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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR may be warranted, we make a species is warranted, and opened a 60- finding within 12 months of the date of day period to allow all interested parties Fish and Wildlife Service receipt of the petition. In this finding, an opportunity to provide comments we determine whether the petitioned and information on the status of these 50 CFR Part 17 action is: (a) Not warranted, (b) 12 species. The public comment period [FWS–R9–ES–2011–0071; MO 92210–0–0010 warranted, or (c) warranted, but closed on September 14, 2009. B6] immediate proposal of a regulation On July 21, 2010, a settlement implementing the petitioned action is agreement was approved by the Court Endangered and Threatened Wildlife precluded by other pending proposals to (CV–10–357, D. D.C.) in which the and Plants; 12-Month Finding on a determine whether species are Service agreed to submit to the Federal Petition To List Two South American threatened or endangered, and Register by July 29, 2011; September 30, Species expeditious progress is being made to 2011; and November 30, 2011, add or remove qualified species from respectively, determinations on whether AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, the Federal Lists of Endangered and the petitioned action is warranted, not Interior. Threatened Wildlife and Plants. Section warranted, or warranted but precluded ACTION: 12-month finding. 4(b)(3)(C) of the Act requires that we by other listing actions for no fewer than treat a petition for which the requested four of the petitioned species. On SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and action is found to be warranted but August 9, 2011, the Service published in Wildlife Service, announce a status precluded as though resubmitted on the the Federal Register a 12-month status review (12-month finding) on a petition date of such finding, that is, requiring a review and proposed rule for the to list the blue-headed subsequent finding to be made within following four parrot species: Crimson ( couloni) and grey-cheeked 12 months. We must publish these 12- shining parrot, Philippine cockatoo, parakeet (Brotogeris pyrrhoptera) as month findings in the Federal Register. white cockatoo, and yellow-crested threatened or endangered under the cockatoo (76 FR 49202). Endangered Species Act of 1973, as Previous Federal Actions amended (Act). After review of all Current Action Petition History available scientific and commercial In this status review, we make a information, we find that listing the On January 31, 2008, the Service determination whether the petitioned blue-headed macaw or grey-cheeked received a petition dated January 29, action is warranted, not warranted, or parakeet is not warranted at this time. 2008, from Friends of , as warranted but precluded by other listing However, we ask the public to submit to represented by the Environmental Law actions for the blue-headed macaw and us any new information that becomes Clinic, University of Denver, Sturm grey-cheeked parakeet. This Federal available concerning the threats to these College of Law, requesting we list 14 Register document complies, in part, species or their habitat at any time. parrot species under the Act. The with the second deadline in the court- DATES: The finding announced in this petition clearly identified itself as a approved settlement agreement document was made on October 12, petition and included the requisite mentioned above. 2011. information required in the Code of Federal Regulations (50 CFR 424.14(a)). Species Information and Factors ADDRESSES: This finding is available on On July 14, 2009 (74 FR 33957), we Affecting the Species the Internet at http:// published a 90-day finding in which we www.regulations.gov at Docket Number Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533) determined that the petition presented and implementing regulations (50 CFR FWS–R9–ES–2011–0071. Supporting substantial scientific and commercial documentation we used in preparing part 424) set forth procedures for adding information to indicate that listing may species to, removing species from, or this finding is available for public be warranted for 12 of the 14 parrot inspection, by appointment, during reclassifying species on the Federal species. Lists of Endangered and Threatened normal business hours at the U.S. Fish In our 90-day finding on this petition, and Wildlife Service, Endangered Wildlife and Plants. Under section we announced the initiation of a status 4(a)(1) of the Act, a species may be Species Program, 4401 North Fairfax review under the Act to list as Drive, Room 420, Arlington, VA 22203. determined to be endangered or threatened or endangered the following threatened based on any of the FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: 12 parrot species: following five factors: Janine Van Norman, Chief, Branch of Blue-headed macaw (Primolius couloni) (A) The present or threatened Foreign Species, Endangered Species Crimson shining parrot (Prosopeia destruction, modification, or Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, splendens) curtailment of its habitat or range; 4401 North Fairfax Drive, Room 420, Great green macaw ( ambiguus) (B) Overutilization for commercial, Arlington, VA 22203; telephone 703– Grey-cheeked parakeet (Brotogeris recreational, scientific, or educational 358–2171. If you use a pyrrhoptera) purposes; telecommunications device for the deaf ( (C) Disease or predation; (TDD), call the Federal Information hyacinthinus) (D) The inadequacy of existing Relay Service (FIRS) at 800–877–8339. (Ara militaris) regulatory mechanisms; or SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Philippine cockatoo (Cacatua (E) Other natural or manmade factors haematuropygia) affecting its continued existence. Background Red-crowned parrot (Amazona In considering whether a species may Section 4(b)(3)(B) of the Endangered viridigenalis) warrant listing under any of the five Species Act (Act) (16 U.S.C. 1531 et (Ara macao) factors, we look beyond the species’ seq.) requires that, for any petition to White cockatoo (C. alba) exposure to a potential threat or revise the Federal Lists of Endangered Yellow-billed parrot (Amazona collaria) aggregation of threats under any of the and Threatened Wildlife and Plants that Yellow-crested cockatoo (C. sulphurea) factors, and evaluate whether the contains substantial scientific or We initiated this status review to species responds to those potential commercial information that listing the determine if listing each of the 12 threats in a way that causes actual

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impact to the species. The identification with no significant association with causing a bias towards areas affected by of threats that might impact a species forest type, riverine habitats, degree of trapping and underestimating negatively may not be sufficient to disturbance, or altitude. Records of the abundance. Furthermore, much of the compel a finding that the species blue-headed macaw occur in both global range has yet to be surveyed warrants listing. The information must foothill regions and lowlands ranging in (Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, pp. 132– include evidence indicating that the elevation from 200 meters (m) (656 feet 133). threats are operative and, either singly (ft)) to 1,500 m (4,921 ft), and in a wide BLI (2011a, unpaginated), based on or in aggregation, affect the status of the range of habitats, including terra firme Tobias and Brightsmith (2007, pp. 126– species. Threats are significant if they forests (forests not inundated by flood 138), reports that the population is drive, or contribute to, the risk of waters), mature floodplain forests, declining at a slow-to-moderate and extinction of the species, such that the successional river edge forests, and ongoing pace. However, Brightsmith species warrants listing as endangered Mauritia palm swamps. One study (2009, pers. comm.) notes that this or threatened, as those terms are defined found that this species was slightly conclusion is not based on real evidence in the Act. more common in degraded areas than in from wild populations. In fact, Tobias Below is a species-by-species pristine forests (Brightsmith 2009, and Brightsmith (2007, p. 134) and description and analysis of the five personal communication (pers. comm.); Brightsmith (2009, pers. comm.) note factors. The species are considered in Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, pp. 126, that based on sightings data, there is no alphabetical order, beginning with the 129–130). evidence of a decline in range or blue-headed macaw, followed by the The estimated total global range for numbers of blue-headed in the grey-cheeked parakeet. this species is 609,494 square kilometers wild and that the possibility that the (km2) (235,326 square miles (mi2)) and blue-headed macaw is increasing with I. Blue-Headed Macaw (Primolius spans large areas of remote and the spread of degraded forests along couloni) unexplored terrain. The extent of rivers cannot be discounted (Tobias and Species Description occurrence (the global range, excluding Brightsmith 2007, pp. 132–133). disjunctions and major areas of Hennessey (2011, per. comm.) also notes The blue-headed macaw is a small inappropriate habitat) has been that populations in Peru and Bolivia species of macaw belonging to the calculated as 460,000 km2 (177,606 have remained healthy. There is no family , the parrot family. It mi2), an area larger than previously place within its range where this species measures approximately 41 centimeters thought (Brightsmith 2009, pers. comm.; has been searched intensively and does (cm) (16 inches (in)) in length. Average Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, pp. 126, not occur (Brightsmith 2009, pers. male and female wing length measures 129, 133). However, the extent of comm.). At the Tambopata Research approximately 226 millimeters (mm) occurrence may be underestimated, as Center, blue-headed macaws have been (8.9 in) and 220 mm (8.6 in), data is lacking from Brazil, the global steadily increasing since the year 2000 respectively. Average tail lengths for range is more than 90 percent forested, (Brightsmith 2009, pers. comm.). males and females measure 223 mm (8.7 and data suggest anthropogenic Sightings of the blue-headed macaw in in) and 204 mm (8.0 in), respectively pressures have not eliminated this Peru have also increased in the past 10 (Forshaw 1973, p. 386). There is little species from any large areas (Tobias and years (Brightsmith 2009, pers. comm.). sexual dimorphism between males and Brightsmith 2007, p. 129). Brightsmith Additionally, the lowlands of females (Lee 2010, p. 5). Adults are (2009, pers. comm.) notes that the blue- southeastern Peru, the core of the characterized by green general plumage headed macaw is not absent from any species’ range, are the home of a wide with slightly more yellowish portion of its historical range. variety of international research underparts. The entire head, except for In 1990, Lambert et al. (2003, as cited stations; parrot populations are the grey bare facial area, is blue. in Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, p. 127) monitored annually, so if the blue- Primaries and primary-coverts (wing estimated the global population of blue- headed macaw begins to decline, the ) are blue and secondaries and headed macaws to be 10,000 research community would note this outermost upper wing-coverts are blue individuals. In 2003, Gilardi estimated and begin specific protection and edged with green. The upperside of the the global population to be well under recovery actions (Brightsmith 2009, tail is blue, whereas the undersides of 1,000 mature individuals; BLI revised pers. comm.). flight and tail feathers are a dusky the global estimate to 1,000–2,499 The diet of the blue-headed macaw yellow. The bill is grey-black, which mature individuals in 2005 (Tobias and has not been observed; however, becomes horn-colored on the culmen Brightsmith 2007, p. 127). It is unclear generally feed on seeds, ripe and unripe (the upper ridge of the bill) and at the why population estimates have varied, fruit, and flowers, but may also utilize tip of the upper mandible. The iris is but may be due to few published other plant parts, such as nectar, leaves, yellow, and legs are flesh-pink. sources, anecdotal accounts, poor data and bark (Lee 2010, p. 6; Brightsmith Immature blue-headed macaws have not quality (Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, p. 2006, p. 2; Cowen no date (n.d.), pp. 5, been described (Forshaw 1973, p. 386). 127), or differences in methodology. The 17). Cowen (n.d., p. 16) found that a The blue-headed macaw occurs most recent data suggest that this psittacine community, which included mainly in eastern Peru, in the species occurs at a conservative density the blue-headed macaw, mainly fed on departments of Loreto, Hua´nuco, Pasco, of one mature individual per 10–50 km2 three tree species: Ochroma pyramidale Ucayali, Cusco, Madre de Dios, (3.0–19.3 mi2); using the calculated (balsa), Euterpe precatoria (a species of Ayacucho, Puno, and Junı´n; but it also 460,000 km2 extent of occurrence, palm), and Cecropia peltata (trumpet occurs just inside the border of extreme Tobias and Brightsmith (2007, p. 126) tree). This species may undergo some western Brazil, in the States of Acre and estimate the population to be 9,200– form of nomadism to track food across Rondoˆnia, and just inside the border of 46,000 mature individuals and 11,500– the landscape (Tobias and Brightsmith northern Bolivia, in the departments 57,500 individuals if immature are 2007, p. 132). Parrots may travel a few Pando, Beni, and La Paz (BirdLife included (Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, kilometers to hundreds of kilometers in International (BLI) 2011a, unpaginated; p. 133). Most of the 61 localities where search of food resources (Lee 2010, p. 8). Tobias and Brightsmith 2007b, pp. 1–6). this species has been recorded are easily Because parrots feed primarily on fruits It has been recorded from 61 localities, accessible by road or river, potentially and flowers, they are linked to the

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fruiting and flowering patterns of trees; reported to have 53 and 60 individuals, which generally precludes commercial fluctuations in abundance and respectively (Tobias and Brightsmith trade. availability of these food sources may 2007, p. 131–132). Few courtship Summary of Factors Affecting the Blue- change diets, result in movements to displays have been described for Headed Parrot areas with greater food availability, and parrots, but are assumed to be simple influence local seasonal patterns of and include actions such as bowing, A. Present or Threatened Destruction, abundance (BLI 2011a, unpaginated; Lee wing-drooping, wing-flicking, tail- Modification, or Curtailment of Habitat 2010, p. 7; Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, wagging, and foot raising (Austin 1961, or Range p. 132; Brightsmith 2006, p. 2; Renton p. 33). Most parrot species are One of the main threats to neotropical 2002, p. 17; Cowen n.d., pp. 5, 23). In monogamous and remain paired for long parrot species, in general, is some locations within its range, the periods of time, even for life. The age at deforestation (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 98). blue-headed macaw is not considered which parrots reach sexual maturity The Amazon region has the world’s uncommon and is recorded throughout varies but, in general, is between 3 and highest absolute rate of deforestation the year, but appears scarce in others or 4 years in larger species and 1 to 2 years (Laurance et al. 2002, p. 738) and is varies seasonally in response to food in smaller species (Austin 1961, p. 32). currently threatened by increasing legal availability (BLI 2011a, unpaginated). In captivity, the age in which the and illegal logging, road projects, Geophagy, the intentional species is able to breed ranges from 2.5 conversion of forests to agriculture, consumption of soil, is known for to 5 years (Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, cattle ranching, oil and gas extraction, parrots (Brightsmith 2004a, p. 534). In p. 132). The nesting season of the blue- and mining (Lee 2010, p. 2; MacLeod , parrots, including the headed macaw is not known, but for blue-headed macaw, gather at other species of parrots and macaws 2009, p. 6; Cowen 2007, p. 9; Magrin et riverbanks to consume soil; these sites found at the same site, the nesting al. 2007, p. 590; Tobias and Brightsmith are referred to as ‘‘clay licks’’ season runs from June to November and 2007, p. 134; Hume et al. 2006, p. 10; (Brightsmith 2004c, pp. 134, 137; November to March, respectively Asner et al. 2005, p. 480; Alverson et al. Brightsmith 2004b, p. 5; Brightsmith (Brightsmith 2006, pp. 7, 9). Although 2001, p. 113; Laurance et al. 2001, p. 2004a, p. 535). Clay lick usage by blue- nesting has not been recorded for the 309; Snyder et al. 2000, p. 98; Nepstad headed macaws is regular at several blue-headed macaw, most parrots use et al. 1999, p. 505). However, in western sites, and occurs year-round at natural tree cavities or cavities within Amazonia, especially in Peru and Tambopata, Peru (Tobias and cliffs (Lee 2010, p. 4). This species is Bolivia where this species occurs, the Brightsmith 2007, p. 131). There have reported to have low reproductive proportion of forest cover is still high been many theories proposed to explain output in the wild (CITES 2002, p. 1), and large tracts of intact forests continue why birds consume soil, including but this may be based on little data to exist even though some forests have mineral supplementation, mechanical (Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, p. 32). In been cleared around some major towns aid to digestion, pH buffering, treatment captivity, the clutch size for blue- (Finer et al. 2008, pp. 1, 6; Tobias and for endoparasites, and adsorption of headed macaws is reported to be 2–4 Brightsmith 2007, p. 134; Kometter et al. dietary toxins (Brightsmith 2004c, p. eggs (Vit 1997, as reported in Tobias and 2004, p. 6). Information on the extent of 143; Brightsmith 2004b, p. 1; Brightsmith 2007, p. 132). Female deforestation within the States or Brightsmith 2004a, p. 534–535). The parrots generally incubate the eggs and departments where the blue-headed reasons for soil selection may vary, with rely on the male for food, although in macaw occurs is limited; most sites depending on the needs of the some species the males contribute to information is at the national level and birds and the characteristics of the soils incubation (Lee 2010, p. 5; Austin 1961, may not necessarily apply to this present (Brightsmith 2004a, p. 542). p. 33). Parrot chicks are born blind and species, especially in Bolivia and Brazil Research in Peru has shown that parrots naked or with sparse down, which is where it occurs just inside the borders consume soil to obtain sodium (mineral white in most species. The young of of these countries. supplementation) and assist in the small parrots develop slowly and Logging adsorption of dietary toxins remain in the nest for 3–4 weeks (Austin (Brightsmith 2004c, p. 134; Brightsmith 1961, p. 33). Adult longevity in the wild Tropical forests, especially the 2004b, pp. 3–4; Brightsmith 2004a, pp. is unknown for the blue-headed macaw, Amazon, have experienced increasing 541–542). Furthermore, research but a congeneric (a species belonging to rates of deforestation for the past few conducted at the Tambopata Research the same taxonomic as another decades, largely for the conversion of Center in Peru found that local clay lick species), the blue-winged macaw land to food crops or pastures, and use by parrots varied seasonally, with (Primolius maracana), is reported to live selective harvesting of timber has low use occurring at a time when at least 31 years in captivity (Tobias and increased in rate and extent (Granoff parrots appear to leave the area due to Brightsmith 2007, p. 132). 2008, p. 553; Asner et al. 2005, p. 480; low fruit availability and peaks Laurance 1999, p. 112; Laurence 1998, occurring during the breeding season p. 411). (Brightsmith 2004b, p. 3). Peak clay lick The blue-headed macaw is currently Selective logging targets older, larger use coincided with the breeding season classified as ‘‘vulnerable’’ by the trees that parrot species depend on for when adults feed clay to young chicks International Union for the nesting and food (Cowen 2007, p. 9; during the period of maximum growth Conservation of Nature and listed in Hume et al. 2006, p. 11). The loss of and least resistance to natural toxins Appendix I of the Convention on these keystone trees may pose a threat found in their diet (Brightsmith 2004b, International Trade in Endangered to parrot populations by creating a p. 4). Species of Wild Fauna and Flora shortage of suitable nesting sites, The blue-headed macaw is reported to (CITES). Species included in CITES increasing competition, and causing the occur in pairs or groups of three. Appendix I are the most endangered loss of current generations through an However, groups of 4 or more are CITES-listed species. They are increase in infanticide and egg routinely reported throughout the range, considered threatened with extinction, destruction (Lee 2010, pp. 2, 12). If not groups of 10 or more have been reported and international trade is permitted managed correctly, selective logging from 13 localities, and 2 groups were only under exceptional circumstances, may also cause widespread collateral

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damage to remaining trees, subcanopy increasing with the spread of degraded range of this species, data suggest that vegetation, and soils (Asner et al. 2005, forests along rivers cannot be these concessions could provide forests p. 480). An additional 10 to 40 percent discounted (Tobias and Brightsmith with protection against deforestation. of the living biomass of a forest may be 2007, pp. 132–133) and Hennessey To date, the forests of Peru, including damaged by a poorly managed logging (2011, pers. comm.) has stated that the large areas within the range of the blue- harvest process (Nepstad et al. 1999, p. blue-headed macaw populations in Peru headed macaw, have mainly been 505) and can double the total amount of and Bolivia have remained healthy. subjected to selective logging (Salo and Toivonen 2009, p. 610; Tobias and forest degraded by human activities Peru (Asner et al. 2005, p. 481). The loss of Brightsmith 2007, p. 134; Fredericksen trees may influence the availability and With approximately 68 million 2003, p. 10), which has contributed to abundance of food sources for the blue- forested hectares (ha) (168 million acres only 2.5 percent of Peru’s overall headed macaw and may result in (ac)) covering 53 percent of its land area, deforestation (Salo and Toivonen 2009, changes in diet or movement to areas Peru has the second most extensive p. 610). Nonetheless, there are reports of with greater food availability. Although forests in Latin America, after Brazil illegal logging in Peru, including one individual blue-headed macaws, nests, (FAO 2011, p. 118; Salo and Toivonen study that found evidence of illegal or eggs may be affected by logging 2009, p. 610). In the early 2000s, logging within the Muruanahua Reserve activities, we have no information to Peruvian Amazonia experienced a series and Alto Puru´ s National Park in Peru, indicate impacts are occurring at a level of forestry reforms, including the which is a known location for the blue- affecting the status of the species. implementation of forest concessions headed macaw (Upper Amazon (forest leases), which led to a rush for Conservancy 2010, unpaginated; World Typically, logging involves a low rate newly allocated timber resources (Salo Wildlife Fund in Indian Country Today of extraction (less than 3 cubic meters and Toivonen 2009, p. 609; Oliveira et 2007, unpaginated). However, there is (m3) per ha (106 cubic feet (ft3) per ac) al. 2007, p. 2). More than 7 million ha no evidence that selective logging and, if implemented correctly, only (17.2 million acres; approximately 10 removes habitat for this species (Tobias removes as many trees as the forest can percent of the country’s forest) are now and Brightsmith 2007, p. 134). regenerate (Colitt 2010, unpaginated; designated as forest concessions in the Furthermore, it is possible that the blue- Rodrı´guez and Cubas 2010, p. 78). regions of Ucayali, Loreto, Madre de headed macaw could benefit from Because the valuable timber removed is Dios, San Martin, and Huanco; another logging given that frugivores tend to often very old, long intervals are needed 18 million ha (44.5 million ac; nearly a benefit from logging due to the increase for timber stands to recover from harvest quarter of Peruvian forests) are still in fruit availability, and lowland habitat (Laurance 1999, p. 114), and if potentially available for concession species, such as the blue-headed provisions are made for the regeneration designation in the near future macaw, do well in modified human of these commercial trees, the effects of (Rodrı´guez and Cubas 2010, p. 79; Salo environments if successional forests are logging on tree diversity and species and Toivonen 2009, pp. 609–610). left intact and poaching is controlled. In composition may be short-lived The aim of the forestry reform was to addition, species experts have stated (Fredericksen 2003, p. 10). In fact, if target issues such as control and that the possibility that the species is well managed, selective logging can enforcement of forestry activities, as increasing with the spread of degraded mimic natural disturbances, and if well as illegal forestry activities (Salo forests along rivers cannot be hunting pressure is low, most wildlife and Toivonen 2009, p. 610). Part of the discounted (Tobias and Brightsmith species can persist in logged forests or new forestry reform included a new 2007, pp. 132–133). Because the range recolonize harvested areas from nearby forestry law (See Factor D) which of the blue-headed macaw has remained unlogged patches (Laurance 1999, p. classified Peru’s forests into 6 90 percent forested and there is no 114). Studies have indicated a relatively categories, including permanent evidence of a decline in either the range minor impact on some wildlife species production forests. This category or population, we have no indication from logging, and among those that may includes those forests in which forest that selective logging or illegal logging actually benefit are frugivorous birds, concession contracts can be assigned. A has impacted the blue-headed macaw. such as the blue-headed macaw, due to concession contract gives the holder the Large areas within the range of the blue- the positive impact on fruit abundance right to exploit the resources within a headed macaw are slated for selective (Fredericksen 2003, p. 11). Additionally, given area, but also gives the holder logging (Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, p. frugivores usually tolerate fragmentation responsibility to manage the resources 134); however, because there is no better and are capable of using (Salo and Toivonen 2009, p. 611). evidence that selective logging removes deforested areas (Sekercioglu 2007, p. Studies have shown that forest habitat, and in fact the species may 285). Many parrots are not habitat concessions in Peru have provided benefit from selective logging, we have specialists and thrive in mosaics of forests with protection from no reason to believe that future selective different successional habitats (Snyder deforestation (Salo and Toivonen 2009, logging activities in Peru will be a threat et al. 2000, p. 99). Many species of p. 620; Oliveira et al. 2007, pp. 2–3). to this species. lowland forest habitat seem to do Although we do not know the exact In summary, we find that relatively well in modified human location of the recently designated 7 deforestation via current forest environments, as long as a mosaic of million ha (17.2 million acres) of forest concessions and selective logging have habitats in different successional stages concessions, they do not appear to have not impacted the status of the blue- is maintained and poaching and impacted the blue-headed macaw, given headed macaw based on the fact that the trapping are controlled (Snyder et al. that the range has remained 90 percent range has remained 90 percent forested 2000, p. 99). Although the blue-headed forested and there is no evidence in a and there is no evidence of a decline in macaw could potentially benefit from decline in the range or population of the range or population of this species. some logging activities, we found no this species. We do not know where the Although we do not know the locations information to what extent, if any, this 18 million ha (44.5 million ac) of of the forest concessions that may be species benefits from these activities. potential forest concessions are located designated in the future, if they are However, species experts have stated in regards to locations of blue-headed located within the range of the blue- that the possibility of the species macaw; however, if located within the headed macaw, they may provide

