Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review 2003. 2003. in article present the for idea the spawned having God 2007). Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: 1956 hms tr, Sve Ue n Tetet f Japanese of Treatment and Use 629 Roll Archive, Microfilm Memorial “Soviet Stark, Thomas a tnin clrd h poeuin f ai a cr war Nazi of p crimes. Allied of prosecution manner the the inflected deeply competition colored tensions War o environment politically-charged the within wholly for trials and of, investigation the but 1931-1945, © © J Introduction Cathcart Adam LOGICAL “A Chin Memory Modern and War in on (Symposium Article akn mn o e re a a oe ovnet ie a time convenient labor. more a Manchuri at tried of be out to men and ranking northward soldiers and officers of hundreds swept Army Red Soviet the archipelago, epnil fr h ctcym f h Pcfc a, a War, Pacific culpability. the from of cataclysm the cli for small responsible a only that observers) American skeptical convinc to trials crimes war used regime occupation Sep in buildings undestroyed Tokyo’s into swaggered of trials bro crimes war each postwar the – to needs regimes political Chinese divergent two and Union, the Wake of World War II War World of Wake the Joh 2000); Press, University Harvard Massachusetts: APANESE The Chinese Historical Review Historical Chinese The GAINST GAINST Wspr, onciu: rewo Pes 18) se 1988); Press, Greenwood Connecticut: (Westport, 3 2 1 3 William F. Nimmo, F. William Norman J.W. Goda, Goda, J.W. Norman I te femt o Jpns urne, ot large most surrender, Japan’s of aftermath the In Hret . Bix, P. Herbert 1 The victorious parties in the World War – the Uni the – War World the in parties victorious The soldiers and scientists perpetrated horrific war c war horrific perpetrated scientists and soldiers W I EAPONS AND EAPONSAND NVISIBLE 2 Nt a fo te ince f lid oe ad the and power Allied of pinnacle the from far Not , (New York: W.W. Norton and Co. / New / 1999) Co. and Press, W.W., Norton York: (New Hirohito Behind a Curtain of Silence: Japanese in Soviet Cus Soviet in Japanese Silence: of Curtain a Behind ae fo Sadu Nz Ciias n te od War Cold the and Criminals Nazi Spandau: from Tales E , Volume 16, Number 1 (Spring 2009): 60-89 60-89 (Spring 2009): Number1 16, Volume , NEMIES

C and the Making of Modern Japan Japan Modern of Making the and

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S J APANESE an Ohio University graduate seminar in seminar graduate University Ohio an C n Dower, n OLD a also merits acknowledgement for acknowledgement merits also a , these crimes occurred almost almost occurred crimes these , Japanese defendants. Having Having defendants. Japanese f the Cold War. Just as Cold Cold as Just War. Cold the f que of militarists had been been had militarists of que e also interviews compiled by by compiled interviews also e oeuin f aaee war Japanese of rosecution te aaee epe (and people Japanese the e bsenting Emperor Hirohito Hirohito Emperor bsenting tember 1945, the American American the 1945, tember PsW,” Douglas MacArthur MacArthur Douglas PsW,” nd using the rest for slave slave for rest the using nd W thousands of Kanto Army Army Kanto of thousands Embracing Defeat: Japan in Japan Defeat: Embracing , orig h highest- the hoarding a, ught its own particular particular own its ught AR ras f aaee war Japanese of trials B rimes across Asia from from Asia across rimes ted States, the Soviet Soviet the States, ted C ERIOACT iminals, ideological ideological iminals, ,

1949-1950 1949-1950 a) (Cambridge, tody, 1945- tody, Japanese Japanese . . -

Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review East, 1945-1951 1945-1951 East, eih, rnltd y on ukra, Ui 71 an 731 “Unit Junkerman, John by translated Keiichi, Na U.S. 330, Case 20, 1434, Box R.G.331, 1947, June fr Note Sheet, Check Command East Far GHQ Archives; 331, R.G. 1947, April 17 Section, Legal the to G-2 acquire the results, was worth the price of protect of price the worth was results, the acquire th and Manchuria, in subjects living on experiments le to opportunity the Tokyo, in occupation American General for However, investigation. any for point Manc in Ishii outbreaks, 731” plague of “Unit waves rolling group triggered development BW the of head simpl any to resistant Alli represent problem postwar therefore multifaceted crimes development, war Bacteriological trump BW about BW. speculation overtly down tamp bloc in to sought propagandists communist collusion the in American-Japanese press the While The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The ok Ruede 20) Dvd ilas n Ptr Wa Peter and Williams David 2002); Routeldge, York: Army’s Secret of Secrets of Secret Army’s years. six nearly for wait to have Japa b prosecution their these 1950, July in of custody communist 971 transferred suddenly Union Soviet t these of hands the in squarely remained criminals Testimony Testimony one of the most controversial and powerful issues o issues powerful and controversial most the of one bacteriologica of issue the politics, international ay oe aaee ovcs no mrcn utd i custody American into convicts Y Japanese of more prosecution many crucial a through rushing up ended p reap to desires ardent with era postwar the began uhn hna Guanlisuo Zhanfan Fushun Reflection?: The Emergence and Development of War G War of Development and Emergence The Reflection?: Japan,” unpublished manuscript. manuscript. unpublished Japan,” ate ta floe. a cie til o te Ja the conflicts. past to of “closure” little trials crimes War followed. that battles in role key a played and War Cold the into shadows occ had crimes their though criminals, war Japanese hna d Zi hn Zhidi Sheng Zai de Zhanfan 1956,” 1956,” E Zhou Normalization: Sino-Japanese to Road the and and Cathcart Adam 2005); Chubanshe, Chuanbo Wuzhou 7 6 5 4 n at eas te ota til wr s thorough so were trials postwar the because part In Philip R. Piccigallo, Piccigallo, R. Philip General Headquarters (hereafter GHQ), Far East Com East Far GHQ), (hereafter General Headquarters Harris, Sheldon Fr ndph xmnto o te 96 ras ed i held trials 1956 the of examination in-depth For wnit-etr China Twentieth-Century (North Clarendon: Tuttle Publishing, 1996), 1996), 221-222 Tuttle Publishing, Clarendon: (North J APANESE APANESE (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979), 170. 1979), Texas(Austin:University Press, of Factories of Death, Japanese Biological Warfare, 19 Warfare, Biological Japanese Death, of Factories , (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1989); Hal Gold, e Gold, Hal 1989); Stoughton, and Hodder (London: , B ACTERIOLOGICAL ACTERIOLOGICAL

The Japanese on Trial: Allied War Crimes Operations Crimes War Allied Trial: on Japanese The Fsu Wr rmnl Mngmn Cne] eds., Center], Management Criminals War [Fushun Pae f e Lf o Jpns Wr rmnl] (Beij Criminals] War Japanese of Life New of [Place

frhoig; aeh Ysia “riwsig or “Brainwashing Yoshida, Takeshi (forthcoming);

4 The Nationalist Chinese, or Guomindang, Guomindang, or Chinese, Nationalist The W EAPONS AND EAPONS Box 1434, 20, Case 330, U.S. National U.S. 330, Case 20, 1434, Box l weapons (BW) crimes remained remained crimes (BW) weapons l ing Ishii from prosecution.from ingIshii nlai and the Shenyang Trials, 1954- Trials, Shenyang the and nlai tional Archives; see also Tsuneishi also see Archives; tional olitical benefits from trials, but but trials, from benefits olitical d the Japanese Imperial Army’s Army’s Imperial Japanese the d Shiro was the ostensible focal focal ostensible the was Shiro uilt and Responsibility in Postwar Postwar in Responsibility and uilt panese, thus, bought precious precious bought thus, panese, wo big powers. Although the Although powers. big wo f the early Cold War in Asia.in War Cold early the f e fear that the Soviets would would Soviets the that fear e y PRC military courts would would courts military PRC y C om G-2 to the Legal Section, 9 Section, Legal the to G-2 om llace, Douglas MacArthur and the the and MacArthur Douglas urred long before 1945, cast 1945, before long urred e solution. As the research research the As solution. e Patricia Nash, “War Criminals Criminals “War Nash, Patricia Seyn ad aya, see Taiyuan, and Shenyang n HINA arn the results of Japanese Japanese of results the arn the ideological propaganda propaganda ideological the mand Check Sheet, Note from Note Sheet, mandCheck ed a highly sensitive and and sensitive highly a ed asuji Okamura and ceded ceded and Okamura asuji nese POWs into Chinese Chinese into POWs nese the legacies of Japanese Japanese of legacies the Spring 2009 2009 Spring . . 1949.n

’ nt 3: h Japanese The 731: Unit S S huria, where he had had he where huria, eted accusations of of accusations eted C OLD OLD y auae with saturated ly ed leaders and and leaders ed 5 In every case, case, every In W AR AR 32-1945 d. d. Unit 731 Unit 7 in the in

(New Riben 61 61 ing: 6

Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review While the CCP had already proven its anti-Japanese anti-Japanese its Hi proven already Emperor had and CCP the Shiro While Ishii of prosecution immediate in lead Soviet the Following research. BW Japanese Inquiry complicity in Japanese BW, but, because of its use use its of because but, BW, Japanese in complicity Wittenberg University East Asian Studies Journal Journal AsianEastStudies University Wittenberg Weap Biological of Significance The Propaganda: and accusations the of authenticity the calls campaign, China. and Korea the of Investigation the for Commission Scientific rpgna: dooy Eiec ad nentoa B Khab International the and of Evidence Dismissal Ideology, West’s Propaganda’: “The Nie, Jing-Bao See indict the forwarding futilely Nanjing, in BWunits n h ery ots f h PC wie a Zdn an Zedong Mao while PRC, the of months early the in Inste CCP. the by initiated not was state Japanese level criticism of campaign particular this people, W s; h rpr ws usqety noprtd in incorporated subsequently was report the use; BW in Scientific Commission International an to report ou plague of investigation original the in involved ilgcl afr Program,” Warfare Biological 62 Wallace, Wallace, October 2006). 2006). October prosecution. call any eschewed Jiang – h ignorant it been have 1949, could after man the about propaganda giv Communist and – activity Shiro’s Ishii about known had he Chinese the of nature inchoate the and aid American The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The the Guomindang heartland of Zhejiang were actively actively populations.local on BW were Japanese of effects Zhejiang of heartland Guomindang the pr and 1946, in scientists Japanese of prosecutions oetm o h frhoig ioSve alac, a alliance, Sino-Soviet in-depth. addresses article forthcoming the to 1949 momentum December The shake East. would development BW with complicit Japanese Far Russian the of center Khabarovsk, in handful a tried ultimately and men, about spent Soviets The Northeast. China’s through been had who members 731 Unit of interrogations via Aayi o te umnag eies aa Policy, University, 2006. May Japan Beijing Regime’s Guomindang the of [Analysis Great-power dependency also impacted the CCP’s resp CCP’s the impacted also dependency Great-power 9 8 BW Japan’s with fluency maintained also Soviets The For their part, Jiang Jieshi and the Nanjing govern Nanjing the and Jieshi Jiang part, their For I 14, h Goidn hd re fute Japanes fourteen tried had Guomindang the 1946, In 1, no. 1 (April 2004): 38. For GMD provincial in provincial GMD For 38. 2004): (April 1 no. 1, Fn Qap, Goidn zegun uR zhengce duiRi zhengquan “Guomindang Quanpu, Feng Unit 731, 731, Unit 9

(Peking, 1952), Appendix K. This larger report men report larger This K. Appendix 1952), (Peking, 95-101; Harris, Harris, 95-101;

A http://japanfocus.org/products/details/2194 DAM DAM Factories of Death, Death, of Factories C ATHCART

33 (Spring 2008): 93-114. 93-114. (Spring 2008): 33 tbreaks in Changde in 1941 presented his presented 1941 in Changde in tbreaks 8 into doubt. See Patricia Nash, “Plague “Plague Nash, Patricia See doubt. into 1952 during investigations on American on investigations during 1952 ments to the international court at Tokyo. Tokyo. at court international the mentsto

