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COUP D’ EVENTAIL: THE MAGHREB, THE FRENCH, AND IMPERIAL PRETEXT by Timothy John Walker A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in English MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Bozeman, Montana April 2006 © COPYRIGHT by Timothy John Walker 2006 All Rights Reserved ii APPROVAL of a thesis submitted by Timothy John Walker This thesis has been read by each member of the thesis committee and has been found to be satisfactory regarding content, English usage, format, citations, bibliographic style, and consistency, and is ready for submission to the Division of Graduate Education. Dr. Amy Thomas Approved for the Department of English Dr. Michael Beehler Approved for the Division of Graduate Education Dr. Joseph J. Fedock iii STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a master’s degree at Montana State University, I agree that the Library shall make it available to borrowers under rules of the Library. If I have indicated my intention to copyright this thesis by including a copyright notice page, copying is allowable only for scholarly purposes, consistent with “fair use” as prescribed in the U.S. Copyright Law. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this thesis in whole or in parts may be granted only by the copyright holder. Timothy John Walker April 2006 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………1 2. THE MAGHREB ..………………………………………………………………8 Regional Overview ...…………………………………………………………..8 Geopolitical Comparison .…………………………………………………....11 Algeria .…………………………………………………………………………22 Tunisia ..………………………………………………………………………..24 Morocco ..………………………………………………………………………26 3. THE FRENCH IN THE MAGHREB …………………………………………28 4. MAGHREBIAN WOMAN ……………………………………………………..39 5. MAGHREBIAN MAN ….………………………………………………………76 6. PAX-FERAOUN: COMPARISON OF JOURNALS ………………………105 7. CONCLUSIONS: A LEGACY OF IMPERIALISM ..………………………129 REFERENCES CITED ….....……………………………………………………135 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Regional Land Area Comparison [2005] ………………………………….12 2. Regional Inland Water Area Comparison [2005] ………………………...12 3. Arable Land Percentages [2005] …………………………………………..13 4. Permanent Cropland Percentages [2005]…………………………………13 5. Regional Population Data [2005]…………………………………………...14 6. Religious Diversity: Algeria [2005] …………………………………………15 7. Religious Diversity: Morocco [2005] ……………………………………….15 8. Religious Diversity: Tunisia [2005]………………………………………….16 9. Religious Diversity: Iraq [2005] ……………………………………………..16 10. Ethnic Profile: Algeria [2005]………………………………………………..17 11. Ethnic Profile: Morocco [2005] ……………………………………………..17 12. Ethnic Profile: Tunisia [2005] ……………………………………………….18 13. Ethnic Profile: Iraq [2005] …………………………………………………...18 14. Poverty Estimate [1999] ……………………………………………………..19 15. Petroleum Reserve Comparison [2005]…………………………………….20 16. Petroleum Production Comparison [Maghreb, 2003 data; Iraq, 2004 data]…………………………………………………………………………20 17. Natural Gas Reserves Comparison [2005] ………………………………..21 18. Natural Gas Production Comparison [Maghreb, 2001 data; Iraq 2002 data] ………………………………………………………………………...21 vi LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED) Figure Page 19. Flag and Map of Algeria ……………………………………………………..22 20. Flag and Map of Morocco …………………………………………………...24 21. Flag and Map of Tunisia ……………………………………………………..26 vii ABSTRACT This thesis examines the experience of the men and women of the Maghreb through an analysis of regionally-based writers, historians, and cultural and geopolitical analysts, as well as alternative sources detailing salient factors involved in this era. The Maghreb, a region of North Africa consisting of three nations, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, experienced well over a century of colonial rule by the French. The colonial era lasted from the early 1800’s to the culmination of the French-Algerian War in 1962. France was determined to establish Algeria as an integral component of the French empire and the cornerstone for an economic and cultural expansion known as Eurafrique that would allow for the dominance of the African continent. Additionally, French Protectorates were established in the flanking nations of Morocco and Tunisia, resulting in absolute regional dominance. An interdisciplinary analysis merging the literary, cultural, and geopolitical history of the region provides the reader with an opportunity to evaluate multiple perspectives of this turbulent era. Further, it provides one with a practical foundation from which an objective critique of ongoing strife between the globalizing influences, for good or bad, of the West and the traditions and cultures of the Muslim world can be effectively based. Ultimately, this study reveals that French imperial pretext failed due to a combination of tragic miscalculations regarding basic geopolitical, cultural, and traditional traits of the Maghreb. 