26 INDEX 273

Berry Brothers 54, 109, 127 Bland, Billy 180 Berry, Chuck 158 Bland Bobby “Blue” 161, 179, Bertram (Bertrand), Jimmy 32 183, 186, 188, 199, 201, 202, Bethune, Mary McCleod 38 204, 205, 208 Betts, Keter 148 Blandells 186 Bey, Andy 181 Blewett, Ken 4, 86, 87–8, 89, Bey Sisters 181 90–1, 113, 115, 116, 117, 118, Bibb, Sir Oliver 103 128, 151, 160, 162, 163, 165, big band era, end of 126, 132, 166, 209, 222–3, 240n170 138–9 block booking 43 Big Maybelle 152, 156, 158, 161, Blue Bells (Bluebelles) 186, 166, 180, 181, 183 197–8, 199 Big Time Crip 102, 105, 115 Blue Notes 183, 184 Billboard 105 Blue Rhythm Band Bill Cody Dancers 210–11 see Millinder, Lucius Binga, Jesse 51, 122 Blues for Mr. Charlie 207 Binga State Bank 51, 122 Bo Diddley 179 Bioff, Willie 46 Bonds, Gary U. S. 185 Black-appeal radio 129–30, 154, Booker, Beryl 148 176, 190, 191–2, 220 Booker, James 182 see also Benson, Al Boombolla 38 Black Belt 1 Bostic, Earl 130, 152 as a spatial configuration 47–8 Bottoms, Bill 53 see also Bronzeville, defined Bowman, Grace 54 Black, Bill 180, 182 Bowman, Priscilla 166 Blackbirds, Lew Leslie’s 54, 62–3, boxing, at Savoy 80 64, 77, 78, 89 Boyd, Eddie 153 Black business development and the Boyer International Laboratories Black Belt 119–26, 144–5, 193, 194, 195 171–2, 225 see also Fuller, Samuel B. see also policy and Fuller, Samuel B. Braddy, Pauline 103, 110 Black, Clarence 22 Bradford, Alex 153 Black consumer market, growth of Bradshaw, Tiny 78, 107, 116, 125, 140–2, 156, 174, 190, 191, 143 223 Braggs, Al 186, 188, 199, 201, 202 Black Manhattan 82 Brandt, George L., 164–5 Blackstone the Magician 76 Breedlove, Sarah Black Stone Rangers 205, 206–7, see Walker, Madame C. J. 212 Briggs, Bunny 137, 141, 162, 183 Black Swan Record Company 38, Britto, Severina 210, 211–12 114 Britt, Tina 202 Blackwell, Olive 27 Bronze Venus 56 Blaine, Lois 183 Bronzeville, defined 239n142 Blake Eubie 27 see also Black Belt Blakey, Art and Jazz Messengers Brooks, Billy 168, 181, 198 see Brooks and Brown 274 INDEX

Brooks and Brown 160 Burke, Eddie 143 Brooks, Dennis Jack 26–7 Burke, Solomon 161, 185, 187, Brown, Buster 181 198, 203 Brown, Chuck 128 Burkhardt, Jay 136, 138, 144, 155 Brown, Clarence “Gatemouth,” Burnett, Bobby 107 154, 179 Burning Spear 196, 211 Brown, Emily 186 see also Club DeLisa; The Club Brown, Ernest see Cook and Brown Burrage, Hal 180 Brown, George 46 Butler, Billy and the Enchanters Brown, James 168, 202, 204, 206, 198, 200 207 Butler, Charles 82 Brown, Marion 137 Butler, Jerry 167, 180, 182, 184, Brown, Maxine 183, 184, 186, 186, 187, 188, 189, 198, 200, 199, 200, 202, 203, 204 202, 205 Brown and McGraw 34 Butter Beans and Susie 100, 131, Brown, Nappy 158, 161, 181 145–6, 147, 148, 155 Brown, Oscar, Jr., 207 Butterfield, Erskine 108 Brown, Piney see Brooks and Byrd, Bobby 202, 204 Brown Byrd, Ina Bell 110 Brown, Ralph 31 Brown, Ruth 137, 155, 162, 179, Cabin in the Sky 112 183, 184 Cab Jivers 111 Brown, Tommy 206 Caboliers 111 Brown, Winnie (Wini), 119, 127, Cadillac Bob’s 155 183 Cadillac, Dr. Jive 116 Bruce, Marion 147 Cadillacs 166 Bruce, Mary 34, 85, 224 Caifano, Fat Lenny 149 see also Mary Bruce Dancers Calloway, Blanche 31, 33, 34, 75, Bruce, Sadie 85, 102, 113, 143, 76, 155 224 Calloway, Cab 5, 31, 33, 34, Bryant, Clora 180 57, 73, 80, 84, 97, 103, 105, Bryant, Marie 116 111, 115, 116, 118, 126, Bryant, Pauline 85 127, 143 Bryant, Rusty 156 Cambridge, Godfrey 186 Bryant, Stuffy 182 Campbell, Choker 187, 188 Bryant, Willie 84, 90, 115, 125, Campbell, Floyd 108 127, 186 Canady, Hilda 27 Buck (Ford Lee Washington) and C & C Lounge 196 Bubbles (John W. Sublett), 31, Capitol Records 164 125, 127, 143 Capitols 204 Buckner, Milt 119, 131, 183 Capitol Theater 196, 210 Bud Billiken club 53, 79, 88, Capone, Al 45, 47, 120, 149 102, 105–6, 111, 115, 116, Capris 183 123 Caravans 209 Bud Billiken parade 8, 53, 116, Cardinals 158 123, 211 Carlton 61 INDEX 275

Carrington, Jerome 32 Chicago Defender, support of Regal, Carr, Robert see Robert and community, and performing Johnny artists 9, 52–3, 74, 75, 78, Carr, Valerie 161, 167 79, 80, 82, 86, 87, 88–9, 98, Carter, Benny 81, 113, 115, 102, 105–6, 111, 113, 115, 160 116, 118, 119, 123, 217 Carter, Betty (Lorene “Betty Chicago Federation of Musicians Bebop”) 137, 152, 168, 181, 84 183 Chicago Theater 15, 77, 79, 80, Carter, Marian 110 115, 126, 132, 145, 146, 151, Carver, George Washington 65 156 Casey, Mary see Fuller, Mary Chicago Tribune 26, 77, 166 Cash, Alvin and the Crawlers 203 Chicago Urban League 75 Cash, Alvin and the Registers 201 Childress, Alvin 131 Caston, Bobbie 89 Chilsolm, Joe 148 Cato, Minto 34 Chilton and Thomas 34 CBS (WCBS) radio 75, 114 Chilton, Carol 34 Central Casting Bureau and Blacks Chilton, Ralph 22, 71 82 Chimes 182 Central Park Theater 33, 165, Chittison, Herman 143 210 Chocolate Dandies 27 Chambers, Paul 182, 185 Chocolateers 115, 125, 127, 136, Chambers, Ulysses 31, 32 143, 147 Chandler, Gene 185–6, 188, 199, Cholly and Dolly 109 200, 202, 203, 206, 209 chorus girls 85–6 Channels 167 Chuck and Chuckles 90, 105 Chantels 185 Church of Divine Guidance Charioteers 128 192 Charles, Duke 137 Church, Eugene 167, 168, 182 Charles, Jimmy 183 Churchill, Savannah 105, 113, Charles, Ray 168, 180–1, 183, 115, 116, 130, 144, 145 187, 208 Citizens State Bank 52 Charlton, David 93, 115 Civic Opera House 79, 131, 145, Cheatam, Doc 143 146, 155 Checker, Chubby 183 Clark, Dee 166, 181, 182, 183, Checkmate Lounge 207 184, 187, 188, 198, 201 Chess, Leornard 191, 192 Clay, Judy 205, 209 Chess, Phil 191 Clef Club 29 Chess Records 154, 178, 181, Clef Club Orchestra 30 184, 192, 207 Cleveland, James 200, 209 Chicago’s African–American musical Clinton, Alice 64 establishment (1928), 27 Clovers 105, 182, 184 Chicago American Giants 24 Club Alhambra 196 Chicago Association of Commerce Club DeLisa (also DeLisa Gardens), and Industry 145 46, 80, 85, 98, 106, 120, 127, Chicago Daily News 65 130, 148, 163, 211 276 INDEX