However, Jiang’s deep reliance on on reliance deep Jiang’s However, Facts Concerning Bacterial Warfare in Warfare Bacterial Concerning Facts ons Allegations in the Korean War,” Korean the in Allegations ons ad, at a time of great sensitivity sensitivity great of time a at ad, ed at the highest levels of the the of levels highest the at ed 110. One of the Chinese doctors Chinese the of One 110. the military and administrative administrative and military the ovincial health departments in in departments health ovincial ioethics,” ioethics,” s rpgna uig h 1952 the during propaganda as 1949-1952],” Ph.D. dissertation, dissertation, Ph.D. 1949-1952],” four years interrogating these these interrogating years four to 1949, the CCP called for the the for called CCP the 1949, civil war meant that even if if even that meant war civil en the profusion of Chinese Chinese of profusion the en swept up in the Soviet drive drive Soviet the in up swept vestigations, see Williams and and Williams see vestigations, for the Japanese scientist’s scientist’s Japanese the for arovsk Trial as ‘Communist ‘Communist as Trial arovsk oa fides bona Chinese observers and add add and observers Chinese ment had mounted limited limited mounted had ment eot f h International the of Report Spring 2009 2009 Spring sriee aflae with affiliated servicemen e researching the ongoing ongoing the researching rl ses osbe he possible seems ardly connection which this this which connection rohito for BW crimes. crimes. BW for rohito prosecutions of twelve twelve of prosecutions d Zhou Enlai were in in were Enlai Zhou d knowledge, doing so so doing knowledge, onse to revelation of of revelation to onse ora o Bioethical of Journal fenxi (1949-1952) (1949-1952) fenxi tions Jiang Jieshi’s Jiang tions to the Chinese Chinese the to (accessed 24 24 (accessed

Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review see ibid, 317-321. 317-321. seeibid, asd h ise f rsctn B experts.” BW prosecuting of issue the raised led even Sheldon Harris to clutter his otherwise c otherwise his clutter to Harris Sheldon even led dis PRC’s the within trials Khabarovsk the of place hn h Pry uhrzd hnhn Cuase o pu to Chubanshe Akiyama’s Chunzhong of Japanese authorized Party the when Nie’s own bibliography indicates that the CCP took CCP the that indicates bibliography own Nie’s with the completely wrong completely the with 1956). 1956). The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The toiis Cmlct Cmitd n h Ntoa In National the in Action,” Contemporary Committed Complicity Atrocities: Dieter Heinzig, Heinzig, Dieter anti-Jap stoking domestically, friendship. Soviet of issueinterests force BW was the CCP the trumpet negotiations, out carrying Moscow edges of arguments made by scholars who assert CCP CCP assert who scholars by made arguments of edges participants, of years early the in issue BW the toward activism Chinese major several of manuscripts peri the from newspapers of examination simple with Chi postwar Re the crimes. warfare bacteriological Japanese of toward reassessment complete more a for pr the on consensus of notion any fracturing truth, obj for need the overtook seemingly imperatives War at ws ntig u sln i te al yas of years early the in silent crime BW Japanese of denunciation and investigation but anything was Party the Alliance Alliance the BW crimes” in the 1950s the in crimes” BW Kuisong, Kuisong, Zhanzheng Chaoxian yu hbnh, 99; ag usn, Te ioSve Al Sino-Soviet “The Kuisong, Contradiction,” Yang 1999); chubanshe, ouet nw rn u t a rca mmn i te e the in moment crucial a to wa us bring now Japanese documents to of linkage its lose would issue evidence BW the ultimately, sought earnestly m officials, including government, Chinese new the of branches a w attacks further prevent Prov and 1950 crimes BW and of early evidence Central of and mobilization 1949 internal late extensive in campaigns information prose be Hirohito that demands Soviet by heightened 12 11 10 New documents from the Foreign Ministry Archive of Archive Ministry Foreign the from documents New The Khabarovsk trials triggered a vocal public camp public vocal a triggered trials Khabarovsk The Harris, Harris, Fr oi assmns f h oeal ioSve r Sino-Soviet overall the of assessments solid For Jn-a Ne “h Uie Sae Cvru o Japan of Cover-up States United “The Nie, Jing-Bao Mao Zedong yu Mosike de En En Yuan Yuan Yuan Yuan En En de Mosike yu Zedong Mao (Armonk, NY.: M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 2004); Shen Zhihua Shen 2004); Inc., Sharpe, M.E. NY.: (Armonk, J Factories of Death,of Factories APANESE APANESE Social Sciences in China in Sciences Social The Soveit Union and Communist China 1945-1950: The 1945-1950: China Communist and Union Soveit The The American Journal of Bioethics Bioethics of Journal American The Tokushu Butai 731 731 Butai Tokushu B ACTERIOLOGICAL ACTERIOLOGICAL Gaghu Gagog emn hbnh, 03; Yang 2003); chubanshe, renmin Guangdong (Guangzhou: 11

assertion that “neither Mao nor any his spokesperso his any nor Mao “neither that assertion The lack of comprehensive attention granted to th to granted attention comprehensive of lack The 10 For all of the postwar powers in East Asia, Cold Cold Asia, East in powers postwar the of all For 315-317. For his assessment of the Khabarovsk tri Khabarovsk the of assessment his For 315-317.

Vol. XXVI, No. 2 (Summer 2005): 86-99. (Summer 86-99. 2 No. 2005): XXVI, Vol. W Seil nt 3) (yt: aih Shobo, Sanichi (Kyoto: 731), Unit (Special EAPONS AND EAPONS 12

interest in BW crimes also in 1961, 1961, in also crimes BW in interest In fact, the Chinese Communist Communist Chinese the fact, In osecution of BW criminals. criminals. BW of osecution the PRC. They also temper the the temper also They PRC. the lassic text text lassic pro-Soviet mobilization. The The mobilization. pro-Soviet ading of these archives, along along archives, these of ading course on biological weapons weapons biological on course eet n To rpsl for Proposals Two and terest C cuted for war crimes. These These crimes. war for cuted s. s. Vol. 6 No. 3 (2006): W21-W33. (2006): 3 No. 6 Vol. nd outbreaks. That various various That outbreaks. nd od and the newly published published newly the and od ltosi i ti pro, see period, this in elationship indicate the scale of CCP CCP of scale the indicate incial ministries to collect collect to ministries incial HINA blish a translation from the the from translation a blish ective pursuit of historical historical of pursuit ective ine n Ntoaim A Nationalism: and liance Spring 2009 2009 Spring the PRC regarding the the regarding PRC the volution of anti-Japanese anti-Japanese of volution any former Guomindang Guomindang former any “silence.… nese communist attitude attitude communist nese anese sentiment in the the in sentiment anese r crimes showed that, that, showed crimes r aign in China which was was which China in aign Nnig Jagi renmin Jiangxi (Nanning: d by Soviet action to to action Soviet by d ’ S S ere accompanied by by accompanied ere C ese Wartime Medical Medical Wartime ese , , the PRC now allow allow now PRC the Factories of Death, Death, of Factories OLD OLD Sidalin, Mao Zedong Mao Sidalin, Arduous Road to Road Arduous W over Japanese Japanese over AR AR 63 63 als, als, ns ns e e

Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review Clocking in at four days, the trials were relativel were trials the days, four at in of Clocking knowledge maintaining or Al in, assisting War. to u World guilty Second BW the during Japanese China of in stationed members twelve indicted Khabarovsk th in court military Soviet a 1949, 24, December On Chin the Jap of trial day six unilateral a undertook with Soviets negotiation of midst the during 1949, should be indicted had been left unresolved. leftunresolved. been had indicted be should straightfor as questions even and Union, Soviet the re crimes war Japanese on documentation the of Much w inherited they that crimes war Japanese of legacy soli of inprocess the was CCP The unlikely. highly such at trials crimes war on embarking of idea the in Japan’s toward vigilant axiomatically was public I Trials TheKhabarovsk and Sino-Soviet the Alliance negotiations the PRC: early the of events vital and on within unfolds that moment a China, in sentiment 64 The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The January 1949, January1949, Evidence from Soviet and Chinese Archives on Mao’s Mao’s on Archives Chinese and Soviet from Evidence itil f aaee eea Ysii Okamura. Yasuiji General Japanese of mistrial 1949 January in opprobrium withering down laying by co already had Mao and year, a nearly for concluded case? any in interested been had CCP the would why tri of context the broader the in And moment. that que the pursuing in Soviets the with talks initiate governm the running last the Shaoqi, Liu and Enlai, Zedo affairs—Mao Soviet in involved leaders Chinese ay ons n h ngtain, h ise f a c war of leaders issue Soviet with conversations of focus extended the negotiations, the in while points However, many specifically. Japan from aggression guarante security the Japan’ and China, with in building empire resonance unwanted had China, Northeast particul issues, the of with many Certainly along railway, guarantees. Changchun the of Soviet control of Soviet issues resolving with preoccupied Stalin, i was Mao leadership. central CCP the of minds the International History Project Bulletin HistoryProject International N late 1949, the issue of Japanese war crimes appear crimes war Japanese of issue the 1949, late It was therefore somewhat surprising when, in the w the in when, surprising somewhat therefore was It 14 13

Sre Rdhno n Dvd of, T te umt v Summit the “To Wolff, David and Radchenko Sergey Mo eog “n retn Oaua n Goidn C Guomindang and Okamura Arresting “On Zedong, Mao Selected Works Selected (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1978), Vol. 1978), Languages Foreign Press, (Beijing:

A DAM DAM Vol. 16, 105-183. 16, 105-183. Vol.

C ATHCART

anese POWs in the Soviet Union. Union. Soviet the in POWs anese y brief in duration — certainly if if certainly — duration in brief y Long March to Moscow,” Moscow,” to March Long 14 for the Sino-Soviet Alliance. Sino-Soviet the for stion of Japanese war crimes at at crimes war Japanese of stion ward as which Japanese POWs POWs Japanese which as ward als of Japanese for war crimes, crimes, war for Japanese of als difying power at home, and the the and home, at power difying While the postwar Chinese Chinese postwar the While . arly those involving rights in in rights involving those arly a moment for the PRC seems seems PRC the for moment a 13 , the Japanese BW program. program. BW Japanese the , es would eventually mention mention eventually would es dustrial and military revival, revival, military and dustrial vered his anti-Japanese flank flank anti-Japanese his vered as scattered to say the least. least. the say to scattered as naval bases in Dalian and and Dalian in bases naval ent in Beijing—appeared to Beijing—appeared in ent e Far Eastern border city of of city border Eastern Far e e of the most richly studied studied richly most the of e None of the three principal principal three the of None The Tokyo Trials had been been had Trials Tokyo The n Moscow negotiating with negotiating Moscow n riminals never arose as an an as arose never riminals s Pol’ Rpbi, the Republic, People’s ese ed to be quite distant from from distant quite be to ed ng, Foreign Minister Zhou Zhou Minister Foreign ng, aa ws eerd o at to referred was Japan giant loans and security security and loans giant Spring 2009 2009 Spring against the Guomindang Guomindang the against mained in the custody of of custody the in mained l of the defendants pled pled defendants the of l aning days of December December of days aning s previously successful successful previously s ia Proxy-Summits: New New Proxy-Summits: ia nits who had been been had who nits ivil War Criminals,” Criminals,” War ivil

