CORAL REEF BENTHIC SURVEYS OF TARAWA AND ABAIANG ATOLLS REPUBLIC OF KIRIBATI

Ed Lovell Consultant

August 2000 SOPAC Technical Report 310

by

Edward R. Lovell Biological Consultants, Fiji and The South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC)

in conjunction with

Ribaanataki Awira Toaea Beitateuea Taratau Kirata of the Fisheries Division The Department of Natural Resource Development Kiribati

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[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [3]

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION...... 5

METHODS Field Program...... 5 Data Analysis ...... 6 Specimen Collection and Identification ...... 6

DESCRIPTION OF CORAL REEFS...... 7 Location of Surveys ...... 9 Tarawa Atoll ...... 14 Abaiang Atoll Coral Reefs...... 34 Summary Transect Information ...... 50

SPECIES DIVERSITY Coral Collection...... 51 Sponge Collection ...... 57 Biogeography...... 58

ISSUES Coral Harvesting ...... 75 Channel Creation ...... 77 Global Warming ...... 78 Crown-of-Thorns Starfish...... 80 Pollution...... 81 Foreshore Development ...... 81

DISCUSSION...... 82 Current State...... 82

RECOMMENDATIONS Survey and Monitoring Program ...... 82 Capacity Building ...... 82 Information Systems...... 82 Catalogue of Reefs and Organisms ...... 83 Fisheries Division Coral Reef Library ...... 83 Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) ...... 84 Marine Protected Areas ...... 84

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 84

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Chart of the EEZ’s of the Pacific Islands with Republic of Kiribati highlighted...... 8 2 The Gilbert or Tungaru Islands ...... 8 3 Bathymetric chart of the Gilbert group...... 10 4 Manta tow samples at Tarawa and Abaiang atolls ...... 11 5 Sites that were sampled at Tarawa Atoll...... 12 6 Chart of Tarawa with the numerical desginations of the sample locations...... 13 7 Manta tow survey of the living and dead coral cover off Bikenibeu...... 15 8 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled off Bikenibeu at 3 m ...... 16 9 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled off Bikenibeu at 10 m...... 17 10 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled off Ambo at 3 m ...... 18 11 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled off Ambo at 10 m ...... 19 12 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled off Bairiki at 3 m...... 21 13 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled off Bairiki at 10 m...... 22 14 Two Manta tow surveys of the living and dead coral cover off Bairiki...... 23 15 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled off the northern reef 3 m...... 24 16 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms s ampled off the northern reef 10 m...... 25 17 Manta tow survey of the living and dead coral cover on the seaward reef...... 25 18 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled at the seaward slope of the northwestern reef at 3 m...... 26 19 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled at the seaward slope of the northwestern reef at 10 m...... 27 20 The coral reef environment of Tarawa...... 30 21 The coral reef environment of Abaiang...... 32 22 Chart of Abaiang showing bathymetry and the sampled localities ...... 34 23 Sites sampled at Abaiang Atoll...... 35 24 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled at the seaward reef off the southern tip at 3 m...... 37 25 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled at the seaward reef off the southern tip at 10 m ...... 38 26 Manta tow surveys of the living and dead coral cover on the southern seaward reef slope...... 38 27 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled at the seaward reef off Bolton Passage at 3 m...... 39 28 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled at the seaward reef off Bolton Point at 10 m...... 40 29 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled at the western reef at 3 m ...... 42 30 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled off the western seaward slope at 10 m ...... 43 31 Manta tow surveys of the living and dead coral cover on the western seaward slope...... 43 32 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled off the western seaward slope at 3 m...... 44 33 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled off the seaward slope at Eke I. at 10 m ...... 45 34 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled off the northwestern seaward reef slope at 3 m...... 46 35 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled off the northwestern seaward reef slope at 10 m ...... 47 36 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled off the northern seaward slope at 3 m...... 48 37 Manta tow surveys of the living and dead coral cover on the northern seaward reef slope (Site F)...... 49 38 Percentage coverage of the benthic forms sampled off the northern seaward reef slope at 10 m ...... 49 39 Summary table of percentage coverage of benthic forms...... 50 40 Details of the reference coral collection stored at the Fisheries Division at Tanaea...... 51-56 41 Details of the sponge coral collection stored at the Fisheries Division at Tanaea ...... 57-58 42 Comparison of the coral diversity at Tarawa and Abaiang with other Pacific locations ...... 59-74

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

The South Pacific Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) in conjunction with the Department of Natural Resource Development proposed a consultancy with the following objectives:

1) Survey the coral and algal benthos with respect to their abundance and distribution on the coral reefs on the atolls of Tarawa and Abaiang. The taxonomy of Scleractinian corals is described with respect to a reference collection and regional species distribution. Compilation of a sponge collection.

2) Consider the general health of the coral reef.

3) Train fisheries staff in the survey methods used for corals and data analysis.

4) Develop a fisheries database for corals in data analysis and monitoring.

5) Submit a report on the findings of the survey.

6) Additional points to the original project plan:

a) the deployment of three temperature loggers with a fourth to be deployed by the Fisheries Division.

b) special emphasis on two areas where channel creation has been proposed.

c) explanation of consequences of coral extraction for the curio or aquarium trade.

The report describes the general coral reef environments of Tarawa and Abaiang atolls. An assessment of the distribution and abundance of coral reef types and their composition is made. Reference is made as to the dominant species. Collected reference material is described in the context of Central and South Pacific coral fauna. A bibliography of taxonomic references for hard coral, sponges and general coral reef biota is compiled. Discussion and recommendations for the channel blasting, extraction for the live and curio coral trade are included. The summary report will be integrated into the GIS based work undertaken by SOPAC.

Participants from the Fisheries Division’s Coral Reef Monitoring Team were:

Ribanataaki Awira (Project leader) Taratau Kirata Toaea Beitateuea

2.0 METHODS

2.1 Field Program

The project conducted training of the Fisheries Division’s Coral Reef Monitoring team in the AIM’S Reef Monitoring Data Entry System (ARMDES), which employs an ACCESS database analysis and graphic display. The training involved a hands-on approach to instruction involving the implementation of the diving survey program. Post-fieldwork involved the discussion of field techniques and data entry.

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A reference collection of hard coral (order: Scleractinia) was made (150 specimens) with non- scleractinian specimens of Millepora spp. (Hydrozoa) Heliopora coerulea (Alcyonaria) and coralline algae included. A reference collection of sponges was preserved for further study.

A database was provided for the organization of the coral reference collection.

The first stage of the program involved the survey of Tarawa Atoll with the second portion a similar survey of Abaiang Atoll. Fieldwork was facilitated by the Fisheries Division providing two boats. The assistance rendered by the Blackpearl Project was very helpful and greatly facilitated work in Abaiang.

Reconnaissance was made by manta towing and the line transect method employed at 3m and 10m depths at selected localities. All sampling sites are located by GPS. Aerial photography was used to define the broad habitat zonation.

The survey techniques follow the general methodology as detailed in Survey M anual for Tropical Marine Resources (English et al. 1997). The AIMS Reef Monitoring and Data Entry System (ARMDES) employing the line transect and manta tow methods was used (Marsh, Bradbury and Reichelt 1984, De Vantier et. al., 1985). The methods were adapted to the survey of general marine benthos following Done (1989, 1991), Lovell and Toloa (1994), and Lovell (1997). Qualitative information from the field survey was incorporated into the report.

2.2 Data Analysis

Line transect data was processed by the Australian Institute of Marine Science Reef Monitoring Data Entry System (ARMDES) Version 1.1 modified for coral species. The data resides in a run-time Microsoft Access database. All line transects are compiled as data tables and linked to a sample table. This sample table provides information about the line transect (reef name, location, date, environmental information, etc.). The data is presented as output from the ARMDES program as tables and graphs.

2.3 Specimen Collection and Identification

Coral was collected for reference and display. Specimens were collected and tagged with information describing their locality, depth, date of collection and other relevant details. They were bleached clean in a 5% solution of granulated pool chlorine (sodium hypochlorite). The corals were then washed, dried and catalogued in a Dbase 4 database, which is suitable for cataloguing other phyla as well.

Specialist reference texts provided identification (see 5.1 Coral Collection).

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3.0 DESCRIPTION OF CORAL REEFS

The atolls of Tarawa and Abaiang are two out of 16 that comprise the Gilbert (Tungaru) Group. Geographically, the group forms the western margin of the Central Pacific Basin as coral reefs perched on seamounts. Politically, the group is the western extent of the Republic of Kiribati. The main group is positioned collectively between Long. 173.10 E. and Long. 1770 E. with the outlier Banaba I. (169.5 0 E Long.; 0.50 S Lat.) and between approx. 50N and 010 S Lat. Tarawa and Abaiang are located in the northerly part of the group between Lat. 010 19’ 27.5” N and Lat. 010 58’ 20” N, with Tarawa having a north/south axis of approximately of 35 km and 28 km for Abaiang Atoll. Tarawa is triangular in shape with its southern margin 30 km long. Tarawa Atoll has 64 low coral islands along its south and eastern rim with passages, which dry or are shallow at low water, between them. The southern islands are connected by causeways. Abaiang is 13.8 km wide along its northern margin and has 31 low islands. Along the eastern rim there is a single long continuous island with no passages. The total area of the islands on each atoll are 20 km2 and 28 km2, respectively. The reef perimeter of Tarawa is 107 km2 and Abaiang is 102 km2. The lagoon area for Tarawa is 375 km2 and that for Abaiang is approximately 225 km2 or 40% smaller (From Maragos and Holthus, 1999).

The Tarawa lagoon is open to the west with the reefs of the western perimeter permanently submerged. There is a deeper channel entering the shallow lagoon to the southwest. The elongated Abaiang lagoon is enclosed with 10 passages on its leeward margin. There are many reefs within each atoll lagoon. Both lagoons are shallowest on the eastern and southern margins where the patch reefs are subject to a high degree of siltation and low coral diversity. The lagoons deepen to the east where the coral species numbers and coverage increases.

The sample areas are described in the following sections.

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3.1 Locations of surveys

The following locations were sampled reef areas using both the ARMDES line transect and manta tow methods. On the Tarawa and Abaiang charts, the line transect locations are depicted by numbered circles, manta tows by circled uppercase letters, with a line denoting the manta tow orientation.