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protection to blue-headed macaw demand for illegal logging. Concessions on the effects of roads on deforestation habitat from deforestation. Furthermore, help establish control over public areas in the Brazilian Amazon have shown a we found no information indicating that usually occupied illegally (Colitt 2010, 30 percent forest loss within 10 km (6.2 the known areas of the blue-headed unpaginated). mi) of roads and highways, with macaw’s range that are slated for Logging is occurring in blue-headed highways causing an additional 20 selective logging will impact the status macaw habitat in extreme western percent forest loss within 11–25 km of the species; in fact, it is possible that Brazil, but this species is a generalist (6.8–15.5 mi), and 15 percent loss the species could benefit. Additionally, and can exist within degraded habitats. within 26–50 km (16–31 mi) (Zambrano there are several conservation programs Rondoˆnia and Acre are among Brazil’s et al. 2010, p. 158). Despite the being implemented in Peru to address major timber-production states (Asner et deforestation occurring along roads and deforestation (see Conservation al. 2005, p. 480); however, this species highways, the range of the blue-headed Programs below). Therefore, we have occurs just inside the border of western macaw is 90 percent forested, and we reason to believe that future Brazil and we found no information found no information indicating that the deforestation will not impact the status suggesting that the range or population species has been impacted by roads or of this species in Peru. of the blue-headed macaw have been any subsequent deforestation. In fact, impacted by logging in Brazil and no species experts (Hennessey 2011, pers. Bolivia information indicating logging may comm. and Tobias and Brightsmith Approximately 57.2 million ha (141.3 affect this species in the future. 2007, p. 134) indicate that this species million ac) (53 percent) of Bolivia’s total Large areas within the range of the is doing well, despite some localized area is forested (FAO 2011, p. 118); of blue-headed macaw have experienced, impacts from infrastructure and roads. this forested area, 38.9 million ha (96.1 or are slated for, selective logging The Initiative of the Integration of the million ac) are within the Bolivian (Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, p. 134), Regional Infrastructure of South Amazon and constitute 5 percent of the and designation of forest concessions America (IIRSA) is a plan endorsed by total Amazon forest (Locklin and Haack could potentially cause changes in land- the South American presidents, which 2003, p. 774). Large tracts of primary use practices, perhaps affecting plant includes around 350 infrastructure forest remain in Bolivia, but it is likely and wildlife species composition and projects, such as highways, bridges, that some of these will be subjected to diversity of an assigned area (Salo and railways, ports, airports, and logging (Fredericksen 2003, p. 13) as Toivonen 2009, p. 610; Fredericksen transmission corridors, to accomplish forest products contribute to Bolivia’s 2003, p. 10). However, BLI (2011a, regional economic integration and national exports (Byers and Israel 2008, unpaginated) reports that ‘‘much of the facilitate trade (Babbitt 2009, pp. 28– p. vi). As of 2006, 89 timber companies forest within the species’ range is still 29). At the center of this plan is the held the rights to 5.8 million ha (14.3 intact, and although the Bolivian forest nearly complete Transoceanic Highway, million ac) of logging concessions is threatened by expansion of the a 1,000-km (621.3-mi) highway that (Pacheco 2006, p. 208). The forests of logging industry, this species may connects the Brazilian State of Acre to Bolivia have mainly been subjected to benefit from the consequent patchwork the Peruvian coast, passing through selective logging (Salo and Toivonen clearance.’’ Puerto Maldonado (Garcia-Navarro 2009, p. 610; Fredericksen 2003, p. 10), Ninety percent of the range of the 2009, unpaginated; Babbitt 2009, p. 28; which has been done at very low levels blue-headed macaw remains forested, Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, p. 134) and with low human pressure, allowing and there is no evidence of a decline in and near several other locations in them to remain largely intact either the range or the population. which the blue-headed macaw has been (Fredericksen 2003, p. 10). There are Logging could affect individual blue- recorded, bisecting its range (Tobias and management issues that still need to be headed macaws though the loss of food Brightsmith 2007, p. 134). The blue- addressed, including sufficient or nesting resources; however, headed macaw occurs within the regeneration time for commercial considering the extent of intact forests immediate outskirts of Puerto species (Fredericksen 2003, p. 10). within the range of this macaw and no Maldonado, one of the areas with However, given that Bolivia constitutes evidence of a decline in the population significant disturbance, suggesting that only a small part of this species’ range, (Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, p. 134), this species is not greatly affected by and the fact that we found no as well as the possibility that the blue- anthropogenic pressures (Brightsmith information indicating that logging has headed macaw is increasing with the 2009, pers. comm.; Tobias and impacted the blue-headed macaw range spread of degraded forests along rivers Brightsmith 2007, p. 129). or population in any of its range (Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, pp. 132– Future urban expansion in Puerto countries, we have no reason to believe 133), we have no evidence to suggest Maldonado resulting from the highway that logging is a threat to the species in that logging is affecting the blue-headed may put pressure on the protected area Bolivia. Furthermore, we have no macaw to a degree that it is affecting the of Tambopata (Delgado 2008, p. 27), information indicating any future status of the species. Additionally, we where the blue-headed macaw has been logging activities will impact the blue- have no information to suggest that recorded. Although the Transoceanic headed macaw. logging may become a threat to the Highway is not located within Bolivia, status of the blue-headed macaw in the the connection between Cobija, Bolivia, Brazil future. and Brasile´ia, Brazil, allows Cobija, a Brazil contains 519.5 million ha (1.2 recorded location for the blue-headed billion ac) of forested area, 62 percent of Roads and Infrastructure macaw, to benefit from the road project the total land area (FAO 2011, p. 118). Oliveira et al. (2007, p. 2) estimated and potentially grow in the future Logging concessions total only 150,000 that 75 percent of the total Peruvian (Delgado 2008, p. 31). Additionally, ha (370,658 ac) (Colitt 2010, Amazon forest damage was within 20 IIRSA plans to build another highway unpaginated). However, by the end of km (12.4 mi) of the nearest road. In that would branch of from the 2010, Brazil was to have auctioned off Bolivia, studies have detected small- Transoceanic Highway in Rio Branco, an additional 1 million ha (2.5 million scale roadside deforestation extending the capital of Acre. If completed, this ac) of forest concessions to private over 30 km (18.6 mi) from major roads highway will run through the forests of companies in an effort to reduce the (Steininger et al. 2001, p. 132). Studies Serra do Divisor National Park, a known

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location for the blue-headed macaw conversion of forest via slash-and-burn the blue-headed macaw within its (Babbitt 2009, p. 31). In spite of this agriculture, although rates of limited range in Brazil, we do not information, we found no indication deforestation were relatively low believe that cattle production is that the range, habitat, or population of (Locklin and Haak 2003, pp. 775, 778). currently, or will be a threat to this the blue-headed macaw has been Forest clearance patterns of indigenous species, now or in the future. impacted by the Transoceanic Highway. communities practicing shifting Although the migration of settlers, Given that the species has not been cultivation have been observed, and the subsequent farming, has been adversely affected by road construction particularly along rivers, throughout named by some as a contributing factor or other infrastructure, we have no Beni, Pando, and La Paz (Steininger et to deforestation in Peru (Painter 2008, information suggesting that the status of al. 2001, p. 131). Reyes-Garcı´a et al. unpaginated; Hume et al. 2006, p. 3), we this species may be impacted in the (2007, p. 406) found that the Tsimane’, found little information on the extent of future by the Transoceanic Highway. a native Amazonian society within Beni, deforestation due to agriculture. In Although there has been road practice slash-and-burn agriculture and Manu´ National Park, 63,500 ha (156,911 development within Peru, Bolivia, and abandon their plots after one or two ac) of 1.7 million ha (4.2 million ac) Brazil, and individual blue-headed cultivation cycles to establish new plots. were deforested up to the year 2005 for macaws could potentially be affected by This society is also moving from agricultural activities (Cabieses 2009, p. road development through the loss of subsistence farming towards cash crops, 26). However, since 2006, the Integrated food and nesting resources, we have no which requires additional forest clearing Programme to Strengthen the Local information indicating that the status of and contributes to further deforestation Capacity of Small Farmers of the Manu´ the species has been adversely impacted (Reyes-Garcı´a et al. 2007, p. 407). We Biosphere Reserve Buffer Zone of Peru by this development in the past. The have no information indicating that the has worked with families within the range remains 90 percent forested and blue-headed macaw has been or will be park to foster activities compatible with there is no evidence that the range or impacted by agriculture in Bolivia, and organic farming and incorporate natural population has declined. Furthermore, given that Bolivia is such a small resource management into agricultural Brightsmith (2009, pers. comm.) notes portion of the species’ range, we have activities. By 2008, 530 families helped that although road construction and no reason to believe agricultural reforest 151 ha (373 ac) with mostly related deforestation may affect part of expansion is affecting or will affect this native species (Cabieses 2008, pp. 26– the blue-headed macaw’s range, habitat species at the population level. 27). In the area surrounding Cordillera analyses to date show no evidence that Current expansion of deforestation in Azul National Park (a recorded location deforestation will adversely affect the Bolivia Amazonia is also associated for the blue-headed macaw), the rate of species in the future. with cattle ranching (Pacheco 2006, p. deforestation due to the coffee and tea 216). Its contribution to deforestation is plantations and cereal grain farms Agriculture and Ranching expected to increase in the future due to (Chatterjee 2009, p. 557) has increased. Logging and modern roads facilitate topographical limitations of mechanized The core zone of the Park is largely free infiltration into pristine forests by agriculture. In Beni, the impacts of of human inhabitants, with the migrant settlers who use slash-and-burn cattle ranching may be a greater exception of one rancher with 220 ha methods for agriculture and cattle concern, as 65 percent of all the cattle (543.6 ac) of pasture and some reports pastures (Laurance 1998, p. 411). Slash- herds in Bolivia are located here of indigenous people in the and-burn agriculture involves the (Pacheco 2006, pp. 215–216). However, southeastern part of the Park. In 2008, clearing of land and burning of debris the species’ range in Bolivia is limited the Peruvian government granted a 20- (Locklin and Haack 2003, p. 775; to just inside the border and we have no year contract to the Peruvian NGO Nepstad et al. 1999, p. 505). Often, plots information indicating that the blue- Centro de Conservacio´n, Investigacio´n y are abandoned after only two or three headed macaw has been impacted, or Manejo de Areas Naturales Cordillera cycles, and then more forests are cleared could be impacted, by cattle ranching in Azue (CIMA) that allows CIMA to to establish new plots (Reyes-Garcı´a et that area of its range. manage the park under the supervision al. 2007, p. 406; Duery and Vlosky 2005, In Brazilian Amazonia, cattle of the State and according to clearly p. 10). Production may be limited to production is the dominate land use in defined guidelines. (Ostoic n.d., p. 1). In subsistence farming if roads are in poor deforested areas and is the main factor addition, we found no information condition or if the cost of transportation driving deforestation (Pacheco 2006, p. indicating agriculture in any of the is high. However, if roads are in good 223; Laurance 1999, p. 113; Fearnside range states has impacted, or will condition and provide access to 1996, p. 21). Large-scale ranchers (those impact, the blue-headed macaw, thus international and national markets, that own over 100 ha (247 ac)) are we do not believe it will impact the production may expand to cash crops thought to be responsible for 70–75 species in Peru, especially given the (Zambrano et al. 2010, p. 158; Locklin percent of all the deforestation in this limited and localized nature of and Haack 2003, p. 780). region (Laurance 1999, p. 113). agriculture activities. Agriculture is considered the main Furthermore, illegal slash-and-burn Agriculture and cattle ranching cause of deforestation in the lowlands of practices have already destroyed 20 activities are currently taking place Bolivia (Pacheco 2006, p. 215). With percent of the Brazilian Amazon (Colitt within the range of the blue-headed pressures for agriculture expansion, 2010, unpaginated). The States of macaw, especially within Bolivia and large areas are being cleared for both Rondoˆnia and Acre, where the blue- Brazil. However, given that these two soybean farms and cattle ranches headed macaw occurs, are currently countries make up a minimal part of the (Pacheco 2006, pp. 213, 216; Duery and experiencing conversions of forest for species range, it is unlikely to have any Vlosky 2005, p. 10; TNC 2001, agriculture and cattle ranching (Tobias effect on the species. Although it is unpaginated: Laurance 1998, p. 411). and Brightsmith 2007, p. 134). However, possible that individual blue-headed The San Buenaventura-Puerto Heath given this species’ limited range just macaws could be affected by these road runs through the Madidi National inside the border of Brazil and its ability activities through the loss of food or Park, a known location of the blue- to thrive in altered habitat, coupled with nesting resources, we have no headed macaw. The greatest human- no information indicating that cattle information indicating the species has caused impact along this road was the ranching has impacted, or will impact, been adversely impacted by either

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activity; in fact, the blue-headed macaw In Bolivia and Brazil, areas open to oil resources, there is no evidence of a seems to benefit from some fragmented and gas explorations are increasing decline in the range or population of the habitat. There is no evidence of a rapidly (Finer et al. 2008, p. 2). In blue-headed macaw, and we have no decline in the range or population of the Bolivia, two leased blocks, covering information indicating that the species blue-headed macaw and 90 percent of 15,000 km2 (5,791 mi2), include large has been adversely impacted by oil and the species’ range remains forested. parts of Madidi National Park, a gas exploration. Furthermore, we have Both agriculture and cattle ranching are recorded location for the blue-headed no information to indicate that the expected to expand in the future; macaw, as well as other parks where the species will be impacted by future oil however, we have no information on the blue-headed macaw has not been and gas exploration. extent of this expansion and no recorded; exploration in this region is Mining information indicating either activity imminent. The primary task of a newly will be a threat to the species in the created oil company, comprised of the Over the last decade, the price of gold future. State oil companies of Bolivia and has increased 360 percent, with an Venezuela, is to explore for oil in newly annual rate of increase of approximately Oil and Gas created blocks surrounding Madidi 18 percent; subsequently, the number of The western Amazon contains large National Park. Many other blocks in non-industrial gold mining operations reserves of oil and gas, many that are yet Bolivia overlap with protected areas in developing countries has risen untapped (Finer et al. 2008, p. 1). Global (Finer et al. 2008, p. 5). We have no (Swenson et al. 2011, p. 1). Many of demand for energy and record oil prices information indicating that the blue- these operations are illegal, as they are have launched unprecedented levels of headed macaw has been adversely set up by residents without permits or oil and gas exploration and extraction in impacted by oil and gas exploration in formal title to the land, and without an western Amazonia, with some of the Bolivia; species experts have indicated environmental impact analysis or miner most intense activity occurring in Peru that there is no evidence of a decline in education (Swenson et al. 2011, p. 1). (Kolowski and Alonso 2010, p. 917; the range or population of the blue- In Peru, the expansion of gold mining Babbitt 2009, p. 31; Finer et al. 2008, headed macaw (Tobias and Brightsmith has been encouraged by the p. 1). 2007, p. 134) . Furthermore, we do not Transoceanic Highway, which has have information to indicate that the National governments have delineated drawn impoverished Peruvians into the species will be impacted by future oil specific areas, or blocks, that are zoned lowlands in search of a livelihood and for hydrocarbon (e.g., natural gas and and gas exploration in Bolivia. In Brazil, a 400-km (248.5-mi) gas hoping to strike it rich (Garcia-Navarro petroleum) activities; these blocks may pipeline was completed in 2009, 2009, unpaginated). Madre de Dios is be leased to state and multinational running from Urucus gas field (State of currently undergoing a new gold rush energy companies for exploration and Rondoˆnia) to Manaus (State of due to the high price of gold, increased production (Finer et al. 2008, p. 1). In Amazonas). Another 500-km (310.6-mi) oil and gas activities, and the western Amazonia, there are pipeline has been proposed to carry gas completion of infrastructure projects approximately 180 oil and gas blocks to Porto Velho in Rondoˆnia. (Hajek et al. 2011, in press). This region covering about 688,000 km2 (265,638 Additionally, Brazil’s National is Peru’s third largest producer of gold mi2), which are operated by at least 35 Petroleum Agency has announced plans and accounts for 70 percent of Peru’s multinational companies (Finer et al. to look for oil and gas in the State of artisanal (small-scale or subsistence 2008, p. 2). These oil and gas blocks Acre, on the border with Peru and miner) gold production (Swenson et al. may bring new access routes throughout Bolivia (Finer et al. 2008, p. 5), an area 2011, p. 2). Concurrent with increasing the area, contributing to deforestation, that contains known locations for the annual gold prices, mining deforestation as it did in eastern Amazonia and the blue-headed macaw. Oil and gas has been increasing since 2003. From southern Brazilian Amazon (Finer et al. exploration and production do not 2003 to 2006, annual mining 2008, p. 6). necessarily impact parrots. Drilling deforestation was approximately 292 ha In 2003, Peru reduced royalties to operations often have a smaller footprint (721.5 ac) per year. From 2006 to 2009 encourage investment and sparked an than other extractive activities, and this this rate increased to 1,915 ha (4,732 ac) exploration boom. As of 2008, 72 is further reduced once the well is per year, a six-fold increase (Swenson et percent of the Peruvian Amazon was installed. Further, we found no al. 2011, p. 4). Furthermore, Swenson et zoned for oil and gas by the government information that existing oil and gas al. (2011, pp. 4–5) found that mining into 64 separate blocks; 48 of these operations have impacted any parrot deforestation in this area is outpacing blocks are currently active, the others populations in any of the range deforestation due to settlements, may be subjected to active exploration countries. Because there is no evidence although this scenario might be different in the near future (Kolowski and Alonso of a decline in the range or population for areas with more secondary roads, 2010, p. 917; Finer et al. 2008, pp. 2, 5). of the blue-headed macaw in Brazil, we which tend to correlate with higher The only areas fully protected from oil have no information indicating that the rates of deforestation. One study found and gas activities are national parks and blue-headed macaw has been impacted that forest recovery following small- national and historic sanctuaries, which by oil and gas exploration in Brazil. scale gold mining was extremely slow cover approximately 12 percent of the Furthermore, we do not have and qualitatively inferior to regeneration Peruvian Amazon. However, 20 blocks information to indicate that the species following other human-caused overlap with 11 less strictly protected will be impacted by future oil and gas disturbances (Mol and Ouboter 2003, p. areas, such as communal reserves and exploration in Bolivia. 202). However, these operations are reserved zones (Finer et al. 2008, p. 2). Pending oil and gas projects are the typically small and require very little Although oil and gas exploration and primary threats to Peru’s Camisea region land-clearing. Given the relatively small production are occurring in Peru, we and Bolivia’s Madidi region (Finer et al. amount of land conversion for gold have no information indicating that the 2008, p. 6). Although individual blue- mining, we found no information blue-headed macaw has been impacted, headed macaws could potentially be indicating that deforestation via mining or will be impacted, by oil and gas affected by oil and gas explorations has impacted the blue-headed macaw, activities in Peru. through the loss of food or nesting nor did we find any information