IV, 327. 327. IV, Cold War Cold

Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review Edition de Fallois, 1990), 289-292. 289-292. Fallois, 1990), de Edition [The Terror and the Disarray: Stalin and His System His and theDisarray: and TerrorStalin [The nraigy marsig .. n Jpns accusat Japanese and U.S. embarrassing increasingly MacArthur in Japan: A Personal History of the Occup the of History Personal A Japan: in MacArthur Jose William see East, Far Soviet the from Japanese Le Figaro Figaro Le Atomique (The End of the Atomic Monopoly),” Monopoly),” Atomic the of End Ray (The See Atomique weapon. atomic an tested had USSR the that t of wake the in States United the from superiority Union Soviet the that possible also is It 1965). against the people of China and the Soviet Union. Soviet the and China of people the against full for preparing while Chinese, mostly prisoners, tome premier: La guerre froide (juin 1947 1947 (juin froide guerre La premier: tome Raymond Aron, Aron, Raymond 27, 1949. 27, The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The cuig igr t hs wo atcptd n r maiChina.in atrocities fr Japanese or in Sino-Soviet participated who demonstrate those at finger to accusing meant was also the tactic ignoring and Hirohito protecting of occupation the attacking conjointly by policy Asian East U.S. exp to Soviets the cl allowed assertions These individuals, 1930s. agains perpetrated these crimes BW the for between responsibility connections insistent of work standar well-justified Soviet a militarism by as trumpeted lenient nevertheless relatively were Toky sentences year three slow glacially the against measured Emperor Hirohito were indicted indicted were Hirohito Emperor climate in the USSR, see Nicholas Werth, Werth, Nicholas see USSR, the in climate in light archives quite considered been Soviet have would sentence of analysis stunning a For diploma USSR’s Japan. the of part as 1956 in released were o sentences received defendants Japanese Weapons The 1950). Bacteriological of Use and Preparation w o tre as hratr Te rn pg o th of page front The thereafter. days three or two domin news the and Khabarovsk, in tribunal military aube aeil o cde o study. to cadre for absolutely material was valuable fold, the below editorial, main The article long ran 1949 30, December on Daily) Dalian n eebr 9 14, C mda ult boe h n the broke outlets media CCP 1949, 29, December On 18 17 16 15 GI’ on Warfare Bacteriological Test to Said “Japan Fr icsin f o te hbrvk ras lo d also trials Khabarovsk the how of discussion For

Lü DaRibao Lü ra Dcmns n cuain Aant omr Japan Former Against Accusations on Documents Trial from 1947 to 1977; Volume 1, The Cold War [June 194 [June War Cold The 1, Volume 1977; to 1947 from 15 Poeuos mhszd ht h Jpns hd test had Japanese the that emphasized Prosecutors J APANESE APANESE Les articles de politique internationale dans Le Fi Le dans internationale politique de articles Les , December 30, 1949. 1949. December , 30, B ACTERIOLOGICAL ACTERIOLOGICAL

17

n absentia in

à à 18 Le terreur et le désseroi: Stalin et son système son et Stalin désseroi: le et terreur Le W mai 1955) mai Al f h ppr poie rpit of reprints provided papers the of All EAPONS AND EAPONS was trying to reclaim the mantle of moral of mantle the reclaim to trying was Le Figaro, Figaro, Le , prosecutors at Khabarovsk made made Khabarovsk at prosecutors , ] (Paris: Perrin, 2007), 408. 408. 2007), (Paris: Perrin, ] he September 23, 1949 announcement 1949 23, September he the increasingly punitive postwar legal legal postwar punitive increasingly the hwn hw i fc, seven-year- a fact, in how, showing ph Sebald with Russell Brines, Russell with Sebald ph Mso: oeg Lnug Press, Language Foreign (Moscow: (Articles on International Politics in Politics International on (Articles svn o wnyfv yas most years; twenty-five to seven f os f uuros earain of repatriation lugubrious of ions 16 i nraiain f eain with relations of normalization tic ation ation mond Aron, “La Fin du Monople Monople du Fin “La Aron, mond self-serving policy of the U.S. U.S. the of policy self-serving While neither Ishii Shiro nor Shiro Ishii neither While -scale bacteriological warfare warfare bacteriological -scale s about the Khabarovsk trials. trials. Khabarovsk the about s t the Chinese since the early early the since Chinese the t ntained complacency toward toward complacency ntained loit a perceived weakness in in weakness perceived a loit C ated Chinese newspapers for for newspapers Chinese ated e e s,” Japanese BW crimes. The The crimes. BW Japanese mes—rvdn much immense—providing o trials—and, although the the although trials—and, o HINA October 3, 1949, reprinted in reprinted 1949, 3, October Lü Da Ribao Ribao Da Lü (London: The Cresset Press, Press, Cresset The (London: Spring 2009 2009 Spring fne te oit against Soviets the efended iendship by pointing an an pointing by iendship New York Times, Times, York New aiming that they held held they that aiming ds, the verdicts were were verdicts the ds, justice upon Japanese Japanese upon justice ’ S S C garo de 1947 1947 de garo 7-May 1955]), (Paris: 1955]), 7-May OLD OLD ese Servicemen for for Servicemen ese ews of the Soviet Soviet the of ews W AR AR ed BW on on BW ed Lsu & (Lüshun December December à à 1977; 1977; With 65 65

Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review Soviets at a sensitive moment. sensitive a at Soviets a to wanted CCP and it demanded Soviets the because in readily flowed trials Khabarovsk the of coverage Sov the from newsp translated articles leavening numinous ever-more were control, Guomindang of era the editors, Newspaper opinion. public Chinese for war h pstv apcs f h Kaaos til, t w campaign. it the support and in partake would media trials, Khabarovsk the of aspects positive the China Areas], November 2, 1949,ibid NovemberAreas], 2, China Fi of Work Regarding [Telegraph dianbao” de gongzuo di jishao “Zhongyang Shaoqi, Liu by revised Bureau, Soviet impetus. impetus. Soviet the coordinate to how about discussion Sino-Soviet announcement, public its to prior action Khabarovsk i files any of absent completely is Archive MFA The min foreign Chinese and Soviet between coordination indicates, also It news. the publish to down came th shows China Northeast in paper regional single a relat or editorials any of lack The (MFA). Affairs argument complex a comme the without not least compose at issue, international to gumption the or time the pro-Soviet internationalism of CCP governance. governance. CCP of internationalism pro-Soviet the aaee ly saig hrb te ra “ide fo stil “middle who but Guomindang the urban of ouster the supported the thereby Unio swaying Soviet the ally, frame Japanese to CCP the allowed Khabarovsk hms ad u b te oit rcdn. Emphasizi precedent. Soviet the by out laid themes Ribao Renmin 66 rpgna: dooy Eiec ad nentoa B International and Evidence Ideology, Propaganda’: ih hs etr. i as epesd dsr for desire a expressed ( also comrades” Liu venture. this with Shanghai in broadcasting” propaganda international Shaoqi Wengao Wengao Shaoqi hyndi a Zogu gnzo et d dabo [ 1949, dianbao” 12, August and China], in Work Film de Soviet of Problem wenti the Concerning gongzuo Committee Zhongguo dao sheyingdui L 42-43; 1, vol. 2005) chubanshe, wenxian zhongyang S the from Specialists News Inviting of Problem the xin de wenti zhuanjia xinwen Sulian pinqing “Guanyu China to come would these specialists, film Soviet The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The Inquiry Inquiry The Khabarovsk trials took place in the context of of context the in place took trials Khabarovsk The 20 19 nta CP rs cvrg o te hbrvk trials Khabarovsk the of coverage press CCP Initial To Malenkov, Liu Shaoqi noted the CCP’s desire to to desire CCP’s the noted Shaoqi Liu Malenkov, To

1, no. 1 (April 2004): 2004): 32-42.1 (April no. 1, igBo i, Te ets imsa o te Khabarov the of Dismissal West’s “The Nie, Jing-Bao yingwen de tongzhi de yingwen (People’s Daily), as few editors at local papers w papers local at editors few as Daily), (People’s Te aucit adPpr o Lu hoi, d Bia ed. Shaoqi], Liu of Papers and Manuscripts [The

) for establishing overseas propaganda capability. capability. propaganda overseas establishing for ) A 19 DAM DAM

ibid, vol. 1, 49; CCP Central Committee to East Chi East to Committee Central CCP 49; 1, vol. ibid,

Thus, when the Soviets undertook to publicize publicize to undertook Soviets the when Thus, , , vol. 1, 134.. 134.. vol.1,

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at Stalin’s suggestion. See Liu Shaoqi, Shaoqi, Liu See suggestion. Stalin’s at and Beijing, and beseeched Soviet help Soviet beseeched and Beijing, and anying sheyingdui dao Dongbei diqu Dongbei dao sheyingdui anying ep etn u “nls language “English up setting help iu Shaoqi, “Guanyu Sulian dianying Sulian “Guanyu Shaoqi, iu ve Uin, uut , 1949, 2, August Union], oviet ntary of the Ministry of Foreign Foreign of Ministry the of ntary 20 lm and Photography Crews in East in Crews Photography and lm ” [Letter to Malenkov Concerning Concerning Malenkov to [Letter ” ing articles of local origin from from origin local of articles ing e rapidity with which the order order the which with rapidity e quite correctly, a lack of prior prior of lack a correctly, quite ioethics,” many of them holdovers from holdovers them manyof At the same time, news from from news time, same the At to Chinese media outlets both both outlets media Chinese to

campaign that followed at the the at followed that campaign as expected that the Chinese Chinese the that expected as Photography Crews Coming to to Coming Crews Photography much less behind-the-scenes behind-the-scenes less much l questioned the efficacy and and efficacy the questioned l istry on publicizing the issue. issue. the publicizing on istry iet press. Moscow’s TASS TASS Moscow’s press. iet ppear accommodating to the the to accommodating ppear ndicating knowledge of the the of knowledge ndicating ng Hirohito’s culpability, culpability, Hirohito’s ng eerp t CP Central CCP to Telegraph Spring 2009 2009 Spring rces” in China who had had who China in rces” pr ad oras with journals and apers a mounting propaganda propaganda mounting a set up “Russian language language “Russian up set mirrored precisely the the precisely mirrored a a tucl anti- staunchly a as n k ra a ‘Communist as Trial sk about such a delicate delicate a such about

ora o Bioethical of Journal ould have had the the had have ould Ynu (Beijing: Yanjun n s for As Liu na Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review he atce o Jpns bceilgcl warfare. Pravda bacteriological Japanese on articles three g were readers newspaper Chinese Day, Year’s New on t at Thus, China. mainland in research in BW Japanese interest real took agency news the 29, December a that appears it and Xinhua, t to documents and siphoned Ministry Foreign The publication. for weap agency bacteriological and items newsworthy funneling facts from the Tokyo Trials, all the while praising while the all Trials, Tokyo the from facts but purpose, historical a only not served articles Nanjing and Guangzhou in outbreaks plague initiated ex northeast, the beyond crimes war bacteriological a vigorous counterfoil to American judicial inactio judicial American to counterfoil vigorous a [Shenyang Daily], December 29, 1949, ad 1 [emphasis 1949, December 29, Daily], [Shenyang The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The Ribao Ribao otaig h US a a eul itm f aa’ d Japan’s of victim equal an as USSR the portraying i Japa Japanese the whom detail into people Soviet in and ja patriots outline underground an to described passage One on art Manchuria. went The BW,” Hirohito. Using Emperor Admits of but asserted, article Trials. Unit 731 had operated under the direction direction the under thi operated had about 731 Unit revelations Trials. new noting units, BW 731, Unit Japanese of establishment the to back hearkened 29 iig h 13 Sve-aaee odr ate f No of battle border Soviet-Japanese 1939 fr the suffering citing Sino-Soviet mutual emphasized articles a becoming was e and Japanese the of hands the at suffering mutual t and Japan against alliance natural Chin a of theme in the pragma wild More own. run their of to sacrifices any Japan tendering permitted had Soviets the p dual c trial the a and Japanese, served the upon trials justice exacting Khabarovsk the Here people. Ja harm the of discussion to Japan China Northeast beyond of definition the broadened dispatches Xinhua Shenyang Ribao Shenyang ilgcl epn fr h Proe f aig a Ag War China,” Waging of Purpose the for Weapons Biological ilgcl a Ciias Sata Qsn [ Qisan Shantian Criminals: War Biological h MA ceeae is xhne f ouet with documents of exchange its accelerated MFA The A front-page article in the the in article front-page A 23 22 21 “Soviet Coastal Military Region Military Court Con Court Military Region Military Coastal “Soviet “oit or Cnius rscto o Jpns Bi Japanese of Prosecution Continues Court “Soviet piece on the trials clearly intended to stir anti- stir to intended clearly trials the on piece Sve Uin iiay ra o Jpns Wr Crimin War Japanese of Trial Military Union “Soviet Shenyang Ribao Ribao Shenyang ae ue te ras s srnbad o discussi for springboard a as trials the used later J APANESE APANESE [Shenyang Daily], December 31, 1949, 1. 1. 1949, December 31, Daily], [Shenyang de facto de B [Shenyang Daily], December 30, 1949, 1949, 1. December 30, Daily], [Shenyang ACTERIOLOGICAL ACTERIOLOGICAL US-Japanese military alliance. militaryalliance. US-Japanese