Coasters 160, 181, 183, 184, 198, Cooper, Ralph 53, 56–7, 59, 201 69–70, 73, 82–3, 125, 178 Cobb, Arnett 119, 127, 152 Co-Ops 137, 147 Cobb, Clarence H., 150 Cordell, Lucky 192 Cobb, Jimmy 148, 182, 185 Corpus Christi Auditorium 132 Cochran, Wayne and his Correll, Charles 31, 66 C. C. Riders 203 Corsairs 185 Coconut Grove Ballroom 22 Cortez, Dave “Baby” 166, 167 Cody, Bill see Bill Cody Dancers Cosmopolitan Community Church Cohn, Zinky 143 7–8 Cohran, Phil 260n164 Cottle, Charles H. 71, 73, 74 Cole, Eddie see Three Loose Nuts 57 Coleman, Dolores 182 Cotton Club Revue 78 Coleman, King 180, 182 Counts 156 Cole, Nat “King” 5, 81, 108, 115, Cox, Baby 75 119, 125, 128, 130, 137, 141, Cox, Oliver Cromwell 17, 19 143, 145, 146, 147, 155, 157 Crawford, Bixie 148 Coles, Honi 85, 111 Crawford, James 202 Cole and Wayne 33 Crawlers 200 Coliseum 196 Crests 167, 183 Collier, Mittie 184, 199 Criner, Lawrence 131 Collins, Pat 144 Cron, Roz 111 Collins, Shad 143 Cross, Tom 22 Columbia Pictures 94, 242n18 Crystals 185, 187 Columbia Records 157, 206 cultural hegemony see Regal Common Clay 64 Theater, and inequality Como, Perry 157 Cunningham, Skip 180 Conacher, Wenonah, (Betty), 57 Condos and Brandow 160 Dabney, Ford 29 Congaroos see Four Congaroos dance traditions, at Regal 84–5, Congress Hotel 80 102 Conine, Margot 137 Dancing Boys see Mary Bruce Conine, Tommy 137 Dancers Conley, Arthur 204 Dancing Jordanettes 143 Connie’s Inn 59, 75 Dandridge, Dorothy 64 Contours 187, 188, 202, 205 Daniels, Jerry 104 Contracts, with Regal 162–3 Danny and Edith 102 Cook and Brown 108 Darnell, Larry 137, 143, 181 Cook, Charles see Cook and Darrell, Charles H. 26, 41 Brown Dave’s Café 77, 80, 120 Cook, Charles “Doc” 27 Dave and Tressie 55 Cooke, L. C. 201 Davis, Charles 27 Cooke, Sam 125, 183, 187, 201 Davis, Clifford 149 Cook, Marion 36 Davis, Eddie “Lockjaw” 168 Cooper, Ann 103 Davis, Ernestine “Tiny” 111, 113 Cooper, Jack L. 53, 66–7, 129 Davis, Kay 127 INDEX 277

Davis, Miles 5, 136, 145, 155, Drake, St. Clair and Horace Cayton 167, 168, 182, 185 51, 174 Davis, Sammy, Jr. 130, 137, 141, Dramatics 206 145, 155, 163, 200 Dreamland Café 60–1, 122 Davis, “Tables” 137 Dreamland Syncopators see Davis, “Wild” Bill 143, 162, 181 Hardin, Lil Day, Cora Lee 181 Drew, Allen (Alan or Allan), 183, Decca Records 104 184 de Chavis, Kitty 138 Drew-Vells 198, 199 De Costa, Barbara 155 Drifters 156, 183, 184, 187, 188, De Franco, Buddy 144 198, 201 De Jovedo, Prince Rajah 67 Du Bois, W. E. B. 38, 110 DeLisa, Louie 163 Du Conge, Evelyn 27 see also Club DeLisa Dukays 184, 185 Dells 5, 161, 180, 183, 186, 199, see also Chandler, Gene 202, 205 Duke, John see Mac and Duke Deppe, Lois 62–3 Duke Records 153 De Santo, Sugar Pie 182, 183 Duke is Tops 56 Desmond, William 54 Duncan, Ethel 127 Detroit Emeralds 208 Durham, Eddie 113, 115 Dickerson, Carroll 41, 61, 78 Du Sable High School 7, 88, 119, Dickerson, Lawrence 32 211 Dillard, Varetta 152 Dutones 186, 187, 188, 198, 199 Dion and the Belmonts 180 Dyer, Sammy 85, 148, 224 disc-jockey broker 177–8 Dyerettes 148, 155, 168 Dixie Hummingbids 154 Dyette, Walter H. 7, 72, 119, Dixon, Eugene see Chandler, 224 Gene Dyke and the Blazers 208 Dixon, Jesse and the All-Stars 199 Dynamics 209 Dixon, Lawrence 31, 32 Dixon, Lucille 110 Earle Theater 146, 253n128 Dodge, Beth and Betty 54 Ebony Magazine 150 Doggett, Bill 179, 181 Eckstine, Billy 113, 118, 119, Dolinoff and the Raya Sisters 167 127, 128, 137, 141 Dominoes 144, 156 Edison, Harry “Sweets” 167 Domino, Fats 166 Edmondson, Florence 78 Donegan, Dorothy 7, 113, 115, Edsels 183 116, 118, 125 Edward Sisters 115, 119, 143, Doring Sisters 80 153 Dorsey, Lee 204 Edwards, Tommy 167 Dorsey, Thomas 82 Eichenbaum, Edward E. 15 Dot and Dash 153 Eighth Armory 89 Dotie and Charlie 111 El Dorados (Eldorados) 160, 167 Douglas community 96, 173–4 Eldridge, Roy 107, 118 Douglass National Bank 51 Elgar, Charles 22, 27 Dover, Arnold 167 Elgins 204, 205 278 INDEX