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indicating this species will be impacted the species has been adversely impacted the market (Duery and Vlosky 2005, pp. by mining in the future. by mining. In fact, this species tends to 13–14; Kometter et al. 2004, p. 9). To In addition to deforestation, impacts benefit from patchwork clearance of date, more than 670,000 ha (1.6 million to the environment from gold mining forests (BLI 2011a, unpaginated). ac) of Peru’s forest have achieved FSC stem from acid mine drainage and air Furthermore, we do not have any certification (Rodriguez and Cubas 2010, and water pollution from contaminants, information indicating the species may p. 78). Bolivia has the largest area of such as mercury. During gold be impacted by future mining FSC-certified tropical forests in the processing, mercury is released into operations. world; by the mid-2000s, Bolivia sediments, waterways and the Conservation Programs announced that 2.2 million ha (5.4 atmosphere. As parrots are known to million ac) of humid tropical forests use riverside clay licks, they may be at A new mechanism is emerging that were certified (Killeen et al. 2007, p. risk of mercury entering their systems may raise funds to protect forests from 600; Duery and Vlosky 2005, p. 14). In when they ingest soil particles. Many deforestation, as well as mitigate climate 2004, Brazil announced that 1.2 million developing countries have reached change. This mechanism is known as ha (2.9 million ac) of native Amazon agreements with large gold mining ‘‘reduced emissions from deforestation forests and 1.0 million ha (2.4 million companies that do not use mercury, but and forest degradation’’ (REDD). As ac) of plantations were certified (WWF regulating small-scale, artisanal mines forests are destroyed for logging, 2004, unpaginated). The FSC promotes continues to be a struggle (Swenson et mining, or oil and gas, the carbon stored ‘‘the equitable incorporation of social al. 2011, pp. 1, 5). Furthermore, gold in the trees is released as carbon and environmental considerations when miners might actively erode riverbanks, dioxide, which adds to the decisions are taken to manage forests. which may include essential clay licks concentration of greenhouse gases; 20 Under FSC certification, civil and used by parrots (Lee 2010, p. 12). percent of global greenhouse gas indigenous rights are respected, areas of However, we have no information emissions are thought to be from high social and environmental indicating that mining has affected the deforestation (Chatterjee 2009, p. 557). conservation value are maintained or blue-headed macaw. Lawmakers and businesspeople around enhanced, natural forests are not Permits for mining require an the world are beginning to consider converted, highly hazardous pesticides environmental impact report. Madre de investing in REDD programs as a way to and genetically modified trees are Dios has the highest number of mitigate climate change. Under this type prohibited, and harvesting must meet unapproved mining permits in Peru; of program, developing countries would national laws and international be paid to protect their forests and moreover, there is little effective treaties.’’ Furthermore, forests that are reduce emissions associated with enforcement of unapproved permits or ‘‘FSC certified forest products’’ are deforestation. Funds would come from illegal miners, and therefore, little verified from the forest of origin through incentive to apply for a permit foundations, governments, or financial the supply chain. The FSC label ensures (Swenson et al. 2011, p. 2). Miners are agencies such as World Bank; industries that the forest products used are from able to use waterways for transportation in developed countries would receive responsibly harvested and verified and are capable of invading far reaches credits for saving trees in developing sources (FSC n.d., unpaginated). of communities and protected areas. countries (Chatterjee 2009, p. 557). If Lack of funding, staff, and staff training REDD projects are able to generate In 2008, Peru announced its intention makes patrolling these remote areas revenue comparable to those of to reach zero deforestation within just difficult (Swenson et al. 2011, p. 5). activities such as logging and 10 years. The Peruvian government Two of the three mining sites studied by agriculture, and revenues are distributed stated that more than 80 percent of the Swenson et al. (2011, p. 4) are located equally among stakeholders, this would country’s primary forests could be saved less than 7 km (4.3 mi) from the give standing forests value and an or protected with about $20 million U.S. Amarakaeri Communal Reserve and less incentive for forest conservation (Hajek dollars (USD) a year from the than 70 km (43.5 mi) from Manu et al. 2011, in press). REDD projects are international community. However, National Park. In a study of 54 national emerging in many regions (Hajek et al. there are major obstacles to achieving parks in Latin America, mining was 2011, in press); however, we do not yet this goal. Additionally, Peru launched considered a threat in approximately 20 know the occurrence of these projects in 2010 its National Program for the (37 percent) of the parks, of which 11 within the range of the blue-headed Conservation of Forests and Mitigation (55 percent) were located in Peru macaw and how successful these of Climate Changes. This program aims (Swenson et al. 2011, p. 4). Peru’s newly projects will be. to preserve 54 million hectares (133 created Ministry of Environment is Another program being implemented million acres) of the 72 million hectares working to control illegal mining, and a is certification of forests. The basis for (178 million acres) of tropical forest in recent effort was made through a certification is for consumers to be the Peruvian Amazon, although it is moratorium on new mining concessions assured by a neutral third party that expected that the entire area consisting (Swenson et al. 2011, p. 5). forest companies are employing sound of 72 million hectares will be included In addition to the major mining practices that will ensure sustainable (La Cruz 2010, unpaginated). Similarly, growth centers, there are many small forest management. By being certified, a Brazil announced a plan to cut expanding areas of mining scattered company can differentiate their deforestation rates by 70 percent over across Madre de Dios, which are harder products and potentially acquire a larger the next 10 years with the help of to detect (Swenson et al. 2011, p. 5). share of the market (Duery and Vlosky international funding. Brazil’s plan calls Rising annual gold prices and an 2005, p. 12). To be certified, companies on foreign countries to find $20 billion increasing number of miners setting up must follow standards set by the Forest USD by 2021 (Painter 2008, illegal mines may fragment once large Stewardship Council (FSC). unpaginated). All three countries have areas of pristine forests. Although Certification companies not only certify committed to protecting their forest individual blue-headed macaws could forests, but also forest products that resources in the future and have moved potentially be affected by mining come from well managed forests and towards their goals to reach zero through the loss of food or nesting may also provide a means to track logs deforestation by certifying nearly 4 resources, we have no information that and remove illegally logged trees from million ha (10 million ac) of forests.

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There are many obstacles to overcome to that selective logging has adversely portion of its range now or in the reach these goals, including annual impacted the species. Additionally, road foreseeable future. funding. If these programs are construction and related deforestation B. Overutilization for Commercial, implemented and goals reached, that are likely to affect the region in Recreational, Scientific, or Educational deforestation in the Amazon will be which the blue-headed macaw occurs is Purposes significantly reduced. not likely to adversely affect the species. Parrots, in general, are long-lived with Summary of Factor A It is possible that individual blue- headed macaws may be affected by low reproductive rates, traits that make It is clear that the forests of the economic activities involving them particularly sensitive to increased Amazon are being deforested for various deforestation, such as logging, road mortality (Lee 2010, p. 3; Thiollay 2005, economic activities, and deforestation development, agriculture and cattle p. 1121; Wright et al. 2001, p. 711). rates have been increasing for several ranching, oil and gas exploration, and Hunting of parrots is widespread, and decades. How a species responds to this mining, through the loss of food or locals are known to hunt macaws at clay type and level of habitat disturbance nesting resources; however, we have no licks, which provide easy wait and depends on the preferences of the evidence to suggest that deforestation is shoot opportunities, for food and individual species, and the distance of affecting the blue-headed macaw to a ornamental feathers (Tobias or undisturbed rainforest near disturbed degree that it is affecting the status of Brightsmith 2007, p. 134). Logging areas. Many parrots are not habitat the species. Based on the best scientific operations are known to contribute to specialists and thrive in mosaics of and commercial information available, increased hunting in areas opened by different successional habitats. Many we find that deforestation from various the logging roads and subsequent species of lowland forest habitat seem to economic activities, as discussed above, settlements (Lee 2010, p. 3; Hume et al. do relatively well in modified human is not adversely impacting the blue- 2006, p. 11; Fredericksen 2003, p. 11). environments, as long as a mosaic of headed macaw and has not affected the However, there are no direct reports of habitats in different successional stages range or status of the species. hunters targeting the blue-headed is maintained and poaching and Additionally, we do not anticipate macaw. Furthermore, hunters generally trapping are controlled (Snyder et al. significant modification to the blue- target larger species of macaw for food; 2000, p. 99). headed macaw’s habitat or curtailment since the blue-headed macaw is a small Although we do not know the exact of its range due to deforestation in the species, it is unlikely that it is targeted extent of current deforestation within as a food source. Additionally, the foreseeable future. A vast amount of the the specific areas occupied by the blue- feathers of this species have not been species’ range has remained forested headed macaw, especially within observed in local handicrafts, and through current rates of deforestation. Bolivia and Brazil where the species therefore, it is likely not targeted for this Significant amounts of the forests occurs just inside the countries’ borders, purpose either (Tobias or Brightsmith within Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil have there is no evidence that deforestation 2007, p. 134). has impacted the blue-headed macaw. been FSC-certified, indicating they are Trapping parrots for the bird trade has Ninety percent of this species’ range is subject to sustainable harvesting, which occurred since pre-European times, as still forested. There is no evidence of a may improve its habitat. Furthermore, Amerindians valued macaws, parrots, decline in the range or population and all three countries have noted their and ornaments as ritualistic and populations within Peru and Bolivia commitment to protecting their forests, trade objects (Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 98– have remained healthy. At a minimum, ensuring that harvest is done 99). Today, owning a wild parrot as a the population numbers 11,500 sustainably, and each has a goal of pet remains socially acceptable in most individuals (including immature reaching zero deforestation within ten neotropical countries, even if it is illegal individuals), and this may be an years. Some of the operations within the (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 99). Despite laws underestimate as the entire global range range of the blue-headed macaw that to protect wild parrots, the black market has not been surveyed. Furthermore, contribute to deforestation have smaller continues to supply a large part of the blue-headed macaws at the Tambopata footprints than other extractive pet parrot trade in national and Research Center have been increasing activities and require little land clearing international markets. Illegal trade is since 2000, and sightings of the blue- (e.g., oil and gas operations and mining). thought to contribute to the threatened headed macaw in Peru have increased Although increased deforestation is status of 66 parrot species worldwide, over the last 10 years. Additionally, it anticipated in Bolivia and Brazil, these including 27 species in South America has been found in a wide range of areas represent only a small portion of (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2010, p. 1). habitats, and is slightly more common the species’ range. Therefore, based on In 1981, the blue-headed macaw was in degraded habitats than pristine the best scientific and commercial listed in Appendix II of the Convention forests. The blue-headed macaw still information available, we find that on International Trade in Endangered occurs on the outskirts of Puerto future deforestation from various Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Maldonado, Peru, one of the areas with economic activities, as discussed above, (CITES). CITES is an international significant disturbance, suggesting that is not a threat to the status of the blue- agreement between governments to this species is not greatly affected by headed macaw at this time. ensure that the international trade of anthropogenic pressures. Species We found no information suggesting CITES-listed plant and species experts have even suggested that the that habitat loss is a current threat to does not threaten species’ survival in blue-headed macaw may increase with this species or may become a threat to the wild. There are currently 175 CITES the spread of degraded forests along this species in the future such that it Parties (member countries or signatories rivers. may contribute to the risk of extinction to the Convention). Under this treaty, Although there is evidence that forest of this species. Therefore, based on the CITES Parties regulate the import, habitat within the species range is best available scientific and commercial export, and reexport of specimens, subject to selective logging, the information, we find that the present or parts, and products of CITES-listed patchwork clearance as a consequence threatened destruction, modification, or plants and animal species (also see of logging may benefit the species. curtailment of habitat or range is not a Factor D). Trade must be authorized Furthermore, we found no information threat to the blue-headed macaw in any through a system of permits and

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certificates that are provided by the unpaginated). A reservation means that CITES; however, Bolivia has submitted designated CITES Scientific and the Philippines is treated as a non- a CITES Legislation Plan and draft Management Authorities of each CITES CITES party with respect to the species legislation to the Secretariat for Party (CITES 2010a, unpaginated). concerned. Countries with CITES comments (www..org, SC59 In 2002, a CITES document proposed reservations may only trade with other Document 11, Annex p. 1). Generally an uplisting of blue-headed macaw from countries that have the same reservation this means that Bolivia has not Appendix II to Appendix I based on on the same species at the next level completed all the requirements to increasing numbers of blue-headed lower, in this case Appendix II. If both effectively implement CITES. However, macaws in legal and illegal trade and countries do not have a reservation on since the blue-headed macaw is listed as the effects of trade on a species with low that species, then the animal remains on an Appendix-I species under CITES, reproductive output (CITES 2002, pp. 1, Appendix I. commercial legal international trade is 4–5). Sources cited in the document Based on data obtained from United very limited. Because the majority of the stated that the blue-headed macaw was Nations Environment Programme– specimens of this species reported in offered in Brazilian markets by the World Conservation Monitoring Center international trade (81 percent) are hundreds, possibly originating from (UNEP–WCMC) CITES Trade Database, captive-bred or captive-born and the few Peru, and was well known in Bolivian from the time the blue-headed macaw wild specimens reported in trade were markets. Sources also stated that traders was uplisted to CITES Appendix I in scientific specimens traded for scientific showed interest in buying more blue- January 2003 through 2009, 338 purposes, we believe that international headed macaws and for higher prices specimens of this species were reported trade controlled via valid CITES permits (CITES 2002, p. 4). Prices for blue- in international trade. Of this total, 276 is not a threat to the species. In headed macaws were found to be very were live birds, 61 scientific specimens, addition, Bolivia’s category 2 status high, ranging from $300 to 12,500 USD. and 1 body. In analyzing these reported under the National Legislation Project Prices are set according to demand and data, several records appear to be over does not appear to be impacting the may be influenced by the species’ rarity. counts due to slight differences in the blue-headed macaw. Wright et al. (2001 in CITES 2002, p. 3) manner in which the importing and There is evidence of a large market for found that prices above $500 USD were exporting countries reported their trade, national and international parrot trade, significantly related to high poaching and it is likely that the actual number much of which involves illegally traded rates. In view of the significant interest of specimens of blue-headed macaws birds in Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil in blue-headed macaws by aviculturist reported in international trade to ˜ and commercial breeders, increased UNEP–WCMC from 2003 through 2009 (Gastanaga et al. 2010, p. 5; Lee 2010, numbers of birds kept illegally, and the was 312, including 252 live birds, 59 p. 12; Herrera and Hennessey 2007, pp. assumed high demand based on prices, scientific specimens, and 1 body. Of 296–297; Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, capture pressure was believed to likely these specimens, 58 (19 percent) were p. 134; CITES 2002, p. 4). One study increase and have detrimental impacts reportedly exported into Mexico, found illegal trade of CITES Appendix- to the species’ survival due to the Belgium, and South Africa from Peru I and Appendix-II listed species, species rarity, low reproductive rate, (UNEP–WCMC 2011, unpaginated). although the blue-headed macaw was and limited distribution (CITES 2002, With the information given in the not recorded (Herrera and Hennessey pp. 5–6). UNEP–WCMC database, from 2003 2007, p. 298). In Peru, there are reports In January 2003, the blue-headed through 2009 only 26 wild specimens of of trappers working unprotected clay macaw was uplisted to Appendix I of blue-headed macaws were reported in licks the blue-headed macaw is known CITES. An Appendix-I listing includes trade, and these were non-living to use; however, it is not known species threatened with extinction specimens traded for scientific whether the species was targeted or if it whose trade is permitted only under purposes; the other 286 specimens was actually caught (Tobias and exceptional circumstances, which reported in trade (252 live birds, 33 Brightsmith 2007, p. 134). It was generally precludes commercial trade. scientific specimens, and 1 body) were thought that foreign traders purchased The import of an Appendix-I species captive-bred or captive-born specimens. blue-headed macaws in and around requires the issuance of both an import Through Resolution Conf. 8.4 (Rev. towns in Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil with and export permit. Import permits for CoP15), the Parties to CITES adopted a an unverified report of ‘‘hundreds’’ Appendix-I species are issued only if process, termed the National Legislation passing through some Brazilian markets findings are made that the import would Project, to evaluate whether Parties have (CITES 2002 in Tobias and Brightsmith be for purposes that are not detrimental adequate domestic legislation to 2007, p. 134), but this report is from to the survival of the species in the wild successfully implement the Treaty before the species was listed in CITES and that the specimen will not be used (CITES 2010b, pp. 1–5). In reviewing a Appendix I in 2003. Three recent for primarily commercial purposes country’s national legislation, the CITES studies on domestic parrot trade found (CITES Article III(3)). Export permits for Secretariat evaluates factors such as little to no evidence of blue-headed Appendix-I species are issued only if whether a Party’s domestic laws macaws being traded, and certainly not findings are made that the specimen designate the responsible Scientific and by the hundreds; one study found one was legally acquired and trade is not Management Authorities, prohibit trade report of two birds being present in a detrimental to the survival of the contrary to the requirements of the single market (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2010, pp. species in the wild, and if the issuing Convention, have penalty provisions in 5–6; Brightsmith 2009, pers. comm.; authority is satisfied that an import place for illegal trade, and provide for Herrera and Hennessey 2007, pp. 298– permit has been granted for the seizure of specimens that are illegally 299). It appears that although there may specimen (CITES Article III(2)). On the traded or possessed. The Governments be some evidence of blue-headed same day the blue-headed macaw was of Peru and Brazil were determined to macaws in the illegal pet bird trade, uplisted to Appendix I, the Philippines be in Category 1, which means they these numbers are likely low, as there is entered a reservation stating that it meet all the requirements to implement no solid supporting data that this would not be bound by the provisions CITES. Bolivia was determined to be in species occurs in local markets in large of CITES relating to trade of blue- Category 2, meaning legislation does not quantities (Brightsmith 2009, pers. headed macaws (CITES 2011, meet the requirements to implement comm.), and furthermore, the report of

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‘‘hundreds’’ of blue-headed macaws in disease. It is a fatal disease that poses a swelling of tissue around the eyes and Brazilian markets referred to above serious threat to domesticated and wild in the neck, and sudden death (SD AIB occurred prior to the listing of the parrots worldwide, particularly those 2010, p. 2; Abramson et al. 1995, p. species in CITES Appendix I. What little with very small populations (Kistler et 300). Once in a population, this disease illegal international trade may be al. 2008, p. 1; Abramson et al. 1995, p. can cause severe mortality (Styles et al. occurring does not appear to have a 288). This contagious disease causes 2008, p. 93). This disease is classified as significant impact on the blue-headed damage to the nerves of the upper a Foreign Animal Disease in the United macaw, given a population ranging from digestive tract, so that food digestion States. The U.S. Department of 11,500 to 57,500 (Brightsmith 2009, and absorption are negatively affected. Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health pers. comm.). The disease has a 100-percent mortality Inspection Service requires that all rate in affected birds, although the exact imported birds be tested and Summary of Factor B manner of transmission between birds is quarantined for disease before entering We found no evidence indicating that unclear. In 2008, researchers discovered the country. Birds illegally smuggled the blue-headed macaw is hunted as a a genetically diverse set of novel ABVs into the United States are not food source or for ornamental feathers. that are thought to be the cause (Kistler quarantined and, therefore, may Although trapping for the pet bird trade et al. 2008, p. 1). The researchers introduce this disease to captive birds may have occurred in large numbers, we developed diagnostic tests, methods of (SD AIB 2010, p. 4). There is no have no evidence that this is currently treating or preventing bornavirus treatment for this disease (Abramson et occurring. Since the CITES Appendix-I infection, and methods for screening for al. 1995, p. 300). listing, legal commercial international the anti-bornaviral compounds (Kistler Psittacosis trade has been very limited. et al. 2008, pp. 1–15). Furthermore, recent studies of the parrot Psittacosis, also known as Parrot trade in Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil found Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease Fever, is an infection caused by the no evidence of this species in markets, Psittacine beak and feather disease bacteria Chlamydophilia psittaci. An suggesting that illegal trade may only be (PBFD) has been documented in over 35 estimated 1 percent of all birds in the occurring in small numbers, if at all, or psittacine species, but all psittacines wild are infected and act as carriers. is very well hidden. In addition, we are should be regarded as potentially Those that live in a stable environment not aware of any information currently susceptible (Abramson et al. 1995, p. appear to have little complications from available that indicates the use of this 296). This viral disease, which the disease; however, stress, due to the species for any recreational or originated in Australia, affects both wild loss of food source or habitat, will educational purpose. According to the and captive birds, causing chronic invoke the disease (Jones 2007, WCMC Trade Database, from 2003 infections resulting in either feather loss unpaginated). In pet birds, psittacosis through 2009, 26 specimens were traded or deformities of beak and feathers can cause ruffled feathers, depression, for scientific purposes. Given the (Cameron 2007, p. 82). PBFD causes diarrhea, respiratory problems, loss of estimated population size of 11,500– immunodeficiency and affects organs appetite, weight loss, and even death. 57,500 individuals, we find that trade such as feathers, the liver, and brain. This disease can be transferred to for scientific purposes is insignificant. Suppression of the immune system can humans and cause mild flu-like Based on the best available scientific result in secondary infections due to infections or serious pneumonia. and commercial information, we find other viruses, bacteria, or fungi. The Psittacosis can be treated with that overutilization for commercial, disease can occur without obvious signs antibiotics (Michigan Department of recreational, scientific, or educational (de Kloet and de Kloet 2004, p. 2,394). Agriculture 2002, pp. 1–2). purposes is not a threat to the blue- Birds usually become infected in the Although there are many diseases that headed macaw in any portion of its nest by ingesting or inhaling viral could negatively affect macaws in range now or in the foreseeable future. particles. Infected birds develop captivity and in the wild, we are immunity, die within a couple of weeks, unaware of any information indicating C. Disease or Predation or become chronically infected. No that any of those diseases are impacting Infectious diseases can pose many vaccine exists to immunize populations the blue-headed macaw at a level that direct threats to individual birds, as (Cameron 2007, p. 82). may affect the status of the species as a well as entire flocks (Abramson et al. whole and to the extent that it is Newcastle’s Disease 1995, p. 287). Research on diseases considered a threat to the species affecting the blue-headed macaw Newcastle’s disease (ND) is a (Brightsmith 2009, pers. comm.; World specifically, either in captivity or in the contagious and fatal viral disease that Parrot Trust 2009, pers. comm.). wild, is lacking. Most of the available affects all species of birds, both Predation research on diseases in macaws and domestic and wild (South Dakota parrots address captive-held birds; Animal Industry Board (SD AIB) 2010, Although the blue-headed macaw has information on the health of macaws in p. 2). Introduction of this disease to not been recorded as the prey of other the wild is scarce (Karesh et al. 1997, p. wild populations may come from predators, there are various bird and 368). It is not clear how prevalent infected birds in aviaries, although this mammal species found in the lowland diseases which are common in birds is a low likelihood; exposure is more forests of the Amazon that could held in captivity affect this species in likely to come from infected domestic potentially prey on macaws (CITES 202, the wild. Some of the common diseases chickens or people carrying the disease p. 3). While feeding at clay licks, parrots in macaws are discussed below. on clothing and footwear (Styles et al. are particularly vulnerable to raptors, 2008, p. 93). ND affects the respiratory, especially those that can catch them in Proventricular Dilatation Disease nervous, and digestive systems. flight; eagles may be a potential One serious disease that has been Symptoms include sneezing, gasping for predator, as other macaws have been reported to infect psittacines is air, nasal discharge, coughing, diarrhea, observed leaving clay licks when an Proventricular dilatation disease (PDD), depression, tremors, dropping wings, eagle approaches (Burger and Gochfeld which is also known as avian paralysis, partial to complete drop in 2003, pp. 33; CITES 2002, p. 3). bornavirus (ABV) or macaw wasting egg production, thin shelled eggs, Additionally, jaguars (Panthera onca)