Shenyang Ribao Shenyang

W EAPONS AND EAPONS 三 乞 田 山 ded]. ded]. (Shenyang Daily) on December December on Daily) (Shenyang criticized the omission of these these of omission the criticized n. the Khabarovsk prosecution as as prosecution Khabarovsk the ould put to rest the notion that that notion the rest to put ould not only of Lt. Ishii Shiro, the the Shiro, Ishii Lt. of only not he United States based on the the on based States United he qual threat in the face of what what of face the in threat qual 23 The first was a translated translated a was first The tending analysis to Japanese- to analysis tending is te SR Mnoi, and Mongolia, USSR, the ainst C fter the Soviet declaration of of declaration Soviet the fter pan had caused to the Soviet Soviet the to caused had pan

njected chemical weapons,” weapons,” chemical njected tically, such rhetoric lent to to lent rhetoric such tically, he very outset of the 1950s, 1950s, the of outset very he he Ministry of Health each each Health of Ministry he om Japan’s BW program, program, BW Japan’s om tinues Prosecution of Japanese of Prosecution tinues promoting the atrocities of of atrocities the promoting HINA the most infamous of the the of infamous most the monhan. ese war crimes to expand expand to crimes war ese Amt te rdcin of Production the Admits ] icle, subtitled “Defendant “Defendant subtitled icle, in the early 1940s. The The 1940s. early the in Japanese nationalism; two two nationalism; Japanese s unit at the Khabarovsk Khabarovsk the at unit s urpose: the Soviets were were Soviets the urpose: Spring 2009 2009 Spring ons charges to the news news the to charges ons il populated by “Chinese “Chinese by populated il a in the 1930s without without 1930s the in a reeted by no fewer than than fewer no by reeted epravity. ological War Criminals,” Criminals,” War ological ’ S S n’s BW facilities in in facilities BW n’s C als,” OLD OLD Xinhua in Beijing, Beijing, in Xinhua 22 The The on of Japan’s Japan’s of on W hnag Ribao Shenyang 21 AR AR Subsequent Subsequent Shenyang Shenyang 67 67

Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review Ribao Ribao Atrocities Scientific Criminal the of Condemnations Me French and Soviet of [Khabaro Committee Criminals; War BW zuixing” de kexue weifan zhanfan Ri tongsu nepeain f h Jpns B cie. end by Penned crimes. BW Japanese the of is interpretation meeting scientists’ the from editorial resultant were scientists the Union, Soviet the with alliance Sov the atrocities. for weapons support bacteriological their and imperialism voice to and BW, of theme control. receivin were J against charges bring to recalcitrant was America Japanese some while that asserted who Soviet of views the discussed articles accompanying 68 further stoked a sense of Chinese victimhood: victimhood: Chinese senseof a stoked further tr Khabarovsk the publicize to impetus Dalia their in how in living still Japanese of thousands of tens ambivalence the to played also that as pairing a research bomb, BW interpreted scientists the CCP, the super technological American Turning people.” more chemical and weapons bacteriological made they and Americ “The continued: editorial the 1945, in technologies Japan U.S. the o of some and Impugning Vietnam, millions.” China, t in tried otherwise and imperialists economically American “how readers reminded nild Ipraim s tef n toiy ( Atrocity” an Itself is “Imperialism entitled The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The crimes of the bandits. We must use science thusly thusly defense. science use a together must talents our pooling We production, people’s bandits. diseas the common of against crimes themselves protect to how and Thr the telling br etc., opera, songs, radio performances, method. folk newspapers, available books, make every must use we must movements, we this do To n aur 7 15, cetss ovnd n ühn f Lüshun in convened scientists 1950, 7, January On 24 osbe o e wt oes ys Bceilgcl w (time Bacteriological eyes. weapons are these warfare; of type one’s incomprehensible bacteriologica with see because to work, possible agents’ bandit against First vigilance…. of spirit our increase therefore, fascism of victims worst the are people Chinese The [People’s Daily], [People’s “oi u hnu R xjn hna; u a yizhuanji Fa Su zhanfan; xijun Ri shenxun xu “Boli 24

平时 ). We must spare nothing in the defense against BW against defense the in nothing mustspare We ).

January 1, 1950. 1950. January1,

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帝国主义就是罪恶 of Japanese War Criminals] Criminals] War Japanese of apanese war criminals under its under criminals war apanese worth noting for its unusual unusual its for noting worth s Cnius ras f Japanese of Trials Continues vsk hardly unique. However, the the However, unique. hardly dical Experts Publishes Its Views; Its Publishes Experts dical n. The editorial also showed showed also editorial The n. In urging China to sign an an sign to China urging In ials, the Soviets and the CCP CCP the and Soviets the ials, to the United States by the the by States United the to ans made the atomic bomb bomb atomic the made ans of a piece with the atomic atomic the with piece a of as well as French experts experts French as well as masses about science work science about masses that had helped to defeat defeat to helped had that weapons to massacre even even massacre to weapons we must increase defense defense increase must we oiy o h avnae of advantage the to iority Li Shiliang Shiliang Li Spring 2009 2009 Spring g justice in Khabarovsk, Khabarovsk, in justice g s one to increase national national increase to one s wiunu fba yijian; fabiao weiyuanhui a iet position against both both against position iet o take over everything, everything, over take o ther places, massacring massacring places, ther that can be used at any at used be can that ’s crimes and we must, must, we and crimes ’s or a meeting on the the on meeting a or aos ersn an represent eapons waos r not are weapons l to serve the whole whole the serve to es and the deadly deadly the and es acss movies, oadcasts, ough a series of of series a ough . . 李士亮 ), the essay essay the ), Renmin and and Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review onig f h Nation], the of Founding niiain ad oent: hn’ Kra Wr Ger War Korean China’s Modernity: Reconsidered,” and Annihilation, one-eouinre, hl as peiuig the prefiguring also 1952.of campaigns the while of paranoia counter-revolutionaries, the anticipates rhetoric the sp China, to returning possibly in agents” “bandit of role with trial BW the of convergence the shows clearly The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The

regime. regime. litmu a effectively was what in revival, Japanese a th assure to configured presently was it as PRC the a abroad unsp went militarists What science. Japanese of crimes further from China protect could alone t to According noted. be should revelations BW the Ribao rils cneig btn msae ietd t bo at directed message biting a conveying articles, publish the as important as perhaps was that role a cri BW on discourse public framing In cartoons. of population whole the to forward issue BW the bring agita of arts the into writing editorial of methods A number of important themes shine through in this this in through shine themes important of number A 26 25 carry weworkcan of kind the is This people. the a drill, educate, to scientists as methods best the c to trials [Khabarovsk] the of spirit the use must a commit to amok running such of out spirit their carry understand to free remain who dogs running of and ways the understand don’t We scale. massive a w on exist yet may p whose create scientists to research gathering by this, imperialism of all of spite In Khabarovsk [in scientists back. years from Japanese esp their for the criminals war warfare trybacteriological to court seen be can idea this of Proof atrocities. illegal carryin freely from imperialism] [of agents prevent from us protect will power Soviet cooperation. and peopl democratic peaceful the lead Union Soviet the and more need we importantly, most yet and Finally ut s h Lsu sinit ugd ah te t o to other each urged scientists Lüshun the as Just [ Lüshun-Dalian Daily Lüshun-Dalian Li Shiliang, “Diguozhuyi jiu shi zui’e,” [“Imperia shizui’e,” jiu “Diguozhuyi Shiliang, Li Bai Xi, Xi, Bai J The Journal of Asian Studies, Asian ofStudies, Journal The APANESE APANESE Kaiguo Dazhenfan Dazhenfan Kaiguo 26 Most importantly, the editorial’s emphasis on the on emphasis editorial’s the importantly, Most B

ACTERIOLOGICAL ACTERIOLOGICAL Biig Dnxa Cuase 20) Rt Rogaski, Ruth 2007); Chubanshe, Dangxiao (Beijing: ], January 8, 1950. January 1950. ], 8,

Get ersin f one-eouinre a the at Counter-Revolutionaries of Repression [Great

W Vol. 16, No. 2 (May 2002): 386-390. (May386-390. 2002): 2 No. 16, Vol. EAPONS AND EAPONS tion, so too did the CCP seek to to seek CCP the did too so tion, e guarantee of security against against security of guarantee e s test for any modern Chinese Chinese modern any for test s read bacteriological agents in in agents bacteriological read lism is Itself an Atrocity”] Atrocity”] an Itself is lism ed discussions of experts and and experts of discussions ed mes, Chinese cartoons played played cartoons Chinese mes, oken here was the inability of of inability the was here oken the By hinting at the possible possible the at hinting By the in the first-ever decision of a a of decision first-ever the in he authors, Soviet leadership leadership Soviet authors, he C coming campaigns against against campaigns coming via the abundant publication publication abundant the via h ieae lts n semi- and elites literate th HINA nd bring our knowledge to to knowledge our bring nd out. out. nd keep China safe from from safe China keep nd later patriotic hygiene hygiene patriotic later onduct propaganda, using using propaganda, onduct Spring 2009 2009 Spring g out their incendiary and and incendiary their out g ecially big crimes dating dating crimes big ecially those who love war and and war love who those ho will continue to aid aid to continue will ho urpose is to inflict death death inflict to is urpose trocities. Therefore we Therefore trocities. e of the world in unity unity in world the of e ’ ever-increasingly to let let to ever-increasingly 25 S S m-Warfare Experience Experience m-Warfare verflow the common common the verflow editorial. The article article The editorial. these horrific killers killers horrific these C eair nr o we do nor behavior,

OLD OLD ] who are the the are who ] W AR AR lessons of of lessons “Nature, “Nature, Lü Da Lü 69 69

Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review aaois is nm, hn edrd no hns ( Chinese into rendered when pu name, a to first attuned be Takanori’s to readers literate for crim cartoon intended this war names, Japanese featured rarely of Yasuji, depictions Okamura Although China. to ties represe militarism inherent Japanese of their acceptance Arthur’s indicating uniforms, army Japanes Kanto the by note we panels, bottom and top both In obedie China assistant. the at in gratified is released naturally, Imperialist,” agents chemical of or MacArthur Douglas to reference a either wrist), Criminal Takenori.” Criminal Ja “Hidden the at proudly down look to Imperialist” Office Occupation “American an depicts panel mor bottom the with Contrasting errors. manifest their by depicted are Japanese the elusive, somewhat remains While relationship. new the to appropriate method Ru depicting in experience lacked he that indicates drawing his However, Pyongyang. in reprinted being imperialist American of depictions his sol in Japanese successes caricaturing practice of years had had need Chinese the satisfying of means a as depicted Friend Imprisonment.” “Verdic of Years 18 and Years 25 for decreeing paper R a Khabarovsk Criminals, War Weapons Bacteriological holds Union,” Soviet “the th 1950, 8, January On masters. American big-nosed w Japanese Similarly, alliance. Soviet fa of benefits judges, Soviet paired stern of frequently depictions with Cartoonists Japanese United the militarism. while Japanese warfare, bacteriological So the unmistakable: Japanese and basic more b were cart that trials, terms Khabarovsk articles, the of printed importance the the conveyed Like citizens. literate 70 powers of the Cold War and their differing attitude differing their and War Cold the of powers co Junwu Hua artist popular the by cartoon such one [ latter topic. The coordination between the Foreign the between coordination The topic. latter and atrocities Japanese from trials Soviet unhooked forward moved media news Chinese the Year, New the The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The homophonous with homophonous Figure 1 Figure In the top panel, Hua Junwu depicts the Khabarovsk Khabarovsk the depicts Junwu Hua panel, top the In As news of the Khabarovsk trials faded into backgro into faded trials Khabarovsk the of news As ]. ]. se lang lang se 27 Smoke issues from the American’s pipe (positioned pipe American’s the from issues Smoke 色狼