SITE LOCATION* 15 Central lagoonal patch reef 16 Lagoon site Tarawa: Eastern Coral Reefs 17 Eastern inshore 18 Eastern inshore lagoon SITE 19 Eastern lagoon 1 Windward (Eastern) Margin of the South Tarawa Atoll Abaiang Atoll Coral Reefs: Eastern Coral Reefs South Coast Coral Reefs 20 Seaward of Taburao Village 2 Bikenibeu Reef a) 3 m Southeast Reefs b) 10 m 21 Southern Seaward Reefs a) 3 m C Bikenibeu b) 10 m 3 Ambo Reef a) 3 m G Southern Abaiang b) 10 m 22 Seaward of Bolton Point a) 3 m B Ambo b) 10 m 4 Station off Mary’s Hotel 23 Bolton Channel 5 Bairiki Reef: a) 3 m a) 3 m b) 10 m b) 10 m 24 Bingham channel 25 Western lagoon reef A Bairiki 26 Eastern inshore patch reefs

Northern Tarawa Reefs Western 6 Northern reef: Site 1 27 Western seaward slope a) 3 m a) 3 m b) 10 m b) 10 m

D Northwest E West seaward margin

7 Northern reef: Site 2 28 South of Eke I. channel, seaward a) 3 m a) 3 m b) 10 m b) 10 m 29 Northwest reef adjacent to Nuotea Tarawa Lagoon Environment Village. 8 Central south reef patch a) 3 m 9 Reef east of Bikeman Rf. b) 10 m 10 Apaneuea or Bikeman I. 11 Bikeman I. Northern 12 Bairiki Reef: lagoonal 30 Northwest reef 13 Northeast of Bikeman 14 Central lagoon patch reef F Northern Reef

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3.2 Tarawa Atoll

3.2.1 Tarawa: Eastern Coral Reefs

3.2.1a) Windward (Eastern) Margin of the South Tarawa Atoll. Site 1 (Lat. 010 23’42” N; Long. 1730 08’ 18” E). The site is located east of Tanaea I. It is seaward of and in-line with the boat channel as it traverses the reef flat. The areas examined were the reef flat, the spur and groove area and the seaward reef slope. The general profile is a reef flat, which dries on spring low tides, being margined by a spur and groove system of 50-100 m in width. The reef flat extending from the shore to the surf zone has little physical relief with abundant turfed algae. There is an inshore zone with a myriad of small littorinid snails feeding on the green filamentous algae. This featureless flat breaks up into shallow channels as the surf zone is encountered. This deepens seaward into vertical sided channels, which meander into deeper water.

The areas are subject to oceanic swells from the easterly direction. These swells originate from distant storms or are the result of the prevailing trade winds. As a result of the wave action, the reef margin has a pronounced spur and groove system. Coralline algae is the prominent substrate, forming the main buttress with encrusting and stunted corals evident on the surface. As the grooves extend seaward from the reef flat, they descend 4-5 m abruptly forming narrow passages (1-3 m wide). Dominant species in this area are Pocillopora eydouxi, P. verrucosa and Acropora nana. The latter is abundant in the buttress area ranging between 18-25 colonies per metre. These channels shallow with depth terminating in a more uniform reef terrace (5-7 m deep). This is characterized by massive colonies of Platygyra spp., Porites spp. and Lobophyllia sp. The reef slope extends downward with a slope of 10-150 roughly 100m from the surf zone. At 10-15 m, the reef slope descends more abruptly, inclining at 300, as a talus or rubble-like slope with few corals inhabiting the loose substrate at greater depth. At 20 m, patches of sand can be seen.

The reef slope surface is uneven with mounds and ledges. The diversity of the area is high. The coral colonies are generally small relative to the more protected reefs of the southwest (Bairiki) or the northwest seaward reef. The colony size increases with depth to the edge of the shelf being protected from wave action. Tabulate colonies are common with some of the larger colonies manifest as dense plates, reflecting the current and swell effects. At 5 m depth, common species were Acropora monticulosa, A. hyacinthus, Porites lutea, Platygyra spp., and Hydnophora microconos. The normally hemispherical Porites colonies (1-1.5 m) exhibited a tabulate growth form. Oddly, the very common Heliopora present in more sheltered environments were much less common.

The coral assemblage is conspicuous for the lack of Acropora diversity, which is present only as A. humilis and A. monticulosa and the plates of A. hyacinthus and A. clathrata. Many colonies of zooanthids are present. The remainder of the substrate was micro-algae with the exception of Halimeda sp.

Visual estimates of the living cover offshore are 30 % live coral and 15 % Heliopora at a depth of 7m. In some areas the coral cover is high (>75 %). Of which 10 % are Montipora sp., 20 % Porites sp., 20 % tabulate Acropora, 20 % Pocillopora eydouxi and P. verrucosa. Dead coral is >10 %. Soft corals were absent. At the beginning of the buttresses, the live and dead coral cover was equivalent at 50 %. Closer to the vigorous surf zone, the living coral cover decreases to <30 % and the coral rock substrate 50 %. The tops of the ridges are characterized by few and scattered coral colonies. These are largely encrusting or small, robust colonies due to the strong wave action. Coralline algae or fine turfed algae cover the non-coral areas.

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3.2.2.3 Station off Mary’s Hotel Site 4 (Lat. 10 19’ 45” N; Long. 1720 58’E) This area was not formally surveyed but observations were recorded and visual estimates made. It is an inshore site and located to the east (1 km) of the surveyed site (KIFD0004). Observations were made of the reef flat, spur and groove area and the ridges as they extend to depth. The site is semi-protected during the period of prevailing winds and swell. Surf does break on the reef but not with the force or size of the eastern margin. These reefs are often covered with dense Sargassum spp.

The reef flat extends 500 m seaward from the causeway. There are large patches of colonial zoanthids from the causeway wall to the seaward portion of the flat as it begins to slope to the reef edge. They are more numerous in the inshore area, with silt and sand partially covering the zoanthids. Large colonies of Caulerpa sertularioides are present. Large ophiuroids are present in the mid-flat area with arms extending as the tide is coming in. A Padina and zoanthid zone extends parallel to the sea margin. Enteromorpha intestinalis is abundant. The algae Actinotrichia replaces the Padina zone and extends to the reef edge. Caulerpa racemosa occurs in this seaward zone. The reef flat is elevated or subject to aerial exposure and sun, with little physiographic relief. Few tide pools are present. The reef flat biota is largely Actinotrichia, Caulerpa, Padina and zoanthids.

The reef flat has an abrupt margin as it drops away into the channels. These are often undercut and fall 2 m to a sandy channel floor. The spur and groove system is well developed but not as extensive as that on the eastern margin. The grooves are largely coralline algal covered on the surface with few corals present. Dislodged boulders on a sand floor characterize the bottom. The power of the surf is reduced by the nature of the intermittent shallow and deeper water. These grooves are corridors for sand migrating off the reef flat into the deeper waters. Hard corals become progressively more numerous as the ridge buttresses descend to depth. The reef slope in this area is steeper (20-300) than the eastern slope (10- 150).

There is substantial turbidity in the surf zone due to the silt/sand being re-suspended. The subtidal channels meander initially but then descend to depth. Heliopora and P. verrucosa exist in the surge channels which has 15 % coral cover as they drop to 2 m. The area is characterized by Favites russeli, Platygyra sp., P. woodjonesi, colonial coralliomorphs and zoanthida. P. woodjonesi exist with P. eydouxi but may be a morph of that. At 4 m on the submerged spurs, P. verrucosa is 30 % and dominant. Symphyllia sp. is present. Growth forms of A. hyacinthus and A. clathrata are fused in the center with branchlets of little relief. At 5 m, coral cover is abundant with P. rus 75 % to 90 % cover. Large colonies of Hynophora rigida are present as the ridges that flatten out at 15 m. The coral assemblage in this part of the reef is unique with large colonies (1 m diam.) of Plerogyra sinuosa. Also present are large Porites heads.

A visual inspection of the substrate cover revealed a similar pattern at the Tanaea site. There is < 10 % coral cover on the reef spurs with it mostly colonized by coralline algae. The buttresses had 50 % coverage of coral and algae. The nature of the slope differed from the eastern slope by the dominance of large Porites rus colonies and the common presence of Heliopora coerulea in the 5-10 m zone.

3.2.2.4 Bairiki Reef: seaward Site 5 (Lat. 010 19’ 27.5”N; Long. 1720 58’18”E) Transects KIFD0003@ 3 m and KIFD0004 @ 10 m. a) The shallow 3m site was characterized by 33 % hard coral with a low Acropora component of 0.17 % as opposed to a non-Acropora coverage of 32.83 %. The coralline algal component

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3.2.4 Tarawa Lagoon Environment

The atoll islands and reef rim borders the lagoon to the south and east, with the lagoon open to the sea along its westerly margin. Sub- and inter-tidal reef recurves southwest from the northern tip providing a limited northern perimeter. The western reefs are largely submerged.

The lagoon is generally shallow ranging in depth from 3-10 metres. Its bathymetry is variable centrally but shallow on the island lined east and southern margins and in most of the northern area behind the reef recurving from the northern island. Within the lagoon are patches of reef that are intertidal though much of the lagoonal coral reef areas are subtidal.

The coral patches vary in size from tens of metres to substantial portions of reef, 2 km in length (usually north-south axis) and generally 500 m in width.

The eastern leeward margin is characterized by a broad sandy reef flat extending 800 metres in the southern area from Biketawa I. to Bonriki I. This is >2 km off Kainaba and Tabonibara I. and along the central atoll rim to Tebangaroi and Nuatabu in the north. The sandy reef flats compare with the southern margins of the atoll but are less in extent, generally approximating 500 m in width.

3.2.4.1 Station 1: Central, south reef patch Site 8 (Lat. 010 23’11.38”N; Long. 1720 59’ 55.76”E). The reef area is located in the mid-lagoon between Tanaea I. and Bikeman I. It is characterized by a sand and rubble substrate that is covered with mixed turfed algae. Diatoms and a yellow alga is present. Only very small Porites colonies are evident. The substrate is mobile through the surface wave action. Smothering by silt is evident on some coral colonies.

3.2.4.2 Station 2: Reef east of Bikeman Rf. Site 9 (Lat. 010 23’ 11.38N, Long. 1720 59’ 55.76”E). Coralline algae covers the rubble with 5% Turbinaria algae and other brown algae present. There are so few colonies of Porites, Pocillopora damicornis, Astreopora sp. and fragments of Acropora. Some larger colonies of Porites (< 45 cm) occur but are mostly dead. Coral cover is <1%.

3.2.4.3 Station 3: Apaneuea or Bikeman I. Site 10 (Lat. 010 23’ 02.09N; Long. 1720 59’ 15.82”E) Logger was deployed under the east leg of the Bikeman beacon. The habitat is wholly sandy near the cay. The area to the south of the cay is mobile sand with a steep margin extending onto a sand bottom at 4 m. The area is devoid of coral due to the mobile substrate.