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could also prey on macaws, given the The Forest and Wildlife Law also protections afforded within the chance (Burger and Gochfeld 2003, pp. regulates the commercialization of wild protected areas to either the blue- 33). In one study that found evidence of species, provides minimum headed macaw or its habitat. nest predation in tree cavities in Peru, requirements for their harvest, Additionally, this regulation is very the author suggested birds, such as collection, and transportation, and weak as it is 36 years old and the toucans, arboreal mammals, such as establishes a maximum collection quota institutional framework has changed monkeys, and possibly snakes are for each species from their natural completely (Environmental Law significant nest predators (Brightsmith environment (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2010, p. Alliance 2003, p. 2). We found that 2005, p. 79). Although blue-headed 2). INRENA annually sets a quota for hunting and trade are not threats to the macaws may be subject to predation, certain species, which is published in blue-headed macaw at this time (Factor there is no evidence that this is the government newspaper. In 2007 and B); therefore, this regulation may occurring at a level that poses a threat 2008, there were seven parrot species contribute to adequate protection to the species (Brightsmith 2009, pers. listed for legal wildlife trade; however, against unsustainable trade of the comm.; World Parrot Trust 2009, pers. trade in the blue-headed macaw was not species. comm.). permitted (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2010, p. 2). Bolivia passed an overarching As trade is not currently a threat to this Summary of Factor C environmental law in 1992 (Law No. species (Factor B), this regulation may 1,333 1992), with the intent of We are not aware of any scientific or contribute to adequate regulation of protecting and conserving the commercial information that indicates trade in this species. environment and natural resources and Recent studies by the Peruvian disease or predation poses a threat to promoting sustainable development Society for Environmental Law (SPDA) this species. As a result, we find that (Environmental Law Alliance 2003, p. have concluded that there are disease and predation are not threats to 1). Article 111 of this law states that all approximately 5,000 laws and the blue-headed macaw in any portion persons involved in unauthorized trade, regulations directly or indirectly related of its range now or in the future. capture, and transportation of wild to environmental protection and natural animals are subject to a 2-year prison D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory resource conservation in Peru. However, sentence and a fine equivalent to 100 Mechanisms many of these are hindered by lack of percent of the value of the animal resources and enforcement capabilities Peru (Herrera and Hennessey 2007, pp. 295– (Muller 2001, pp. 1–2). The forests of 296). However, there is no specific the Amazon, including forests in Peru, The blue-headed macaw is considered legislation to implement this law are being deforested for various ‘‘vulnerable’’ by the Peruvian (Environmental Law Alliance 2003, p. economic activities, and deforestation Government under Supreme Decree No. 1). Nevertheless, we found that trade is rates have been increasing for several 034–2004–AG (2004, p. 276855). This not a threat to the blue-headed macaw decades. In spite of this, we found that Decree prohibits hunting, take, at this time (Factor B); therefore, habitat loss as a result of deforestation transport, and trade of protected existing regulations may contribute to has not been a threat to this species; species, except as permitted by adequate protection against therefore, it appears that although regulation. We found that hunting and unsustainable trade. trade are not threats to the blue-headed existing forest regulatory mechanisms are inadequate, the inadequacy of these Before 1996, timber companies were macaw at this time (Factor B), possibly not required to write or use management because this species may not be hunted mechanisms in Peru is not affecting the blue-headed macaw. plans and based their harvesting on due to its smaller size. In addition, this selective extraction; this resulted in species has not been recently found in Bolivia poor forest management, resource the domestic trade markets within its The 1975 Law on Wildlife, National degradation, and a steep reduction in range, therefore, this regulation appears Parks, Hunting and Fishing (Decree Law timber values (Duery and Vlosky 2005, to be contributing to adequate No. 12,301 1975, pp. 1–34) has the p. 10). In 1996, Bolivia implemented a protection against hunting and trade. fundamental objective of protecting the new Forestry Law (Ley Forestal No. In 2000, Peru created a new Forest country’s natural resources. This law 1700) to regulate the protection and and Wildlife Law (Ley Forestal y de governs the protection, management, sustainable use of forests and balance Fauna Silvestre No 27308) to govern the utilization, transportation, and selling of the interests of society and the forestland and improve control of wildlife and their products; the economic and ecological health of the wildlife trade (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2010, p. protection of endangered species; country (Duery and Vlosky 2005, p. 10). 2; Granoff 2008, p. 533). This law habitat conservation of fauna and flora; This law requires approved provides a regime for effective and the declaration of national parks, management plans and compliance with regulation of efficient and productive biological reserves, refuges, and wildlife best management practices, including a commercial forestry. Most notably, the sanctuaries, tending to the preservation, 5-year forest management plan that law requires management plans for all promotion, and rational use of these incorporates forestry inventory data, forestry-related harvesting activities, resources (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, timber stocking maps, and annual including long-term plans and annual pp. 1–34; Environmental Law Alliance operation plans (Duery and Vlosky operating plans, which are submitted to 2003, p. 2). Although this law 2005, p. 10; Fredericksen 2003, p. 10). Instituto Nacional de Recursos designates national protection for all A typical forestry management plan Naturales (INRENA), the Peruvian wildlife, there is no information as to subdivides the forest into parcels; one is government organization in charge of the actual protections this confers to the used each year in a rotational system, the protection of flora and fauna of the blue-headed macaw. Law No. 12,301 typically providing for a 19-year country (Granoff 2008, p. 552; WWF (1975, pp. 1–34) also placed into public regeneration period (Duery and Vlosky 2006b, unpaginated). However, trust all national parks, reserves, 2005, p. 10). Additionally, the implementation is limited by the scarce refuges, and wildlife sanctuaries. Deforestation and Slash-and-Burn Plan resources of INRENA (Indian Country However, there is no specific that is part of this Forestry Law requires Today, 2007, unpaginated). information as to the governmental a payment to the forestry office for

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slash-and-burn activities (Locklin and for commercial or industrial purposes sustainable extraction of certain Haak 2003, p. 780). without requesting a copy of the biological resources); (4) Bosque de In Bolivia, selective logging has been supplier’s license; polluting the Proteccio´n (Protection Forest, to done at very low levels and with low environment at levels which may cause safeguard soils and forests, especially human pressure, allowing them to damages to the health of human beings, for watershed conservation); (5) Zona remain largely intact (Fredericksen or death of animals or significant Reservada (Reserved Zone, for 2003, p. 10). Given that the species destruction of plants; and research or temporary protection while further occurs just inside the border of Bolivia, extraction of mineral resources without study is under way to determine their and we found that habitat loss as a authorization. Penalties vary according importance); (6) Bosque Nacional result of deforestation is not a threat to to the crime and may be increased (National Forest, to be managed for this species, it appears that the existing under certain circumstances; for utilization); (7) Reserva Comunal forest regulatory mechanisms in Bolivia example, the penalty may be increased (Communal Reserve, for local area use may provide adequate protection for the by one sixth to one third if the crime and management, with national blue-headed macaw. results in a decrease of natural waters, oversight); and (8) Cotos de Caza Brazil soil erosion, or modification of climatic (Hunting Reserve, for local use and regime (Clayton 2011, p. 5; UNEP, n.d., management, with national oversight) In 1998, Brazil passed the unpaginated). (Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. 330). Environmental Crimes Law (Law No. The Public Forests Management Law National reserves, national forests, 9605/98). Section I of this law details (Law No. 11284, 2006) was passed to communal reserves, and hunting crimes against wild fauna, which protect and preserve forests that belong reserves are managed for the sustainable include: the killing, harassment, to the Federal, State, or local use of resources (IUCN 1994, p. 2). The hunting, capturing, or use of any fauna governments, with environmental, designations of National Parks, species without authorization (Clayton economic, and social benefits. This law Sanctuaries, and Protection Forests, are 2011, p. 4; UNEP, n.d., unpaginated). is expected to help end illegal land established by supreme decree that Additionally, except for the State of Rio occupation by delineating public forests supersedes all other legal claim to the Grande do Sul, commercial, sport, and (WWF 2006a, unpaginated); three land and, thus, these areas tend to recreational hunting are prohibited in management models are provided: provide more habitat protection. All Brazil. Penalties include a jail sentence creating conservation units (e.g., other protected areas are established by of 6 months to 1 year, and/or a fine; the national forests), allocating forest areas supreme resolution, which is viewed as penalty is increased by half if the crime for community use free of charge (e.g., a less powerful form of protection is committed under certain forest settlements), and signing forest (Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. 330). circumstances, including against rare concession contracts (Patriota 2009, p. Peru has 8 national parks and 41 species or those considered endangered, 615). The Brazilian government will additional protected areas (Chatterjee or within a protected area. However, it open some forest areas under 40-year 2009, p. 558). The blue-headed macaw is not considered a crime to kill an contracts to allow logging under a has been recorded in at least 6 of these animal when it is to satisfy hunger; to sustainable development plan. Logging areas: Cordillera Azul National Park protect agriculture, orchards, and herds is banned in nature reserves and (Loreto, Huanco, and Ucayali); Manu if authorized; or if the animal has been indigenous lands (WWF 2006a, National Park (Madre de Dios and characterized as dangerous. This law unpaginated). Cuzco); Alto Puru´ s Communal Reserve also protects against other crimes In Brazil, there have been and National Park (Madre de Dios); Los involving the fauna species of Brazil. improvements in environmental Amigos Conservation Concession With respect to bird species, this law legislation and public awareness; (Madre de Dios); Tambopata National prohibits inhibiting reproduction however, enforcement capabilities are Reserve (Madre de Dios); and Bahuaja- without authorization; modifying or lacking (Laurance et al. 2001, p. 309). Sonene National Park (Madre de Dios) destroying nests or shelters; selling, The forests of the Amazon, including (Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, p. 134). offering, exporting, purchasing, keeping, Brazil, are being deforested for various In Bolivia, habitat is protected either utilizing, or transporting eggs, as well as economic activities, and deforestation on the national or departmental level products derived from fauna species rates have been increasing for several through the following designations: (1) without authorization; and introducing decades. However, this species occurs Parque (Park, for strict and permanent species into the country without license. just inside the border of Brazil and we protection of representative of Although this law provides protection found that habitat loss as a result of ecosystems and provincial habitats, as to the fauna species of Brazil, it is more deforestation is not a threat to this well as plant and animal resources, permissive than the prior law, the Fauna species; therefore it appears that the along with the geographical, scenic and Protection Act (Law No. 5.197/1967), inadequacy of existing forest regulatory natural landscapes that contain them); which provided more severe mechanisms in Brazil is not affecting (2) Santuario (Sanctuary, for the strict punishments (Clayton 2011, p. 4). We the blue-headed macaw. and permanent protection of sites that found that hunting and trade are not house endemic plants and animals that threats to the blue-headed macaw at this Protected Areas are threatened or in danger of time (Factor B); therefore, this The Peruvian national protected area extinction); (3) Monumento Natural regulation may contribute to adequate system includes several categories of (Natural Monument, to preserve areas protection against trade. habitat protection. Habitat may be such as those with distinctive natural Section II of the Environmental designated as any of the following: (1) landscapes or geologic formations, and Crimes Law details the crimes against Parque Nacional (National Park, an area to conserve the biological diversity flora, which include the destruction and managed mainly for ecosystem contained therein); (4) Reserva de Vida damaging of forest reserves; cutting trees conservation and recreation); (2) Silvestre (Wildlife Reserve, for in forest reserves, causing fire in forests; Santuario (Sanctuary, for the protection, management, sustainable use extracting minerals from public forests preservation of sites of notable natural and monitoring of wildlife); (5) Area or reserves without authorization; or historical importance); (3) Reserva Natural de Manejo Integrado (Natural receipt of wood or vegetable products Nacional (National Reserve, for Area of Integrated Management, where

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conservation of biological diversity is There are 84 decreed protected areas specific training courses for park balanced with sustainable development within Rondoˆnia, Brazil alone, covering rangers, and donated basic management of the local population; and (6) Reserva 45 percent of the territory (Ribeiro et al. equipment (ParksWatch 2005a, p. 38). Natural de Inmovilizacio´n 2005, p. 1). The blue-headed macaw has Also, since the Tambopata Reserve and (‘‘Immobilized’’ Natural Reserve, a been recorded in one protected area, the Bahuaja Sonene National Park was temporary (5-year) designation for an Serra do Divisor National Park, in Acre created, a series of conservation and area that requires further research before (Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, p. 134). research projects have been developed, any official designations can be made In summary, the blue-headed macaw including, among others, Rainforest and during which time no natural occurs in at least 10 major protected Expeditions’ Macaw Ecological resource concessions can be made areas, covering a combined 110,216 km2 Research Project (ParksWatch 2002, p. within the area) (Supreme Decree No. (42,554 mi2), or 18.7 percent of its 7). The projects carried out by these 24,781 1997, p. 3). Within parks, global range, although this does include organizations will help conserve the sanctuaries and natural monuments, large areas of unsuitable habitat within habitat of the park and will ultimately extraction or consumption of all three of the protected areas (Tobias and benefit the blue-headed macaw. resources are prohibited, except for Brightsmith 2007, p. 134). In Peru, the We found no evidence that habitat ‘‘scientific research, eco-tourism, Alto Puru´ s Communal Reserve and destruction within protected areas is a environmental education, and activities National Park is surrounded by other threat to this species now or in the of subsistence of original towns, important protected areas, including foreseeable future; therefore, it appears properly described and authorized.’’ Manu National Park and the Tambopata that the inadequacy of existing National protected areas are under the Reserve and Bahuaja Sonene National regulatory mechanisms for protected management of the national Park; combined with Brazil’s and areas in Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil are not government, while departmental Bolivia’s important natural protected adversely affecting the blue-headed protected areas are managed at the areas close to the border with Peru, macaw. these areas constitute an important department level (eLAW 2003, p. 3; International Wildlife Trade Supreme Decree No. 24,781 1997, p. 3). protected corridor in South America There are 22 protected areas in (ParksWatch 2003, p. 17). The European Union (EU) Wildlife Bolivia covering 24 percent of its Studies have shown that protected Trade Regulation (Council Regulation territory (Byers and Israel 2008, p. vi; areas have been successful in providing No. 338/97) went into effect in 1997. Fredericksen 2003, p. 10). The blue- protection from poaching, logging, and The purpose of this regulation is to headed macaw has been recorded in at other forest damage, especially when protect wild animals and plants least two of these areas: Madidi National compared to unprotected areas (Lee currently or likely to become threatened Park (La Paz) and Reserva Nacional 2010, p. 3; Killeen et al. 2007, p. 603; by international trade by regulating Amazonica Manuripi-Heath (Pando) Oliveira et al. 2007, p. 1234; Asner trade in these species (UNEP–WCMC (Tobias and Brightsmith 2007, p. 134). 2005, p. 480; Ribeiro et al. 2005, p. 2; n.d., unpaginated). The blue-headed There are various regulatory Gilardi and Munn 1998, p. 641). There macaw is listed under Appendix A mechanisms (Law No. 11.516, Act No. is evidence of some habitat destruction (Council Regulation No. 709/2010 7.735, Decree No. 78, Order No. 1, Act within protected areas, including amending No. 338/97). Appendix A No. 6.938) in Brazil that direct Federal resource extraction, and information to includes species listed under CITES and State agencies to promote the suggest habitat destruction within Appendix I or species that may be in protection of lands and that govern the protected areas is a potential future demand for utilization in the EU or for formal establishment and management threat, especially when in close international trade, and which is either of protected areas to promote proximity to roads and subsequent threatened with extinction or so rare conservation of the country’s natural settlements and agriculture and pasture that any level of trade would imperil the resources (ECOLEX 2007, pp. 5–7). conversion (Upper Amazon survival of the species (Article 3(1)(a), These mechanisms generally aim to Conservancy 2010, unpaginated; (b)). Additionally, there has been an EU protect endangered wildlife and plant Chatterjee 2009, p. 557; Cabieses 2009, import suspension for the blue-headed species, genetic resources, overall p. 26; Killeen et al. 2007, p. 603; macaw from Bolivia since 1986 and biodiversity, and native ecosystems on Oliveira et al. 2007, p. 1233; Ribeiro et from Brazil since 1988 (Article 4.6(b) Federal, State, and privately owned al. 2005, pp. 1–2; ParksWatch 2005a, (CITES 2002, p. 3; UNEP–WCMC n.d., lands (e.g., Law No. 9.985, Law No. unpaginated; Fredericksen 2003, p. 10; unpaginated). As discussed under 11.132, Resolution No. 4, Decree No. CITES 2002, p. 7). Factor B, we do not consider 1.922). Brazil’s formally established A number of conservation international trade to be a threat protection areas were developed in 2000 organizations have developed programs impacting this species. Therefore, and are categorized based on their to support the protected areas of Peru. protection under this Regulation is an overall management objectives. These The Wildlife Conservation Society is adequate regulatory mechanism. include national parks, biological executing a wide range of projects The blue-headed macaw is listed in reserves, ecological reserves, ecological aimed at strengthening the management Appendix I of CITES. CITES is an stations, environmental protection of Madidi National Park. This program international treaty among 175 nations, areas, and national forests (Rylands and is based on three main actions: (1) Park including Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, and the Brandon 2005, pp. 612–618). These management, (2) natural resources United States, entered into force in areas allow varying uses and provide management, and (3) scientific research 1975. In the United States, CITES is varying levels of protection for specific (ParksWatch 2005a, p. 35). CARE- implemented through the U.S. resources (Costa 2007, pp. 5–19). For Bolivia has also implemented projects to Endangered Species Act of 1973, as example, Biological Reserves are raise local awareness on the importance amended. The Secretary of the Interior restricted to a greater extent than the of watershed protection and sustainable has delegated the Department’s National Parks. Official uses of reserves agricultural practices. Additionally, responsibility for CITES to the Director include scientific study, environmental CARE-Bolivia and the Wildlife of the Service and established the CITES monitoring, and scientific education Conservation Society collaborated on Scientific and Management Authorities (Costa 2007, p. 9). the park’s management plan, organized to implement the treaty. Under this