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nce of his diminutive Japanese Japanese diminutive his of nce that the Japanese remain clad in in clad remain Japanese the that Ministry and the Xinhua grew grew Xinhua the and Ministry an inference of the past clouds clouds past the of inference an oons on the Japanese threat threat Japanese the on oons ere also juxtaposed with their their with juxtaposed also ere s toward Japanese BW crimes crimes BW Japanese toward s troops, resulting in his work his in resulting troops, nting a potential future threat threat future potential a nting al clarity of Khabarovsk, the the Khabarovsk, of clarity al ssians and was seeking for a a for seeking was and ssians focused more purely on the the on purely more focused miliarizing viewers with the the with viewers miliarizing ship with the USSR was thus thus was USSR the with ship the Soviet judge in Figure 1 1 Figure in judge Soviet the diers, and had scored many many scored had and diers, clearly enough, all humbled humbled all enough, clearly 1 Figure in friends Soviet of to see Japan humbled. Hua humbled. Japan see to n contained in the caption: caption: the in contained n panese Bacteriological War War Bacteriological panese did. Perhaps Hua Junwu Junwu Hua Perhaps did. ncerning both of the major major the of both ncerning ,” where a large “American “American large a where ,” o iiaim ad Mac- and militarism, to e e negative images of the the of images negative ut articulated CCP policy policy CCP articulated ut viet Union was tough on on tough was Union viet Spring 2009 2009 Spring egion: Go to Labor Camp Camp Labor to Go egion: States was resurrecting resurrecting was States Renmin Ribao Ribao Renmin inals, even the general general the even inals, with several stories that that stories several with ts Ready for Japanese Japanese for Ready ts und with the coming of of coming the with und i LangSi e. The “American “American The e. trials, where a judge, judge, a where trials, 郎 四 published published at his his at ), is is ), Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review letter came as a response to to response a as came letter 1950. 8, The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The the topic of Japanese BW to the front of the Chines the of front the to BW Japanese of topic the consequenc unintended the showing Khabarovsk, about re from stemmed articles the of Some press. the in atrocit Japanese when 1950, January early in larger 31, 1949. On January 12, the reader offered his cr offered reader the 12, January On 1949. 31,

Figure 1. Hua Junwu, “An Obvious Contrast,” Contrast,” Obvious “An Junwu, Hua 1. Figure

day of ’49 regarding “Japanese War Criminals Prepar Criminals War “Japanese regarding ’49 of day I saw the fourth version of the article printed in in printed article the of version fourth the saw I Peop City Beijing the in comrade responsible the To J APANESE APANESE B ACTERIOLOGICAL ACTERIOLOGICAL

Xinhua Ribao’s Xinhua W EAPONS AND EAPONS ( Xinhua Daily Xinhua itiques to local officials: officials: local to itiques e public debate. One reader’s reader’s One debate. public e ies took on greater prevalence prevalence greater on took ies ader responses to the articles articles the to responses ader C the the HINA Renmin Ribao, Ribao, Renmin Spring 2009 2009 Spring es of the Soviets pushing pushing Soviets the of es Xinhua Ribao Xinhua le’s Government: Government: le’s ’ ) articles of December December of articles ) S S ations For and Guilty Guilty and For ations C OLD OLD W AR AR

on the last last the on January January 71 71 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review 415. 415. Propag and “Plague Nash, Patricia See use. BW U.S. to led and campaign 1952 the forward push to helped meitl ad ih oe rec a ta time. that at urgency some with th and validated immediately that anything indeed items, BW-related at However, highlighted. a further were involvement testimonies mass of notions The needed. still was public Chinese the to education basic that thought Foreign Affairs ( Foreign W Which Country Our in Weapons Biological Spreading Mi Affairs Foreign Our to Letter Handwritten the of R / Ribao Xinhua at Comrade Responsible the to Dong Zhang Hanfu and Hu Qiaomu. Zhang Hanfu indicated t indicated Hanfu Zhang Enlai’s Qiaomu. Hu and Zhou Hanfu Zhang from attention receiving bureaucracy, time. The short citizen letter above drifted to th to drifted above trials letter citizen short The the time. followed the on agitation public that Northeast, the of areas the documents of T denunciations. and speculations, investigations, glut the with Khabarov the predating documents similar of numbers 72 The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The hl te etr per rltvl eeetr, and elementary, for relatively wasuseful it investigations, detailed spurred appears letter the While That the CCP considered reprinting this letter indi letter this reprinting considered CCP the That 29 28 th of government the inform not you could comrades, Ch in weapons bacteriological releasing Japanese of bu s are There Ah! “malaria water.” this use not do Japanese; contains water “This written: something Panme Suzhou in sickness the from recovered I after release pres been was has it and China, disease in were people this Japanese discussion, sickn people’s this Tianl got local (at River Yangtze Beigushan the Zhenjiang to adjacent in people was I When water. [e.g., bacteria insect” inhaling “blood a is There weapons. such to attributed be should casualt that assert I however this, know I re agents. China in criminals Chin war Japanese against many that war saying the during weapons inclu bacteriological article This Weapons.” Bacteriological of Use

Not incidentally, this often inaccurate type of ci of type inaccurate often this incidentally, Not Liu Dong, “Liu Dong gei Xinhua Ribao fuze tongzhi tongzhi fuze Ribao Xinhua gei Dong “Liu Dong, Liu hereafter MFA) Archive, 105-00076-02, 3-5. 3-5. 105-00076-02, Archive, MFA)

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nistry About Japanese War Criminals Criminals War Japanese About nistry serious inaccuracies of assessment of assessment of inaccuracies serious propaganda purposes. purposes. propaganda se issues was mostly new at the the at new mostly was issues se anda,” 105; see also Rogaski, 381- Rogaski, also see 105; anda,” e top of China’s foreign affairs affairs foreign China’s of top e hese indicate that, apart from of of from apart that, indicate hese egarding Xinhua Ribao’s Handling Ribao’s Xinhua egarding 29 about the BW crimes of Japan Japan of crimes BW the about ie etmn i rcsl what precisely is testimony tizen its core, the letter shows how how shows letter the core, its e Hope to Publish] Ministry of of Ministry Publish] to Hope e The apparent lack of large large of lack apparent The malaria]. This bacteria is in in is bacteria This malaria]. os o apa t have to appear not does e strategy, were published published were strategy, e nd the value of individual individual of value the nd sk trials contrasted greatly greatly contrasted trials sk ies are still happening that that happening still are ies till many such testimonies testimonies such many till Spring 2009 2009 Spring cates that the government government the that cates office, and subsequently subsequently and office, ina! Please responsible responsible Please ina! hat the letter should be should letter the hat is? is? erved until now. Then Then now. until erved de xin” [Letter from Liu Liu from [Letter xin” de ded the phrase “using “using phrase the ded , ranging from BW BW from ranging , nli’s Hebin, there was was there Hebin, nli’s ess. According to the the to According ess. a te ie when time the at d leased bacteriological bacteriological leased gs” released by the the by released gs” a,” a short way of of way short a a,” 28

Tml) many Temple), u Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review Northeast naturally led the way on the BW question. BW the on way the led naturally Northeast b had Yenan (as rule CCP under consolidated longest Khabarovsk the of publicizing begin to evidence equipped better collecting been already had government Ch Northeast In it. upon expand and news this upon The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The S Connection TheNortheast immediatel piece the publish to Xinhua directed MFA particular, in Nanjing in agencies news with shared and media pieces about the BW campaign. campaign. BW the about mediapieces and t and tabulated closely Beijing in Ministry Foreign internal of levels highest the granted was masses, deg the and publicized be should it which in manner the that shows process the in involvement Qiaomu’s Renmin Chubanshe, 1992); Hu Qiaomu, Qiaomu, Hu 1992); Chubanshe, Renmin 1987). 1987). 1945-1948 Manchuria, in Victory Communist Xinhua expressly to publish the citizen’s letter ab letter citizen’s the publish to expressly Xinhua Ribao ih” Ntsmriai b Zo Elis fie Zh 105-0 Ministry],Archive, MFA ofForeign Department Office, Enlai’s Zhou by [Notes/marginalia pishi” Zh 105-0 Ministry],Archive, MFA ofForeign Department Office, Enlai’s Zhou by [Notes/marginalia pishi” h Frin iity oe is eep o BW-relate of receipt its noted Ministry Foreign the Qiaomu] note should “be kept by our department for further further for department our by kept “be should note corres MFA vast the in hand Hu’s revealing evidence telling. particularly is letter the on commentary see Hu Qiaomu, Qiaomu, Hu see discus detailed materialsand published For career? do leader’s Sciences, Social of Academy canonical Chinese the in archives this of guardians the Perhaps hr a erh o hs ae n ils f documents of titles in name his for search a where 105-00076-02, 8. 8. 105-00076-02, Comr Responsible the to Affairs Foreign of Ministry OME

34 33 32 31 30 On January 19, seeking material to keep the campaig the keep to material seeking 19, January On ministries in the CCP bureaucracy were more ready ready more were bureaucracy CCP the in ministries ( On CCP consolidation in the Northeast, see Robert Robert see Northeast, the in consolidation CCP On bel is PRC the ofyears early the in ubiquity Hu’s “Zhou Enlai bangongshi, Zhang Hanfu, Hu Qiaomu he he Qiaomu Hu Hanfu, Zhang bangongshi, Enlai “Zhou he Qiaomu Hu Hanfu, Zhang bangongshi, Enlai “Zhou “ajab zi iha ia seu fwsi ue to fuze fuwushi shehui ribao Xinhua zhi “Waijiaobu Nanjing Daily Nanjing

(Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe, 2002).. Chubanshe, 2002).. Renmin (Beijing: J APANESE APANESE Hu Qiaomu Wenji Wenji Qiaomu Hu ) which they held in reserve for publication. for reserve in held they which ) B ACTERIOLOGICAL ACTERIOLOGICAL

Slce Wrs f u iou, o. (Beijing: 1 Vol. Qiaomu], Hu of Works [Selected

Hu Qiaomu Shuxinji Shuxinji Qiaomu Hu W EAPONS AND EAPONS (New York: Columbia University Press, Press, University Columbia York: (New sion of his written interactions with Mao, with interactions written his of sion where Hu ended his active executive active his ended Hu where ade at,Xinhua Ribao], MFA Archive, MFA Ribao], at,Xinhua ade cuments are hoarding his personal personal his hoarding are cuments In one of the very few pieces of of pieces few very the of one In n Hnu H Qam ad Asian and Qiaomu Hu Hanfu, ang Asian and Qiaomu Hu Hanfu, ang 0076-02. 0076-02. 0076-02 out the insects.the out raced the publication of articles articles of publication the raced turns up exactly zero documents. documents. zero exactly up turns attention in Zhongnanhai. The The Zhongnanhai. in attention ied by his absence in the archives, the in absence his iedby 34 while the Asia Office of the the of Office Asia the while trials. As the area of China China of area the As trials. C y.