Ellington, Duke 4, 31, 71–2, 73, Five Blind Boys of Alabama 204 76, 79, 80, 83, 84, 97, 98, 99, see also Original Blind Boys of 102, 103, 107, 108, 119, 127, Alabama 130, 137, 141, 145, 147, 151, Five Blind Boys of Mississippi 153, 156, 160, 185 199–200 Ellis, Jack and his Wildcats 80, 84 Five DuTones see Dutones Ellis, Morris 180 Five Flamingoes see Flamingos El Sid’s Trianon Ballroom 196 (Flamingoes) see also Trianon Ballroom 504 Club 155 Emeralds 207 Five Royales 152 Emerson, Billy “The Kid” 161 Five Satins 161, 181 Englestein, Harry M. and Louis Five Spirits of Rhythm 53, 56 (Englestein brothers), 4, Five Stair-Steps 204, 205, 206, 17–18, 26, 72, 73, 164, 165, 208 193 Flames 168, 202, 204 Ephram, Bobby 168, 185 see also Brown, James Esquires 208 Flamingoettes 166 Etting, Ruth 31 Flamingos (Flamingoes) 105, 153, Europe, James Reese 29, 36 155, 166, 183, 187 Evans, Mary G. 7 Flegenheimer, Arthur see Schultz, Evans, Warren 113 Dutch Everett, Betty 186, 188, 200 Flemons, Wade 180, 183, 184 “flesh campaign,” Chicago Defender Faggen, I. Jay 21, 22, 24, 26, 41 86–7 Fair Store 65 Fletcher, Darrow 204 Fair, Yvonne 207, 208 Fletcher, Dusty 89, 105, 115, 116, Famous Flames see Flames 137, 151 Famous Players Laskey 43–4, 221 Floyd, Eddie 205 Fantastic Four 209 Fontaine Brothers 147 Farmer, Art 183 Fontaine Dancers 152 Farmer, James 194 Ford, Dee Dee 187 Ferguson, Maynard 185 Ford, Henry and the Gifts 199 Ferguson, Royce 212 Foster, A. L. 195 Fernandez, Angelo 31 Foster, Little Willie 158 Fields, Ernie 116, 180 Foster, Wesleen 131 Fields, Herbie 143 Fouchee Dancers 161 Fiestas 181 Four Blue Bonnets 113 First Deliverance Church 150 Four Brown Dots 116 Fishchetti, Charles 149 see also Watson, Ivory “Deek” Fisher, Mark 30 Four Checkers 155 Fisher, Shelley 208 Four Congaroos 146, 147 Fitzgerald, Ella 5, 90, 97, 105, Four Dancing Ebonites 187 108, 111, 115, 116, 119, 127, Four Dukes 180 130, 137, 141, 143, 146, 147, Four Fellows 157 156 Four Kit Kats 106, 147 Fitzhugh, McKie 128, 129, 153 Four Orchids 157 INDEX 279

Four Sounds 182 Gale, Moe 104, 116 Four Step Brothers 130, 168 Garbage see Rodgers, Marshall Four Tops 199, 201, 202 Garber, Jan 78 Four Voices 166 Gardner, Don 187 Fox, Ed. 88, 98 Garland, Red 168 see also Grand Terrace Café Garmise Distributing 178 Fox, Harold 126, 130 Garner, Errol 131, 143, 146, 152 Foxx, Charlie 202 Garrett, Joan (Joanne) 203, 204 Foxx, Inez 198, 202 Garrett, John 88 Foxx, Redd 148, 161, 166, 180, Garrick Lounge 112 183, 187, 202, 253n121 Garrison, Amy 110 Francois’s Louisianians 80 Garvey, Marcus 38 Franklin, Aretha 5, 183, 185, 186, Gaye, Marvin 187, 188, 199, 201 188, 201, 205, 206, 207, Gaynor and Ross 143 260n164 Gee, Lottie 4, 31 Franklin, Erma (Irma), 184, 185, Gems 200 186 George, Barbara 184 Franklin, William 32 George Cleveland Hall Library 5 Frazier, E. Franklin 47, 140 Gerri’s Palm Tavern 213 Freddie and Flo 155 Getz, Stan 143 Freed, Alan 177–8 Giancana, Momo 122 Freeman, Bobby 199 Gibson, Beverly Ann 168 Freeman, John 61–2 Gillespie, Dizzy 116, 128, 130, Freeman, Kenneth 131 140, 156, 183 Freeman, Von 7 Glaser, Joe 57, 106, 112 Fuller, Ethel 145 Glen, Charlie 120 Fuller, Geraldine 145 Glover, Roger 165, 189, 209 Fuller, Jessie 145 Goddard, Paulette 131 Fuller, Lestine 145 Golde Clothes Shop 18 Fuller, Luella 145 Golson, Benny 183 Fuller, Mary 145, 195 Gonda, Fats 202 Fuller Products Company see Gone With the Wind 117 Fuller, Samuel B. Goodman, Benny 80, 81, 82, 107 Fuller, Samuel B. 4, 144–5, 171, Goodman, Shirley see Shirley and 172, 178, 186, 193–7, 205, Lee 213–14, 221, 223 Gordon, Freddie 89, 105 Fuller, Walter 97 Gordon, Roscoe 181 Fulson, Lowell 147 Gordy, Berry 186 Fuqua, Charlie 104 Gosden, Freeman 31, 66 Fuqua, Harvey see Harvey and the Gourfain, Harry 27 Moonglows Granada Theater 15, 60 Future Star’s Night 31, 32, 79 Grand Boulevard community 49–50, 96, 173–4, 175 Gaines, Will 179 Grand Terrace Café 46, 57, 70, Gale Agency 162 74, 77, 79, 86, 88, 89, 98, Gale, Billy 160 106, 108 280 INDEX

Grand Theater 40 Harpo, Slim 183, 204 Granville, Maxwell 131 Harris, Al 131 Gray, Harry W. 106 Harris, Alice 56 Gray, Wardell (Waddell) 136 Harris, Eddie 7 Great Day 62–3 Harris, Charles 31 Great Migration 2 Harris, Micki 185 Green, Charles see Chuck and Harris, Odessa 184 Chuckles Harris, Wynonie 131, 144, 159 Green, Eddie 67 Harsh, Vivian G. 5 Green, Lil 147 Hartman, Johnny 7, 183 Green, Madelyn 119 Harvey and the Moonglows 167, Greer, Big John 136 180, 181 Gregory, Dick 182, 200 Hawkins, Coleman 156 Griever, Si 165 Hawkins, Erskine 97, 108, Griffin, Johnny 168 111, 113, 130, 138–9, 141, Griffin, “Little,” Johnny 119 143, 147, 156, 160, 167, see also Johnny Griffin 198 Guaranty Bank and Trust 193 Hawkins, Sam 167 Guinan, Tex 76 Hawkins, Screamin” Jay 160, 161, Gunsmoke 114 181 Guzik, Jack 149 Hayes, Roland 38 Hayward, Willie 36 Halasz, Laszlo 114 Haywood, Eddie 144, 160 Hale, Teddy 143, 146 Head, Roy 204 Hall, Adelaide 64, 70, 75 Healy, Ted 54 Hallelujah 63–4 Hearts of Dixie 63–4 Hall, George Cleveland 5 Heath, Jimmy 182 Hall, Shirley 186 Heath, Percy 182 see also Vashonettes Hello Paris 63 Halos 184 Hemphill, Elizabeth 65 Hamilton, Roy 156–7, 160, 168, Henderson, Bill 168, 180, 182, 183, 187, 188 182 Hampton, Lionel 103, 105, 106, Henderson, Fletcher 31, 60, 80, 112, 115, 118–19, 127, 130, 82, 84, 86, 105, 107 137, 140, 141, 153, 155, 166 Henderson, Horace 180 Hanson, Howard 114 Henderson, Jo-Ann 161 Hardin, Lil 60, 76 Hennessey, Thomas 27 Harlem Globetrotters 24 Henry, Judy 212 Harlem Opera House 90 Herman, Woody 130 Harlem Playgirls, Lil Armstrong’s Hesitations 207 103 Hibbler, Al 119, 127, 137, 155, Harmonizing Four 199 160, 168 Harper, Leonard 77 High Chaparral 196 Harper, Lucius 53 Hill, Abram 131 Harper, Toni 130, 137, 143, Hill, Florence 27 253n121 Hill, Lenore 22 INDEX 281