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treaty, member countries work together Factor A, some deforestation, oil and gas natural or manmade factors such as to ensure that international trade in exploration and extraction, mining, and climate change. We found no evidence animal and plant species is not infrastructure plans may occur in forests that this species is being hunted. Legal detrimental to the survival of wild in Peru, and perhaps within the limited international trade of this species has populations by regulating the import, range of this species in Bolivia and been very limited and most of the birds export, and reexport of CITES-listed Brazil. However, we found that habitat involved were captive-bred. We also animal and plant species. As discussed loss as a result of any of those activities found that illegal trade, disease, and under Factor B, we do not consider is not a threat to this species in any predation were not threats to this international trade to be a threat portion of its range now or in the species. We had no information on other impacting this species. Therefore, foreseeable future; therefore, it appears natural or man-made factors on which protection under this Treaty is an that the existing forest regulatory to evaluate the effects on the blue- adequate regulatory mechanism. mechanisms throughout the range of headed macaw. The import of blue-headed macaws this species is not adversely affecting As discussed under Factor A, logging, into the United States is also regulated the blue-headed macaw. illegal logging, agriculture, ranching, by the Wild Bird Conservation Act slash-and-burn activities, oil and gas (WBCA) (16 U.S.C. 4901 et seq.), which E. Other Natural or Man-Made Factors exploration and extraction, and illegal was enacted on October 23, 1992. The Affecting the Species’ Continued mining are occurring in Peru, and purpose of the WBCA is to promote the Existence potentially in the area just inside the conservation of exotic birds by ensuring We are not aware of any scientific or borders of Bolivia and Brazil, and that all imports to the United States of commercial information that indicate deforestation rates have continued to exotic birds is biologically sustainable other natural or man-made factors pose increase in those countries. The best and is not detrimental to the species. a threat to this species. As a result, we available scientific and commercial The WBCA generally restricts the find that other natural or man-made information indicates that although importation of most CITES-listed live or factors are not threats to the blue- these activities could affect individuals dead exotic birds except for certain headed macaw in any portion of its of this species, it does not appear that limited purposes, such as zoological range now or in the future. these activities are affecting the species display or cooperative breeding Finding at the population level. We did not find programs. Import of dead specimens is information that the extent of future allowed for scientific specimens and As required by the Act, we conducted deforestation or the potential impacts to museum specimens. The Service may a review of the status of the species and this species will occur at a level that approve cooperative breeding programs considered the five factors in assessing will elicit a species-level response and and subsequently issue import permits whether the blue-headed macaw is contribute to the risk of extinction of the under such programs. Wild-caught birds endangered or threatened throughout all species. All of the range countries of the may be imported into the United States or a significant portion of its range. We blue-headed macaw have laws and if they are subject to Service-approved examined the best scientific and regulations to protect the species, or management plans for sustainable use. commercial information available wildlife in general, and habitat. Existing At this time, the blue-headed macaw is regarding the past, present, and future regulatory mechanisms have not not part of a Service-approved threats faced by the blue-headed macaw. impacted the species such that it rises cooperative breeding program and does We reviewed the petition, information to a level that it would be considered a not have an approved management plan available in our files, and other threat to the continued existence of the for wild-caught birds. available published and unpublished species. International trade was significantly information. Based on the lack of threats of reduced during the 1990s as a result of In considering whether a species may sufficient imminence, intensity, or tighter enforcement of CITES warrant listing under any of the five magnitude acting on this species, we regulations, stricter measures under EU factors, we look beyond the species’ find that the blue-headed macaw is not legislation, and adoption of the WBCA, exposure to a potential threat or in danger of extinction (endangered), or along with adoption of national aggregation of threats under any of the likely to become endangered within the legislation (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 99). As factors, and evaluate whether the foreseeable future (threatened), discussed under Factor B, we found that species responds to those potential throughout all of its range. Therefore, commercial legal international trade has threats in a way that causes an actual we find that listing the blue-headed been very limited and illegal trade impact to the species. The identification macaw as a threatened or endangered currently occurs in small numbers, or is of threats that might impact a species species is not warranted throughout all very well hidden. Taking into negatively may not be sufficient to of its range. consideration the restrictions under the compel a finding that the species We request that you submit any new EU Wildlife Trade Regulation, CITES, warrants listing. The information must information concerning the status of, or and WBCA, and the lack of evidence for include evidence indicating that the threats to, the blue-headed macaw or its this species occurring in substantial threats are operative and, either singly habitat to our Branch of Foreign Species numbers in the illegal pet bird trade, we or in aggregation, affect the status of the (see ADDRESSES) whenever it becomes believe that these regulation are species. Threats are significant if they available. New information will help us adequately protecting the species from drive, or contribute to, the risk of monitor this species and encourage its international trade. extinction of the species, such that the conservation. species warrants listing as endangered Summary of Factor D or threatened, as those terms are defined Significant Portion of the Range We found no evidence that hunting or in the Act. Having determined that the blue- trade poses threats to the blue-headed We evaluated the potential threats to headed macaw is not in danger of macaw; therefore, existing regulatory the blue-headed macaw, including extinction or likely to become so within mechanisms addressing these activities habitat loss, national and international the foreseeable future throughout all of may be providing adequate protection trade, disease and predation, inadequate its range, we must next consider for this species. As discussed under regulatory mechanisms, and other whether there are any significant

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portions of the range where the blue- species, its range, and the threats it brown tinge on lesser and median wing- headed macaw is in danger of extinction faces, it might be more efficient for us coverts. Its primary covert feathers are or is likely to become endangered in the to address either the ‘‘significant’’ dark blue; under wing coverts and foreseeable future. question first, or the status question axillaries are orange. Its interior feathers The Act defines an endangered first. Thus, if we determine that a are narrowly edged with yellow, and the species as one ‘‘in danger of extinction portion of the range is not ‘‘significant,’’ legs are pale pink (Forshaw 1989). throughout all or a significant portion of we do not need to determine whether The grey-cheeked parakeet is endemic its range,’’ and a threatened species as the species is endangered or threatened to southwestern and one ‘‘likely to become an endangered there; if we determine that the species northwestern Peru (Nores 2004, p. 1; species within the foreseeable future is not endangered or threatened in a Best et al. 1993). It occurs primarily in throughout all or a significant portion of portion of its range, we do not need to forests in a narrow dry band of habitat its range.’’ The term ‘‘significant portion determine if that portion is known as the Tumbesian (also known as of its range’’ is not defined by the ‘‘significant.’’ Tumbesan) Region (Best et al. 1996 p. statute. For the purposes of this finding, Applying the process described above 69; Best and Kessler 1995, p. 8, 155; a portion of a species’ range is for determining whether a species is Parker et al. 1995, p. 202). This region ‘‘significant’’ if it is part of the current threatened in a significant portion of its has distinct ecological characteristics range of the species and it provides a range, we considered status first to (Nores 2004, p. 149) based on drier crucial contribution to the determine if any threats or potential climate and local terrain. The grey- representation, resiliency, or threats acting individually or cheeked parakeet prefers dry, deciduous redundancy of the species. For the collectively threaten or endanger the forests dominated by Ceiba contribution to be crucial it must be at species in a portion of its range. We trichistandra (Kapok or Ceibo tree) a level such that, without that portion, have analyzed the potential threats to (Williams and Tobias 1994 in Best et al. the species would be in danger of the blue-headed macaw throughout its 1995, p. 237; IUCN 2008g). Smaller extinction or likely to become so in the range and found that they occur at such numbers have been seen in semihumid foreseeable future. a low level that there is no effect to the forest as well as fragmented forests, arid In determining whether a species is species. scrubland, and semi-open agricultural threatened or endangered in a land where remnant stands of larger significant portion of its range, we first Conclusion of 12-Month Finding trees that are suitable for nesting are identify any portions of the range of the We do not find that the blue-headed present (Forshaw 1989, p. 531). This species that warrant further macaw is in danger of extinction now, area is unique because it is at the consideration. The range of a species nor is it likely to become endangered equator; its climate is influenced by the can theoretically be divided into within the foreseeable future, Humboldt current, and its natural portions in an infinite number of ways. throughout all or a significant portion of boundary is defined by the Pacific Coast However, there is no purpose to its range. Therefore, listing the species and the Andes mountains (ParksWatch analyzing portions of the range that are as endangered or threatened under the 2005b, p. 3). To the north and south of not reasonably likely to be significant Act is not warranted at this time. We this climate zone are the Choco´ wet and threatened or endangered. To request that you submit any new forest and the Peruvian coastal desert. identify only those portions that warrant information concerning the status of, or Three to nine months of the year are further consideration, we determine threats to, the grey-cheeked parakeet to arid (Best and Kessler 1995, p. 27). In El whether there is substantial information our Endangered Species Program, Nin˜ o years, which occur at 3–16-year indicating that: (1) The portions may be Branch of Foreign Species (see intervals, rainfall may be 200 times as significant, and (2) the species may be ADDRESSES) whenever it becomes high as a very dry year (World Wildlife in danger of extinction there or likely to available. New information will help us Fund (WWF) 2007). The significant become so within the foreseeable future. monitor this species and encourage its biodiversity in this region has been In practice, a key part of this analysis is conservation. If an emergency situation recognized for many years (ParksWatch whether the threats are geographically develops for the grey-cheeked parakeet 2005b, p. 3). Conservation International, concentrated in some way. If the threats or any other species, we will act to WWF, and BLI all consider this region to the species are essentially uniform provide immediate protection. to be globally important due to the high throughout its range, no portion is likely level of endemic species that exist here. to warrant further consideration. II. Grey-Cheeked Parakeet (Brotogeris Although this species’ potential range Moreover, if any concentration of pyrrhoptera) is estimated to be 9,300 km2 (3,591 mi2) threats applies only to portions of the (BLI 2011b, p. 1), it does not occur A. Species Description species’ range that clearly would not throughout its potential extent of meet the biologically based definition of The grey-cheeked parakeet (Brotogeris occurrence. Within this area, its actual ‘‘significant’’ (i.e., the loss of that pyrrhopterus synonym Psittacus area of occurrence is confined to portion clearly would not reasonably be pyrrhopterus) belongs to the family suitable habitat, which contains areas expected to increase the vulnerability to Psittacidae, and is one of 8 recognized for nesting, breeding, and feeding. It extinction of the entire species to the species within its genus, with 17 occurs in the lowlands, generally from point that the species would then be in recognized (Ribas et al. 2009, sea level to 300 meters (984 ft), but has danger of extinction or likely to become p. 1713; Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 490; been observed as high as 1,550 m (5,085 endangered in the foreseeable future), Collar 1997; Forshaw 1989). ft) in the southern part of its range (Best such portions will not warrant further This species is characteristically et al. 1992 in Best et al. 1995, p. 241). consideration. recognized by its distinctive grey- In 1964, Brosset (1964, pp. 112–134) If we identify portions that warrant cheeks. It is also known as a pocket reported it as being very common in further consideration, we then parrot. Adults primarily have green southwestern Ecuador; he described determine their status (i.e., whether in plumage with pale yellow on their large flocks that were seen in the fact the species is endangered or under parts. The forehead is grey with vicinity of plantations. threatened in a significant portion of its a blue-green crown. The side of its head In Ecuador, this species has been range). Depending on the biology of the and chin is pale grey and it has a slight documented west of the Andes in the

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Chone River district (Forshaw 1989, p. Tumbes National Forest (ParksWatch (15.5 mi) northwest of BPCB consisting 531). In the early 2000s, it was observed 2005b, p. 6), and was established in of 600 ha (1,483 ac) known as Hacienda in the areas of Achiotes, El Faique, 1957 to protect against overharvest of Gonzalez, also owned by La Cemento Mangaurquillo, Manabi, Progreso, forest products (ParksWatch 2005b, p. Nacional, that was established as a Guayas, Los Rios, and El Oro, and in the 12). It is somewhat more protected than forest reserve. This species was Sozoranga area of Loja (Bonaccorso et it was in the past due to changes at the described as not as abundant in this al. 2006, p. 63; Freile et al. 2004, pp. border that have resulted from the Peace reserve as in BPCB (Pople 1996, p. 2). 18–19; Ridgely and Greenfield 2001, p. Agreement between Peru and Ecuador, However, as of 2000, it was reported to 67). In addition to its native habitat, this and the subsequent decrease in the be still locally common in suitable species has also been observed in pressures on the TRZ for natural habitat remnants within its range urbanized areas (Ridgely and Greenfield resources due to fewer human (Juniper and Parr 1998 in BLI 2011b, p. 2001, p. 67). It is found in El Canclo´n inhabitants in the area (Walker 2001, p. 1). Lagoon, which was declared a Ramsar 2). Additionally, various bird surveys are site in 1996, and which is one of the 32 The most recent population estimate conducted periodically in Peru and identified wetlands in Ecuador’s coastal is prior to 1995, when it was estimated Ecuador to determine presence and region (Alava et al. 2007, p. 224). It has that there were 15,000 mature absence in areas, and to conduct counts also been observed in three protected individuals of this species remaining in of birds observed (Van den Schoor 2007, areas in southwestern Ecuador: the the wild, principally in Ecuador (BLI p. 12; Elwonger et al. 2004, p. 20; Cerro Blanco Protected Forest (Sheets 2011b, p. 1; Best et al. 1995, p. 242). At Walker 2001, p. 5). In 2001, a birding 2005, personal observation; Pople et al. that time, the population was estimated trip to the TRZ encountered groups of 1996, p. 3), Manglares Churute to have experienced approximately a 70 between 5 and 30 of this species and Ecological Reserve (MCER), and percent population decline over 10 described the occurrence of this species Arenillas Military Reserve (Best et al. years (BLI 2011b, p. 1). This is as being common (Walker 2001, p. 5). 1995, p. 241), which shares a small significant for two reasons: this estimate This species was also described as being portion of its border with Peru. MCER, was made only shortly after the fairly common during a birding trip in within Guayas Province, was created in enactment of regulatory mechanisms the Quebrada Faical area of the TRZ in 1979 and consists of 35,000 ha (86,487 such as the implementation of trade November and December 2004 acres (ac)) 40 km (25 mi) south of bans, and the estimate was also done (Elwonger et al. 2004, pp. 3, 20). In Guayaquil (Pobles et al. 1996, p. 3). only a few years after trade restrictions 2006, over 60 birds were observed in the MCER consists of mangrove stands, a were put in place through the WBCA. wild (Van den Schoor 2007, p. 12). salt-flat area, and a forested section. The population information prior to Although there is no current estimate of Cerro Blanco Reserve, within Guayas 1995 does not likely represent the this species’ population size, there are Province, is 2,000 ha (4,942 ac). In 1995, current status because regulatory several recent reports describing this it was described as a small area of semi- measures, particularly the species as common; large flocks have evergreen forest on a ridge. It is implementation of CITES and WBCA, recently been observed in many areas managed by Fundacio´n Natura and are currently in place which have within its range (WorldLand Trust 2011, Fundacio´n Pro-Bosque. The Arenillas mitigated international trade, the major p. 2; Woods 2010, p. 34; Van den Schoor Military Reserve is 17,083 ha (42,213 ac) threat to this species. Additionally, in 2007, p. 12; Elwonger et al. 2004, pp. 3, 1991, the European Union banned the 20; Denton 2009; Coopmans et al., 2006; in area and has limited access. It is import of this species (Best et al. 1995, Coopmans 2005). It is commonly found managed by military personnel and p. 234). International trade data in at least four reserves in Ecuador, and requires prior authorization from the indicates that trade has dramatically one in Peru. In 2003 and 2007, it was Ministry of Defense to enter (http:// decreased. documented in Loja, Ecuador, where it www.ambiente.gov.ec, accessed June 14, There are several recent reports that had been described as scarce during 2011). describe this species as common; large 1990–1991 surveys (Spencer, pers. In northwest Peru, this species is flocks have recently been observed in comm.; Williams and Tobias 1994 in reported to be locally common in many areas within its range (WorldLand Best et al 1995, p. 242). An additional lowland dry deciduous forest (Walker Trust 2011, p. 2; Woods 2010, p. 34; Van consideration in their population is 2001, p. 6; Parker et al. 1995, p. 212; den Schoor 2007, p. 12; Elwonger et al. their larger clutch size. Because they Parker et al., 1982). In 1995, this species 2004, pp. 3, 20). A local report (2007) generally lay between 4–6 eggs (http:// was described as being scarce at Campo documented this species in Guayas in www.greycheekparakeet.com/ Verde and Cotrina, Peru (Parker et al. the Reserva Ecologica Manglares- Genus_brotogeris.html, accessed August 1995, p. 212). This species has been Churute (http://www.xeno-canto.org, 22, 2011), they have a higher observed in the Tumbes Reserved Zone Accessed September 28, 2011). It is reproductive potential than those (TRZ), specifically at El Caucho and consistently seen in flocks on birding species that have a clutch size of 1–2 Quebrada Faical, with daily counts of trips (Denton 2009; Coopmans et al., eggs. between 50 and 120 individuals (Best et 2006; Coopmans 2005) in Southern Unlike other species within the al. 1995, pp. 241, 242; Parker et al. 1995, Ecuador. In Cerro Blanco Protected Brotogeris genus, the grey-cheeked p. 212). TRZ is a part of the Northeast Forest (BPCB), which is 14 km (8.7 mi) Parakeet does not generally congregate Biosphere Reserve (NBR) which covers west of Guayaquil, Ecuador, this species in large flocks. Flocks of 4 to 10 birds 231,402 ha (571,807 ac), and includes was described as abundant in 1996, normally are observed (Freile et al. the Cerros de Amotape National Park with flocks of up to 40 observed (Pople 2004), and they will sometimes flock and El Angulo Hunting Preserve et al. 1996, p. 2). This area is owned by with other species (Best et al. 1995, p. (Walker 2001, p. 1). In the late 1980s La Cemento Nacional, Ecuador’s 243). Brotogeris species primarily nest and historically, this species was national cement company, but the higher in the canopy (Brightsmith 2000, documented as common in the NBR, reserve has been managed by the NGO p. 529). They lay between 4 and 6 eggs, Tumbes Department (Best et al. 1995, p. Fundacio´n Pro-Bosque since 1993 with 5 eggs usually observed (Arndt 242; Wiedenfeld et al. 1985, p. 313). The (Pople 1996, p. 1). In 1996, this species 1986 in Best et al. 1986, p. 243). Their TRZ was formerly designated as the was also observed in another area 25 km average life span is thought to be

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approximately 15 years (Brouwer et al. (CMS or Bonn Convention); and it is A. The Present or Threatened 2000, pp. 299–316). protected by the WBCA. It is listed as Destruction, Modification, or Because parrots feed primarily on vulnerable in Peru (Peru Lista oficial del Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range fruits and flowers, they are linked to the Instituto Nacional de Recursos Habitat loss was indicated to be a fruiting and flowering patterns of trees. Naturales 2011, p. 2; Supreme Decree factor affecting this species (BLI 2011, p. It is thought to be a seasonal migrant, No. 034–2004–AG 2004, p. 276855), and 1). Although habitat loss can be one of based on food availability (Parker et al. it is also considered vulnerable by the the most significant threats to wildlife, 1995, p. 212). This species is a food Ecuador Government (Decree No. 3,516 particularly in developing countries, the generalist, consuming petals, seeds, of 2003; Unified Text of the Secondary best available information does not flowers, and fruits, particularly Legislation of the Ministry of indicate that habitat loss is negatively (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 490). Environment (EcoLex 2003b, pp. 1–2 affecting this species as discussed Fluctuations in abundance and below. This species exists primarily in availability of food sources may change and 34). Additionally, in 1991, the southwest Ecuador and northwest Peru this species’ diet, resulting in European Union (EU) banned the import (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2011, p. 1; BLI 2011, movements to areas with greater food of B. pyrrhopterus from Peru (Best et al. p. 1; Alava et al. 2007; p. 1; Bonaccorso availability, and influencing local 1995, p. 234). The EU ban and the et al. 2007, p. 61). In Peru, at the border seasonal patterns of bird abundance implementation of the WBCA effectively of Peru and Ecuador, this species exists (Lee 2010, p. 7; Brightsmith 2006, p. 2; halted the international trade in this Renton 2002, p. 17; Cowen undated, pp. species, which was the largest driver of primarily in a protected area, the 5, 23). its population decline (BLI 2011, p. 1 ; Tumbes Reserved Zone (TRZ). Forms of This species exhibits preference for a Best et al. 1995, pp. 234–235). deforestation occur in and around the variety of nesting substrates, but TRZ and include timber extraction, Summary of Factors Affecting the Grey- primarily nests in tree cavities (Juniper gravel extraction, encroachment, honey and Parr 1998, p. 490; Forshaw 1989, p. Cheeked Parakeet harvest, and roads (ParksWatch 2005b, 532; Berg in litt. in Best et al. 1985, p. pp. 8–9, 12). In addition, the park Potential factors that were suggested boundaries have not been clearly 243). It prefers larger trees with larger to affect the species or its habitat or potential cavity size for its nests. The described or effectively protected, and range are evaluated in this section, people have established crops in the grey-cheeked parakeet is known to form including: (1) Trapping for the pet trade; nests in arboreal termite nests park. Land titles and ownership have (2) habitat destruction, primarily (termateria) (Brightsmith 2000, p. 530). also been disputed (ParksWatch 2005b, through logging, conversion to Termites do not seem to be disturbed by p. 10). avian nesting behavior (Brightsmith agricultural areas, and gravel extraction; The activities described above have 2000, p. 531; Harris 1985 in Best et al. (3) disease or predation; and (4) El Nin˜ o occurred in the Tumbesian Region since 1985, p. 243). The species has also been events. Information pertaining to the Peru and Ecuador were colonized; and observed laying eggs on decaying wood grey-cheeked parakeet in relation to the the region has undergone many changes. and moist moss in hollow tree limbs five factors provided in section 4(a)(1) of In 1957, a total of 75,102 ha (185,581 ac) and trunks (Harris 1985 in Best et al. the Act is discussed below. In making were designated as a national forest 1985, p. 243). It shows preference for these findings, information pertaining to (now known as the TRZ) in order to particular tree species, such as: each species in relation to the five provide some protections to the Erythrina (coral erythrina), Bombax factors provided in section 4(a)(1) of the resources in this area. Significant (cotton tree), Chorisa or Ceiba (silk- Act is discussed below. In considering changes occurred particularly in the floss), Cavanillesia platanifolia what factors might constitute threats to 1980s when both Peru and Ecuador (macondo, cuipo, or hamelı´), Ficus (fig), a species, we must look beyond the experienced economic problems. The and Cecropia (trumpet tree) (Parker et exposure of the species to a particular transfer of the presidency in 1985 was al. 1995, p. 212; Best et al. 1985, p. 243). factor to evaluate whether the species Peru’s first transfer of power from one democratically elected leader to another Conservation Status may respond to the factor in a way that causes actual impacts to the species. If in 40 years. During the early 1980s, Peru This species is listed as endangered there is exposure to a factor and the experienced inflation, economic by the IUCN. This categorization was species responds negatively, the factor hardship, and terrorism (U.S. State primarily based on rapid rates of may be a threat, and during the status Department 2011, p. 3), all of which had population decline caused by past review, we attempt to determine how significant implications with respect to trapping for the pet trade (IUCN 2011, habitat degradation and deforestation. significant a threat it is. The threat is p. 1). IUCN’s website states that ‘‘this Overall, however, the TRZ has for the significant if it drives or contributes to species qualifies as endangered because most part remained unaltered the risk of extinction of the species such it [was] affected by very rapid rates of (ParksWatch 2005, p. 3). population decline caused by trapping that the species warrants listing as Species respond differently to habitat for the cagebird trade, plus habitat loss. endangered or threatened as those terms fragmentation (Blanchet et al. 2010, p. Future population declines are are defined by the Act. However, the 8). Deforestation is generally a process projected to be slower, but still a serious identification of factors that could of conversion of forests into a matrix cause for concern.’’ However, this is impact a species negatively may not be consisting of patches of remaining forest primarily based on information sufficient to compel a finding that the at various stages of degradation and compiled by Birdlife International, species warrants listing. The remaining timber, agricultural lands, which relies heaviliy on information information must include evidence urban areas, and pastures for grazing from before 1995. Note that IUCN sufficient to suggest that the potential (Turner 1996, p. 200). Various studies rankings do not confer any actual threat has the capacity (i.e., it should be have been conducted in order to try to protection or management. This species of sufficient magnitude and extent) to quantify effects of habitat loss and has been listed in Appendix II of CITES affect the species’ status such that it fragmentation (Lees and Perez 2006, p. since 1981; it is listed on Appendix I of meets the definition of endangered or 206; Fahrig 2003, p. 487; Debinski and the Convention on Migratory Species threatened under the Act. Holt 2000, p. 342; Brooks et al. 1999a,