3.2.4.4 Station 4: Bikeman I. Site 11 (Lat. 010 23’ 01N; Long. 1720 59’ 15.82”E). The southwest corner comprises a sand flat. The border of the island has a steep sided sand slope that descends abruptly from the intertidal sand flat. The sand that compromised the island had now been eroded as the result of the construction of the causeway. Abundant Strombus luhanus and holothurians occur on the sand flat.

3.2.4.5 Station 5: Bairiki Reef: lagoonal Site 12 (Lat. 010 19’ 27.5”N; Long. 1720 58’18”E) This area is located to the north of the causeway and is characterized by a sandy lagoon margin that deepens gradually. Few corals exist. These are largely massive Porites species. Large mounds of zoanthids occur in 1 m at neap mid-tide. Halimeda dominates the sand flat covering boulders and what must have been old reef. The hard coral is sparse as typified by the 10 colonies of P. damicornis recorded in a 20-minute swim. P. verrucosa, the most

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abundant coral, is often evident in the dense Halimeda, which covers old dead colonies. The reef gives way to sand. Porites colonies are present.

3.2.4.6 Station 6: Northeast of Bikeman I. Site 13 (Lat. 010 24’ 36.3” N; Long. 1720 59’ 45.8”E) The area is characterized by the macro-algae Turbinaria ornatus covering the boulder substrate. The only corals observed were colonies of Montipora and one branching colony of Acropora. Many colonies of Pocillopora damicornis were growing on the navigational pole. The presence of the algae and the sand substrate are limiting coral development.

3.2.4.7 Station 7: Central lagoon patch reef Site 14 (Lat. 010 25’ 51.28”N; Long. 1720 59’ 12.94”E) In the more exposed central lagoon, there is an oceanic swell which helps wash the substrate and promote coral growth. Surprisingly coral development was dominated by Acropora hyacinthus and A. clathrata. The live coral cover was 60 %. The branching Acropora was 40 %, comprised mainly of A. muricata and A. aculeus. Colonies of Pocillopora verrucosa were common.

3.2.4.8 Station 8: Central lagoonal patch reef Site 15 (Lat. 010 27’ 51.47”N; Long. 1720 58’ 24.78”E). Coral present here are Acropora, Pocillopora and Montipora. Limited by a sandy substrate, coral cover is moderate with isolated corymbosa and tabulate Acropora patches.

3.2.4.9 Station 9: Mid-lagoon deep coral patches Site 16 (Lat. 010 27’ 39.2”N; Long. 1730 07’ 12.68”E) 4 m-5 m depth At 2 m depth, the coral cover was 50 % massive, non-Acropora. A more diverse site with Acropora clathrata, A. nasuta, A grandis, Platygyra sp., F. stelligera, P. varians, Leptastrea pruinosa, Porites cylindrica, and P. lobata. A. clathrata plates 2 m in diameter were present.

3.2.4.10 Station 10: Eastern inshore. Site 17 (Lat. 010 28’38”N, Long. 1730 00’ 31”E). Though largely a sandy substrate, it had 40% cover of Montipora spp. and Porites spp. in patches.

3.2.4.11 Station 11: Eastern inshore lagoon Site 18 (Lat. 010 30’26.56”N, Long. 1720 59’ 46.86”E). Located west of Bikenamori Island and 1.2 km from the fringing reef flat, this highly silted reef patch was characterized by Porites spp. and Montipora spp. as the only coral genera.

3.2.4.12 Station 12: Eastern lagoon Site 19 (Lat. 010 26’ 25.66”N, Long. 1730 02’ 45.80”E). The area is typified by Pocillopora damicornis, Astreopora sp., a few Acroporas, Fungia and encrusting Montipora spp. There is a macro-algal zone of Turbinaria ornatus.

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Figure 20. The Coral Reef Environment of Tarawa, Gilbert Group* a) Low coral cover and species richness characterizes the reef off Bikenibeu on the south coast of Tarawa Atoll. b) Though rare or absent in many parts of the Pacific, Heliopora coerulea (Alcyonaria) or blue coral is abundant on Tarawa. c) A colony of Heliopora coerulea on the north margin of the Tarawa Reef. Though absent in Fiji and to the southeast, this species occurs throughout the Gilbert group. It is absent from the Phoenix and the Line Islands. d) The windward reef off Taenia at 6m depth showing the ocean swell affected assemblage. Due to large wave events, the area is periodically disturbed resulting in a relatively high diversity with small colony sizes. The rarity of Heliopora coerulea on the windward reefs is in contrast to the more protected seaward reefs. e) An aerial view of western Tarawa atoll with the seaward margin (top left), showing the reef flats and the inshore reef patches of the western lagoon (Schlencker Mapping Pty Ltd., 1998). f) The most luxuriant Acropora assemblage is found on the western lagoon patch reefs. Unlike the seaward exposed areas, this is the only area where the Acropora monopolize the reef area. g) As above, the dominant species are Acropora muricata and A. hyacinthus. Though the water is relatively turbid, patches reefs flourish. h) The mixed assemblage is dominated by extensive patches of corallimorpharians and Porites rus along the southern seaward reef slope of Tarawa near Ambo (18m depth). The massive colony (center left) is Plerogyra sinuosa. Normally uncommon, these large colonies are present in abundance.

* Adapted from Lovell et al. (2000)

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Figure 21 The Coral Reef Environment of Abaiang, Gilbert Group* a) A typical atoll island on Abaiang Atoll dominated by coconut palms with a broad foreshore reef flat of low biodiversity. b) Lagoon reef assemblage with the occasional stand of Acropora, massive Porites sp. and Favid spp. near Bolton Passage. c) A view of the western seaward reef of Abaiang shows Heliopora coerulea on the reef slope ridges. Halimeda sp. is in abundance (center bottom). d) A large colony of Porites cylindrica on the southern margin of Abaiang Atoll. e) Heliopora coerulea and the mixed species of Halimeda sp. are evident on the seaward slope of the North Reef. The sand and rubble floored channel is extending seaward from the spur and groove system in shallow water. f) The leeward northwest reef characterized by fine sand being deposited among the corals by the prevailing east-southeast winds. g) A northern reef slope channel extending to depth from the shallow spur and groove system. h) The spur and grove system adjacent to Nuotaea Village on northwest Abaiang Atoll.

* Adapted from Lovell et al. (2000)

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3.3.1 Eastern Coral Reefs

3.3.1.1a Seaward of Taburao Village Site 20 (Lat. 010 49’ 18.34”N, Long. 1730 01’ 18.32”E) The site is seaward and east of Taburao Village on Teraereke I. This is the windward coast and subject to swells from the easterly direction. Similar to the situation adjacent Tanaea I. on Tarawa, there is an inshore zone with a variety of gastropods feeding on the micro-algae. The reef flat gives way to a spur and groove system of 50-100 m in width. The coralline algae is the prominent substrate on the spur and groove system. This breaks up into shallow channels as the surf zone is encountered and deepens seaward into vertical-sided channels (1-3 m wide, 4-5 m deep). Encrusting and stunted corals are evident on the surface. Pocillopora eydouxi and P. verrucosa are dominant species. As the channels extend out of the breaker zone, they shallow onto a 7 m reef terrace. This is characterized by massive colonies of Platygyra spp. and Porites spp. The reef slope extends to depth at 10-150, 100 m from the surf zone. At the seaward edge, the reef slope descends more abruptly, as a talus slope.

The reef slope is characterized by mounds and hollows. The diversity of the area appears high. Common species are Acropora monticulosa, A. hyacinthus, and Platygyra spp. The normally common Heliopora, present in more sheltered environments, are less common.

The coral assemblage is conspicuous for the lack of Acropora, which is present as A. humilis and A. monticulosa and the plates of A. hyacinthus and A. clathrata. Colonies of zooanthids were present. The remainder of the substrate was micro-algae.

3.3.1.1b Southeast Reefs (Lat. 010 44’ 22.34”N, Long. 1730 02’ 08”E) Due to rough conditions, this area was visited briefly by having the boat on standby outside of the breakers. The area was similar to the Tabarao site in consisting of a spur and groove system grading into a reef slope. As with the other windward sites the slope had a slight incline seaward, descending to the precipitous margin at 15 – 20 m depth.

3.3.2 Southern Seaward Reefs

Site 21 and G (Lat. 010 42’ 67”N, Long. 1730 00’ 66”E): Transects KIFD0027 @ 3 m and KIFD0028 @ 10 m. Site G: KIFD0031 a) This transect was on the seaward or south side of the atoll at the general position of Tebanga Village. The area was current swept (1-2 kts) which made the diving difficult.

The shallow transect at 3 m depth was characterized by 44 % hard coral cover. This comprised only 2 % Acropora and 42.5 % non-Acropora. The algal component was 34.25 % with 30.5 % being coralline algae and the remainder Halimeda. The abiotic cover was 21.25 % that was mainly sand though dead coral and rock made up a minor component. b) The deeper site (10 m) had the highest coral cover recorded in the survey at 71.67 %. The Acropora proportion was high at 9.75 % with the non-Acropora portion at 61.92 %. The algae was low at 7.17 %. This was invariably Halimeda. The abiotic cover was 20.67 % and was generally rubble.

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell]

[41]

3.3.4 Bolton Channel Site 23 (Lat. 010 43’ 39”N, Long. 1720 59’ 10”E)

Bolton Channel is a small, shallow channel, which enters the southwest of the atoll. It is approximately 100 m wide and extends 1 km through the reef into the lagoon and is characterized by strong currents. Reef flat borders the channel with reef patches within the channel, particularly as it shallows into the lagoon. The area is relatively diverse with corymbose and tabulate Acroporas, Porites and Montiporas on the reef patches.

3.3.5 Bingham Channel Site 24 (Lat. 010 45’ 30”N, Long. 1720 58’ 25”E)

This is a broad channel north of Bolton Channel which enters the southwest of the atoll. Like the Bolton Channel it is characterized by strong tidal currents. The channel is largely sandy with reef patches with the coral growth affected by the currents and suspended sediments.

3.3.6 Lagoon Reefs

3.3.6.2 Eastern inshore patch reefs Site 26 (Lat. 010 49’ 22”N, Long. 1730 00’ 10”E): The proximity to the inshore reef flat creates a silty environment, which is inhospitable to luxuriant coral growth. The genera are limited to few Acropora with a greater abundance of Porites spp. and Montipora spp. A single line transect on the more divers margin of the reef patch recorded the hard coral coverage at 15.3 %. The Acropora was minor proportion at 3 % and the non-Acropora coverage at 12.3 %. The macro-algae, Turbinaria argus, was 3.4 %. The sand and reef rock substrate was 81.4 %.