Hines, Earl 62–3, 76, 80, 81, 84, Ideals 188 89, 103, 105, 113, 115, 125, Illinois Chamber of Commerce 127, 235n37 145 Hines Kids (Maurice and Gregory), Imitation of Life 78, 79 253n121 Impalas 167 Hinton, Joe 181, 199 Impressions 184, 186, 188, 200, Hinton, Milt 143 203, 206 Hite, Les 97, 103 Ink Spots 5, 98, 99, 104–5, 108, Hit Sheet 190 113, 115, 116, 119, 125, 141, Hodges, Johnny 137 145, 146, 198 Hogan, Charles 165 International Alliance of Theatrical Hogan, Ernest 36 and Stage Employees Union Holiday, Billie 83, 111, 115, 119, 46 127, 130, 131–2, 136, 137, International Amphitheater 196 143, 156 International Sweethearts of Holland, Eddie 185 Rhythm 5, 83, 102–3, Hollywood Flames 161 109–12, 113, 115 Hopkins, Claude 77, 78, 80 Intruders 208 Hopkins, Herb 189, 209 Isaacs, Ike 182 Horne, Lena 56, 64, 112, 115 Isley Brothers 179, 181, 183, 187 Hospitality Hour 127 Hot Chocolates Revue 54, Jack Benny Show 83 59, 75 Jackson, Benjamin Clarence “Bull Hot Rhythm 38 Moose” 130, 156 Howard Theater 97, 99, 111, Jackson, Chuck 183, 184, 187, 146, 167, 184 188, 197, 199, 201, 204, 207, Howell and Bowser 137, 143 208, 261n178 Howell and Radcliff 152 Jackson, Deon 204, 205 Hudson, Dick 24 Jackson Five 196, 208 Hudson, George 128, 130 Jackson, J. J. 206 Hughes, Fred 202, 203 Jackson, “Jigsaw” Brady 85, 109 Hughes, Jimmy 204, 205 Jackson, Milt 182 Hughes, Langston 114 Jackson Park case 93–5 Hughes, Revella 4, 34, 38 Jackson, Walter 200, 202, 203 Humes, Helen 143, 145 Jacquet, Illinois 127, 128, 130, Hunt, Tommy 184, 187, 188, 137, 140, 151 198, 201, 203, 206, 207 Jamal, Ahmad 160 Hunter, Ivory Joe 128, 161 James, Elmo 180 Hunter, Lurlean 181 James, Etta 167, 168, 179, 180, Hunter, Ty 186 181, 182, 186, 201 Hutchinson, Dorothy (Dolly), James, Ida 108, 128 76, 80 jazz, early development of 29–30, Hutton, Ina Ray 31 35–6 Hutton, June 31 Jazz Joy Boys 30, 33 Hyde Park High School 211 see also Williams, Stanley “Fess” Hyman, Earle 131 Jazztet 183 282 INDEX

Jefferson, Bill 117–18 Jordan, Louis 90, 115, 119, 127, Jefferson, Hilton 143 128, 130, 137, 140, 143, 147, Jeffries, Herb 78, 99 152, 153, 168 Jewel Box Revue 204 Jose and Dana 152 Jitney Cabs 190 Joyce, Nanneen (Nanine) 27, 78 Jive Five 208 Joyner and Foster 105, 130 John, Little Willie 182 Joyner, Marjorie Stewart 8, 123, Johnny and Joe 184 141, 162 Johnny Moore’s Blazers 128 Joyner, Robert E. 123 Johnson, Buddy 115, 116, 118, 143, 157, 160, 182 Kahn, Louis 17–18, 193 Johnson, Elijah 122 Katz, Samuel (Sam) 20, 44 Johnson, Ella 143, 157, Kay, Connie 182 160, 182 KDKA radio 62 Johnson, Eudora 122 K-Doe, Ernie 183 Johnson, Foster 138 Keep Punching 96–7 Johnson, Isabel Joseph 192 Kefauver, Estes 149 Johnson, James Weldon 29–30 Kellum David 88, 119 Johnson, Jay Jay (J. J.) 145, 185 Kelly, Georgia 61 Johnson, Joe “Ziggy” 109, 127 Kelly, Paul 208 Johnson, John “Mushmouth” Kelly, Wynton 182, 185 122 Kemp, Chubby 137 Johnson, J. Rosamond 36 Kemp, Vi 161 Johnson, Margaret “Countess” 83 Kennedy, John Fitzgerald 186 Johnson, Marv 187 Kenner, Doris 185 Johnson, Myra 106 Kenny, Bill 104 Johnson, Syl 206 Kent (“Cool Gent”), Herb 192 Jones Brothers 121–2, 150–1 Kenton, Stan 128, 146 see also policy King, Albert 199, 202, 208 Jones, Edward P. 121–2, 148–51 King, B. B. 5, 154, 159, 181, 184, Jones, E. Rodney 192, 211 188, 198, 199, 202, 204, 206, Jones, Etta 183 207, 208, 209 Jones, George 121–2, 150–1 King, Ben E. 181, 183, 186, 187, Jones, Helen 110 188 Jones, Isham 31 King, Freddie 198 Jones, Jimmy 184 King, Harold “Rhythm” 148 Jones, Jo (Joe) 143, 183 King, Martin Luther, Jr. 186, 187, Jones, Joseph 58 194, 200, 208 Jones, Laurence Clifton 109–10 King Odum Quartet 130 Jones, Lydia 151 King Records 157, 178 Jones, McKissick 121 Kingslow, Janice 131 Jones, Orville “Hoppy” 104 Kirby, George 127, 131, 143, 146, Jones, Richard (Dick) L. 19, 165 152, 181 Jones, Ruth see Washington, Dinah Kirk, Andy 73, 80, 83, 84, Joplin, Scott 36 97, 100, 102, 108, 113, Jordan, Joe 36 115, 127 INDEX 283

Kit Kats see Four Kit Kats Lewis, Barbara 202 Kitt, Eartha 131, 168 Lewis, Bobby 184 Kitty Kat Club 196 Lewis, Jerry Lee 183 Knight, Gladys and the Pips 183, Lewis, John 182 184, 187, 198, 202, 204, 208 Lewis, William “Sabby” (Sebastian), Knight, James 213 128 Knight, Marie 184 Lewis, Willie 161, 182, 183, 184 Kolax, King 137–8, 147 Leyba, Clair 131 Krupa, Gene 81, 107, 146 Lightfoot, James E. 33 Kupcinet, Irv 24 Lincoln Cemetery 150 KYW radio 65 Lincoln (Royal) Gardens 60 Lindy Hoppers 90 Labelle, Patti and the Bluebells Linton, Charles 90 203, 205 Little Anthony and the Imperials see also Bluebells 167, 184, 202 La Bommie 152 Little Caesar and the Romans 184 Lafayette Theater 253n128 Little Esther 152, 161 Lake Meadows Restaurant 196 see also Phillips, Little Esther Lambert, Hendricks and Ross Little Grand Theater 36 167, 182 Little Jimmy 25 Lance, Herb 148 Little Milton 200, 201, 208 Lance, Major 180, 188, 198, 199, Little Miss Cornshucks 116, 127 201, 202, 203 Little Miss Soul 208 L & P Broadcasting 191 Little Sonny 168 Lands, Liz 206 Little Step Brothers 205 Langford, Walcott 235n37 Little Willie 153 LaRosa, Julius 157 Loews 94, 99 Laurey (Laurie), Annie 161, 181 see also Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer LaVell, Miss 181 Lofton, Bertha 212 LaVelle, Otis 201 Long, Byron “Fats” 24 LaVette, Betty 201, 202 Lorraine Bottling Works 116 Lawless, Theodore K. 6, 7 Lougen, William 33 Leaner, Arthur B. see Benson, Al Louis, Joe 83, 96, 111, 115, 118, Leaner, Earnie 192 120, 121, 152, 193, 223 Leaner, George 192 Louis, Marva 115, 116, 118, 167, Lee and Bassett 109 193, 223 Lee, Beverly 185 Lovejoy, Alex 33 Lee, Bill “Doc” 192 Loving Sisters 199 Lee, Clarence 31 Lowell, John 33 Lee, Julia 128 Lubliner, and Trinz 4, 26, 221 Lee, Leonard see Shirley and Lee Lucas, Roxanna 110 Lenore, J. B. 157 Lucas, Sam 36 Leonard Brothers 161 Luckett, Jimmy 25 Leslie, Lew see Blackbirds Lucky Seven Trio 75 Levy and Klein Architectural Firm Lunceford Jimmy 5, 78, 79, 81, 15, 25 84, 97, 103, 113, 115, 127 284 INDEX