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p. 211; Fahrig 1997, p. 603; Turner rocks, and gravel were regularly contributes to habitat degradation. The 1996, p. 200). However, if selective extracted from La Angostura Creek practice of honey harvesting may affect logging is well managed, this practice which is part of the buffer zone of TRZ individual birds; however, there is no can mimic natural disturbances, and (ParksWatch 2005b, p. 16). The heavy evidence that this practice occurs to an many species can persist in logged machinery associated with the gravel extent that it is a threat to the species forests or they can recolonize harvested pits also has secondary impacts or is likely to occur in the future. areas from nearby unlogged patches (ParksWatch 2005b, p. 16). These Ecuador (Putz et al. 2008, p. 1427; Pen˜ a-Carlos et impacts include compaction of soil by al. 2008, p. 1458; Laurance 1999, p. the trucks, which can cause hydrologic There is less information available 114). Some studies have found that the changes, damage to wildlife and plants, with respect to the present or threatened impact on certain wildlife species from erosion, and increased recovery time for destruction, modification, or logging is minimal (Fredericksen and vegetation communities. However, there curtailment of the grey-cheeked Putz 2003, p. 1445). Some generalist is no indication that this activity affects parakeet’s habitat or range in Ecuador. species, such as the grey-cheeked this species. We know that this species is observed parakeet, can successfully adapt to regularly in southwest Ecuador (Woods Roads changes in habitat particularly if they 2010, p. 34; Bonaccorso et al. 2007, p. have varied diets. Although this species Illegal activities can increase with the 64, Van den Schoor 2007, p. 12). It has is endemic to Peru and Ecuador, it has construction of roads, leading to been documented in the areas of shown it can persist in altered habitats increased access by humans (Fimbel et Achiotes, El Faique, and Progreso and and is common within several reserves al. 2001 in Lee 2010, p. 3). Roads are Jorupe reserve, Macara´, Loja province, throughout its range. Not only does this planned by all levels of government and Buenaventura Reserve, El Oro Province, species exhibit success in using altered may encourage legal and illegal and Cerro Blanco Reserva, Guayas. habitats, its population appears to be activities such as agriculture, cattle There are several accounts of this increasing in some parts of its range ranching, poaching, or logging (Nature species being documented between the (WorldLand Trust (WLT) 2011, p. 2). and Culture International (NCI 2011, p. early 2000s and 2011 (Bonaccorso 2007, WLT reports that it is increasing locally 1)). However, roads in the TRZ were p. 64; http://www.xeno-canto.org, in a new reserve, Buenaventura, which destroyed during the El Nin˜ o event of www.avesecuador.com, http:// is in the foothills of the Andes in El Oro 1997–1998, and as of 2001, there were ibc.lynxeds.com/species/grey-cheeked- province, southwestern Ecuador (2011, no plans to rebuild them (Walker 2001, parakeet-brotogeris-pyrrhopterus, all pp. 1–2). p. 2). This lack of road access minimizes accessed August 22, 2011). Flocks of up human entry into the species’ habitat. In to 12 birds have been observed recently; Peru addition, the human population density one group of 60 was observed in 2006 Although a permanent logging ban in this area is low—there are two (Van den Schoor 2007, p. 12). A recent was enacted in the TRZ in 1974, it was communities consisting of report indicated that in El Canclo´n reported that wood was being illegally approximately 330 people (ParksWatch Lagoon, Ecuador, cattle ranching, harvested from the TRZ, processed at a 2005, p. 9), and there is no evidence to deforestation, agriculture development hardwood floor factory in Zarumilla suggest that roads used for gravel (rice crops and farms) may be affecting Department, and being exported to extraction are negatively affecting the the species’ habitat (Alava et al. 2007, p. Ecuador (ParksWatch 2005b, pp. 12, 14). species. 224). However, this species is a habitat ParksWatch (2005, p. 15) reported that generalist that seems to persist in Honey Harvest people come from the cities of Tumbes, altered habitat, and it is frequently Cerro Blanco, and Zarumilla to harvest Within the TRZ, detrimental practices observed on birding trips in Ecuador wood such as trumpet trees (Tabebuia of honey harvesting occur (ParksWatch (Greenfield 2011, p. 1; Woods 2010, p. sp.), which is a species used for parquet 2005b, p. 18), which can further degrade 34; Van den Schoor 2007, p. 12). floors. Frequently these illegal habitat. Bees generally have positive Additionally, there is no recent harvesters cross the border from ecosystem effects—they pollinate native information on forest cover (Food and Ecuador (ParksWatch 2005b, p. 4). Most species and they contribute to the Agriculture Organization 2011, accessed of these trucks come through El biodiversity of ecosystems such as the June 17, 2011). Various estimates Tutumo, allegedly because the Instituto TRZ (Kearns et al. 1998, pp. 83, 90; indicate that around 50 percent of Nacional de Recursos Naturales Pearson and Dressler 1985, p. 38). Ecuador’s land area is covered with (INRENA, translated as the National However, due to the demand for honey, forests (about 12 million ha (29.6 Institute of Natural Resources) control non-native bee colonies (which are million ac)) (Sierra et al. 1999, p. 135; posts were often not staffed, and the aggressive—Apis melifera for example) STCP Engenharia de Projetos Ltda. illegal timber harvesters took advantage are being established (ParksWatch (STCP) 2006, unpaginated). However, in of their absence (ParksWatch 2005b, p. 2005b, p. 18). Non-native bees often Ecuador’s Tumbesian Region, 5,600 km2 14). These problems were intensified by outcompete native bees (Kearns et al. (2,162 mi2) are designated as protected lack of security and coordination 1998, p. 93), which have a vital role in forests. Of these, 25 percent of this area (ParksWatch 2005, p. 3). Despite these ecosystems. Some bees within the retains the original composition of problems this species is described in its Centris genus (which are likely native to species (Bonaccorso et al. 2007, p. 64). range as being common. Current birding this region) use decaying wood as Bonaccorso et al. (2007, p. 64) also trips to the TRZ encounter this species habitat (Kearns et al. 1998, p. 90). concluded that all of the areas where the frequently (Elwonger 2004, p. 6), and Decaying wood is also used by the grey- grey-cheeked parakeet was observed had there is no indication that logging cheeked parakeet as nesting substrate. relatively extensive forest based on affects this species such that it is a The use of decayed wood by bees may satellite imagery. Although threat to the species overall. discourage the grey-cheeked parakeet southwestern Ecuador is densely from using it as nesting substrate. populated, habitat has been reserved for Gravel extraction Additionally, in order to obtain honey, wildlife (such as Jorupe Reserve, ParksWatch reported that, as of 2003, some harvesters may chop down grey- Buenaventura Reserve, and Cerro construction materials such as sand, cheeked parakeet nesting trees, which Blanco Reserve), and this species

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appears to remain common in these 2005b, pp. 9, 12). Studies have found education is prevalent. The grey- protected areas. that conditions inside the parks cheeked parakeet is commonly seen in The Ecuadorian government compared with the surrounding areas reserves and protected areas, and in recognizes 31 different legal categories were in significantly better condition some cases there are anecdotal reports of protected lands (e.g., national parks, than their surrounding areas (Bruner et that it is actually increasing in biological reserves, geo-botanical al. 2001, p. 125). In 40 percent of parks, population (WLT 2011, p. 2). reserves, bird reserves, wildlife reserves, land that had formerly been under Conservation Programs etc.) (see Factor D). As of 2006, the cultivation and that was incorporated amount of protected land (both forested into park boundaries had recovered. The biodiversity of the southern and non-forested) in Ecuador totals This subsequently led to an actual Ecuadorian area is recognized by the approximately 4.67 million ha (11.5 increase in vegetative cover. The study government; and the link between million ac) (ITTO 2006, p. 228). As of found that 83 percent of parks were ecotourism and conservation has 2006, 38 percent of these lands had successful at mitigating encroachment strengthened in the past decade. In appropriate conservation measures in (Bruner et al. 2001, p. 125). This was 1999, a case study about ecotourism place to be considered protected areas confirmed in a more recent study that focusing on Ecuador was published that according to international standards found that forests in conservation units highlighted the link between income (i.e., areas that are managed for were four times better at protecting from ecotourism and forest conservation scientific study or wilderness against deforestation than unprotected (Wunder 1999, p. 1). Since 2001, many protection, for ecosystem protection and areas (Oliveira et al. 2007, p. 1235). In efforts have been initiated to protect, recreation, for conservation of specific further support, ParksWatch (2005, p. 3) conserve, and improve habitat in this natural features, or for conservation reports that the forests of TRZ have species’ range. These activities are through management intervention). At remained unaltered for centuries and achieved through ecotourism, that time, 11 percent had management have become a wildlife refuge. environmental education, and other plans (ITTO 2006, p. 228). Additionally, both Ecuador and Peru are projects. Land is being purchased to Additionally, since 2006, other factors implementing policies and actions to designate formally as reserves (http:// have occurred that are improving the combat deforestation and habitat www.wanconservancy.org, accessed quality of the habitat in this species’ degradation (refer to Factor D) and this September 14, 2011). Additionally, the range. Ecotourism is occurring in areas will continue into the future. United States pledged $40 million for where this species occurs, which is the Peru-Ecuador border integration bringing awareness and funding for Since the Peace Accord between Peru project (U.S. State Department 2011b, p. conservation projects. The success of and Ecuador was signed in 1998, the 7) and another $4 million to support ecotourism and land protection has habitat has experienced dramatic Peruvian and Ecuadorian de-mining been demonstrated in the past, changes in the TRZ (Walker 2001, p. 2). efforts along their common border particularly in Ecuador (Wunder 1999, The Peace Accord between Peru and (http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/ p. 18). Ecotourism is characterized by Ecuador was to resolve border 35762.htm, accessed June 10, 2011). The small groups working in remote differences that had sparked violent presence of fewer military troops is locations that have not yet been largely confrontations. Prior to 1988, military alleviating pressure on the TRZ. All of affected by commercialization (Lindsay troops were based at El Caucho near these activities are likely to reduce any 2003, p. 2) Ecotourism is an opportunity Quebrada Faical, Peru. Apparently, impacts to species and habitat along the to preserve ecosystems and biological hunting supplemented the diet of the border. diversity by generating income to troops, and since the Peace Accord, Many collaborative and innovative support conservation and research many game species have returned and conservation projects to conserve land efforts. Ecotourism fees provide a have become more prevalent according have occurred recently. Several NGOs mechanism for long-term protection of to local communities (Walker 2001, p. such as Birdlife International, the land and its resources. In addition, 2). These species likely play a WorldLand Trust, Nature and Culture NGOs are involved in working with significant role in the grey-cheeked International, and local organizations Ecuador’s protected areas. Fundacio´n parakeet’s ecosystem; they may serve to such as Fundacio´n EcoCiencia, Loro Jocotoco is a key player in Ecuadorian distribute seeds, contribute to the Parque Fundacion, ProNaturaleza, and conservation and ecotourism; it was quality of leaf fodder, or other roles that Fundacio´n Pro-Bosque, are working to established to protect areas that are are not as evident (Estes et al. 2011, p. protect areas in Tumbesian Ecuador. important for the conservation of 301). As of 2001, the former military Fundacio´n EcoCiencia’s mission is to endangered birds and their habitats. posts are only manned by two Peruvian conserve biological diversity through Some NGOs such as Fundacio´n Jocotoco border police, and although the guards scientific research, recovery of are buying additional land that will be continue to supplement their diets with traditional knowledge, and protected in southern Ecuador hunting, the pressure is less severe on environmental education. The (www.worldlandtrust.org/projects/ typical game species (Walker 2001, p. Foundation was created in 1989 and has ecuador-reserves, accessed September 2). In 2001, the quality of habitat on the six program areas: Biodiversity Research 14, 2011). Peruvian side of this border was and Monitoring; Environmental and Although within this species’ existing characterized as excellent and Conservation Training Capacity; Natural range some habitat has decreased in the improving. On the Ecuadorian side, Resources Management, Environmental past, since that time both the Ecuador habitat was described as more inhabited Policies; and Information and and Peruvian have formally protected by humans and having limited suitable Environmental Economy. This NGO has this species’ habitat (Bonaccorso et al. habitat—cattle and towns had replaced contributed towards research of the 2006, p. 61). Some habitat loss, forested areas (Walker 2001, p. 2). grey-cheeked parakeet. The conversion to other uses, and Despite the increase in human Fundacio´n (LPF) is headquartered in degradation within some parts of the inhabitants in this area, this species Loro Parque, Tenerife, Spain, and works grey-cheeked parakeet’s range occurs, exhibit success in using altered habitat to conserve threatened parrot species but we do not have information as to the and it exists in protected areas where and their habitats, through education, extent of degradation (ParksWatch ecotourism and environmental applied research, responsible breeding

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programs, and community-based cheeked parakeet habitat, particularly in through the Ministry of Environment to conservation activities that use these the absence of the international pet stem the current rate of deforestation in species as ambassadors for nature. LPF trade, which was the greatest threat to Ecuador (1.46 percent per year), thereby has also contributed funding towards the species prior to the 1990s. New reducing deforestation (http://www.un- projects that involved the grey-cheeked reserves are being created within this redd.org, accessed June 17, 2011). In parakeet. ProNaturaleza (Peruvian species range (WLT 2011, p. 1), and its 2008, the Socio Bosque Program (PSB) Foundation for the Nature Conservancy) population has increased in at least one was launched, providing economic was created in 1984. It is dedicated to reserve, Buenaventura (WLT 2011, p. 2). incentives to land owners such as the conservation and preservation of Ecotourism generates income in local indigenous communities, who Peru’s environment, particularly communities, environmental education voluntarily protect their forests. Goals of sustainable use of the natural resources. programs conducted by NGOs increase Socio Bosque include decreasing ProNaturaleza has been involved in the awareness. deforestation and the resulting protection of the TRZ by promoting These and other NGOs have been production of greenhouse gases, and local involvement, establishment of involved in some form of protection of preserving native forests and native agreements between national and this species’ habitat for many years and ecosystems in part by providing needed international organizations, restoration are likely to be involved in the future. financial resources to people in rural of mangrove ecosystems, regulation of Although these partnerships and areas. Though the program is still in its extractive activities, and environmental conservation activities are discretionary early stages, its inception implies a education since 1988 (ParksWatch and not regulatory mechanisms; they are commitment by the Ecuadorian 2005b, p. 7). In addition to habitat having positive effects on this species government to protect its natural protections in place for this species, it and its habitat by providing data resources, initiate reforestation also benefits through conservation through scientific research, programs, and protect habitat for species efforts by these NGOs. environmental education, and such as the grey-cheeked parakeet. The World Land Trust and Fundacio´n community-based conservation Additionally, in March 2011, the Pro-Bosque are working in the Cerro programs; and they partner with both 8,795 ha (21,730 ac) Angostura-Faical Blanco Reserve area with local the governments of Peru and Ecuador in Regional Conservation Area, in the communities, focusing on Puerto carrying out their activities. Tumbes Department, was protected by Hondo, where young local people, with The governments of Ecuador and Peru presidential decree as a carbon offset guidance and training from Foundation are also investing in reforestation project. This was in cooperation with staff, lead tourists on guided canoe trips efforts. Despite no laws existing in Peru the Regional Government of Tumbes through a rich mangrove estuary that require reforestation activities, Peru and two nongovernmental (http://www.wlt.org, accessed June 15, is implementing reforestation projects, organizations: The Carbon Tree 2011). Between 2006 and 2010 some 235 in part through carbon credits. Peru Conservation Fund, and Nature and hectares (581 ac) of degraded lands have recently implemented its National Culture International (NCI). The park, been reforested with over 250,000 Reforestation Plan. One aspect of this which is approximately 20 km (12 mi) saplings of 30 native species. In 2004 an plan is to convert degraded lands back north of the TRZ, had been primarily environment education centre was to natural habitat by planting native threatened by an advancing agricultural constructed for use by the local species. Although there is some frontier and degradation by selective community, and a children’s ecology indication that there may be insufficient illegal logging. Approximately 65 club runs weekly activities. A funds for full implementation (Climate, percent of Ecuador’s native forests are community park warden program is Community and Biodiversity Alliance owned by indigenous communities building local awareness for this unique (CCBA) 2010, p. 7), this type of (Palacios 2005 in Hu¨ benthal et al. 2010, reserve and its wildlife. WLT and reforestation is a priority activity in the p. 4). Because one aspect is to create Fundacio´n Pro-Bosque are seeking to plan, especially in rural areas (National sustainable livelihoods (alternatives to expand the Cerro Blanco Reserve Reforestation Plan 2005, p. 2). In 2008, unsustainable use of forested areas) for through additional land purchase. This Ecuador also implemented a national indigenous communities and is within includes both unprotected and critically forest conservation plan, called this species’ range, this project is likely threatened forest habitat near the Programa Socio Bosque, in order to to have a positive impact on this existing reserve, as well as land that has conserve over 5 million ha (12.4 million species’ habitat. been deforested but can be replanted. ac) of forest (Conservation International Summary of Factor A International and local NGOs are also 2008, p. 1). actively involved in working towards The grey-cheeked parakeet, although forest protection. Several reserves have Reducing Emissions From Deforestation native to a relatively small area, has been established. Fundacio´n Jocotoco, and Forest Degradation (REDD) been documented in a wide range of an Ecuadorian organization established In connection with the National habitat types such as disturbed humid to protect land for the conservation of Reforestation Project, Ecuador and Peru forest, evergreen forest, deciduous Ceiba Ecuador’s endangered birds such as the are working towards reducing emissions trichistandra forest and scrub, arid grey-cheeked parakeet, buys lands and from deforestation and forest scrubland, and semi-open agricultural manages them as private ecological degradation by using a concept of land (Best et al 1995, p. 243). Land use reserves. Ecotourism activities, reducing emissions from deforestation changes have the potential to cause particularly focusing on birding and forest degradation (termed REDD) to forest fragmentation and studies have expeditions, in the Tumbesian region protect forested areas (CarbonTree.org, shown that over time that some resident are abundant. Many of the ecotourism http://www.climate-standards.org; bird diversity declines within forest companies advertise the grey-cheeked http://www.un-redd.org/AboutREDD, fragments (Turner 1996, p. 202). parakeet as an ecotourism draw (Woods accessed May 16, 2011). REDD creates However, other studies have indicated 2010, p. 34; Van den Schoor 2007, p. 13; incentives through carbon credits which that some species, particularly smaller Elwonger et al. 2004, pp. 3, 20). All of promote reforestation. species such as the grey-cheeked these efforts are likely to have a The Government of Ecuador parakeet, are able to adapt to habitat significant positive effect on grey- implemented the REDD program changes (Ibarra-Macias et al. 2011, p.