3.3.6.1 Western lagoon reef Site 25 (Lat. 010 51’ 32”N, Long. 1720 54’ 32”E) At 4 m depth, the reef is permanently submerged and isolated as a reef patch. It is represented largely by non-Acroporas, massive Porites spp. and Favids, forming reef aggregations on a sandy substrate. Solitary Fungid corals are abundant. Of note is a large colony of Turbinaria reniformis. The hard coral coverage was relatively high at 42.3 %. The Acropora component was 15 % and the non-Acropora 27.3 %. The macro-algae was comprised of both Sargassum spp. and Turbinaria ornatus with a coverage of 5.4 %.

3.3.7 Western seaward slope Sites 27 (Lat. 010 51’ 38”N, Long. 1720 52’ 15”E): KIFD0017 @ 3 m and KIFD0018 @ 10 m: Sites E KIFD0019 a) The hard coral coverage was 36.75 % comprised of 2.33 % Acropora and 34.42 % non- Acropora. The algal component is 33.25 % of coralline algae with the remainder of 3 % Halimeda. The abiotic coverage was almost wholly sand in the channels between the ridges at 27.67 %. b) The 10 m transect had 28.33 % hard coral cover. Of this only 1.17 % was Acropora and 27.17 % non-Acropora. Heliopora was common in this area. The algal component was 6.17 %. The abiotic substrate was high and generally rock at 63.17 %.

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell]

[50]

3.4 Summary Transect Information

Following is a summary of the benthic attributes surveyed by the line transect method.

TARAWA ATOLL

Sample Reef Depth Benthic Forms% Hard coral% Algae% ID Location (m) Hard Algae Abiotic Other Acrop Non- Macro Coralline Turf coral ora Acropora - KIFD0003 Bairiki 3 33 3.83 20.33 42.83 .17 32.83 0 3.83 0

KIFD0004 Bairiki 10 56.13 0 2.5 41.38 0 56.13 0 0 0 KIFD0006 Bikenibeu 3 6.5 12 79 2.5 2 4.5 0 4 0 KIFD0007 Bikenibeu 10 28.14 2.39 69.47 0 5.4 22.74 0 2.39 0 KIFD0008 Ambo 3 44.5 2 53.25 0.25 3.38 41.13 0 0 0 KIFD0009 Ambo 10 53.3 0.1 46.2 0.4 0 53.3 0 0 0 KIFD0010 North 3 50.06 31.94 16.06 1.94 0.25 49.81 0 14.19 0 Reef KIFD0011 North 10 39.43 32.77 27.1 0.7 1.4 38.03 0 0 0 Reef KIFD0013 North 3 57.33 19.17 23.5 0 6.67 50.67 0 10.33 0 Reef KIFD0014 North 10 40.5 18.3 39.9 1.3 2 38.5 0 0 0 Reef

ABAIANG ATOLL

Sample Reef Depth Benthic Forms% Hard coral% Algae% ID Location (m) Hard Algae Abiotic Other Acrop Non- Macro Coralline Turf coral ora Acropora - KIFD0015 Inshore 2 15.2 3.4 81.4 0 3 12.3 3.4 0 0 KIFD0016 W. 4 42.3 5.4 52.3 0 15 27.3 5.4 0 0 Lagoon KIFD0017 Western 3 36.75 35.25 27.67 0.33 2.33 34.42 0 33.25 0 KIFD0018 Western 10 28.33 6.17 63.17 2.33 1.17 27.17 0 0 0 KIFD0020 Eke I. 3 50.75 20.38 24.5 4.38 0.63 50.13 0 13.63 0 KIFD0021 Eke I. 10 46.25 29.6 10.4 13.75 1.6 44.65 0 5.6 0 KIFD0022 North 3 32.75 41.75 25 0.5 2.5 30.25 0 39.75 0 Reef KIFD0023 North 10 44.94 7.2 47.86 0 7.35 37.59 0 0 0 Reef KIFD0025 Nuotaea 3 42.25 38.13 19.63 0 3.75 38.5 0 36 0 KIFD0026 Nuotaea 10 49.6 22.6 26.9 0.9 4.5 45.1 0 6.2 0 KIFD0027 Southern 3 44.5 34.25 21.25 0 2 42.5 0 30.5 0 tip KIFD0028 Southern 10 71.67 7.17 20.67 0.5 9.75 61.92 0 0 0 tip KIFD0029 Bolton 3 51.54 13.38 33.58 1.5 3.75 47.79 0 0 0 Pass. KIFD0030 Bolton 10 65.75 24.5 0.75 9 34.75 31 0 23.25 0 Pass.

Figure 39. Summary Table of % Coverage of Benthic Forms

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [51]

3.4.1 Trends

The south coast on Tarawa was characterized as having greater hard coral coverage at the 10 m depth. Presumed this is due to wave action limiting the coral cover in the 3 m depths. The reverse was recorded on the seaward portion of the northwest reef with greater coverage at the 3m depth. Likewise, this is due to the leeward exposure of the reef and the gentle nature of the slope. Though margined in the surf zone as a spur and groove formation, its channelled nature with depth is due to lagoon sand driven off the reef being by the prevailing wind drift. The shallow ridges are characterized by high coral cover. The Acropora component is sparse in all seaward environments.

The coralline algal component is higher on the shallow northern reef due to a general increase in the luxuriance of benthic growth. The abiotic features of the shallow (3 m) area on the southern coast are higher due to the wave action limiting settlement. On the north reef, the widening of the sand and rubble channels is responsible for the higher values at depth. The incidence of macro-algae is higher in the shallow areas of the southern coast but generally equal at the two depths on the north reef. The high value of other organisms for the Bairiki sites reflects the proliferation of the colonial corallimorpharian anemones.

With Abaiang, the hard coral cover is comparable for the two depths (3 m, 10 m) on the leeward side of the atoll. This area includes Bolton Pass, the western margin and the northern reef area. As with Tarawa, the southern side had greater coral cover at the 10 m depth. The algal occurrence was often more prolific in the shallow leeward areas where the angle of the slope is reduced. This is not the case for Bolton Pass, which has extensive sandy shallow areas. The high abiotic areas resulted from large expanses of sand as the channels broadened with depth. The Acropora component was highest in Bolton Pass with extensive stands of branching colonies. The shallow transect samples had the largest component of coralline algae.

4.0 SPECIES DIVERSITY

4.1 Coral Collection

The curator is Fisheries Division officer Taratau Kirata. A reference coral collection was compiled. Following are the details of the collection now housed at the Fisheries Division at Tanaea.

Coral Order, Family and Species Specimen Location Date Collector Museum of Zann (1983) No. Tropical collection Queensland only (+) Order SCLERACTINIA Family THAMNASTERIIDAE Psammocora (P.) haimeana Edwards and + Haime, 1851 Pocillopora damicornis (Linnaeus, 1758) 007 North Rf., 9/12/99 E. Lovell X Tarawa 090 Cent.West 13/12/99 E. Lovell Lagoon, Tarawa Pocillopora eydouxi Edwards & Haime, + 1860 Pocillopora verrucosa (Ellis & Solander, 005 North Rf., 9/12/99 E. Lovell X 1786) Tarawa Seriatopora hystrix Dana, 1846 033 North Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Stylophora pistillata Esper, 1797 014 North Rf., 9/12/99 E. Lovell X Tarawa

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [52]

058 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell reef slope, Abaiang 059 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell reef slope, Abaiang 102 Cent. West 13/12/99 E. Lovell Lagoon, Tarawa Acropora (A.) abrotanoides M (Lamarck, 1816) Acropora (A.) acuminata M (Verrill, 1864) Acropora (A.) anthocercis 066 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell M X (Brook, 1893) reef slope, Abaiang 067 (same SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell colony as reef slope, 066) Abaiang Acropora (A.) cerealis M (Dana, 1846) Acropora (A.) clathrata 086 Cent.West 13/12/99 E. Lovell M X (Brook, 1891) Lagoon, Tarawa 098 Cent. West 13/12/99 E. Lovell Lagoon, Tarawa Acropora (A.) cytherea (Dana, 1846) 031 (cf. Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell M X Plate) Abaiang 091 Cent.West 13/12/99 E. Lovell Lagoon, Tarawa Acropora (A.) digitifera (Dana, 1846) M + Acropora (A.) divaricata (Dana, 1846) M +(cf.) Acropora (A.) echinata M (Dana, 1846) Acropora (A.) gemmifera (Brook, 1892) 100 Ambo 7/12/99 E. Lovell M X(cf.) (seaward), S. Tarawa Acropora (A.) grandis (Brook, 1892) 085 Cent.West 13/12/99 E. Lovell X Lagoon, Tarawa Acropora (A.) humilis (Dana, 1846) 069 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell M X reef slope, Abaiang Acropora (A.) hyacinthus (Dana, 1846) M + Acropora (A.) intermedia (Dana, 1846) 084 Cent.West 13/12/99 E. Lovell M X Lagoon, Tarawa 087 Cent.West 13/12/99 E. Lovell Lagoon, Tarawa Acropora (A.) latistella M (Brook, 1892) Acropora (A.) lovelli M (Veron and Wallace, 1984) Acropora (A.) microphthalma (Verrill, 092 Cent.West 13/12/99 E. Lovell X(cf.) 1869) Lagoon, Tarawa Acropora (A.) muricata (Dana, 1846) 077 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell M X reef slope, Abaiang 078 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell reef slope, Abaiang

082 Cent.West 13/12/99 E. Lovell Lagoon, Tarawa Acropora (A.) nana (Studer, 1878) 022 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [53]

Acropora (A.) nasuta (Dana, 1846) 068 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell M X(cf.) reef slope, Abaiang Acropora (A.) paniculata Verrill, 1902 016 Abaiang 16/12/99 E. Lovell M X lagoon Acropora (A.) robusta M (Dana, 1846) Acropora (A.) secale (Studer, 1878) 037 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Acropora (A.) selago (Studer, 1878) 097 Cent. West 13/12/99 E. Lovell X Lagoon, Tarawa Acropora (A.) spicifera (Dana, 1846) 096 Cent. West 13/12/99 E. Lovell X(cf.) Lagoon, Tarawa Acropora (A.) striata M (Verrill,, 1866) Acropora (A.) subulata M (Dana, 1846) Acropora (A.) tenuis (Dana, 1846) 039 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Acropora (A.) tortuosa (Dana, 1846) 023 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell M X Abaiang Acropora (A.) valida (Dana, 1846) 038 North Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Acropora (A.) verweyi M (Veron and Wallace, 1984) Acropora (A.) yongei M (Veron and Wallace, 1984) Acropora (A.) sp 010 North Rf., 9/12/99 E. Lovell X Tarawa 088 Cent.West 13/12/99 E. Lovell Lagoon, Tarawa 099 Cent. West 13/12/99 E. Lovell Lagoon, Tarawa Astreopora listeri Bernard, 1896 +(cf) Astreopora myriophthalma (Lamarck, 060 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell 1816) reef slope, Abaiang. Bolton Pass. SE, Abaiang 101 Cent. West 13/12/99 E. Lovell Lagoon, Tarawa Montipora efflorescens Bernard, 1897 024 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X(cf) Abaiang Montipora foveolata (Dana, 1846) + Montipora grisea Bernard, 1897 055 Lagoon, 16/12/99 E. Lovell X(cf) Abaiang Montipora hispida (Dana, 1846) +(cf.)