pondence, Hu states that the the that states Hu pondence, dcmns from documents d ree to which to involve the the involve to which to ree een evacuated in 1947), the 1947), in evacuated een ina (Dongbei), the regional regional the (Dongbei), ina HINA BW issue, specifically the the specifically issue, BW Levine, 30 s i te future.” the in use Spring 2009 2009 Spring Japan’s crimes, and was was and crimes, Japan’s , ,

gh d xn [oe from [Note xin” de ngzhi n going, the MFA asked asked MFA the going, n 6-7. . . 6-7. ’ S S [Selected Letters of Hu Hu of Letters [Selected Waijiaobu yazhouju de de yazhouju Waijiaobu de yazhouju Waijiaobu than others to spring spring to others than C OLD OLD Anvil of Victory: The Victory: of Anvil 31 32 The same day, day, same The W Hu Qiaomu’s Qiaomu’s Hu AR AR Nanjing Nanjing 33 Hu Hu 73 73 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review 2; rhvs I eerh om evcs rnh Nat Branch, Services Room CollegeMaryland. Research Park, Administration, II Archives 226; Off ofthe Records 1945-1946; Reports, Intelligence M1 Publication Microfilm Archives National Mukden,” A-6 no. document 1946, 11, April [Shenyang], Mukden in Northeast China and were printed as pamphlets.as printed were and China Northeast in who for once was referred to more than Hirohito or or Hirohito than more to referred was once for who demographic. of themes the on stories short entertaining more as of number a published they 1950, In Pingfan. near a when 1946, since heavily quite prevention plague depart This Heath. Public of Department Government use aircraft to spread pests over China’s southern southern China’s over pests spread to aircraft use tes and facilities weapons chemical the of evidence 74 oec o te W su wti te tuge o Chi for not wasSoviet, struggle news this of initiation the again, the within issue showed BW clearly the of trials potency Khabarovsk more the issue of BW the conclusion beyo of use the far Moreover, Northeast. spread had na entire the mobilize to drive CCP the represented program in only weapons not northeast, bacteriological China’s from remote areas on shenpan Yuren deng Riben xijun xijun YurenRiben zhanfan,” deng shenpan The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The 10-24, 26, 35, 40-55. 35, 40-55. 26, 10-24, 1 February Atrocities], Weapons Bacteriological 731 zuixin zhanfan xijun Riben MF Materials], Atrocities souji BWofJapanese Collection ”Guanyu Health] of hy ihd o r, ln wt etnie etos d sections extensive evidence. with along try, to wished they w who individuals five the about evidence of a amount With Harbin crimes. in the for justice 731 promoting in Unit position issued on was done problem research BW comprehensive the on materials research of the of seriousness utter the belied -- Hirohito and repres baby toxic a away spiriting MacArthur portly title humorous whose pamphlet 80-page an published salsmn o a pca Itrainl iiay C Military International Government Special Hirohito.” Our Criminal a War to Bacteriological Note of a Establishment Presents Government Soviet On February 5, 1950, the 1950, 5, February On 38 37 36 35 the was material of publishers foremost the of One “Rimo qisanyaodui xijun zhanfan de zuixing ziliao zuixing de zhanfan xijun qisanyaodui “Rimo Peopl [Northeast Weishengbu Zhengfu Renmin Dongbei “uin hnf zi ou zegu hou; ii sh tiyi zhaohui; zhengfu woguo zhi zhengfu “Sulian O at-oit etmn aog hns yuh see youth, Chinese among sentiment anti-Soviet On 37

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， W ф EAPONS AND EAPONS .0100 essors Kim Donggil and Shen Zhihua Shen and Donggil Kim essors ， ver, analysis of recently released released recently of analysis ver, lf an hour at the Soviet embassy embassy Soviet the at hour an lf s completely in this matter. His His matter. this in completely s government, Liu said: said: Liu government, th Liu Shaoqi,” February 6, 1950, 6, February Shaoqi,” Liu th оп e Soviets on the war criminal criminal war the on Soviets e and correspondence about the about correspondence and support the directive is likely likely is directive the support rty could credibly assert that that assert credibly could rty C .43 ns and drafts accelerated in in accelerated drafts and ns f-assurance flowing out of of out flowing f-assurance marked increase therefore therefore increase marked support the proposal. proposal. the support HINA r confirmation of motives motives of confirmation r Spring 2009 2009 Spring out Japanese war crimes. crimes. war Japanese out ourt. The [publication of [publication The ourt. ， Cmuit eeain to Delegation Communist e nt means of gauging the the gauging of means nt f the backroom politics politics backroom the f ts. Owing to the lack of of lack the to Owing ts. vernment to support the support to vernment y’s long experience in in experience long y’s gers from Japan. On On Japan. from gers e taken by the CCP in in CCP the by taken e ’ п tself intends to present present to intends tself overnments, we intend intend we overnments, S S inistry lacks sufficient sufficient lacks inistry e British. British. e Li Minister Foreign .302 C lgu documents alogous OLD OLD Republic of China China of Republic eo Hrht be Hirohito peror ， reign Ministry’s Ministry’s reign W д AR AR .10 Liu Shaoqi Shaoqi Liu ， л .60-61. 75 75

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nterrevolutionary group ( group nterrevolutionary quan wen zai quan guo ge guo quan zai wen quan ments of the United States, States, United the of ments ) Japanese imperialism in in imperialism Japanese ) he Far Eastern Committee, Committee, Eastern Far he cteriological weapons war weapons cteriological oviet Union and continue continue and Union oviet Spring 2009 2009 Spring ly by the Central People’s People’s Central the lyby Japanese BW criminals, criminals, BW Japanese of massacring humanity, humanity, massacring of t should have aimed not not aimed have should t ing Mao’s views on the the on views Mao’s ing he Soviet Union. Recall Recall Union. Soviet he who personally suffered suffered personally who ohito ( ohito assume our Ministry of of Ministry our assume Conversely, the letter letter the Conversely, ibunal for the five big big five the for ibunal o sol pas the praise should you sent a telegram from from telegram a sent h, 1949 for presenting presenting for 1949 h, arned that only unjust unjust only that arned s of the International International the of s complete agreement agreement complete eg i ho kai zhao yi ceng ont page of every every of page ont on, so it should should it so on, have the heart to to heart the have ly no Jiang Jieshi Jieshi Jiang no ly 罪大恶极毒杀人 on, and Beijing Beijing and on, iately write a a write iately nemy. This This nemy. 反 ) Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review edrhp o tlz te ra t siuae anti-J stimulate So of benefits to the of people trial Chinese the convincing the utilize to leadership th evident makes likewise document The controlled. worthy and important as regarded was issue the that above memo, and the directive to have it passed thr passed it have to directive the and memo, above manuscripts. published his or archives known inthe inn o te ioSve Tet] Fbur 9 and 9 Sit February Treaty], the Sino-Soviet Regarding the of Zedong Signing Mao to [Telegraph dianbao” Japanese sentiment to drive the Chinese people into people Chinese the drive to sentiment Japanese mo this at than nakedly more stated it is documents Sovi our for appreciation “increase[ing] of means a we bacteriological the from suffered personally who ange the “reveal to aim explicit his is interesting The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The pooa t st p n nentoa cut o try to court international an up set to proposal a de government [Soviet zhanfan,” xijun Riben shenxun g zhaohui; zhengfu wo zhi zhengfu ““Sulian also See weapons criminals] weapons note of February 5 was serving its purpose.its serving was 5 February of note

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AR AR Wengao, The Soviet Soviet The ; 487. 487. 77 77 see Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review cainly hi dcmns ls wt agr One anger. with flash documents their occasionally Guanhua Guanhua concerning the bacteriological warfare atrocities i atrocities warfare bacteriological the concerning me their of purpose that stated officials Health of Mi Foreign with meet to agreeing In . th could itself in smoothly functioning was behind left had assure they be could Moscow in Zhou and Mao o pace. discussion rapid comprehensive more a to led had Moscow encompassed discussion of the Japanese atrocities, atrocities, Japanese issues. BW of handling future the the for implications of discussion encompassed 行的细菌战争问题 78 Foreign Ministry], Feb. 1950, MFA Archive,MFA Feb. 105-0007 1950, Ministry], Foreign and a determined declaration to inform the people o people informthe to declaration determined a and Jap of impact the of study continue to resolution a The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The Debate about the Collection of Japanese BWofJapanese Crimes], Collection the about Debate 00076-03, 60-62. 60-62. 00076-03, Atrocities],Februa Weapons Bacteriological 731 Unit zui de zhanfan xijun proceeding qisanyaodui “Rimo meeting See the Xinhua. from excerpts few A 15. 02, 9 February Crimes], War Weapons Biological Japanese by MeetingConvened at Discussions Participating on zhanz xijun zhanfan Riben guanyu zhaokai weishengbu rn lns n h peettv hat cmags of campaigns health preventative the Weishengbu in lines crim front BW Japanese prior regarding research of center impr his made who cadre experienced an Hanfu, Zhang mov to pe the in had impetus the they took negotiations, ability the during the understood di it of internal once the Ministry MFA, for mover The prime the and active. participant more became ministries the top-d simple a than more as seen verdict Khabarovsk Hanfu requested that three of his MFA comrades atte comrades MFA his of three that requested Hanfu etn, eea mnsre wud e ersne, i ( represented, Affairs be Political would Security, ministries several meeting, was meeting “urgent” an and government, the within of the Central Government required mobilization and mobilization required Government Central the of f one was problem the Clearly Ministry. Propaganda h Dprmn o Hat ws ioosy novd in involved vigorously was Health of Department The 46 45 44 43 highest the from given been had direction that Now Ibid. Ibid. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Wei taolun souji Ri Ri souji taolun “Wei Affairs, Foreign of Ministry Fr is-ad con o te etn, e Wn Jia Wen see meeting, the of account first-hand For Mnsr o Hat, Zogag esegu e waij gei weishengbu “Zhongyang Health, of Ministry 华 冠 乔 , or Ministry of Health. Press commentaries stimul commentaries Press Health. Ministryof or , and Wen Jianfeng Jianfeng Wen and

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, Qiao Qiao , Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review Union. suggestio Soviet the supporting issue, BW-Japan the February 9, 1950. 1950. 9, February Criminal War BW Japanese Prosecuting of Problem the zuo wenti zhanfan xijun Riben zhengban “Guanyu also ina” Tlgah o a Zdn Rgrig h Sit the Regarding and 9 February Treaty], Sino-Soviet the Zedong of Signing Mao to [Telegraph dianbao” 11, the 11, Chine the in prominence considerable achieved issue The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The comment. acti for these on 1950 reports in send Moscow to as far so went sp a Shaoqi organizing of suggestion Soviet the protect to doc the unify and mobilize criminals!” to sought war also Department Health the of slaves the be “Don’t Health Minister Li Dequan Dequan Li participants 40 Minister meeting’s Health the of one by report The on Jiang the against off co collection relationship—squaring Soviet the in data investigations the to placed it steps importantly, events. intensive to very urgency some presaged to lent had Moscow in decisions pact First, pending reasons. many for pivotal of Japanese BW crimes in China. in crimes BW Japanese of Jiang Jieshi, the final report really announces sol really announces report final the Jieshi, Jiang a program BW Japan’s of evils the on focusing While Japanese other ( and proper the to over handed and indicted be program Hirohito that demands Soviet for to Dequan Li caused congruously less somewhat which of effects the with dealing in ineffectiveness go and Guomindang the faulted statement Her government. ovnd y eta Mnsr o Hat Rgrig Ja Regarding Health of Ministry Central by Par Convened on [Report baogao” de zuotanhui zhanzheng xijun Crimes], February 9, 1950, MFA Archive Doc. # 105-0 # Doc. ArchiveMFA 1950, February 9, Crimes], in Manchuria. This last article was emphasized by by emphasized was article last This Manchuria. in ba Japanese on exposé another publishing theme, the xet t Gv a ak eiyn te curne of Ribao, Renmin Occurrence the Verifying Talk a zuo Give to yaojizhuanjia Experts “Weishengbu th Areas], with Agricultural Pestilence Spread (Hunan) Changde in Ve Devils Gives Chemist [Expert manyan” dujun shi chanmiqu The February 9 February The 50 49 48 47 49 “Xijunxuejia Chen Wengui zhengX; Rikou cengzai Cha cengzai Rikou zhengX; Wengui Chen “Xijunxuejia Ibid. qin deng xieding he tiaoyue ZhongSu taolun “Guanyu Wn ineg “aja hnyn wihnb zhaokai weishengbu zhongyang “Canjia Jianfeng, Wen Renmin Ribao Ribao Renmin Ad i te as urudn te iity f Healt of Ministry the surrounding days the in And, J February 11, 195011, February APANESE APANESE th published a number of articles centering upon the e the upon centering articles of number a published etn pre ms meig cos hn o focu to China across meetings mass spurred meeting B ACTERIOLOGICAL ACTERIOLOGICAL