Lutcher, Nellie 130, 140 Mayor of Bronzeville 80, 88, 102, Lynne, Gloria 168, 185 213, 239n142 Lymon, Frankie 180 McAfee, Johnny 185 Lyons, Dolly 160 McCall, Cash 205 Lytell, Bert 54 McCarthy, Franklin 191–2 McCarver, Bamboo 27, 34 Mabley, Jackie “Moms,” 5, 53, 90, McClennon, George 42, 55, 89, 100–2, 109, 138, 143, 167, 235n38 183, 184 McClure, Bobby 202 Mabon, Willie 151 McCormick Place 196 Mac and Duke 85 McCracklin, Jimmy 185, 203 Mack, Cecil 36 McCutcheon, Joe 31 Mack, Eddie 148 McDaniels, Gene 184 Mac, Lou 157 McDermon, Harrell see Mac and Mad Lads 204 Duke Major Bowe’s Original Amateur McDuff, Jack 208 Hour 87 McFadden, Ruth 180 Makeba, Miriam 208 McGee, Evelyn 110 Maloy, Tom 45–6 McGee, Nova Lee 103 Man About Town 83 McGriff, Jimmy 187, 201 Manhattans 203, 204, 207 McKies 196 Marbro Theater 15, 80 McKinley, Mitchell 188 Marchand (Marchan), Bobby 181, McKinney, Nina Mae 64 183, 205 McKinney’s Cotton Pickers 73, 77 March on Washington 186, 187 McKinney, Syd 137 Mar-Keys 184 McLaurin, Bette 151–2 Markham, Pigmeat 113, 181, 188, McLawler, Sarah 167, 168, 183 199, 200, 202, 207 McNeeley, Big Jay 168 Marshall and the Chi-Lites 208 McPhatter, Clyde 155, 167 Marshall Hotel 29 McShann, Jay 109, 127 Martha and the Vandellas see McVickers Theater 28 Vandellas Medlin, Joe 166 Martin, Sarah 34 Mellotones 116 Marvelettes 186, 187, 188, 202 Memphis Students 29 Mary Bruce Dancers 34 Mercury Records 210 Maryland Theater 73, 90 Meroff, Benny 30 Mason, Barbara 202 Metcalfe, Ralph 141 Mason, Frances 27 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), Mason, John 143 56, 60, 63, 64, 99, 112 Maurice and Mac 208 Metropolitan Theater 38, 39, 40, Mayer, Duncan see Savoy 70, 71, 72, 74, 95, 117, 210 Bearcats MGM see Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Mayes, Dorothy 89 Michael Todd Theater 91 Mayfield, Curtis 5 Micheaux, Oscar 71 see also Impressions Michigan Boulevard Garden Mayfield, Percy 161, 187, 188 Apartments 19–20 INDEX 285

Michigan Theater 70, 72 Moon, Mamie 33 Mickell, Jean 143 Moore, Mel 116 Mickey Mouse 89 Moreland, Mantan 160 Middleton, Velma 109 Morocco Café 77 Midwest Distributors 178 Morris, Bob “Yowse” 62 Mighty Clouds of Joy 199, 205, Morris’s Eat Shop 121, 125 209 Morrison, Helen 89 Miller, Bobby 188 Morrison, “Sunshine” Sammy 73, Miller, Flournoy 160 76, 125 Miller, Gene “Bowlegs” 184 Morris, Stevland see Wonder, Stevie Miller, Howard 178 Morton, Caroline 212 Miller, Jack 45 Morton, Norvall 31, 32 Miller and Lyles 34, 66 Moten, Bennie 73 Miller, Norma 143, 152 Motion Pictures Operators Union, Miller, Olivett 147, 185 Local 110 45 Miller Sisters 184 Motown Records 186, 187, 188 Millinder, Lucius (“Lucky”) 31, Mott, Robert 122–3 71, 72, 80, 108, 113, 127, 136 movie attendance 132–3, 176 Million Dollar Productions 56 movie run system 94–5 Mills Brothers 5, 75, 104, 113, Mr. Lucky’s 196 125, 145 MS Distributing 178 Mills, Florence 34, 60, 77 Munday, Jimmy 81 Milsap, Ronnie 204 Murphy, Love 27 Mims, Garnet and the Enchanters Murray, Bill 187, 188, 198 188 Murray, Kitty 137 Minsky’s Rialto Theater 145 Musically Speaking 178 Miracles 5, 182, 183, 186, 187, Music Corporation of America 188, 198, 199, 202, 204, 205, (MCA) 45, 69 206, 208 Musicians Union, Local 208 37, Miss Bronze America 80 71, 72, 88, 106 Miss Bronze Chicago 80 Myers, Pauline 131 Mitchell, Jimmy 113 Mitchell, Johnny see Robert and Nance, Ray 137 Johnny National Association for the Mitchell, McKinley 201 Advancement of Colored Mix, Tom 31 People (NAACP) 19, 38, Mobley, Hank 185 200, 217 Modern Jazz Quartet 182 National Association of Moke and Poke 108, 115 Manufacturers 145, 194 Moke, Fletcher see Moke and Poke National Association of Negro Monitors 204, 205 Business and Professional Monogram Theater 40 Women’s Clubs, Inc. 124 Monroe, Al 98 NBC (WNBC) radio 104, 114 Montgomery, Flick 147 Neeley, Kitty see Morton, Caroline Moody, James 166, 168, 179 Negro Chamber of Commerce of Moon Dog see Freed, Alan Chicago 144 286 INDEX

Neisner Brothers 18, 112, 116 Original Gospel Harmonettes 199 Nelson, Sally Joe 80 Orioles 105, 131, 138, 157, 160, New Ritz Theater 210 Orlons 187 Newsome, Chubby 137 Our Gang 73, 76, 89 Newsome, Della 78 Overton, Anthony 6, 51 New Southern Hotel 67 Owens, Shirley 185 New York City Opera Company Owl Theater 38, 40 114 Nicholas Brothers 5, 113, 115, Pace, Harry H. 38, 114 116, 125, 152 Page, “Hot Lips” 136 Nicholas, Harold 115 Page, Patti 157 see also Nicholas Brothers Page, William 32 Nichols, Grace 138 Palace Theater 98 Nichols, Nichelle see Nichols, Grace Palladium 147 Nightingales 199 Palm Café 178, 213 Nitti, Frank 45 Panama Café 80 Nob Hill Lounge 155 Paradise Theater 98, 111, 146 Noone, Jimmy 125 Paramount case 93–4, 95 Norma’s Dance Sensation 181 Paramount Pictures 4, 10, 26, Norman, Mary 143 43–5, 93–4, 97, 99, 132–3, Norman, Ron 143 221–2 Norton and Margot 85 see also Publix Theaters Nutmegs 158 Paramount-Publix 44–5, 59, 60, 71–2, 99, 221–2 Odell, Brooks 197 see also Paramount Pictures; Offitt, Lillian 161 Publix Theaters; United O’Jays 202 Paramount Theaters Okeh Records 61 Paramount Theater 97 Old Timer’s Regal Club 117 Paramount Theater Services Oliver, Geraldine, “Mama Gerri” Corporation 162 213 Parham, Tiny 73, 80, 86, 112 see also Gerri’s Palm Tavern Park City Bowl 128, 155 Oliver, “King” Joe 31, 60, 83 Parker, Dolores 127, 152 Oliver, William “Kid” 24 Parker, (Little) Junior 161, 179, Olympics 181, 183, 187, 205 199, 208 O’Neil Twins 209 Parker, Sonny 137 Opportunity Please Knock 207 Parkettes 202 Orchestra Hall 131, 196 Parks, Alexander C. 61 organized crime 10, 45–7, 57, Parkway Ballroom 128, 132, 191 120–3, 148–51, 222, 223 Parla, Alice 73 Oriental Theater 28, 60, 71–2, 76, Parrish, Avery 108 77, 79, 98, 132 Pate, Johnny 161 Original Blind Boys 154 Patterson and Jackson 143 Original Blind Boys of Alabama Patterson, Tom 198 199 Payola 154, 177–8, 191 see also Five Blind Boys of Alabama Peacock Records 153, 178 INDEX 287