Montipora hoffmeisteri Wells, 1954 O54 Lagoon, 16/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Montipora informis Bernard, 1897 065 Adj. Bolton 20/12/99 E. Lovell Pass., Abaiang Montipora monasteriata (Forskal, 1775) 081 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell reef slope, Abaiang Montipora peltiformis Bernard, 1897 +(cf.) Montipora tuberculosa (Lamarck, 1816) +(cf.) Montipora venosa (Ehrenberg, 1834) 052 North Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang 053 Lagoon, 18/12/99 E. Lovell Abaiang Montipora verrucosa (Lamarck, 1816) 021 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X(cf.) Abaiang

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [54]

103 Cent. West 13/12/99 E. Lovell Lagoon, Tarawa Gardineroseris planulata (Dana, 1846) 011 North Rf., 9/12/99 E. Lovell X Tarawa Leptoseris mycetoseroides Wells, 1954 + Pachyseris speciosa (Dana, 1846) 032 North Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang 042 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell Abaiang Pavona cactus (Forskal, 1775) + Pavona clavus (Dana, 1846) 105 North Reef, 9/12/99 E. Lovell X Tarawa Pavona explanulata (Lamarck, 1816) + Pavona maldivensis (Gardiner, 1905) 041 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Pavona minuta Wells, 1954 036 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Pavona varians Verrill, 1864 035 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang 051 North Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell Abaiang Family SIDERASTREIDAE Coscinaraea columna (Dana, 1846) + Family FUNGIIDAE Cycloseris costulata (Ortmann, 1889) 056 Lagoon, 16/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Fungia (D.) horrida Dana, 1846 + Fungia (D.) valida Verrill, 1864 040 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang 061 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell reef slope, Abaiang Fungia (F.) fungites (Linnaeus, 1758) 012 North Rf., 9/12/99 E. Lovell X Tarawa

Fungia (P.) scutaria Lamarck, 1801 075 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell X reef slope, Abaiang 089 Cent.West 13/12/99 E. Lovell Lagoon, Tarawa Fungia (V.) concinna Verrill, 1864 015 North Rf., 9/12/99 E. Lovell X Tarawa Fungia (V.) granulosa Klunzinger, 1879 057 Lagoon, 16/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Fungia (V.) repanda Dana, 1846 013 North Rf., 9/12/99 E. Lovell X Tarawa 073 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell reef slope, Abaiang 074 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell reef slope, Abaiang Halomitra pileus (Linnaeus, 1758) 001 Nei Tebwa Rf. 3/12/99 E. Lovell X Herpolitha limax (Houttuyn, 1772) 002 North Rf., 9/12/99 E. Lovell X Tarawa Podabacia crustacea Edwards and + Haime, 1849 Sandalolitha robusta (Quelch, 1886) 030 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Family PORITIDAE Goniopora stutchburyi Wells, 1955 + Goniopora sp. 009 North Rf., 9/12/99 E. Lovell X Tarawa Porites (P.) cylindrica Dana, 1846 095 Ambo 7/12/99 E. Lovell X (seaward), S. Tarawa

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [55]

Porites (P.) lichen Dana, 1846 080 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell X reef slope, Abaiang Porites (P.) lobata Dana, 1846 + Porites (P.) lutea Edwards & Haime, 1860 + Porites (S.) rus (Forskal, 1775) 004 Bikenibeu Rf., 7/12/99 E. Lovell X Tarawa Porites sp. 047 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Cyphastrea microphthalma (Lamarck, 070 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell X 1816) reef slope, Abaiang Cyphastrea serailia (Forskal, 1775) 020 Abaiang 16/12/99 E. Lovell X lagoon Echinopora horrida Dana, 1846 + Echinopora lamellosa (Esper, 1795) + Favia favus (Forskal, 1775) + Favia matthaii Vaughan, 1918 050 North Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Favia pallida (Dana, 1846) + Favia rotumana (Gardiner, 1899) + Favia stelligera (Dana, 1846) 029 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang 043 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell Abaiang 048 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell Abaiang Favites chinensis (Verrill, 1866) + Favites flexuosa (Dana, 1846) + Favites pentagona (Esper, 1794) + Favites russelli (Wells, 1954) O28 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Goniastrea aspera 094 Ambo 7/12/99 E. Lovell X (seaward), S. Tarawa Goniastrea edwardsi Chevalier, 1971 + Goniastrea favulus (Dana, 1846) 076 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell X(cf) reef slope, Abaiang Goniastrea pectinata (Ehrenberg, 1834) + Goniastrea retiformis (Lamarck, 1816) 019 Abaiang 16/12/99 E. Lovell X lagoon 045 North Rf., 9/12/99 E. Lovell Tarawa Hydnophora exesa (Pallas, 1766) + Hydnophora microconos (Lamarck, 1816) 017 Abaiang 16/12/99 E. Lovell X lagoon Hydnophora rigida (Dana, 1846) 006 Bikenibeu 7/12/99 E. Lovell X 027 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell Abaiang Leptastrea bewickensis (Veron, Pichon 044 North Rf., 9/12/99 E. Lovell X(cf) and Wijsman-best, 1977) Tarawa Leptastrea pruinosa Crossland, 1952 071 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell X reef slope, Abaiang Leptastrea purpurea (Dana, 1846) 072 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell X reef slope, Abaiang Leptastrea sp. 049 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Leptoria phrygia (Ellis & Solander, 1786) 025 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Montastrea curta (Dana, 1846) 026 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Montastrea magnistellata Chevalier, 1971 + Oulophyllia crispa (Lamarck, 1816) 083 No location X Specimen in Fisheries Division Hdqtrs.

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [56]

Platygyra daedalea (Ellis & Solander, 046 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X 1786) Abaiang Platygyra sinensis (Edwards & Haime, + 1849) Family MERULINIDAE Merulina ampliata (Ellis & Solander, 1786) 034 Northwest Rf., 18/12/99 E. Lovell X Abaiang Family MUSSIDAE Acanthastrea echinata (Dana, 1846) + Lobophyllia corymbosa (Forskal, 1775) 104 Cent. West 13/12/99 E. Lovell + Lagoon, Tarawa Lobophyllia hemprichii (Ehrenberg, 1834) 062 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell (specimens from the same colony) 063 reef slope, 064 Abaiang Symphyllia radians (Edwards & Haime, + 1849) Family PECTINIIDAE Echinophyllia echinata (Saville-Kent, + 1871) Echinophyllia sp. + Mycedium elephantotos (Pallas, 1766) 093 Ambo 7/12/99 E. Lovell X seaward slope, Tarawa Oxypora lacera (Verrill, 1864) + Family CARYOPHYLLIIDAE Plerogyra simplex Rehberg, 1892 + Family DENDROPHYLLIIDAE Tubastraea micrantha Ehrenberg, 1834 + Turbinaria frondens (Dana, 1846) + Turbinaria mesenterina (Lamarck, 1816) + Turbinaria reniformis Bernard, 1896 008 North Rf., 9/12/99 E. Lovell X(cf.) Tarawa 079 SE seaward 20/12/99 E. Lovell reef slope, Abaiang Turbinaria sp. + Order COENOTHECALIA Family HELIOPORIDAE Heliopora coerulea (Pallas, 1766) X Order STOLONIFERA Family TUBIPORIDAE Tubipora musica Linnaeus, 1758 Order MILLEPORINA Family MILLEPORIDAE Millepora platyphylla Hemprich & 018 Abaiang 16/12/99 E. Lovell X(cf) Ehrenberg, 1834 lagoon Millepora sp. 1 003 Nei Tebwa 3/12/99 E. Lovell X Family STYLASTERIDAE Distochopora violacea (Pallas, 1776) + Order ALCYONACEA Family ALCYONIIDAE Lobophytum sp. 1 X Sinularia sp. 1 X Corallimorpharia spp. X Zoanthus sp. X Number of: Scleractinians 115 Alcyonarians 2 Coelothecalia 1 Hydrozoans 2

Figure 40. Details of the reference coral collection stored at the Fisheries Division at Tanaea, and other species records.

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [57]

Notes:

Many of the species collected were previously recorded in a SOPAC consultant’s report: Zann, L.P. (1982). The Marine Ecology of Betio Island, Tarawa Atoll, Republic of Kiribati. Coastal Zone Surveys on Sedimentation, Erosion and Pollution Problems in Kiribati. CCOP-SOPAC Consultants Report. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, UNDP. 32pp. Identifications were by Prof. M. Pichon.

Additional collection (identification by E. Lovell) and revisions in taxonomy comprise the current listing. Species only collected by Zann are designated as +.

Records of specimens held at the Museum of Tropical Queensland were kindly provided by Dr. C.C. Wallace.

Taxonomy conforms to:

Veron J. E. N. 1986: Coral of Australia and the Indo-Pacific. Angus and Robertson. ISBN 0 207 15116 4.

Veron J. E. N. & Pichon, M. 1976: Scleractinia of eastern Australia, Part 1: Families Thamnasteriidae, Astrocoenidae, Pocilloporidae. Aust. Ins. Mar. Sci., Monogr. Ser. 1, 86pp.

Veron J. E. N., Pichon M. & Wijsman-Best M. 1977: Scleractinia of eastern Australia, Part 2: Families Faviidae, Trachyphyllidae. Aust. Ins. Mar. Sci., Monogr. Ser. 3, 232pp.