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703; Moore et al. 2008, p. 961). Timber threat to the grey-cheeked parakeet in by the CITES Animal Committee (Best et extraction, gravel extraction, any portion of its range now or in the al. 1995, p. 246). encroachment, honey harvest, roads, or future. Prior to this species being protected other forms of deforestation occur in by various regulatory mechanisms (refer some areas of grey-cheeked parakeet B. Overutilization for Commercial, to Factor D) in the early 1990s, this range; however, there is no indication Recreational, Scientific, or Educational species had been heavily traded (Collar that it is impacting this species at the Purposes and Juniper 1998, p. 14; Best et al. 1995, population level. The range countries Pet Trade pp. 245). Trade in parrots was extremely are working to combat deforestation. common in the 1980s due to huge Recent commitments by both countries The grey-cheeked parakeet has always demand from developed countries to stem deforestation under the REDD been a popular pet in part because of its (Rosales et al. 2007; Best et al., 1995, pp. program indicate a continued ability to mimic human voices 234–235). The UNEP–WCMC Trade commitment to protect forest habitat, (Feigelstock 2009, p. 3). In Peru and Database reported 96,018 live grey- including that utilized by the grey- Ecuador, it is common to have a parrot cheeked parakeets were imported by cheeked parakeet. Both governments’ as a pet (Bergman 2009, p. 2; Williams reporting countries between 1981 and economies are fairly strong, which has and Tobias 1994 in Best et al. 1995, p. 1990 (accessed September 14, 2011). a positive correlation with wildlife 244). Illegal bird trade (the uncontrolled This is an average of 10,668 birds per conservation (Davies et al. 2006, p. selling of bird species) is common in year. Exports of over 5,000 live grey- 2130). The protected areas in which this markets and street vendors in both cheeked parakeets per shipment species occurs both in Peru and Ecuador countries (Bergman 2009, pp. 1–5; Alava occurred in the 1980s. Between 1981 offer safeguards from development to et al. 2007, p. 230; Gonzalez 2003, p. and 1985 it was the fifth most common populations of grey-cheeked parakeet in 438; Best et al. 1995, pp. 233–250). Neotropical psittacine species imported addition to the species persisting in Unlike in the United States and the into the U.S.A (Best et al. 1995, p. 244). altered habitat. European Union, the origin of many pet Between 1983 and 1988, it constituted 34 percent of Peru’s parrot trade (p. This species is commonly seen birds in Latin America is from the wild, 244). In 1984, Peru exported in excess throughout its range, in groups of 12–60 and the practice of poaching for the of 20,000 grey-cheeked parakeets; and birds (Woods 2010, p. 12; Van den domestic pet trade, while it is less common, continues in Peru and the U.S.A. was the principal consumer Schoor 2007, p. 12). Although some of (Best et al. 1995, p. 245). Since 2000, its habitat may be affected by Ecuador (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2010, pp. 79– 80; Weston and Memon 2009, pp. 77, only 12 live grey-cheeked parakeets deforestation, this species appears not to were reported to have been in be adversely affected and it can persist 79, 82; Gonzalez 2003, p. 438). Several studies have investigated the harvesting, international trade (UNEP–WCMC in altered habitats (Best et al 1995, p. CITES Trade database, accessed May 12, 243), including urban environments. local trade, and conservation of parrots in northeastern Peru and Ecuador. 2011), and only one of those was from This species occurs in several protected Peru or Ecuador. International trade in areas. Of these, Cerro Blanco Protection Despite the local trade in this species, discussed below, the primary factor this species, which was the primary Forest, Ecuador, and Tumbes Reserved factor impacting the population decline Zone, Peru, are particularly important, contributing to its decline was the massive international trade in this of this species, is now negligible. with recent daily counts of over 50 Although poaching still occurs, public individuals having been observed. This species, which has been effectively halted through regulatory mechanisms. sentiment is changing due to species is observed regularly on birding educational awareness programs in Peru trips; and it appears to be common In the early 1970s, Ecuador and Peru and Ecuador (Fundacio´n Jocotoco 2011). within its range in Ecuador’s protected banned the export of wildlife. In the late In the late 1990s, income from the sale reserves. The governments of Ecuador 1970s, Peru lifted the moratorium of young parrots in Peru could yield and Peru are both working on (Fuller et al. 1987 in Best et al. 1995, p. between $10 and $30 USD per day, reforestation initiatives and this is likely 234). By 1983, Ecuador had restricted while other sources of income such as to continue into the future. NGOs are exports of wildlife and Peru had agriculture and day labor would only purchasing and preserving lands. Local implemented quotas for wildlife exports yield $5 per day (Kvist et al. 2001 in Lee ecotourism companies promote (Fuller et al. 1987, p. 289). However, 2010, p. 3; Gonzalez 2003, pp. 437–446). conservation of the species and its even in 1987, this species was found in In 1998, in the United States, this habitat. They advertise this charismatic markets in Lima, Peru, and sold for $10– species sold for between $175 and $400 species to draw people to these areas. $12 USD each (Plowden 1987 in Best et (Marsh 1998, p. 2). Prior to the Additionally, since the pressure of al. 1995, p. 244). Between 1984 and implementation of many regulatory poaching for the international pet trade 1988 (prior to the enactment of the protections that were initiated in the has been alleviated due to restrictions WBCA in 1992), approximately 42,000 1990s, an entire brood of parrot chicks put in place in the 1980s and 1990s, live grey-cheeked parakeets were would often be taken from nests and grey-cheeked parakeets are commonly reported to have been imported into the sold locally (Best et al. 1995, p. 244). observed in the wild and populations United States (UNEP–WCMC, accessed Poaching was occurring in the late appear to be increasing (WLT 2011, pp. May 3, 2011; Mulliken and Thomsen 1990s even in areas designated as 1–2). Though individual grey-cheeked 1990 in Parker et al. 1995, p. 213). In protected. A study by Gastan˜ aga et al. parakeets may be affected by some of 1989, the trade decreased, but rose again examined nest poaching and illegal these activities, there is no evidence to in 1990–1991 (Mulliken in litt. 1995 in trade of parrots, including the reasons indicate that the grey-cheeked parakeet Best et al. 1995, p. 245). Best et al. for poaching, methods, seasons, and is negatively impacted at the population (1995, p. 246) indicated that trade data locations where the sale and actual level. Therefore, based on the best may have been exaggerated by poaching of parrots occurred. This study available scientific and commercial misdeclaring other parrot species as this found that this species is still being information, we find that the present or species. In 1993, Peru again poached in the wild (Gastan˜ aga et al. threatened destruction, modification, or implemented a moratorium on exports 2011, pp. 79–80), even in protected curtailment of habitat or range is not a of this species, after a recommendation areas and despite national protections in

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place. Although during the study in with a focus on endemic bird species, populations of this species. A 2007 and 2008, 385 specimens of grey- involve local communities, and many discussion of diseases that are known to cheeked parakeet were found in 5 NGOs conduct local educational affect this species follows. markets for sale in Peru, the study also awareness of the species’ value in the Avian polyomavirus (APV) is one of found that where protections and wild (Fundacio´n Jocotoco 2011). the most significant viral pathogens of enforcement have been implemented, cage birds (Pesaro et al. 2005, p. 321). Summary of Factor B such as in Cusco, there were no parrots This species is susceptible to APV for sale in markets. This study was over Although overutilization for the pet infection, which appears in birds up to a 12-month period between 2007 and trade was a threat to this species in the approximately 14 weeks of age, after 2008. In the 20 markets in eight cities past, we have no information indicating which infection is asymptomatic. The visited, the grey-cheeked parakeet was that the grey-cheeked parakeet is mortality peak in some Psittacine found in five of those eight cities; but currently being overutilized and we species occurs between 4 and 8 weeks significantly, not in Lima. The study have no reason to believe the levels of of age (Pesaro et al. 2005 pp. 321, 325). indicated that wildlife markets are well trade that occurred in the past will Most birds infected with APV are mildly known, and they believed that they had become a threat to the species in the affected (Gonzalez et al. n. d., p. 2). The identified all the wildlife markets in future. The protections in place are extent to which this disease and others seven out of the eight cities (Gastan˜ aga becoming more effective, and addressed below occur in wild et al., p. 78). The survey was conducted international trade is now negligible. populations is unclear, but these over four quarterly periods in these 20 This species exists in several protected diseases have been found to occur in the markets in eight cities. This species is habitats, and there is no evidence the wild (USGS 1999, p. 94). USGS commonly found distributed throughout species is decreasing in population indicates that disease is more likely to its historic range within an area of 9,300 (Woods 2010, p. 34, Elwonger et al. exist where there are major bird km2 (3,591 mi2). Compared with an 2004, p. 3; Van den Schoor, 2007). In concentrations. APV is likely to affect average of 10,668 birds per year, 385 some cases it appears to be increasing this species more frequently if this specimens of grey-cheeked parakeet (WLT 2011, p. 2). It is observed species is exposed to humans through found in 5 markets for sale in Peru is regularly in three of Ecuador’s protected an increase of activities such as minimal. reserves (Jorupe, Buenaventura, and ecotourism (Factor E) or logging (Factor Poaching has been found to be Cerro Blanco Reserve), in El Canclo´n A), or other disease vectors such as significantly lower at protected sites Lagoon, and in Peru’s TRZ. We cattle. (Pain et al. 2006, p. 322; Wright et al. acknowledge that poaching continues to Avian tuberculosis (also known as 2002, p. 719). For example, Gonzalez occur, but the primary impact to the avian mycobacteriosis (Mycobacterium (2003, pp. 437–446) found evidence of species that contributed to its several avium) is known to occur in both wild poaching, particularly during nesting population decline, the international pet and captive-held Brotogeris species seasons, in the Pacaya-Samiria National trade, essentially no longer exists. The (USGS 1999, p. 96; Butcher et al. 1990, Reserve, a protected area in the Loreto primary impact to the species, removal p. 1025; Rosskopf et al. 1986, p. 219; Department, Peru, during his 1996–1999 of the wild for the international pet Panigrahy et al. 1983, p. 1166). There study. However, he also found that trade, has been reduced to the point are 20 types of M. avium. poaching decreased during the 1998 where it is no longer a threat. Since Mycobacteriosis is seen fairly frequently harvest season (Gonzalez 2003, p. 444), 2000, only one live grey-cheeked among parakeets and other parrots in which he attributed to increased parakeet was reported to have been captivity (USGS 1999, Chapter 8, p. 96), numbers of birds confiscated by regional exported from either Peru or Ecuador by and can cause die-offs in captive flocks. authorities, which subsequently CITES-reporting countries. Poaching In captivity, parakeets such as the grey- discouraged poaching (also see Factor may occur in a limited number of areas, cheeked parakeet are likely to be D). An additional factor is that this but to the best of our knowledge, it is exposed to mycobacterium; however, species may be less accessible than not occurring in all locations where this cases of tuberculosis have become less other parrot species, due to its species occurs. Additionally, frequent (Butcher et al. 1990, p. 1023). preference for forested habitat that environmental awareness campaigns by Birds are more susceptible if their diet consists of complex canopy layers. local NGOs are decreasing the levels of is inadequate, and if they are subjected In the U.S., this species is no longer poaching. Based on the best available to stressful conditions such as crowded common (Feigelstock 2009, p. 3; Low scientific and commercial information, or unsanitary conditions in cages or 2003, p. 2) possibly due to its relatively we find that overutilization for cold temperatures (USGS 1999, p. 95); short lifespan, the difficulty of breeding commercial, recreational, scientific, or fecal exposure is the main route of this species in captivity, and educational purposes is not a threat to transmission. This disease causes susceptibility of this species in captivity the grey-cheeked parakeet now or in the chronic wasting characterized by weight to a wide range of diseases (see Factor future. loss, diarrhea, difficulty breathing, and C). The best available information tumors of the skin and eyes (Butcher et indicates that poaching is becoming less C. Disease or Predation al. 1990, p. 1023; USGS 1999, Chapter frequent due to involvement by NGOs, This species is susceptible to many 8, pp. 93–97). Tumors may also affect minimal international demand for the diseases (Pesaro et al. 2005 pp. 321, 325; the spleen, liver, lungs, air sacs, skin, species, and improved enforcement by USGS 1999, pp. 93–99; Butcher et al. and bone marrow. It is spread through authorities (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2011, p. 82; 1990, p. 1025; Panigrahy et al. 1983, p. inhalation, direct contact with infected UNEP–WCMC Trade Database). 1166). However, most of the available birds, and ingestion of contaminated Recently, this species has been the focus research addresses captive-held birds food or water. Parrots can obtain also of many conservation, public awareness which may have a higher incidence of tuberculosis from pigs (USGS 1999, p. and ecotourism projects. This species disease than wild birds due to their 1); however, it is unclear if humans can attracts birders, and it is advertised on exposure to sick birds, unsanitary transmit M. avium to parakeets (USGS many ecotourism internet sites for conditions, improper husbandry 1999, p. 93). M. avium has been found Tumbesian Ecuador and Peru. methods, etc. It is not clear how to persist outside of a host for over 40 Conservation programs, particularly prevalent disease factors into wild months (USGS 1999, p. 97). It persists

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longest in poultry litter, and can also (Brightsmith 2005, p. 78). This between some species of ants and occur in wastewater, sewage effluent, researcher found that of 47 nests, Brotogeris parakeets (Brightsmith 2005, and fertilizers (USGS 1999, p. 97). It is including 23 nests in termitarium p. 77; Brightsmith 2000, p. 536). unclear the extent to which tuberculosis (termite mounds), 12 primary cavity Although ants have the potential of affects this species in the wild; however nests, and 13 secondary cavity nests, being a localized threat, the best USGS reported in 1999 (p. 96) that between 4 and 17 percent of the nests available information does not indicate tuberculosis has rarely been found to be in termitarium were preyed upon, and that this factor affects the species such the cause of a major die-off. 77 percent of the secondary nests were that it is a threat to the species Although captive birds may be more preyed upon (Brightsmith 2005, p. 78). throughout all or a significant part of its susceptible to diseases in captivity, in Secondary nests are previously used range. most areas where this species occurs, tree cavities, and primary nests are Summary of Factor C the habitat is relatively undisturbed and newly excavated tree cavities. The study exposure to disease is likely minimal. found that newly excavated nests had We have no evidence of adverse Variation in spatial distribution affects lower rates of predation. impacts to wild-populations of grey- patterns of disease. In captivity, this Over time, bird species such as the cheeked parakeet from disease or species may be in close quarters, under grey-cheeked parakeet develop predation. Disease and predation are stress, and potentially exposed to mechanisms in order to counter the normal occurrences within wild diseases that it does not encounter in its effects of predation. All of the predators populations. With respect to the grey- natural, wild environment. Research has in the study described above are native cheeked parakeet, there is no indication indicated that populations that exist in to Peru and Ecuador; so a natural that these are occurring to an extent that separate, smaller, more isolated patches predator-prey balance has likely they are threats. We conclude, based on slows the dispersal rate and increases developed over time. This species lays the best available scientific and the probability of local extinction of between 4 and 6 eggs, usually 5 eggs. commercial information, that neither pathogens (Carlsson-Graner and Thrall This behavior may be a mechanism that disease nor predation is a threat to the 2002, p. 97). This species prefers has developed in order to combat grey-cheeked parakeet in any portion of forested habitat with complex canopy pressures such as predation. While its range now or in the future. layers, in areas that are fairly distant predation may be a source of mortality, D. The Inadequacy of Existing from human establishments. The there is no evidence that it is a limiting Regulatory Mechanisms species exists in fairly small groups factor for population growth for this with large home ranges. Without clear species. Another response mechanism Each range country manages this evidence that these diseases negatively to predation is building nests in new species differently. Within each affect this species in the wild, we do not sites; the research above found that country, not only is there a wide consider diseases discussed above to these nests were less affected by variability in the amount of information occur at a level such that we consider predation. Although predation occurs available about the species, but also them to be a threat to the species. on this species, predation is a normal about the level of management and ecological interaction in the wild. The monitoring of the species. Existing Ectoparasites best available information does not regulatory mechanisms that could have We examined whether ectoparasitism indicate that predation is a threat to the an effect on potential threats to the grey- by lice and mites is a threat to this species. cheeked parakeet include (1) local land species. Many mites have evolved use laws, processes, and ordinances; (2) symbiotic relationship with avian Ants Federal laws and regulations; and (3) species (Atyeo 1989, p. 101). Not all There is only one report of ant international treaties. Because most of bird-mite relationships are parasitic; predation on Brotogeris species. the available information addresses the some might be benign or beneficial Research in Peru found that termateria grey-cheeked parakeet in protected (Proctor and Owens 2000, pp. 358, 362). inhabited by two other species of reserves, the discussion below focuses Many mites are nonparasitic scavengers Brotogeris (B. sanctithomae and B. on national laws. and use nests or bird feathers as habitat. cyanoptera) were coinhabited by Ecuador Despite the presence of mites found in Dolichoderus ants (Brightsmith 2000, p. nests of this species, there is no 536). In another study, ants (species Laws evidence that mites cause mortality or unknown) had drilled a hole in an egg Ecuador has numerous laws and disease, or that they have a negative and had consumed the contents regulations pertaining to conservation of effect on this species (Atyeo 1989, p. (Brightsmith 2005, p. 76). The 2005 its species, forests, and forestry 101). We conducted a search of study did not include predation by ants management (also refer to Factor B). available information, and there is no or termites in its results, but ants and These include its Forestry Act other information indicating that lice termites also were found to depredate (comprised of Law No. 74 of 1981– and mites negatively affect the species. nests (Brightsmith 2005, p. 77). At this Forest Act and conservation of natural time, it is unclear why the study did not areas and wildlife (Faolex 1981, pp. 1– Predation include predation by ants and termites. 54)—and Law No. 17 of 2004— In 2005, a study of nest competition, It may be that predation by ants and Consolidation of the Forest Act and which examined preference of substrate termites was minimal compared with conservation of natural areas and material, age of nesting cavity, and the mutualistic benefit of sharing wildlife (Faolex 2004, pp. 1–29)); the depredation of several bird species, termateria between ants, termites, and Ecuadorian Strategy for Forest indicated that eggs are heavily predated avian species. Observations suggest that Sustainable Development of 2000 in Peru (Brightsmith 2005, entire). ants consume the feces of bird species, (Estrategia para el Desarrollo Forestal Although this study concluded that thereby keeping the nests clean Sostenible); and Decree 346, which nests are heavily predated in Peru, the (Brightsmith 2000, p. 537). Although it recognizes that natural forests are highly study did not include B. pyrrhoptera. is unclear which species of ant had vulnerable (ITTO 2006, p. 225). The Predators included birds, marsupials, depredated this nest, overall, it appears Ecuadorian government recognizes termites, monkeys, and rodents that there is a mutualistic relationship different legal categories of protected

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lands. As of 2006, the amount of protected status despite underfunding reduce carbon emissions by 13.5 million protected land (both forested and non- and pressures for resources (Bruner et tons per year and to reduce poverty by forested) in Ecuador was approximately al. 2001, p. 126). The study found that providing additional income to more 4.67 million ha (11.5 million ac) (ITTO protected areas are especially effective than two million people in Ecuador. 2006, p. 228). Ecuador’s National in preventing land clearing. It also This program has the support and System of Protected Areas (Sistema found that in 40 percent of parks, land involvement of many NGOs, both local Nacional de A´ reas Protegidas or SNAP) that had formerly been under and international. In the range of this is a network of lands held by various cultivation and that was incorporated species, many areas are receiving more entities including national, privately into park boundaries had recovered. protection now, and this species is owned, and community-owned lands This subsequently led to an increase in being used as an ecotourism magnet. (Hu¨ benthal et al. 2010, p. 5). vegetative cover. The study found that Additionally, many NGOS are involved Additionally, the grey-cheeked 83 percent of parks were successful at in land conservation and species parakeet is protected under Ecuadorian mitigating encroachment (Bruner et al. protection in Ecuador (refer to law by Decree No. 3,516 of 2003 as 2001, p. 125). The study concluded that discussion under factor A), and we vulnerable (Unified Text of the the conditions inside the parks expect these activities to continue into Secondary Legislation of the Ministry of compared with the surrounding areas the future. Environment (EcoLex 2003b, pp. 1–2, were in significantly better condition Although the governmental 34) (also see discussion under Factor B). than their surrounding areas (Bruner et institutions responsible for natural This decree summarizes the laws al. 2001, p. 125). A later study resource oversight in Ecuador may be governing environmental policy in supported this finding; it found that under-resourced and there is a lack of Ecuador and mandates that the forests in conservation units were four law enforcement on the ground, the country’s biodiversity is protected and times better at protecting against country is making progress in its used primarily in a sustainable manner. deforestation than unprotected areas conservation. Ecuador’s Ministry of Appendix 1 of this Decree lists the (Oliveira et al. 2007, p. 1235). Environment’s Socio Bosque subsidy Ecuadorian fauna and flora that are program has encouraged many large categorized as critically endangered (En Government Incentives forest owners to participate in this peligro critico), endangered (En peligro), In the past few years, many advances program. Many NGOs are actively or vulnerable (Vulnerable) (EcoLex have been made in protections for this involved in conservation programs in 2003a, p. 16). The grey-cheeked species; such as incentives initiated by Ecuador, particularly in southern parakeet’s status confers protections to the government for communities to Ecuador, where this species resides. Ten the species under Resolution No. 105 of conserve this species. In 2006, some percent of all of Ecuador falls under 2000 and Agreement No. 143 of 2003 researchers indicated that despite some form of environmental protection (Standards for the control of hunting official protections in place, there were or special status. As of 2006, 500,000 seasons and licenses for hunting of few actual effective local protections in hectares (1,235,527 ac) are covered by wildlife). Resolution No. 105 and Ecuador (Bonaccorso et al. 2006, p. 61). management plans, and management Agreement No. 143 regulate and NGOs had also expressed concern that plans have been prepared for two other prohibit commercial and sport hunting Ecuador was not effectively managing reserves 13,000 ha (32,125 ac) in size of all wild bird species, except those its wildlife and resources. In 2006, the (ITTO 2006, p. 228). The grey-cheeked specifically identified by the Ministry of International Tropical Timber parakeet exists in several protected the Environment or otherwise permitted Organization considered ecosystem areas such as El Canclo´n Lagoon, which (EcoLex 2003a, p. 1; EcoLex 2000, p. 1). management and conservation in was declared a Ramsar site in 1996, and Under this law, the Ministry of the Ecuador, including effective is one of the 32 identified wetlands in Environment does not permit implementation of mechanisms that Ecuador’s coastal region (Alava et al. commercial or sport hunting of the grey- would protect grey-cheeked parakeet 2007, p. 224). cheeked parakeet (EcoLex 2003b, p. 17). habitat, to be lacking (ITTO 2006, p. NGOs Although Ecuador allows hunting, and 229). In 2007, another organization removal of this species from the wild by indicated that the Forestry and Wildlife As discussed under factor A, many indigenous people is legal for Service, Office of the Ecuadorian collaborative and innovative subsistence purposes (Bergman 2009; Ministry of Environment, was not conservation projects to conserve land pp. 1–5), there is no evidence that this adequately implementing conservation have occurred recently. Several NGOs practice occurs at an unsustainable measures for the Manglares Churute such as Birdlife International, level. Ecological Reserve (MCER), where this WorldLand Trust, Nature and Culture species was recently observed. The NGO International, and local organizations Protected Areas indicated that the management plan in such as Fundacio´n EcoCiencia, Loro There are at least 30 protected areas MCER had not been fully applied (Alava Parque Fundacio´n, ProNaturaleza, and throughout the country. These protected et al. 2007, p. 231). However, since that Fundacio´n Pro-Bosque, are working to areas include national parks, biological time, the government of Ecuador has protect areas in Tumbesian Ecuador. reserves (one is a marine reserve), adopted a national forest plan. In 2008, The World Land Trust and Fundacio´n ecological reserves, wildlife production Ecuador implemented this forest Pro-Bosque are working in the Cerro reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, national conservation plan, called Programa Blanco Reserve area with local recreational areas, and a bi-national Socio Bosque (‘‘Forest Partners’’) in communities, focusing on Puerto park, El Co´ndor, through the Peace order to conserve over 5 million ha (12.4 Hondo, where young local people, with Agreement signed with Peru million ac) of forest (Conservation guidance and training from Foundation (www.ambiente.gov.ec; www.parks.it, International 2008, p. 1). This program, staff, lead tourists on guided canoe trips accessed June 10, 2011). A study in which is administered through the through a rich mangrove estuary 2001 found that tropical parks have Minister of the Environment, offers (http://www.wlt.org, accessed June 15, been surprisingly effective at protecting incentives to landowners and 2011). Between 2006 and 2010 some 235 ecosystems and species within indigenous communities willing to hectares (581 ac) of degraded lands have boundaries designated as parks or other conserve their forests. Goals are to been reforested with over 250,000