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Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review eray 4 15, the 1950, 14, February Jiang Pei, “Yijiusiliu nian chun fan su yundong shu yundong su fan chun nian “Yijiusiliu Pei, Jiang ie ec o Ciee aros n Sve modernity Soviet and patriots citie Chinese to balance bring and disease Japanese Chinese of reach other wide and Hirohito Emperor “Japanese as it labeling n leaves Junwu Hua cartoonist origin, in mysterious patient’s the from unhooking tail hairy immense his spectacles, Yi-style Pu and clogs Japanese in clad their from rat immense one and mice dirty the away (ei nationality indeterminate of masks white in men of representation problematic a cartoon the making Their plague.” mice contracting after areas other and Wenzhou “Zhejiang’s representing bed, hospital olbrt wt Japan. o with Japan collaborate of part the on aggression of resumption the revi “the deterred alliance the of text The Japan. th trumpeted and full in and immediately agreements in the area of Pingfan which had served as Unit 731 servedasUnit had which thearea ofPingfan in effor prevention on Weishengbu) (Dongbei Department The Political Struggle, 1945-1949 Struggle, Political The “Prot entitled China southern Rat.” the in Destroying crimes BW Japanese 80 hnzi zoga gax, ew juan renwu guanxi, zhongwai zhengzhi, oeet in Movement] The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The could be traced to Tokyo and the imperial throne vi throne imperial the to Tokyoand traced be could Relations, Personal] (Beijing: Xinzhi Sanlian shudi Sanlian (Beijing: Xinzhi Personal] Relations, nier Zag if, n 1946. in Xinfu, Zhang engineer, much p famous a of layout the precisely almost pictur mirroring witnessed CCP the had Pingfan, around 1946 area the in June diseases that Noting Harbin.” f their in correct were weapons Soviets that show bacteriological to evidence own capitulat Japanese their of bombed time airplane the “At that caption the cities. The main accompanying story in the in story accompanying main The cities. captions of Pingfan were juxtaposed with the triump the with juxtaposed were Pingfan of captions Zho Officials by Survey Pingfan; in Devils Japanese Bacteriologic of Investigation of “Records entitled When Foreign Minister Zhou Enlai finally signed the signed finally Enlai Zhou Minister Foreign When uh mgs lo utfe te motto o Sovie of importation the justified also images Such 53 52 51 See Renmin RibaoRenmin Te ato ws utesd y daet rils by articles adjacent by buttressed was cartoon The China Weekly Review, Review, Weekly China

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212-215; cated cated n a a n : Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review n ter icsin f aaee ua experiments. human Japanese Wounds.” of Ex as Used Were “We entitled discussion article an accompanied their and keeping the site intact. intact. site the keeping BW of commemorators the with death,” of 1951 “factories through continue would debates Northeast, the wo evidence BW of exhibition traveling a and women, wo meetings Public slacken. not would mainland the iity f elh O Jnay 4 15, gop o group a t for district the in 1950, gathered comrades female many 14, January On Health. of Ministry recor and organized were which meetings the in role t in hygiene firm public for a drive simulta The asserting repeated. to crimes and crimes key BW was Japanese of Beijing veracity southern in location the the was Beijing suspec a As of atrocities. BW Japanese city about meetings the in Heaven of Temple the eta Mnsr o Hat atvl to te propag the took actively Health of possible Ministry as Central evidence na much as only a collect not to stimulated now, encouraged and had China, in trials weapons Khabarovsk bacteriological The confidence, in growrapidly. to began government the as and to primed been Japanese had government expose Chinese of to machinery China of urging its from months publicizing Japan’s crimes in hopes of stimulating stimulating of hopes governments. in crimes Japan’s publicizing The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The W Against Mobilizing after Sino-Soviet BW the Allianc intentions. Soviet of occu American the with dissatisfied opinion popular but the bacteriological weapons allegation gained l gained allegation weapons bacteriological the but emphasis on defense versus countries allied with Ja with allied countries versus defense on emphasis inf wounds of clear country the steer to unable was atrocit gruesome China’ enabled which such power very the that appearance of recurrence further Allia prevent Sino-Soviet The crimes. Japanese of evidence ba look to encouraged being was China communism, on ITH

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W EAPONS AND EAPONS ittle purchase. purchase. ittle licted by Japan. The Alliance’s Alliance’s The Japan. by licted he meeting about Japanese BW BW Japanese about meeting he he crowded city also played a a played also city crowded he pan was noticed in the West, West, the in noticed was pan C ted site of Japanese BW use, BW Japanese of site ted pation policies and skeptical skeptical and policies pation anda campaign on the road, road, the on campaign anda s opening path to modernity modernity to path opening s ded by the local arm of the the of arm local the by ded periments for Cold-Weather Cold-Weather for periments crimes winning a battle and and battle a winning crimes nce, it was implied, would would implied, was it nce, uld be held of workers and and workers of held be uld HINA f the Sino-Soviet Alliance, Alliance, Sino-Soviet the f of Japanese atrocities, the the atrocities, Japanese of ies, yet it also gave the the gave also it yet ies, about the meaning of the the of meaning the about f workers which included included which workers f were local governments governments local were Spring 2009 2009 Spring site of two large public public large two of site more reports from local local from reports more resolve not to see such such see to not resolve uld tour the country. In country. the tour uld investigate and publicize, publicize, and investigate the However, atrocities. these activities expanded expanded activities these neously establishing the the establishing neously alliance, BW rhetoric on on rhetoric BW alliance, ned to the the to ned ion eased off for several several for off eased ion ck to the past, gathering gathering past, the to ck tionwide discourse on on discourse tionwide ’ S S e e C Grisly imagery imagery Grisly OLD OLD re society based based society re W Renmin Ribao Renmin AR AR 81 81

Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review Criminal Activity] no date, MFA #105-00076-02, 14. MFA date, #105-00076-02, Activity]no Criminal Experi and Evidence of [Collection jingguo” zhengju is o te gna o te iity f elhs Fe Health’s of Ministry the for agenda the on first suffici were allegations Beijing These Heal Minis propaganda. Foreign of the to Ministry on Central them passed the and allegations to fed was level local enocd iia tee wie eertn te Sov the celebrating militarism. Japanese virulent of recurrence while themes district Heaven similar of reinforced Temple the at meeting second The crimes. the describe to asked were they where 82 30, 1950, Beijing Municipal Archives, 1/12/55. Archives, 1/12/55. Beijing Municipal 1950, 30, and Treaty, Freindship Sino-Soviet New the Studying sixian yixie he wenti de tiaoyue xin youhao ZhongSu etns r ctd s notoetbe vdne of evidence incontrovertible as cited are meetings resul the day, same the of meeting Ministry Foreign The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The matters”: matters”: o conclusions “reach to order in – Ministry Foreign meetings – those of February 9 at the Ministry of H of Ministry the at 9 February of those – meetings the synthesize to sought document Council State The th to response in Government Central PRC the within s document Council State the context, international Geneva 1925, a 17, laws Hirohit June advocating After weapons.” bacteriological the the to of relation violation in especially in brutally and “completely C State the discussions, previous on twist slight a f preparations secret of years many clique’s ruling Hirohito Emperor Japanese “verified C had proceedings State the trials, Khabarovsk the of summary their grou working a by clearer even made was imperatives 01, February 9, 1950, MFA # 105-00092-01, 13. 13. # MFA105-00092-01, 1950, February9, 01, Crimi War BW Japanese Prosecuting of Problem the on 8-9.. #105-00092-06, Document Militar Japanese of Period the during Situation the Convenin Office Prevention Disease Heaven of Temple h uiy f oetc oiiain n euain wi education and mobilization domestic of unity The 58 57 56 55 the Chinese people and the people of the whole worl whole the of people the and people Chinese the require simultaneously will This criminals. Empe guilty Japanese for trial a have to suggestion Soviet 1. Using the [February 9 [February the Using 1. “unu hnbn ie xjn hna wni zuotanh wenti zhanfan xijun Riben zhengban “Guanyu zhanjush Rijun zuotan gongren fangbingchu “Tiantan Mnsr o Hat t Frin iity “oj Rib “Souji Ministry, Foreign to Health of Ministry Biigh xacunu Biig iy rpgna Bu Propaganda City [Beijing xuanchuanbu Beijingshi

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55 a Few Ideological Factors], March Factors], Ideological Few a ouncil described the Japanese as Japanese the described ouncil The evidence collected at the the at collected evidence The or bacteriological warfare.” In In warfare.” bacteriological or nals], MFA Archives, 105-00092- Archives, MFA nals], g a Discussion of Workers about about Workers of Discussion a g o’s prosecution and setting the the setting and prosecution o’s n the means of handling a few few a handling of means the n aa’ pouto o BW. of production Japan’s ummarizes the actions taken taken actions the ummarizes ently important to be placed placed be to important ently ealth and on March 3, at the at 3, March on and ealth ray meeting. 9 bruary ts of the Temple of Heaven Heaven of Temple the of ts e Soviet note of February 1. 1. February of note Soviet e ouncil emphasized how the the how emphasized ouncil results from two important important two from results try for use in international international in use for try ’s leadership in the former former the in leadership ’s treaty prohibiting use of of use prohibiting treaty i de qingshili jilu” [Record of [Record jilu” qingshili de i th which synthesized the the synthesized which th p of the State Council. In In Council. State the of p Spring 2009 2009 Spring iet role in preventing a a preventing in role iet o Fbur 1, 1950, 16, February on , nd conventions of war, war, of conventions nd heightened vigilance of of vigilance heightened en xijun zhanfan zuixing zuixing zhanfan xijun en d against the murderous murderous the against d i iu Dsuso Notes [Discussion jilu” ui o Hrht ad other and Hirohito ror eu, Gnu xuexi “Ganbu reau], th international international th 56 At the the At 57

Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review crimes olw i te da of idea the is follows most the but comment, of worthy towa are aspects Several CCP Counc the State the Japa experience,” of of of “summary concluding atrocities echelons forward bringing top of the implications in awareness great The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The

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W EAPONS AND EAPONS C ee a ciias I its In criminals. war nese ble enemies [ enemies ble fascinating aspect of what what of aspect fascinating HINA rtant mission is to, from the the from to, is mission rtant Health in the collection of collection the in Health u bohr onr o the of country brother our il laid out a self-criticism. self-criticism. a out laid il Spring 2009 2009 Spring to be the responsibility of of responsibility the be to

gaged in helping from all all from helping in gaged le investigation we know know we investigation le . This work can be done done be can work This . atrocities the investigate em of the bacteriological bacteriological the of em e had inflicted powerful powerful inflicted had e our past attitudes toward toward attitudes past our rable importance. Right Right importance. rable ong and all other places other all and ong n propaganda indicates indicates propaganda n we have a plan, we can can we plan, a have we da materials, they have have they materials, da he collected materials, materials, collected he ’ drafted by the Central Central the by drafted S S [BW] materials have have materials [BW] r knowledge of [these [these of knowledge r his will cause us to to us cause will his work. For instance, instance, For work. C rd the international international the rd OLD OLD o te blindly- the of t of Japanese war war Japanese of to raise the the raise to W 看不见的敌人 AR AR 83 83 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review getr ard oad wr rmnl. Wt a few a With criminals.” war towards hatred “greater Chine perso in the slaughter criminals’ allowing war bacteria of Japanese purpose its served exhibition Amer by free “set scientists those and Shiro Ishii part custody, its in criminals BW those disciplined poi to was it than purp Japan from the justice actual as demand intent, political its reinforce warfare. exhibit and dislocation of years after reopening exhibit an such digesting time difficult a had have terminolog scientific from removed largely likely populace Howeve jargon propagandists. scientific the among and training technical statistics of lack The inadequate, “were argued, he bacteria,” various the o harm and spread the of explanations “The level. by troubled was administrator Office Personnel the the In clearer. becoming elsewhere and Pingfan in of puzzle the of outlines the were too so together, as half-d Just crimes: BW the Japan’s against case importantly, evidentiary more showed, propaganda also vaunted criticism f case CCP’s the pressing in effective the always necessarily that indicating “ messy” as richness, documentary in lacking as reveali exhibition particularly Archive is MFA exhibition the this from criticizing document One crimes. BW about mobilization in 1952. See Patricia Nash, “Plague a “Plague See inNash, Patricia 1952. mobilization process. n the be would factories that follows it spread, be cit the in i not does Archive Ministry Japanese Foreign the in document the of activities BW the detail meeting city’s a the among leaders were whom had of most people, Department Prevention Epidemic Heaven 84 Incidents], February 9, 1950, MFA # 105-00076-02, 1 MFA105-00076-02, 1950, # February 9, Incidents], Solutio Responsibility and on [Conclusions jingguo” Organizations of State Council] to Foreign Ministry Foreign to Council] State of Organizations The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The 60 59 invaders. Japanese the of conspiracies seiz must We people. Japanese the of consciousness Mrh 90 xiiin ol big ute informa further bring would exhibition 1950 March A In the aftermath of these public meetings, on March on meetings, public these of aftermath the In Te ejn Mncpl rhvs otis eea us several contains Archives Municipal Beijing The Gouun e oghn Moi iou Sal Industr [Small Xiaozu Maoyi Gongshang de Guowuyuan 60