Veron J. E. N. & Pichon M. 1979: Scleractinia of eastern Australia, Part 3 Families Agariciidae, Siderastreidae, Fungiidae, Oculinidae, Merulinidae, Mussidae, Pectinidae, Caryophyllidae, Dendrophylliidae. Aust. Inst. Mar. Sci., Monogr. Ser. 4, 422pp.

Veron J. E. N. & Pichon M. 1982: Scleractinia of eastern Australia, Part 4: Family Poritidae, Aust. Ins. Mar. Sci., Monogr. Ser. 5, 159pp.

Veron J. E. N. & Wallace C. C. 1984: Scleractinia of eastern Australia, Part 5: Families Acroporidae. Aust. Ins. Mar. Sci., Monogr. Ser. 6, 485pp.

Wallace C.C. 1999. Staghorn Corals of the World. A Revision of the Genus Acropora CSIRO Publishing 1999 ISBN 0 643 06391 9

Wallace C.C. 1999. Staghorn Corals of the World. A Key to Species of Acropora CD-ROM. CSIRO Publishing 1999 ISBN 0 643 063900

4.2 Sponge Collection

An initial sponge collection was compiled. The identification of the sponges will be dealt with through an on going program in association with Michelle Kelly of the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) Auckland, New Zealand. Ribanataaki Awira of the Fisheries Division has recently attended a sponge taxonomy workshop at University of the South Pacific and is in charge of compiling a checklist for Kiribati. The database used for the coral collection will be employed to manage this collection and subsequent additions.

Specimen Location Collector Date of Collection Provisional identification No. Reef Name Latitude; Longitude 001 Bikeman I. Lat. 010 Taratau Kirata 14/12/99 Cf. Halicona olivacea 23’11.38”N; Long. 1720 59’ 55.76”E 002 Buota Lat. 010 23’42” N; E. Lovell 12/12/99 Halicona tyria Tanaea Long. 1730 08’ 18” Channel E 003 Central Lat. 010 27’ E. Lovell 13/12/99 Cf. Petrosaspongia nigra Tarawa 51.47N; Lagoon Long. 1720 58’ 24.78”E 004 Central Lat. 010 27’ E. Lovell 13/12/99 Cf. Petrosaspongia nigra Tarawa 51.47N; Lagoon Long. 1720 58’ 24.78”E 005 Central Lat. 010 27’ E. Lovell 13/12/99 Cf. Psuedaxinella debitusae Tarawa 51.47N; Lagoon Long. 1720 58’ 24.78”E

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [58]

006 Ambo Reef Lat. 010 21’ 23”N; E. Lovell 13/12/99 Cf Rhaphoxya sp. or Slope Long. 1730 07’ 07” Higginsia sp. E 007 Central Lat. 010 27’ E. Lovell 13/12/99 Unidentified Tarawa 51.47N; Lagoon Long. 1720 58’ 24.78”E 008 Bikeman I. Lat. 010 E. Lovell 13/12/99 Not Porifera /Colonial 23’11.38”N; Long. zooxanthid 1720 59’ 55.76”E 009 Bikeman I. Lat. 010 E. Lovell 13/12/99 Not Porifera /Colonial 23’11.38”N; Long. zooxanthid on Strombus 1720 59’ 55.76”E lahuanus shell 010 Central Lat. 010 27’ E. Lovell 13/12/99 Cf. Petrosaspongia nigra Tarawa 51.47N; Lagoon Long. 1720 58’ 24.78”E 011 North Reef, Lat. 010 54’ 46”N; E. Lovell 18/12/99 Unidentified Abaiang Long. 1720 47’ 14”E

*Zooanthids catalogued for comparative purposes

Figure 41. Details of the sponge coral collection stored at the Fisheries Division at Tanaea.

4.3 Biogeography

4.3.1 Comparative Distribution of Scleractinia (hard coral) within the Pacific region

The coral diversity at Tarawa and Abaiang atolls is characteristic of the depauperate central Pacific. 115 coral specimens were collected and identified from the two atolls. This compares with 138 records from the Marshall Islands to the north and 159 recorded from Guam further to north and west. This is representative of the global trend of higher diversity to the west. 222 species were recorded from American Samoa, which is more central in the radiation of hard coral diversity from the area of highest diversity in the Australian-Indonesian area. Palmyra (82 records) in the northern Line Islands reflects the diminution of the coral species in a westward direction across the Pacific. Tabuaeran had 70 species collected. Johnson Atoll’s 29 species is low probably due to its isolation. The Hawaiian Islands has 51 species records, benefiting from thorough collections and a larger and more varied coral reef system.

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell]

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5.0 ISSUES

Coral reef related issues include:

¨ coral extraction for the aquarium and curio trade ¨ channel creation for access through unnavigable reef areas ¨ sea level rise ¨ coral bleaching as the result of global warming ¨ the crown-of-thorns starfish ¨ pollution and foreshore development

5.1 Coral Harvesting

5.1.1 A Fishery or Conservation?

Coral collection for commercial purposes is a sensitive topic. There is a general perception that coral reefs are fragile. Coral is considered to be slow growing and limited in abundance. Its growth creates habitat that forms the basis for much of reef life, and importantly, provides food for our coastal people. The most ardent protectors of coral reefs believe that luxuriant coral and fishes will be destroyed if collection is allowed. It is a perception that to consider this as a commercial resource would be potentially damaging to the ecosystem with consequences that would far outweigh the benefits. It is understandable that this attitude prevails as nearly all of the natural history information (video and otherwise) and tourism advertisements show us that the coral reef is indeed a wonderful display of life.

Relatively recently, science has become aware of the mechanisms of coral spawning and dimensions of recruitment potential. As well, there is a lack of baseline information of the spacial variation in the abundance of benthic life forms in the coral reef environments. To be fully aware of the tremendous resilience of coral organisms in the face of such vagaries as cyclones, the crown-of- thorns starfish and periodic flooding is to have some appreciation of the reefs potential for commercial productivity. Such awareness would put into perspective the vastly larger negative influences such as coastal development, agriculture and over-fishing. Additionally, the coral reef aquarium was not a viable hobby until the development of specialized lighting and appropriate water quality technology, which has given rise to the aquarium fishery progressively over the last ten years.

With the emergence of the live coral industry which includes live rock collection, the prospect of coral extraction and its sustainability has become an urgent question. The opportunities that this rapidly emerging fishery pose are rivalled only by its challenges. Benefits are available to coastal people and the economy if the adverse impacts of this industry, through management and regulation, become acceptable. Though coral may be used as a medium in decorative manufacture, construction or for bone replacement, considered here is the extraction of live coral for the aquarium trade and curio coral as ornamental objects.

5.1.2 Aquarium Trade

When considering whether to engage in the aquarium products or curio coral fishery. An initial realization has to be made that a scientific understanding of the levels of sustainability have yet to be determined. Criteria for sustainability are most certainly variable and rely on the abundance of the organisms being exploited. The area of reef to be exploited and that which is peripheral to it are important factors, particularly in terms of recruitment potential. It is likely that substantial quantities of material can be exported with minimal impact on other fisheries or the general health of the reef.

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [77]

Unfortunately, the levels of collection at which impacts become detrimental in the medium and long- term are unknown. This means that a decision to proceed with the coral fishery would entail financing for an initial baseline description, resource management plan and the establishment of methods that could be used to monitor the operation.

The aquarium trade confines its collection to smaller colonies than does the curio trade. Adherence to the collection of small colonies results in lesser impacts and the increased likelihood of sustainability. The breaking up of colonies or fragmentation must be prohibited except for aquaculture. This trade also requires reliable flights to North American markets. As well, sophisticated holding facilities, which allows for the careful collection and care of the detached corals or other reef organisms, are a necessary investment. Such infrastructure may cost AUD$200,000+, but without it the product will suffer high mortality.

5.1.3 Curio Trade

The curio trade collects coral for sale as dried ornaments. It has the longest history. Due to the nature of the product, where relatively large colonies are taken from limited areas, larger areas are required for sustainable collection. The impacts are more likely on both the habitat and the prospect of depletion of a species from a particular area.

The provisional impact assessment by Lovell and Tumuri (1999) presents the case for allowing the industry to develop in Fiji. It suggests a process whereby management, monitoring and, most importantly, assessing levels of sustainability for all of the reef products can be achieved.

5.1.4 Experimental Fishery

Historically, the potential for a coral fishery has been hindered for a variety of reasons. There is a lack of scientific understanding of the rates of recruitment and mortality of the large variety of organisms subject to collection. Couple this with the variation in the nature of coral reefs and it becomes difficult to provide a precise understanding of sustainability. Lovell and Tumuri (1999) recommends the industry be considered as an experimental fishery with its final assessment made after there is an attempt to manage and monitor it. The suggested time frame is two years, leading to a decision on its sustainability and evaluation as to whether management has been successfully implemented. In this manner, the research and management efforts, both domestic and internationally, will be allowed time to deal with the questions presented by this new fishery. At present, there are only categorical answers based on inadequate information. Due to the variety and variability of the coral reef environment, assessment will always remain a difficult task. To a large extent, the worth of the industry in Fiji is largely at the village level. The tenure system allows each village to manage their own collection from an area defined by their traditional fishing rights. In an open access system as that in Kirribati, the competition for aquarium products makes conservation difficult. In this situation, competitive operators would have to be allocated separate areas for collection.

5.1.5 Industry Value

If the challenges of managing this industry sustainably can be met, the value is substantial. There are 10 million marine aquarium hobbyists worldwide. Sales of marine aquaria represent USD$1.6 billion of the USD$4 billion spent on the aquarium trade. The fastest-growing segment of the industry is the mini-reef, where aquaria range in size from 15 to several hundred gallons. The cost of a tank, when fully stocked with colorful and exotic marine fish and invertebrates, may be from $1000 to tens of thousands of dollars.

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [78]

The 'mini-reef live aquarium' is the newest and most exciting of the coral reef fisheries. Unlike the curio trade, the size of the product is limited and of small sizes 5-15cm. Each colony is collected from a much broader reef area. Once selected, it becomes a valuable commodity with the prime objective of keeping the coral healthy in transport and long lived in its final captivity. Mortality is an undesireable overhead. With improvements in aquarium husbandry at the wholesale level, this has been minimised to less than a few per cent by ‘ best practice’ operators. At the hobby level, mortality in the first year is high or total as most enthusiasts lose interest. If professional aquarium firms are employed to manage and maintain the tank system, then success of the display is likely and mortality will be kept to a minimum.

The question as to whether to engage in the fishery must rely on the renewable nature of the resource or its sustainability. The impacts on the coral reef system and other resources resulting from the collection must be considered. The long-term viability for the collected material is unlikely.