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION The incident is famous, and known to history as the “coup d’ eventail” (the blow of a fan). During the course of a dispute between the Dey and the French consul, Deval, the former, exasperated beyond bearing, so far forgot himself as to strike the Frenchman with his fan. To this day, Algerian gentlemen habitually carry fans, largely to ward off flies, and it would be impossible to inflict any physical injury with such an instrument: only the dignity of the consul had been wounded. The whole trivial affair could easily have been hushed up; but it gave the French government a pretext for intervention, which it was hoped might bolster up the increasing unpopularity of the King, Charles X. An expeditionary corps was accordingly fitted out, in the hope that public discontent might be distracted by a cheap and easy campaign which should increase French prestige abroad and add to the popularity of the Crown at home. (Nickerson 99) An analysis of the 19th and 20th century Maghrebian (alternately referred to as Maghrebi or Maghribi) experience with the French presents one with an intriguingly relevant literary, historical, and geopolitical record. Numerous trends found in the colonial and postcolonial works manifest themselves in the modern day and will likely continue to arise in the ebb and flow of international geopolitics. A selected review of the stories, histories, and various analyses of the Maghreb will provide one with an objective and relevant understanding of this 2 overlooked region and people. The long, violent story of the Maghreb between the early 19th century and the present readily initiates a comparison with the multitude of ongoing military, cultural, and economic Western thrusts into the Muslim world. An ignorance of the story of the Maghreb poses a needless risk to the primacy of the West, democracy, and globalization. The impetus for this study was a disappointment with the prevalence of misinformation and ignorance of literary, cultural, and geopolitical history. A cursory review of the body of Tunisian, Moroccan, and Algerian literature, history, and related geopolitical analysis, revealed several key friction points in the contact of two cultures that eventually led to the collapse of the French Empire in the Maghreb. The absolute failure of such a strong empire to succeed in the economically and militarily weak region of Northern Africa would ideally have provided lessons in imperial geopolitics. Disappointingly, the lessons that can be derived from these friction points have been overlooked or ignored by individuals and accordingly, the democracies and decision-making bodies in which they exist. A further detriment to achieving a useful understanding of imperial failure is the fact that Western studies dealing with the Maghreb have typically been specialized to a degree that it is difficult, if not impossible, to ascertain a relevant regional understanding, particularly the sort of understanding that is now most needed. This study hopes to integrate a multifaceted history of the French experience in the Maghreb that reveals fundamental and useful aspects of this complex interweaving of cultural, political, and military forces. At the conclusion of the study, the overwhelming impression gained will be one of realization: 3 reliable indicators of the debilitating and ultimately fatal disease of failed imperial pretext will be exposed from behind the shroud of popular opinion and politically, religiously, and culturally-sponsored misinformation. The basis for this study deals with the tension and friction that develops in the collision of culture, religion, and tradition that has occurred since the crusades of the Middle Ages. The failure of multiple empires to identify characteristics of competitors both great and small is a commonplace occurrence throughout history. One misidentified characteristic of the Maghreb deals with the lack of French understanding regarding the outcome of displacing, forcibly or not, traditional Maghrebian man, manhood, and the responsibilities and roles therein implied. In a sense, the men of the Maghreb were offered a choice between outright sociocultural displacement and violent rebellion, with the predictable outcome of most choosing the latter option. Another failure by the French deals with a catastrophic misjudgment concerning the impact of any perception of Western impropriety, let alone actual mistreatment, imprisonment or torture, inflicted upon Maghrebian women. Additionally, the displacement and loss of so great a percentage of the men due to the various forms of insurgency left women in a dilemma between adhering
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