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saplings of 30 native species. In 2004 an permitted by regulation. Poaching for of establishing these protected areas, environment education centre was the domestic pet trade does occur; they were initially described as core constructed for use by the local however, poaching does not appear to zone, protected zone, and transition community, and a children’s ecology occur at a level such that it impacts the zone. The TRZ essentially encompassed club runs weekly activities. A species. Other laws that Peru has El Caucho and Campo Verde, the buffer community park warden program is enacted to protect parrot species such as zone was essentially El Angolo Game building local awareness for this unique the grey-cheeked parakeet have Preserve, and the transition zone was reserve and its wildlife. WLT and generally been effective (Gastan˜ aga et al. the adjoining areas. The TRZ has had Fundacio´n Pro-Bosque are seeking to 2011, p. 77), particularly since protected status since 1957, but it has expand the Cerro Blanco Reserve enactment of Ley Forestal y de Fauna always experienced pressures from through additional land purchase. This Silvestre No 27308. This law regulates timber harvest (ParksWatch 2005, p. 5). includes both unprotected and critically the commercialization of wild species, In 1970, a 10-year logging moratorium threatened forest habitat near the and the minimum requirements for their was implemented. In Tumbes, sawmills existing reserve, as well as land that has harvest and their collection and were closed, but some illegal timber been deforested but can be replanted. In transportation; and it establishes a harvest still occurred in the 1970s, addition to habitat protections in place maximum collection quota for each despite government efforts (ParksWatch for this species, it also benefits through species from their natural environment 2005, p. 5). There had been reports of conservation efforts by these NGOs. (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2011, p. 77). INRENA some local Ecuadorians who crossed the annually sets a quota for certain species, border into the protected zone to hunt, Trade trade in the grey-cheeked parakeet is not cut wood, and sometimes establish lots Ecuador continues to strengthen its permitted (Gastan˜ aga et al. 2011, p. 77). for agriculture (Walker 2001, p. 2). However, the involvement of an NGO, regulatory mechanisms. The decline in Protected Areas population numbers of this species ProNaturaleza, in 1988 increased the primarily occurred in the 1980s due to The Peruvian National Protected Area effectiveness of protections in this area. significant trade that occurred of this System includes several categories of Their activities have included species (UNEP–WCMC CITES trade habitat protection. Habitat may be promoting local involvement, database, accessed September 14, 2011). designated as any of the following: (1) establishment of agreements between Between 1984 and 1988 (prior to the Parque Nacional (National Park, an area national and international enactment of the WBCA in 1992), managed mainly for ecosystem organizations, restoration of mangrove approximately 42,000 live grey-cheeked conservation and recreation); (2) ecosystems, regulation of extractive parakeets were reported to have been Santuario (Sanctuary, for the activities, and environmental education imported into the United States (UNEP– preservation of sites of notable natural (ParksWatch 2005b, p. 7). The WCMC, accessed May 3, 2011). The or historical importance); (3) Reserva implementation of these additional WBCA effectively halted imports of Nacional (National Reserve, for protection measures are likely to also wild-origin birds into the United States. sustainable extraction of certain improve the habitat for the grey-cheeked Since 2000, only 12 live grey-cheeked biological resources); (4) Bosque de parakeet. Proteccio´n (Protection Forest, to parakeets were reported to have been in Domestic Trade international trade (UNEP–WCMC, safeguard soils and forests, especially for watershed conservation); (5) Zona Most of the parrots in the illegal trade accessed May 12, 2011); and only one of Reservada (Reserved Zone, for come from the wild, where they have those was reported to be from either temporary protection while further been harvested by small local Peru or Ecuador. Because of adequate study is under way to determine their communities and traded to other people regulatory mechanisms such as CITES importance); (6) Bosque Nacional who transport them to wildlife markets and the WBCA, both at the domestic (National Forest, to be managed for in major cities (Rosales et al. 2007 in and international level, we believe that utilization); (7) Reserva Comunal Gastan˜ aga et al. 2011, p. 77; Gonzales the primary threat to this species, (Communal Reserve, for local area use 2003, p. 438). Despite the illegal sale of poaching for the international pet trade, and management, with national this species in some Peruvian markets, has been alleviated. In addition, oversight); and (8) Cotos de Caza efforts to curtail poaching and sale seem Ecuador continues to design and (Hunting Reserve, for local use and to be improving (note that Gonzales’s implement new regulatory and management, with national oversight) study was conducted between 1996 and conservation strategies to address issues (Rodrı´guez and Young 2000, p. 330). 1999). In 2007 and 2008, 385 grey- such as poaching for the pet trade that National reserves, national forests, cheeked parakeets were found in five of affect this species. Based on the communal reserves, and hunting the eight markets surveyed. The survey negligible amount of international trade reserves are managed for the sustainable was conducted over four quarterly (also refer to discussion in Factor B), we use of resources (IUCN 1994, p. 2). The periods in these 20 markets in eight do not find that the international trade designations of National Parks, cities. However, in cities such as Cusco in this species is a threat to the species. Sanctuaries, and Protection Forests are and Puerto Madonado, where INRENA Therefore, the best available information established by supreme decree that and the ecological police have increased indicates that regulatory mechanisms supersedes all other legal claim to the enforcement of wildlife protection laws, are adequate in Ecuador to protect this land and, thus, these areas tend to there were no grey-cheeked parakeets or species and its habitat. provide more habitat protection than other parrots found for sale (Gastan˜ aga Peru unprotected areas. et al. 2011, p. 82). The illegal parrot Progress has been made in Laws trade has decreased in these areas; establishing protected areas and indicating that when enforcement is in This species is listed as vulnerable in implementing protections where this place, protections are effective. Peru under Supreme Decree No. 034– species occurs: the TRZ, the Cerros de 2004–AG (2004, p. 276,855). This decree Amotape National Park and El Angolo International Wildlife Trade prohibits hunting, take, transport, and Game Preserve form the Noroeste Removal of this species from the wild trade of protected species, except as Biosphere Reserve. During the process for the pet trade had the greatest impact

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on this species. In 1981, the grey- (2001, pp. 1–2) indicated that many of individual live grey-cheeked parakeets cheeked parakeet was listed in these are not effective due to limited in trade since 2000, we believe that Appendix II of CITES, and in 1992, this implementation and/or enforcement international trade controlled via valid species was protected by the WBCA. capability. However, one of the most CITES permits is not a threat to the The WBCA effectively shut down significant threats to the species prior to species. Based on the best available imports of this species into the United the 1990s was the international pet scientific and commercial information, States; one of the largest importers of trade, but this trade has been negligible we find that inadequate mechanisms are this species. CITES requires CITES since 2000. Both Ecuador and Peru’s not a threat to the grey-cheeked parakeet Parties to have in place adequate economies are improving, and both in any portion of its range now or in the legislation for its implementation. countries are implementing many future. Through Resolution Conf. 8.4 (Rev. projects and mechanisms that are E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors CoP15), the Parties to CITES adopted a having a positive impact on this species Affecting Its Continued Existence process, termed the National Legislation and its habitat. Project, to evaluate whether Parties have The grey-cheeked parakeet is listed as El Nin˜ o Events adequate domestic legislation to ‘‘vulnerable’’ under both Ecuadorian The arid terrestrial ecosystem of successfully implement the Treaty and Peruvian law. It occurs within at northwest Peru, where the grey-cheeked (CITES 2010b, pp. 1–5). In reviewing a least four protected areas in Peru and parakeet occurs, is influenced by El country’s national legislation, the CITES Ecuador. This species is commonly Nin˜ o events (Rodriguez et al. 2005, p. Secretariat evaluates factors such as observed in both Ecuador and Peru in 1), which has the potential to have protected areas; and flocks of this whether a Party’s domestic laws profound and long-lasting effects species are frequently observed. Some designate the responsible Scientific and (Mooers et al. 2007, p. 2; Holmgren et habitat degradation continues, including Management Authorities, prohibit trade al. 2006a, p. 87). An El Nin˜ o weather within protected areas (see factor A). contrary to the requirements of the phenomenon in 1982–1983, caused However, we find that the existing Convention, have penalty provisions in widespread flooding in some parts of regulatory mechanisms are adequate to place for illegal trade, and provide for the country and severe droughts in mitigate these activities throughout the seizure of specimens that are illegally others (http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/ traded or possessed. The Government of grey-cheeked parakeet’s range. The most bgn/35762.htm, accessed May 5, 2011). Peru was determined to be in Category significant threat, poaching for the El Nin˜ o–southern oscillation (ENSO) 1, which means they meet all the international pet bird trade, has cycles increase the risk of fire because requirements to implement CITES. declined significantly, and the these events are often followed by years Ecuador was determined to be in population has had time to recover. of extremely dry weather (Block and Category 2, with a draft plan, but not There is no indication that the Richter 2007, p. 1). Accumulated enacted (http://www.cites.org, SC59 population is currently declining; it biomass dries and adds to the fuel load Document 11, Annex p. 1). The appears to be thriving in protected areas in the dry season (Power et al. 2007, p. international legal trade in this species based on numerous recent birding 898; Block and Richter 2007, p. 1). has substantially decreased and is now expeditions. The international pet trade negligible. As discussed under factor B, that contributed to the species’ past Evidence suggests that the fire cycle in between 2000 and 2009, only 12 live decline, is now negligible. Peru has shortened, particularly in specimens were reported in Other factors that influenced our coastal Peru and west of the Andes international trade (UNEP–WCMC); and decision are that these governments are (Power et al. 2007, pp. 897–898), which only one was from a range country both implementing reforestation efforts could have broad ecological (Peru). With respect to international (see factor A) and forest conservation consequences (Block and Richter 2007, trade, the implementation of the WBCA programs. Lands are being purchased p. 1; Power et al. 2007, p. 898), and and CITES, and the Governments of and are converted to reserves. ENSO cycles have increased in Peru and Ecuador have effectively Ecotourism such as birding trips in periodicity and severity (Richter 2005, controlled international trade of this these reserves, which in part provides pp. 24–25). However, research suggests species. Based on the best available funding, appears to be prevalent in the that ENSO events can also have positive information, the Governments of Tumbesian region. Although some rather than negative effects. The amount Ecuador and Peru are adequately limited poaching may continue to occur, of rainfall during an El Nin˜ o year can be enforcing their respective legal there is no evidence to suggest that they more than 25 times greater than during frameworks. Based on the decrease in are having significant population level normal years in northern Peru reported trade, we believe that effects. This species exists in several (Holmgren et al. 2006a, p. 90; Rodriguez international trade has been adequately protected habitats and is commonly et al. 2005, p. 2). El Nin˜ o events are curtailed by regulatory mechanisms. observed throughout its range. There is important triggers for regeneration of no evidence that its population is still plants in semiarid ecosystems, Summary of Factor D declining (WLT 2011, p. 2; Woods 2010, particularly in the dry forest of We considered the adequacy of p. 34, Elwonger et al. 2004, p. 3; Van northwest Peru (Holmgren et al. 2006a, existing regulatory mechanisms to den Schoor, 2007). It is observed p. 88; Lopez et al. 2006, p. 903; protect the grey-cheeked parakeet. Peru regularly in three of Ecuador’s protected Rodrı´guez et al. 2005, pp. 2–3). During and Ecuador have enacted numerous reserves (Jorupe, Buenaventura, and El Nin˜ o events, plant communities and laws and regulatory mechanisms to Cerro Blanco Reserve), it was observed barren lands are transformed into lush protect and manage wildlife and their in El Canclo´n Lagoon (Alava et al. 2007) vegetation, as seeds germinate and grow habitats. Studies by the Peruvian and in Campo Verde in 2006; and in more quickly in response to increased Society for Environmental Law (SPDA) Peru’s TRZ. The grey-cheeked parakeet rainfall (Holmgren et al. 2006a, p. 88; concluded that there are approximately is also protected under CITES and the Holmgren et al. 2006b, pp. 2–8; 5,000 laws and regulations directly or WBCA, which we find have been Rodrı´guez et al. 2005, pp. 1–6). This indirectly related to environmental effective in mitigating the impact to this species is a food generalist and exists in protection and natural resource species from international trade. a climate zone that is fairly stable (it is conservation in Peru. In 2001, Muller Because there have been so few in a narrow latitudinal band). Thus, we

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find that the grey-cheeked parakeet is grey-cheeked parakeet is threatened or Blanco Reserve, and in Peru, the species likely to be less affected by ecosystem endangered throughout all of its range. exists in Tumbes Reserved Zone (TRZ), changes due to El Nin˜ o events than Section 3 of the Act defines an specifically at El Caucho and Quebrada other species. ‘‘endangered species’’ as ‘‘any species Faical. which is in danger of extinction Tourism Habitat loss and degradation (Factor throughout all or a significant portion of A) and poaching (Factor B) still occur in Tourism can have both positive and its range’’ and a ‘‘threatened species’’ as Peru and Ecuador. We acknowledge that negative aspects. One form of tourism, ‘‘any species which is likely to become these activities affect individuals, but ecotourism, has the potential to have a an endangered species within the there is no evidence that they are having positive effect by providing economic foreseeable future throughout all or a significant impacts such that they are incentives for communities to protect significant portion of its range.’’ threats to the species. We find that these their natural areas. This in turn makes We examined the best scientific and activities are not of sufficient them less reliant on the resources commercial information available imminence, intensity, or magnitude to within a protected area, and encourages regarding the past, present, and future indicate that the grey-cheeked parakeet sustainable practices. In many cases, threats faced by the grey-cheeked is in danger of extinction (endangered) local communities may contribute to the parakeet. We reviewed the petition, or likely to become endangered within habitat degradation or remove the information available in our files, and the foreseeable future (threatened), species from the wild. Ecotourism other available published and throughout its range. The distribution of projects, by creating alternative sources unpublished information, and we its population in many reserves in of income, can be a way to create consulted with experts. We believe the Ecuador and Peru helps contribute to awareness of a species’ plight, and also species does not warrant listing for the the viability of the species overall; and can attract conservation funding to an following reasons. There are no its distribution is providing a margin of area. Community conservation projects indications that the population of this safety for the species to withstand have demonstrated that if local species is currently declining. Both catastrophic events, strengthening the communities understand the benefit of IUCN and BLI’s population trend redundancy of the species. This species conserving the resource and are justification are from population studies exists in protected habitat in both provided alternative sources of income, conducted prior to 1995; and the countries, and legal international trade, they have incentive to protect the categorization was primarily based on formerly the most significant threat to resource rather than overutilize the rapid rates of population decline caused this species, has been very limited since resource (Lee 2010, p. 13). There is by past trapping for the international pet international trade has been regulated. increasing awareness to minimize trade. The EU ban and the Illegal domestic trade (Factor B), while environmental impacts of visitors. implementation of the WBCA effectively occurring in some areas, is not having Ecotourism is being conducted in a halted the international trade in this a significant impact such that it is a manner that is not disturbing to the species. International trade, which was threat. Disease and predation (Factor C) species. As of 2005, TRZ was attracting the primary reason for its decline prior are not impacting this species such that 500 tourists annually, and the tourists to the 1990s, is now negligible. Further, they are threats. Additionally, the generally only visited particular areas both Peru and Ecuador, the range involvement of NGOs in protecting (ParksWatch 2005b, p. 11). Based on the countries for this species, categorize this more of this species’ habitat is likely to positive effects of low-impact species as vulnerable. positively impact the species. Based on ecotourism, and also the potential Additionally there has been the lack of threats to the grey-cheeked positive effects of ecotourism, we do not significant NGO involvement in the parakeet throughout its range, as find that tourism has a significant protection of endemic bird areas in the described above, we determine that the impact on the species. range of grey-cheeked parakeet. The World Land Trust (WLT) indicated that grey-cheeked parakeet is not in danger Summary of Factor E in a recently purchased area near the of extinction or likely to become so We evaluated other natural or Buenaventura Reserve, the grey-cheeked within the foreseeable future. Therefore, manmade factors that might affect the parakeet has increased locally, but did we find that listing the grey-cheeked continued existence of the grey-cheeked not give specific population estimates parakeet as a threatened or endangered parakeet. Neither El Nin˜ o events nor (WLT 2011, pp. 1–2). Habitat loss is species is not warranted. tourism were found to be threats to the often a threat to wildlife; however, in We request that you submit any new species. The grey-cheeked parakeet this case, both Peru and Ecuador are information concerning the status of, or exists in protected areas in both Ecuador implementing reforestation programs, threats to, the grey-cheeked parakeet or and Peru that provide suitable habitat. and this species exists in several its habitat to our Branch of Foreign Lowland bird species such as the grey- protected areas, as well as areas outside Species (see ADDRESSES) whenever it cheeked parakeet are adapted to El Nin˜ o of protected areas. The species appears becomes available. New information events, and this climate zone is fairly to adapt to altered habitat (Best et al. will help us monitor this species and stable in its weather patterns. Tourism 1995, p. 233). Several birding surveys encourage its conservation. occurs at low levels, and the tourism is have focused on the Tumbesian biome, Significant Portion of the Range likely very minimal in protected areas which extends 130,000 km (80,778 mi) where this species exists. Based on the into southern Ecuador and northern Having determined that the grey- best available scientific and commercial Peru. Surveys in the early 2000s to cheeked parakeet is not in danger of information, we find that other natural determine biodiversity in the Loja extinction or likely to become so within or manmade factors are not a threat to Province observed this species fairly the foreseeable future throughout all of the grey-cheeked parakeet in any regularly in forested areas. The its range, we must next consider portion of its range now or in the future. Tumbesian area still has primary and whether there are any significant secondary forested areas that are portions of the range where the grey- Finding protected—in Ecuador, this species cheeked parakeet is in danger of As required by the Act, we considered exists in MCER, Jorupe Reserve, extinction or is likely to become the five factors in assessing whether the Buenaventura Reserve, and Cerro endangered in the foreseeable future.

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The Act defines an endangered meet the biologically based definition of Conclusion of 12-Month Finding species as one ‘‘in danger of extinction ‘‘significant’’ (i.e., the loss of that throughout all or a significant portion of portion clearly would not reasonably be We do not find that the grey-cheeked its range,’’ and a threatened species as expected to increase the vulnerability to parakeet is in danger of extinction now, one ‘‘likely to become an endangered extinction of the entire species to the nor is it likely to become endangered species within the foreseeable future point that the species would then be in within the foreseeable future, throughout all or a significant portion of danger of extinction or likely to become throughout all or a significant portion of its range.’’ The term ‘‘significant portion endangered in the foreseeable future), its range. Therefore, listing the species of its range’’ is not defined by the such portions will not warrant further as endangered or threatened under the statute. For the purposes of this finding, consideration. Act is not warranted at this time. We a portion of a species’ range is If we identify portions that warrant request that you submit any new ‘‘significant’’ if it is part of the current further consideration, we then information concerning the status of, or range of the species and it provides a determine their status (i.e., whether in threats to, the grey-cheeked parakeet to crucial contribution to the fact the species is endangered or our Endangered Species Program, representation, resiliency, or threatened in a significant portion of its Branch of Foreign Species (see redundancy of the species. For the range). Depending on the biology of the ADDRESSES) whenever it becomes contribution to be crucial it must be at species, its range, and the threats it available. New information will help us a level such that, without that portion, faces, it might be more efficient for us monitor this species and encourage its the species would be in danger of to address either the ‘‘significant’’ conservation. If an emergency situation extinction or likely to become so in the question first, or the status question develops for the grey-cheeked parakeet foreseeable future. first. Thus, if we determine that a or any other species, we will act to In determining whether a species is portion of the range is not ‘‘significant,’’ provide immediate protection. threatened or endangered in a we do not need to determine whether References Cited significant portion of its range, we first the species is endangered or threatened identify any portions of the range of the there; if we determine that the species A list of all references cited in this species that warrant further is not endangered or threatened in a document is available at http:// consideration. The range of a species portion of its range, we do not need to www.regulations.gov, Docket No. FWS– can theoretically be divided into determine if that portion is R9–ES–2011–0071, or upon request portions in an infinite number of ways. ‘‘significant.’’ from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, However, there is no purpose to Applying the process described above Endangered Species Program, Branch of analyzing portions of the range that are for determining whether a species is Foreign Species (see FOR FURTHER not reasonably likely to be significant threatened in a significant portion of its INFORMATION CONTACT). and threatened or endangered. To range, we considered status first to identify only those portions that warrant determine if any threats or potential Author further consideration, we determine threats acting individually or The primary authors of this notice are whether there is substantial information collectively threaten or endanger the staff members of the Branch of Foreign indicating that: (1) The portions may be species in a portion of its range. We find Species, Endangered Species Program, significant, and (2) the species may be that the potential threats evaluated are U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. in danger of extinction there or likely to not of sufficient imminence, intensity, become so within the foreseeable future. or magnitude to indicate that the grey- Authority In practice, a key part of this analysis is cheeked parakeet is in danger of The authority for this action is the whether the threats are geographically extinction (endangered), or likely to Endangered Species Act of 1973, as concentrated in some way. If the threats become endangered within the amended (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.). to the species are essentially uniform foreseeable future (threatened), throughout its range, no portion is likely throughout all of its range. Therefore, Dated: September 29, 2011. to warrant further consideration. we find that listing the grey-cheeked Cynthia T. Martinez, Moreover, if any concentration of parakeet as a threatened or endangered Acting Director, Fish and Wildlife Service. threats applies only to portions of the species is not warranted throughout all [FR Doc. 2011–25807 Filed 10–11–11; 8:45 am] species’ range that clearly would not of its range. BILLING CODE 4310–55–P

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