Live rock is part of the live aquarium trade, providing coralline algal-covered reef landscape. Its presence in the aquarium tank assists in conditioning the water chemistry of the closed system by the removal of nutrients and balancing pH. It is one of the most promising fisheries of coral reef extraction but only if ‘best practice’ techniques are applied. It may be one of the most destructive if they are not.

Record keeping, the division of responsibilities between the central and traditional governments, lack of detailed consideration in the Fisheries Act, and in compliance with CITES protocols are often problem areas. The Marine Aquarium Council, a global body based in Hawaii, is an attempt by the industry to deal with these problems.

It is recommended that a coral reef management plan is developed which includes the coral fishery. The criteria to determine the fisherys’ sustainability will involve a more detailed resource survey and controlled management and monitoring of the resource. In addition, coral mariculture is evolving from this industry with the opportunity for coastal people to take part in the live coral trade by cultivating aquarium products.

5.2 Channel Creation

The benefits gained by creating a channel through expanses of reef to gain easy access to open water for fishing or general travel are obvious. Providing a safe passage through the reef or access to safe waters for people and boats when the weather turns bad are examples. Furthermore, the added savings in fuel and time make channel creation desirable. Two sites were visited as a preliminary inspection for channel development were north of Tanaea I., Tarawa and adjacent to Nuotea Village, Abaiang.

On Tanaea I. a channel has already been cut on both sides of the causeway and partially across the reef flat. The remaining project involves continuing the channel through the reef flat and seaward reef buttresses. Such a channel will facilitate access to the eastern seaward margin of the atoll and avoid a hazardous passage through the surf which is often impossible. It is a 22-km journey from Tanaea or the Temaiku Bight to the Bairiki Causeway. An accident involving an aircraft crash at sea near the airport would necessitate a further 25-km trip to the seaward area adjacent to the end of the runway. A channel near Tanaea would allow quick access.

The channel requirement for Nuotea Village on the western margin of Abaiang Atoll is based on a need for the village to have access to the sea without having to traverse a reef flat and crest. Safety and convenience is the principal rational.

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [79]

5.2.1 Blast area

In both cases, substantial reef material would have to be removed. The buttresses of the spur and groove system have developed to withstand the forces of constant and substantial wave action and would require blasting. The leeward reef of Nuotea Village would have fewer problems in its removal than the seaward tradewind swell-affected area of Tanaea.

The process of blasting would cause death of the benthic flora, fauna and fish in the immediate vicinity of the blasting. The rubble may prove a difficulty both in the peripheral damage that is done and in creating potential circumstances for an outbreak of ciquatera. Additionally, a channel may result in altering the existing circulation and change the coastal processes to the detriment of the adjacent islands.

5.2.2 Gamberiodiscus toxicus and Ciguatera Poisoning (from Lovell and Kirata, 2000)

Though naturally occurring, the dinoflagellate Gamberiodiscus toxicus affects coral reefs by conferring toxicity to certain reef fishes and thereby reducing fishing pressure on particular species. Human activities can promote the incidence by creating habitats for the algae to flourish resulting in associated fish becoming toxic.

Increases in ciguatera poisoning have been attributed to human disturbance on the coral reef which affect its biological nature (Cooper, 1964; De Sylva and Hine, 1972; Tebano, 1984, 1992; Naughton, 1985) such as alteration to the reef through dredging and the construction of causeways (Tebano and Lewis 1990; Tebano, 1991, 1992). On Marakei Island, ciguatera has become common with the alteration of the natural lagoon circulation due to causeway construction. Coral fragments may provide new surfaces for algal settlement and it has been found that coral damage may trigger the onset of ciguatera fish poisoning (Tebano, 1984; McCarthy and Tebano, 1984). This type of poisoning was not known in Maiana until after a channel was constructed on the western side of the island. The reef apparently became toxic in a pattern spreading out from the centre of disturbance, first appearing in herbivorous fish and later the carnivores. On the islands of Marakei and Nikunau where ciguatera fish poisoning is a chronic problem, this worsened and spread out to the neighboring villages' (Tebano, 1991).

Kaly and Jones (1988; 1989; 1990a,b) provide a review of the circumstances which give rise to fish poisoning. Other disturbances have also been implicated in fish poisoning, such as: storm (Bagnis, 1973; Tebano, 1984); dieback of corals (Yasumoto et al. 1980) and others (Withers, 1982). When interviewed, the people of Kiribati associated areas of toxicity with ship wrecks, bombing (WWII), sewage, rubbish dumping and many other forms of disturbance (Cooper, 1964; Tebano, 1984: McCarthy and Tebano, 1984). McCarthy and Tebano (1984) pointed out, however that the apparent association between wrecks and ciguatera in Kiribati, derived by interviewing fishermen, might have arisen because wrecks (and presumably other structures) provide a convenient spatial and temporal marker for an otherwise obscure phenomenon. Halstead and Bunker (1954) reported on ciguatera in the Phoenix I. and Halstead and Schall (1958) in the Line Islands.

5.3 Global Warming

In recent years, concern has grown that the Earth's atmosphere is changing due to human causes-- burning of fossil fuels and deforestation among them. It is feared that this effect may cause global warming with an increase in sea temperatures. Studies suggest that global change of this magnitude could cause significant problems, for example the melting of the icecaps resulting in a sea level rise.

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Global warming and sea-level rise are of concern in the low islands in terms of an alteration of coastal processes, submergence, pollution of groundwater and coral bleaching. Climate change may mean increased cyclonic activity, alteration in the rainfall pattern and periodic elevation in sea temperature.

5.3.1 Coral Bleaching

Though coral bleaching has not proved to be a problem in Kiribati, the widespread occurrence of bleaching globally has shown that all reef systems are potentially at risk. The current bleaching event in Fiji may portend a similar situation in the equatorial and northern latitudes if similar, predisposing weather patterns occur allowing the water to warm (Wilkinson pers. comm.).

Coral reef bleaching is a response to stress. The bleaching refers to the colouration of the organism resulting from the breakdown in the mutualistic dependency between the coral and the zooxanthellae. The corals lose some or all of the symbiotic microalgae (zooxanthellae), living in its endodermal cells. The effect occurs in diverse invertebrate taxa. It frequently results in a white colouration from the whiteness of the coral skeleton or the soft coral tissue. A bleached organism may be particularly brightly coloured due to the appearance of its natural animal coloration in the absence of the darker, green/brown, zooxanthellae. Though bleaching may be caused by a variety of stresses (freshwater, ultra-violet light), the recent widespread bleaching observed globally is the result of prolonged periods (few weeks or more) of elevated temperature 1-20C above average sea temperatures.

Historically, published records of coral reef bleaching incidents from 1870 to present suggest that the frequency, scale and severity of recent bleaching events are unprecedented. There have been 60 major events from 1979 to 1990 globally (Glynn, 1993) with four of the most severe occurring in French Polynesia in 1994; Maldives and Indian Ocean in 1997/98; the Great Barrier Reef and Palau in 1998 and, Fiji, Tonga and Cook Islands in 2000. There has been a co-occurrence in many coral reef regions and often over the bathymetric depth range of corals with > 95% mortality in some areas.

Causes of small scale bleaching events can often be attributed to particular stresses but the widespread effect is certainly from elevated temperatures caused by maximum seasonal solar heating and calm clear weather allowing the sea surface to heat up. Global temperature satellite surveillance by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA) has revealed areas of elevated sea surface temperatures, which exceed the average sea temperatures for periods of time and are characterized by a bleaching event. A constant referred to as Degree Heat Weeks (DHW) is now being tested to determine the extent of bleaching as the result of both degree of elevation over the average, and length of warming period. In the Maldive Islands situation (Wilkinson et al. 1999) and currently in Fiji, the satellite assessment of hotspots was very accurate in determining the areas and degree of bleaching that occurred.

Given the projected elevation of temperatures (1-20C) over the next 30 years (Manabe et al. 1991), there is concern that the upper thermal tolerance limits of many reef-building corals could be exceeded. Many corals may be unable to adapt physiologically or genetically to such marked and rapid temperature increases. Coral bleaching around the world would increase in frequency and severity, occurring annually by 2030, unless global warming is reversed. Depending on its severity, a single bleaching event will take reefs from 30 to 100 years to recover. If there is unrestrained warming, then the coral fauna will be progressively reduced and require a much longer recovery time. Genetic accommodation, replacement by heat resistant species and/or global cooling would ameliorate the effects of bleaching (Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999).

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The South Pacific bleaching event currently underway was the result of the warming of a band of oceanic water extending eastward from Fiji to Easter Island and included the Cook Islands and Tonga. Bleaching has occurred in all of those places.

In Fiji, bleaching is 90 % in some areas. Only a few species remain unaffected. The effect is not uniform with less bleaching in the far northern part of the group. Other areas of the country for some unknown reason appear less affected. The bleaching is mainly confined to shallower than 30 m and is not widespread at 40 m.

5.3.1.1 Future Bleaching Events In 1997-98 the hottest recorded average sea temperatures were recorded in the Indian Ocean and this effect extended throughout the Indian Ocean to varying degrees. The South East Asian area was affected with particular devastating consequence on the coral reefs of Palau. In some places, the coral mortality was >95 %. Coral reefs became algal reefs.

In the worst-case scenario, events as severe as 1998 are now projected to become commonplace by 2020. Globally, coral reefs will be subjected to bleaching every year by 2030. During the past 100 years the gradually increasing sea temperatures have been pushing the reefs closer to their tolerance levels, so now even the slightest increase in temperature can cause coral bleaching. This was witnessed in the Solomon Islands this year.

The question remains as to how well the corals will adapt to the hotter conditions. Corals are not showing any sign they can adapt fast enough to keep pace with changes in ocean temperature. Most of the evidence indicates bleaching events are signs that the genetic ability of corals to acclimatize is currently being exceeded (Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999). Natural selection may prevail with the alteration in the species composition of the affected reefs.

5.3.2 Rising sea-level

Sea levels have fluctuated widely in the geologic past. Since the last ice age, sea level has been relatively stable. However, during the past 20 years, concern has been expressed in the scientific community that the atmosphere may be warming, and causing sea levels to rise catastrophically, with the melting of polar ice.

If sea level change is a reality, it will have dramatic effects on coastal communities throughout the world. Although, coral reefs may be able to continue their upward growth with little real change in reef communities. However, there are limits to the rate of effective upward growth. Coral reefs represent a variety of locations and their growth rates also vary. Some may have growth retarded due to factors such as chronic turbidity. Reefs which occur at depth grow more slowly and may be approaching the Darwin Point (Grigg, 1982) where they may ‘drown’ due to tectonic submergence.