Pearlettes 155 Powell, Dick 89 Peck “n” Peck 115, 127 Powell, Jessie 168 Pekin Theater 123 Premier Studios 120 Pelham, Jimmy 198 Presley, Elvis 159, 180 Pennies from Heaven 114 Price, Lloyd 152, 154, 184, 185, Pepper Pot Revue 77 186 Perry, Henry 61 Princess DuPaur 152 Perry, Lincoln see Stepin Fetchit Princess Wee Wee 58 Pershing Ballroom 22, 128, 191, Pringle, Conrad 147 196 Proctor’s Twenty-Third-Street Peterson, Bobby 182 Theater 29 Peterson, Oscar 146 Prohibition 46–7, 78, 120–1, 213 Peters Sisters 126 Provident Hospital 5, 7, 19, 83, Petrillo, James C. 84 150 Pettiford, Margie 110 Prude, Terrell 187 Pettiford, Oscar 145 Prysock, Arthur 143, 152, 160, Pettiford, Selita 76 161, 162, 181, 182, 183, 184 Perry Mason 114 Prysock, Red 158, 168, 181, 183 Peyton, Dave 3, 9, 27–9, 30, 31, Publix Theaters 4, 44, 45, 55, 32, 33, 35–7, 38, 41, 53, 54, 57–8, 59, 60, 63, 77, 221 55, 58, 61, 68–9, 224, 231n51, Purify, James and Bobby 205 237n80 Purrell, Eddie 206 Phelps, James 201, 202 Phillip Forte Dancers 160, 161 Quebec, Ike 143 Phillips, Little Esther 186, 197–8 see also Little Esther racial segregation 47–9, 50, 52, Phillips, Reuben 168 96, 132, 140–2, 174–7, Pickens, Albertina 34 215–16, 222, 223, 257n66 Pickett, Wilson 205 Radcliffe and Rogers 75 Pigmeat and George 152 Radiants 186, 188, 201, 202, 204 Piney Woods Country Life School radio, impact on the Regal 65–7 109–10 Radio, Keith, Orpheum (RKO) Pinkard, Maceo 36 55, 63, 70, 94, 99 Piper, Louis “Scotty” 125–6, 130 Raelets 168, 180–1, 187 Pittsburgh Courier 23, 193, 197 see also Charles, Ray Players 205 Rand, Sally (Helen Gould Beck), Plicque, Eddie 88, 116, 128 75, 77 Poke, Leon see Moke and Poke Rankey, Sadie Daemon, “Miss policy 47, 120–1, 148–51 Satchmo” 102–3 Poor Little Rich Girl 56 Ravens 105, 128, 130, 136, 143, Popkin, Harry M. 56 147, 161, 182 Pops and Louie 109 Rawls, Lou 208 see also Whitman, Albert Ray, James 184 Porgy and Bess 166 Ray, Julia 34 Poro see Turnbo-Malone, Annie Record Row 154 Minerva Pope Rector and Cooper 34, 56 288 INDEX

Rector, Eddie 56, 116 surrounding history 5–8, 15, Red and Curley 119, 127, 130 18, 19–24, 39–41, 80 Redding, Otis 199, 203, 205, see also Blewett, Ken; Balaban 260n164 and Katz (B & K); Chicago Redman, Don 81, 155 Defender, support of Regal, Reed, Jimmy 161 community and performing Reed, Leonard 77, 80, 125, 152, artists; Englestein, 155, 183, 185 Harry M. and Louis (Englestein Reed, Lulu 167, 184, 187 brothers); Fuller, Samuel B.; Reese, Della 160, 168 Lubliner and Trinz Reeves, Reuben 28, 31, 32 Regal Theater Studio Hour 65 Reevin, Sam E. 68 Rhumboogie Café 120 Regalettes 42, 61 Rhynes, Jewel 161 see also Regal Steppers Rhythm Aces see Bell, Jimmy Regal orchestra (1928) 31 Rhythm Choir 166 Regal Steppers 27, 33, 34, 42 Rhythm Rockets 85 Regal Theater Ricardo, Stan (“Ric”) 191 and authentic Black culture 8–9, Rice, Johnnie Mae 110 216–17 Richardson, Lee 127 and charitable events 8, 9, 52–5, Rich, Buddy 128 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80–1, Richmond, June 108, 113 88–9, 102, 105–6, 111, 113, Ricks, Jimmy 182 115, 116, 123, 217 Right, Quintet 27, 49 demise of 196–7, 209, 213–14 Rigsby, Ethel 83 and Depression 50, 51–2 Riley, Bud 192 historical phases 12–14, 217–23 Rimmer Sisters 119, 130 and inequality 10–12, 47, Ripperton, Minnie 184 215–16, 223–5 Ritz Café see Bottoms, Bill and market conditions 47–50, Rivera, Dave 143 93–4, 95–6, 115, 131–3, RKO see Radio, Keith, Orpheum 140–2, 145–7, 155–7, 160, RKO Palace 94 162, 163, 166, 168, 173–8, Roach, Max 145 195–6, 209–12, 223–5 Robbins, M. Renau (“Fat”) 31 opening of 24–6 Roberson, Orlando 77 and organized crime 45–7 Robert and Johnny 180 rumors of closing 72–3 Roberts, C. Luckeyth 36 significance of 1–5, 15–16, 215, Roberts, Herman 163 216–17, 224–5 Roberts Show Club (Lounge) structure and internal 163, 196 organization 15, 26–8, Robert Taylor Homes 175 30–1, 32–5, 38–9, 41–2, Robie, Don 153–4, 251n74 55–65, 69–76, 78, 86–8, 89, Robins Nest 196 90–1, 97, 99, 115–16, Robinson, Bill “Bojangles” 5, 31, 117–18, 135–6, 138, 142, 34, 53, 54, 58, 64, 112, 121, 151, 162–5, 188–90, 209, 235n37 210–12, 221–3 Robinson, Clarence 152 INDEX 289

Robinson, Fenton 208 Santamaria, Mongo 187–8 Robinson, Frank “Sugar Chile,” Saperstein, Abe 24 127, 147 Saunders, Dick 85 Robinson, Smokey see Miracles Saunders, Red 130, 161, 168, Robinson, “Sugar” Ray 155 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, Rochelle and the Candles 183 186, 187, 188, 197, 198, 199, Rochester Philharmonic Symphony 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 114 206 Rodgers, Marshall 27, 31, 33, 62, Saunders, Vincent 73 70, 78 Saunders, Warner 121–2, 125 Roe, Theodore 121–2, 149–50 Savage, Al 157 Rogers, Lee 201 Savoyager 23 Rogers, Timmie 89, 105, 137, Savoy Ballroom (Chicago) 1, 4, 147 17, 21–4, 38, 41, 49, 53, 60, Rollins, Charlemae Hill 5–6 61, 68, 69, 71, 73, 80–1, 83, Roosevelt Theater 91 88, 93, 97, 102, 112, 123, Rose Bowl 128 125, 128, 216, 217, 247n133 Rosenwald Building 19–21 Savoy Ballroom Corporation 22 see also Michigan Boulevard Savoy Ballroom (Harlem) 21, Garden Apartments 30–1, 90, 104 Rosenwald, Julius 18, 19–21 Savoy Bearcats 21 Rosenwald, Morris 18 Savoy Big Five 24 Ross, Jackie 199, 201, 202, 204 Saxton, Bobby 179 Royal Creolians 80 Sayer, Janet 131 Royalettes 203 Sayre, Janet 152 Royal Flush Orchestra 61 Schultz, Dutch 121 Royal Theater 111, 146, Scott, Arthur 31 253n128 Scott, Fredie 197 Roy, Rob (Robert), 139, 151, 163 Scott, James 36 Ruby and the Romantics 188, 197 Scott, Joe 188, 199, 201, 202 Ruffin, David 208 Scott, Little Jimmy 181, 183, 187 Ruffin, Jimmy 204 Scott, Mabel 130, 131, 143, Running Wild 38 144, 152 Rushing, James (Jimmy) 99, 105, Screeno, at Regal 80 108 Scruggs, Irene 55–6 Russell, Luis 116, 127 Sears and Roebuck 18, 19 Russell, Nipsey 152, 162, 167 See, Hilda 158–9 Rutledge and Taylor 34 Sengstacke Enterprises 197 Ryland, Floyd 157 Sengstacke, John H. 8, 193, 223 Sensations 161, 184 Saine, Helen 110 Seymour, Ann 54 Sam and Billy 204 Sharpees (Sharpies) 203, 204 Sam and Dave 204 Shaw, Artie 81, 83, 114 Sam and Henry 66 Shaw, Joan 161, 182 Samuels, William Everett 37–8 Shearing, George 138 Sanders of the River 79 Shells 182 290 INDEX

Shep and the Limelites 183, 184, Smythe, Jay 143, 160 202 Snow, Valaida 76, 103 Sheppards (Shepards) 181, 182, Snyder, Isidore 22 183, 184 Socarras, Alberto 152 Sherman Antitrust Act 93–5 social class and entertainment 35–8 Shirelles 182, 183, 184, 185, Soldiers Field 157, 196, 200 188, 199 Soul Crusaders 206, 207 Shirley and Lee 180 Soul Sisters 199, 200, 201, 203 Show Boat Café 73 Soul Stirrers 198, 209 Shubert Theaters 63, 138 South Center Amateur Hour 87 Shuffle Along 38, 78, 114 South Center Department Store and Sibley and Epps 34 Commercial Complex 1, 4, 8, Sidewalks of New York 27 17–19, 25, 87, 116, 123, 164, Sidney, Wilbur see El Sid’s Trianon 165, 192, 193, 194, 195, 197, Ballroom 216, 221 Silverstein, Joseph 67 South, Eddie 75 Simmons, Hamp 183 South Parkway Building Simmons, Little Mac 179 Corporation 164 Simms Twins 184 South Side Community Art Center Simon, Joe 206 138 Simpkins, Arthur Lee “Georgia South, Wesley 192 Boy” 116, 141 Spaniels 156, 157, 160, 161, 162, Simpson, Cass 73 180, 184 Sinclair and Leroy 105 Spanier, Mugsy 90 Singer, Hal 147, 152 Spann, Pervis 192, 206, 210, Sissle, Noble 115 211 Six Caulfields 136 Spaulding, Marvis Louis see Louis, Six Red Hots 27 Marva Skinner, Fred 80 Spaulding, Norm 129 Skoller, Bennie see Swingland Café Spellbinders 206 Skyliners 168 Spence Twins 168 Smart Affairs 131, 147, 148, 152, “Spend Your Money Where You 155–6, 161 Can Work” campaign 52 Smith, Al 161 Spider Club 196 Smith, Alma 76, 77 Spinners 105, 184, 199, 201, 203, Smith, Chris 36 205, 206 Smith, Dottie 168 Stagehand Union, Local 2 46 Smith, Eric 207 Stahl, John M. 78 Smith, Eunice S. 22 Stansbury, Johnnie Mae 110 Smith, Floyd 108 Staple Singers 199, 203, 206 Smith, Huey P. and the Clowns 168 Starks, Robert 188–9 Smith, Jimmy 167, 168 Starlets 184 Smith, Johnny 182 Starr, Edwin 204, 205 Smith Leonard 31 Starr, Jean 113 Smith, LeRoy 75 Starr, Milton 67–8 Smith, Tab 161 State and Lake Theater 79, 97 INDEX 291

Staton, Dakota 161, 164, 167, Tatum, Art 146 168, 198 Taylor, Bobby and the Vancouvers Steele, Larry 131, 147, 148, 152, 208 155–6, 160, 161, 162 Taylor, Jasper 31 Stein, Jules 45 Taylor, Jimmie 152 Stepin Fetchit 113 Taylor, Little Johnny 198, 201, 206 Stewart, Billy 202, 204, 205 Taylor, Matthew 71 Stewart, Dink 34 Taylor, Sam 143 Stewart, Sammy 22, 27 Taylor, Ted 161, 183, 198, 201, Still, William Grant 113–15 202 Stitt, Sonny 160, 167, 182 technological change and popular Stone, Jessie 111 entertainment 39–40, 84, Stormy Weather 112, 113–14 139–40, 141–2, 210, 224 Strawberry and Julia 148 teenage market and the Regal street gangs and the Regal 212 209–10, 223 see also Black Stone Rangers Temptations 5, 105, 199, 201, Stroll 48–9 202, 204, 205 Stump and Stumpy 102, 136, 146, Terrell, Ernie and the Heavy 152, 168, 186 Weights 202, 203 Sullivan, Maxine 137 Terrell, Tammie 203, 204 Sunset Café 57, 61 Texettes 208 Sutherland Lounge (Hotel) 196 Tex, Joe 201, 202, 205, 208 Swain, Julian 181 Tharpe, “Sister” Rosetta 108, 113, Swallows 148 115 Swanee Quintet 199, 204 theater circuits 97–9, 146–7, 164, Swan Silvertones 199, 204 167, 176, 177, 178–9, 221–2, Sweetman, Wilbur 27, 36, 38 253n128, 261n178 “Sweet Papa Garbage” 62 Theater Owners Booking see also Rodgers, Marshall Association (T.O.B.A.) 41, Swift, Carrie 27 55, 57, 58, 67–8, 72, 100 Swinging Rays of Rhythm 110 theatrical workforce, factors Swingland Café 46, 85, 98, 120 affecting 46–7, 67, 82, 97–8, Syncopeyton Symphonist 42 120, 146–7, 164, 224 see also Peyton, Dave The Club 196 The Exile 71 Tahitian Thrill Dancers see Jose Thigpen, Helen 166 and Dana Thomas, Carla 183 Take a Look 206–7 Thomas, Irma 180, 198 Talman Federal Savings and Loan Thomas, James (musician) 32 197 Thomas, James (singer) 208 Tamla Records 187 Thomas, Joe 136 see also Motown Records Thomas, Leon 167, 168 Tams 186, 198, 199, 201 Thomas, Maceo 34 Tate, Erskine 7, 27, 40, 61, 80 Thomas, Peggy Hart 143, 147 Tate, Howard 205, 206 Thomas, Rufus 187 Tate, John 131 Thompson, Alice 75 292 INDEX