5.4 Crown-of-Thorns Starfish (Acanthaster planci)

Natural influences on coral reefs include the presence of increases numbers of Acanthaster planci. They have been reported in the past on reefs in Tarawa, Abaiang and Kiritimati (Edmondson, 1946). Plagues of crown-of-thorns (COT) have been recorded in the 1970’s (Weber and Woodhead, 1972). Elevated numbers of crown-of-thorns (COT) were surveyed at Makin atoll (Yeeting, 1989). During the fishery survey on Butaritari, the Fisheries monitoring team observed elevated numbers of COT’s inside the lagoon. On Kiritimati, during a biodiversity survey, abundant COT’S were observed inside the conservation area.

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [82]

5.5 Pollution

Johannes et al. (1979) determined fecal contamination in Tarawa lagoon to be a public health hazard with the contamination of edible shellfish but that sewage and other pollution were not having an effect on the rest of the ecosystem. They cautioned that the construction of the Bairiki-Betio causeway would only aggravate the problem by reducing lagoon flushing. In addition the blocking of the sea access may affect the breeding cycle of food fish and thus reduce their abundance.

Rapid urbanization and inadequate sewage disposal facilities causes sewage pollution and extremely high fecal coliform concentrations in bivalves in Tarawa lagoon (Johannes et al. 1979). However, Kimmerer and Walsh (1981) suggested that nutrients from sewage (10g- at/day/person x 8000 residents = 80 kg-at/day) did not contribute significantly to the total nitrogen budget for south Tarawa lagoon compared to the nitrogen flux from enriched equatorial seawater estimated at 21 kg-at/day for the southern lagoon and 55 kg-at/day for the Northern lagoon. However, the population of Tarawa (30,000; SPREP 1992) has almost quadrupled since the time of that study and the lagoon nutrient budget is currently being re- evaluated.” (Hunter and Stephenson 1999).

There are no waste storage facilities on the islands apart from septic systems and most of the waste from major urban centers such as Bikenibeu, Bairiki and Betio are disposed directly to the sea.

5.6 Foreshore Development

Causeway construction, to develop road transport, has altered lagoon circulation. The blocking or narrowing of the natural waterways may adversely impact lagoon fisheries (Makin and Marakei). In Butaritari and Tarawa, the construction of causeways may have resulted in the blocking of spawning migration routes of adult lagoon species and prevented recruitment of larval fish from the ocean into the lagoon. Land fill and foreshore reclamation has given rise to coastal alteration and erosion (Howorth and Woodward, 1995; Forbes and Hosoi, 1995). The use of coral for constructing walls causes the depletion of habitat and is now illegal in Tarawa. Channel blasting, to facilitate waterborne transport, has created a need for guidelines and impact assessment.

Coastal erosion is a problem in Kiribati particularly in the urban areas. Most of it is a consequence of unregulated human activity, which has caused a change in the balance of the natural coastal processes. These include unguided construction and inappropriate design of sea walls built to reclaim land from the foreshore or to protect the shoreline. Other examples are the removal of rock, sand and gravel from the beach for construction purposes. The cutting down of mangroves and coastal vegetation is also a problem (SPREP, 1999).

Port construction may increase sedimentation locally. The increased shipping may result in a greater frequency of fuel and oil spills as well as groundings. Increased pollution of the harbour and the lagoon may result from fish processing waste and human sewage.

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [83]

6.0 DISCUSSION

Atoll formation is due to the sinking of a high island leaving a coral reef growing on the submerged seamount, according to Darwin’s subsidence theory (1842). The barrier reef surrounding the island eventually becomes the rim of the atoll. Subsequent deposition on this rim creates island formation about the perimeter. Only prolonged subsidence results in atoll formation. Atolls are concentrated in the older central Pacific including most of the islands of Kiribati.

Atolls have more ecological diversity than other reef types because of the variety of habitats. They lack the nutrient run-off from land characteristic of high islands. They are not as sheltered from large waves. During episodes of sea-level fall, reef flat and lagoon habitat can disappear limiting coral growth to the seaward fringes. As a result, species diversity is lower for atolls compared to barrier reef systems due to long periods of fewer specialized habitats. Isolation through distance and current regimes retards immigration from other more diverse reef areas (Maragos and Holthus 1999).

6.1 Current State

The coral reefs of Tarawa and Abaiang are healthy. For the most part, they are unaffected by the problems affecting other coral reefs in the region such as crown-of-thorns infestations, coral bleaching, or eutrophication of reefs.

The apparently degraded reef at Bikenibeu may have resulted from sewage discharge. Alteration of coastal processes through the development of the Betio-Bairiki causeway resulted in the severe erosion and disappearance of Bikeman I. Destructive fishing methods such as coral breakage remain a chronic problem.

7.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Survey and Monitoring Program

Develop a survey and monitoring program for Tarawa and Abaiang based on prioritized objectives of general survey for marine and conservation area assessment, fisheries assessment and monitoring. Participate in the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) and the Reef Check program.

7.2 Capacity Building

Develop a coral reef survey and monitoring program to develop the Fisheries Division capability. Provide facilities and training for the use of email and access to the Internet for information. Continue to add to the coral collection and include other benthos. With this facility and active field program, increase the capability of the survey and monitoring staff in benthic identification.

7.3 Information Systems

Buy the ReefBase CD as a coral reef information resource. Use the information gained from this survey and others to support ReefBase, an encyclopedic resource to catalogue the grey literature and other information for use in an interactive form by Fisheries personnel. Support for the PIMRIS system of bibliographic cataloguing.

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [84]

7.4 Catalogue of Reefs and Organisms

There is a need to establish a database of coral reefs and marine organisms initially for the purposes of the survey work as well as for a more complete inventory of the marine biodiversity. Following are selected texts required to achieve this.

7.5 Fisheries Division Coral Reef Library

Purchase the following texts for use in the monitoring and survey program:

Coral: Scleractinia

Veron J. E. N. 1986: Coral of Australia and the Indo-Pacific. Angus and Robertson. ISBN 0 207 15116 4.

Veron J. E. N. & Pichon, M. 1976: Scleractinia of eastern Australia, Part 1: Families Thamnasteriidae, Astrocoenidae, Pocilloporidae. Aust. Ins. M ar. Sci., Monogr. Ser. 1, 86pp.

Veron J. E. N., Pichon M. & Wijsman-Best M. 1977: Scleractinia of eastern Australia, Part 2: Families Faviidae, Trachyphyllidae. Aust. Ins. Mar. Sci., Monogr. Ser. 3, 232pp.

Veron J. E. N. & Pichon M. 1979: Scleractinia of eastern Australia, Part 3 Families Agariciidae, Siderastreidae, Fungiidae, Oculinidae, Merulinidae, Mussidae, Pectinidae, Caryophyllidae, Dendrophylliidae. Aust. Inst. Mar. Sci., Monogr. Ser. 4, 422pp.

Veron J. E. N. & Pichon M. 1982: Scleractinia of eastern Australia, Part 4: Family Poritidae, Aust. Ins. Mar. Sci., Monogr. Ser. 5, 159pp.

Veron J. E. N. & Wallace C. C. 1984: Scleractinia of eastern Australia, Part 5: Families Acroporidae. Aust. Ins. Mar. Sci., Monogr. Ser. 6, 485pp.

Wallace C.C. 1999. Staghorn Corals of the World. A Revision of the Genus Acropora CSIRO Publishing 1999 ISBN 0 643 063900

Wallace C.C. 1999. Staghorn Corals of the World. A Key to Species of Acropora CD- ROM. CSIRO Publishing 1999 ISBN 0 643 06391 9

The first of this list and the last two are the most important. Very soon Corals of the World by J.E.N. Veron and M. Stafford-Smith will be published by the Australian Institute of Marine Science, 3 volumes (ISBN nos.: Vol. 1: 0 642 32236 8; Volume 2: 0 642 32237 6; Volume 3: 0 642 32238 4) and will prove a valuable addition.

Other coral reef organisms:

Allen G.R. and Steene R. (1994). Indo-Pacific Coral Reef Field Guide. Tropical Reef Research. ISBN: 981-00-5687-7.

Colin, P. L. & Arneson, C., 1995: A Field Guide to the Marine Invertebrates Occurring on Tropical Pacific Coral Reefs, Seagrass Beds and Mangroves. Tropical Pacific Invertebrates. San Diego: Coral Reef Press.

George, D. & J. George, 1979: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Invertebrates in the Sea Marine Life.

[SOPAC Technical Report 310 – Lovell] [85]

Gulko, D. Hawaiian Coral Reef Ecology. Mutual Publishing. pp. 245.

Gosliner T.M., Behrens D.W., and Williams, G.C. 1996 Coral Reef Animals of the Indo-Pacific. A Sea Challengers Publication. Monterey, Calif. ISBN 0-930118-21-9

Mather P, and Bennett I. (1993). A Coral Reef Handbook. Surrey, Beatty and Sons. ISBN 0 949324 47 7.

7.6 Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA)

Require an EIA for proposed developments with the potential to cause adverse impacts on coral reef fisheries and general biota such as channel and causeway construction. Evaluation of alternatives, mitigation and monitoring are necessary components. The incidence of ciguatera, decline in fisheries and coastal erosion (Bikeman I.) are effects of inappropriate development where mitigation of the impacts must be considered.

7.7 Marine Protected Areas

Establish coral reef protected areas on both Tarawa and Abaiang. The grouper protection on other atolls in the Gilbert Group should be extended to these atolls. A policy for marine protection should be developed in areas of high anthropogenic stress such as South Tarawa.

8.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anon. (1999). Baseline Marine Biological Survey, Peacock Point Outfall and other Point-Source Discharges, Wake Atoll, Pacific Ocean. Report to the Department of Army by the Department of Interior, Fisheries and Wildlife Service (NMFS). Honolulu, Hawaii. 23 p.

Bagnis, R. 1973. Fish Poisoning in the South Pacific. South Pacific Commission.

Banner, A.H. and Randall, J.E. (1952). Preliminary Report on Marine Biology Study of Onotoa Atoll, Gilbert Islands. Part 1 & 2 Atoll Research Bull. 13.

Birkeland, C., Randall, R. and S. Amesbury 1994 Coral and reef-fish assessment of the Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Report to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. 126 pp.

Bolton, L.A. (1982) The Intertidal Fauna of the Southern Tarawa Atoll Lagoon, Republic of Kiribati. Atoll Research Unit Tanaea, Tarawa.

Catala, R.L.A. (1957). Report on the Gilbert Islands. Some aspects of Human Ecology. Atoll Res. Bull. 59.

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