Thompson, Sonny 167 Turner, Ernest see Two Zephyrs Thompson, Ulysses S. “Slow Kid” Turner, Ike and Tina 182 77 Turner, Robert 31 Thornton, Lestine see Fuller, Lestine Turner, Sammy 181 Thornton, Willie Mae “Big Mama” Turner, Titus 161 154 TV Mama 202 Three Browns 85 TV shows, Black oriented 141 Three Bye Sisters 105 Twentieth Century Fox 56, 63, Three Chocolateers see 94, 99, 112 Chocolateers 20th Century Theater 39, 40 Three Eddies 34 Two Black Dots (Taylor and Three Giants of Rhythm 85 Johnson) 33 Three Gobs 55, 75 Two Zephyrs 89, 160 Three Loose Nuts 108 Tyler, Jimmy 147 Three Midnight Steppers 54 Tymes 198 Three Rhythm Kings 161 Tympani Five 90, 143, 168 Three Riffs 155 see also Jordan, Louis Three Rockets 130 Tynes, Gwen 128 Three Stooges see Healy, Ted Tyson, Clay 160, 188, 198, 199, Thunder, Johnny 187, 199 202 Til, Sonny 160 Tip, Tap, and Toe 130, 136 United Artists 94, 242n18 Tisdale, Clarence 33 United Paramount Theaters 94, Tivoli Theater 15, 90, 115–16, 135, 222 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, Universal Pictures 94, 242n18 167, 168, 178–9, 196, 222, 223 Upsetters 182 Toilet Goods Association 145 Uptown Theater 15–16 Tolbert, Frances Cole 62 ushers at Regal Theater 88, 117, Tom and Jerrio 202 188–9 Tondelayo and Lopez 102 Tops and Wilda 136 Valentine, Patience 187 Topsy, Tiny 183 Vandellas 187, 188, 198, 201, 202 Tower Theater 73 Vashonettes 184, 185, 186 Travis, Dempsey 227n1 vaudeville 40–1, 55, 57, 63, 68, Trianon Ballroom 22, 78, 156, 75, 98, 100 157, 196, see also Theater Owners Booking see also El Sid’s Trianon Ballroom Association Tropicana Revue 152 Vaughan, Sarah 113, 127, 130, Troubled Island 114 141, 144, 155, 156, 157, 166 Troy, Doris 188 Vee Jay Records 154, 178 Tucker, “Snake Hips” 54 Velvelettes 201 Tucker, Sophie 114 Vendome Theater 39, 40 Tulane Theater Company 18 Vendome Theater Orchestra 61 Turnbo-Malone, Annie Minerva Venerable, Percy 27 Pope 123, 124, 228n13 Ventura, Charles 128 Turner, “Big Joe” 143, 155, 160, vertical integration in the movie 181, 184 industry 43–4 INDEX 293

Vibrations 180, 181, 184, 186, Washington, George Dewey 31, 187, 197, 198, 199, 201, 202, 55, 59–60, 236n57 203, 204, 205, 208 Washington, Harold 125 Victor Records 104 Washington, Justine “Baby” 168, Vidor, King 64 183, 187, 199, 201 Vincent, Ida Mae 27, 85–6 Washington Park community Vincent, Ted 38 95–6, 173–4, 175 Vinson, Eddie “Clean Head” 128, Washington, William see Two 155 Zephyrs Virtue, Frank 167 Waters, Ethel 4, 78, 79, 84, 99, 112 Vivian G. Harsh Collection 5 Waters, Muddy 198 Vontastics 205 Watson, Ivory “Deek” (Deacon) 104, 116 WAAF radio 129 Watson, Paula 130 Wade, Jimmy 27 Watts, Georgia 27 Walgreen Drug Company 18 Waugh, Robert 31 Walker College of Beauty Culture WBU radio 65 123, 162 WCFL radio 73 Walker, James see Chuck and Weaver, “Speedy” 85 Chuckles Webb, Chick 5, 83, 89, 90 Walker, Junior and the All-Stars Webb Singers 153 201, 202, 203, 204, 207 WEBH radio 66 Walker, Madame C. J. 8, 123–4, Webster, Paul 143 141, 228n13 Wells, Ida 113 Walker, T-Bone 116, 153 Wells, Jean 207, 208 Walk Over Shoe Company 18 Wells, Mary 183, 186, 188, 198, Waller, Fats 56, 84, 89, 90, 97, 199, 211 106, 113 Wendell Phillips High School 7 Wanderers 161, 184 WERD radio 141 Ward, Aida 54 Westinghouse Corporation 65 Warner Brothers 71, 72, 94, 99, Weston, Kim 188, 203, 205 117 WGES radio 129, 191 Warner Brothers Circuit WGN radio 66, 80 Management Corporation WHFC radio 191 94–5, 117 White, Beverly 137 Warren, Vera 88 White City Ballroom 22 Warwick, Dee Dee 202, 204, 205 White expropriation and control of Warwick, Dionne 187, 198, 199, Black cultural forms 29, 68–9, 201 81–2, 106–7, 113–14, 225 Warwick Hall 37, 81 White, Josh 137 Washington, Booker T. 110 White, Josh, Jr. 137 Washington, Baby see Washington, Whiteman, Paul 30, 31, 114 Justine “Baby” White, Slappy 148, 160, 166, 168, Washington, Bernadine C. 192 179, 185 Washington, Dinah 5, 7, 112, 127, Whitman, Alberta (Bert), 58 128, 130, 136, 148, 155, 180 Whitman, Albert (“Pops”) 58 Washington, Fredi 78, 84 Whitman, Albery Allson 58 294 INDEX

Whitman, Alice 58, 59 WIND radio 87, 178 Whitman, Essie 58 Witherspoon, Jimmy 187, 188, 199 Whitman, Mabel 58, 59 WJJD radio 129 Whitman Sisters 4, 57–9, 75, 104 WJW radio 177 Whitman, Walt 58 WMAQ radio 65, 66, 178 WIBO radio 65, 236n71 women musicians and jazz bands Wilcox, Earl 121 75–6, 83, 102–3, 113, 115, Willard Theater 40 238n119 William Morris Agency 162 see also International Sweethearts Williams, Billy 180 of Rhythm Williams, Birdie 24 Wonder, Stevie 5, 186–7, Williams, Clarence 36 204, 208 Williams, Clyde 208 Wong Sisters 136 Williams, Cootie 107, 115, 116, Wong, Willie Mae 110 119, 127, 128, 136, 148, 155 Wood, Brenton 206 Williams, Daniel Hale 5 Wooding, Russell 33 Williams, Edna 110, 115 Woodson, Carter G. 5 Williams, Gladys 131 Woods (Wood), Sonny 89, 102, Williams, Irene 143 109 Williams, Joe 112, 125, 136, 138, Woolridge, Karla Jean 138 161, 181 World Storage Battery Company 67 Williams, Larry 182 Worthy and Thompson 54 Williams, Mary Lou 83, 108 Wright, Arthur 31, 32 Williams, Midge 99 Wright, Carl 203, 207, 208 Williamson, Herman 209 Wright, Myron 86, 93, 240n170 Williamson, “Sonny Boy” 162, Wright, O. V. 203 182 Wright, Walter 32 Williams, Paul “Hucklebuck” 137 Wright, Walter “Toots” 24 Williams, Sammy 3–4, 31, 32, 34, Wrigley Field 131 53, 61, 70, 88, 89 WSBC radio 67 Williams, Stanley “Fess” 21, 27, WVON radio 191–3, 200, 210, 30–1, 32, 33, 38, 41, 61, 63, 212, 220 72, 77, 153 WYN-R radio 191 Williams, “Uke” Bob 41 Williams, Willie, and Wright 206 Yordan, Philip 131 Will Mastin Trio 137, 155, 163 Young, Lester (“Prez”) 146, see also Davis, Sammy, Jr. 155, 156 Wilson, Derby 128, 160 Young, Whitney 194 Wilson, Eunice 77 Wilson, Flip 5, 184, 187, 188, Zanzi Beauts 153 197, 199, 202 Zephyrs see Two Zephyrs Wilson, Jackie 161, 167, 180, Ziegfield Follies 33 202, 203, 207, 209, 253n121 Zollinger, Muriel 27, 85–6 Wilson, Jesse 33 Zoot Suit 126, 130, 246n112 Winburn, Anna Mae 109, 110 Zukor, Adolph 43–4