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, “Zongjie Riben xijunzhan zuian chuli zuian xijunzhan Riben “Zongjie , ns for Japanese Biological War Crimes War Crimes Biological Japanesefor ns 6-19. 6-19. ng. The authors criticized the the criticized authors The ng. ext step in the propagandization propagandization the in step ext ose of the exhibit was less to to less was exhibit the of ose Japanese BW experimentation experimentation BW Japanese when many schools were just just were schools many when ican imperialism.” Yet, if the the if Yet, imperialism.” ican or Japanese BW crimes. The The crimes. BW Japanese or ” and “the statistics too few.” few.” too statistics “the and ” icularly when contrasted with contrasted when icularly f plague and the infectivity of of infectivity the and plague f n,” it would indeed stimulate stimulate indeed would it n,” ndicate how this news was to to was news this how ndicate the nation was being pieced pieced being was nation the y of the educated elite would would elite educated the of y y of Beijing. Although the the Although Beijing. of y nt out how the Soviet Union Union Soviet the how out nt eutd rm h lc of lack the from resulted Finally, the critiques of the the of critiques the Finally, exhibition, the of evaluation the discourse on a scientific scientific a on discourse the unsystematic and somewhat somewhat and unsystematic laborers. They reviewed in in reviewed They laborers. r, it is just as likely that a a that likely as just is it r, eveloped state of China’s China’s of state eveloped se people to “experience “experience to people se Spring 2009 2009 Spring 7, the Beijing Temple of of Temple Beijing the 7, eful files on such hygiene hygiene such on files eful e this time to expose the the expose to time this e minor adjustments, adjustments, minor apparatus was not not was apparatus with nearly twenty twenty nearly with s summarizing and and summarizing s tion to the masses masses the to tion y and Trade Trade and y Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review ehp tyn t cry oiia fvr ih h ne the with favor political curry to trying perhaps transitional the in nationalism anti-Japanese intellectu with of force” “middle cultivated of type the dom Dom and Enlai’s. Zhou clai of goal ongoing an PRC’s Trials, Tokyo internationally the represented Mei both level, international obvious, were campaign by CCP the to accorded benefits the criminals, war involve be to period Republican the of men foremost th about Ministry remained Foreign the to note a sent voice, and Trials Tokyo theme the anti-BW at China the represented on Beijing in occurred exhibition provincial party bureaucracies on similar grounds. grounds. similar on swin its on continued exhibition the and complaints bureaucracies party provincial whereit Hunan, to moved exhibition the 1950, April The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The Spreading of Bacteria], April 8, 1950, MFA 1950, Document 8, April ofBacteria], Spreading 菌战罪证 expan be could exhibition the noted, administrators MFA Archives, 105-00076-02, 51 105-00076-02, Archives, MFA Tes Crimes WarBiological Japanese of ‘Evidence the zuixing zhengju zhanlanhui’ de jidian yijian”Fe [A jidian de zhanlanhui’ zhengju zuixing Archives, 105-00107-01. Archives, 105-00 Archives, MFA Weishengbu] Harbin to Division ar Pingfan the preserve to not or whether regarding poiin f h Hri (n Nrhat epes Go People’s t assert Northeast to the of atrocities intervened BW the of (and evidence as MFA “preserved the Harbin Finally the Department. of opposition produc serve to area the of renovation for pressing responsible Officials Harbin. of outside Pingfan, future the around centered debate The Government. wit ongoing been had that debate a relaying MFA the received Department Health Harbin the 1950, spring pr the with conflict of point fascinating a to came in of imperatives the However, tubes. test Ishii’s a plague of outbreaks future preventing in interest h latter the from officials discussions, In of Health. of means crimes the best Committee Industry Northeast the were here players about, the research and over of, commemoration continued debates internal 63 62 61 n uut , s hn bgn o oiie o te Kor the for mobilize to began China as 8, August On s h ehbto ws tmltn pbi consciousn public stimulating was exhibition the As X Sagu, Di ari igaq sioboi y baoliu shifo Pingfanqu Haerbin “Dui Shangqun, Xu Pronl fie o oeg Mnsr “ou canguan “Wobu Ministry Foreign to Office Personnel “u Rbn ab xjn ala” Ciiu o Mater of [Critique cailiao” xijun sanbu Riben “Lun

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# 105-00076-02, 50. 50. 105-00076-02, # e exhibition. As one of the most most the of one As exhibition. e dustrialization in the Northeast Northeast the in dustrialization nd other diseases hatched from from hatched diseases other nd ocess of popular memory. In In memory. popular of ocess year after taking power. Mei, Mei, power. taking after year ded to cities across China. across cities to ded g through the south.the gthrough Japanese devils” ( devils” Japanese al that the Party was wooing wooing was Party the that al for industrialization had been been had industrialization for involving Mei in the anti-BW anti-BW the in Mei involving met with more criticism from from criticism more with met tion goals, against the ardent ardent the against goals, tion and the Northeast Ministry of of Ministry Northeast the and 076-02, 84-85. See also MFA MFA also See 84-85. 076-02, C w administration, noted his his noted administration, w m to the legitimacy of the the of legitimacy the to m estically, Mei was precisely precisely was Mei estically, d in the justice of Japanese Japanese of justice the in d of the Unit 731 facilities at at facilities 731 Unit the of HINA from the Asian division of of division Asian the from hin the Northeast People’s People’s Northeast the hin a prominent “third party” party” “third prominent a Spring 2009 2009 Spring The MFA fielded the the fielded MFA The . Mei Ru’ao, who had had who Ru’ao, Mei . ayn d yja” [Views yijian” de uanyang nt 3. h major The 731. Unit hat the area should be be should area the hat ’ ess of Japan’s crimes, crimes, Japan’s of ess S S Rbn iin zhanfan xijiun ‘Riben ials Regarding Japan’s Japan’s Regarding ials andling an ongoing ongoing an andling C estically. On the the On estically. ean War, a national national a War, ean OLD OLD vernment) Health Health vernment) W AR AR 保留日寇细 62

61 85 85 In Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review nentoa cut ee mas hog wih Chin which through means a were thereaft court pledge international Soviet the and Khabarovsk from news bacteriolgocia attentio Japanese of threat the public about, debate stimulated nevertheless they not input, were 1950 February in actions Soviet subsequent w Thus, alliance. Sino-Soviet solidif the just to not regime, help also could atrocities Japanese past m mass that realized also CCP he that obvious seems c feel Chinese helping of means a as Japan at anger unguarded rather Enlai’s Zhou from Judging trials. prevent further outbreaks, expanded incredibly rapi incredibly expanded outbreaks, further prevent concurre the and crimes, BW Japanese about rhetoric Sino-Sovi the support to intended device propaganda and 1949 in Trials Khabarovsk the around organized ls atnin n “rdne [ “prudence and attention close on meeting the in use of be can exhibition stat the from clearly Dequan Li Minister Health Zh Li, Enlai, Zhou Minister to note a In incidental. not likely MFA Archive, 105-00076-02, 53. 53. 105-00076-02, Archive, MFA Japanese of Exhibition [Regarding zhanlan” zhengju 1950, MFA Archive, 105-00076-02, 52. 52. Archive,MFA 105-00076-02, 1950, ‘B Exhibit Sanitation National [Regarding zhanfan’” I Conclusion exhibit the that entanglement” cryptically “international or incident diplomatic suggested Mei however, sta the From exhibition. anti-BW the with pleasure 86 xiiins ocr wt frin oiy ta i t is input. (that MFA policy merited wit foreign with agreeing concern meeting/exhibition, exhibition’s the in participate ds ht h Ain far (aii Dprmn) of Department) (Pacific Affairs Asian the that adds V Accordingly, bureaucracy. MFA the by immediately toiis te ed o rvn ftr otras a outbreaks, education. future th prevent to discuss need to the meetings atrocities, community organizing by 1950 ever-wid reached Health of Ministry the the print, into and atrocities, More pieces. these 731 soliciting in active extremely Unit of accounts first-hand The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The T o apas la ta te xesv mblzto t mobilization extensive the that clear appears now Mei’s mention of possible international reprrecussi international possible of mention Mei’s 65 64

Li Dequan to Zhou Enlai, Li Kenong, and Zhang Hanf Zhang and Kenong, Li Enlai, Zhou to Dequan Li Mi ua t Wn Bnnn “unu unu weishen quanguo “Guanyu Bingnan, Wang to Ru’ao Mei 65 Idvdas hratr otiue atce relay articles contributed thereafter Individuals

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ooia Wr rmnl’ Ags 8, August Criminals’] War iological Biological War Crimes Evidence], Evidence], Crimes War Biological than simply putting these ideas ideas these putting simply than l weapons. For the public, the the public, the For weapons. l . dly in the two months after the the after months two the in dly hile the Khabarovsk trials and and trials Khabarovsk the hile nd the promotion of patriotic patriotic of promotion the nd y public support for the new new the for support public y 64 ang Hanfu, and Vice Foreign Foreign Vice and Hanfu, ang er audiences in the spring of of spring the in audiences er foreign affairs policy.” The The policy.” affairs foreign n to, and vigorous internal internal vigorous and to, n ndpoint of international law, law, international of ndpoint ie ol sn a esn to person a send would fice statement about stimulating stimulating about statement loser to the Soviet Union, it it Union, Soviet the to loser

o say, foreign propaganda) propaganda) foreign say, o ed that “pieces of evidence evidence of “pieces that ed early 1950 was a foremost a a foremost a was 1950 early et alliance. However, mass However, alliance. et h Li’s comment that the the that comment Li’s h nt desire to investigate and and investigate to desire nt obilization campaign about about campaign obilization iity f elh was Health of Ministry ice Foreign Minister Wang Wang Minister Foreign ice carried out with Chinese Chinese with out carried Spring 2009 2009 Spring u, “Guanyu Riben xijunzhan Riben “Guanyu u, ons of the exhibition was was exhibition the of ons ion would not cause a a cause not would ion er to try Hirohito in an an in Hirohito try to er ese patriotism could be be could patriotism ese e meaning of the BW BW the of meaning e he PRC government government PRC he zalnu ‘Xijun zhanlanhui g ing their their ing Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The Dongbei Renmin Zhengfu Weishengbu, Weishengbu, Zhengfu Renmin Dongbei Bai Xi, Xi, Bai of Cited Chinese List Sources/Works Communist Chinese the on War Cold remai the past. the of interpretation of Trials impact the Khabarovsk stimul will hoped, is it PRC, the of years early the in of anti-Japa influenced trials force those how Understanding historical the observers, absence the in scholarly Even urgency. challenge some with addressing and vex to continues – criminals Finall war Japanese on discourse contemporary understood. fully more be to are crimes war m of politics the if work additional require 1950s, Chinese both of education crimes war for Manchuria Harbin near death” of “factories the of meaning the mobili the in played atrocities BW Shiro’s Ishii of 1950-19 from period the in Union Soviet the and CCP Japa toward apprehensions China’s how understand to new a adding in historical Further episode. War States, Cold significant United E the Zhou to against prior years allegations two than more thriving was BW Jap about data public China’s that clear available appears it And mainland. all gather to momentum sought new which brought actions Soviet lo For the government, nationalism. peculiar and identity national therea rapidly S entwined was and the 1950s the of by advent consciousness anti-Japanese of always stimulation not had actions of view past of point the from importantly more Perhaps whose ally an to linked Guowuyuan Gongshang Maoyi Xiaozu, Xiaozu, Maoyi Gongshang Guowuyuan Beijingshi xuanchuanbu, xuanchuanbu, Beijingshi Fushun Zhanfan Guanlisuo, Guanlisuo, Zhanfan Fushun Feng Quanpu, Quanpu, Feng 战罪案处理经过 士论文 细菌战犯罪行的材料 一些思想情况 京 白希 : 五洲传播出版社 ：《开过大镇反 , 5 , J APANESE APANESE 冯全普 月 2006 ”. ”. : 北京市档案馆 B ”, ”, 《国民党政权对日政策分析 ACTERIOLOGICAL ACTERIOLOGICAL 年 中国外交部档案馆 北京市宣传部 , 2005. [4] 2005. , . [9] . [9] ”, ”,

抚顺战犯管理所编 中国外交部档案馆 》 . . 北京 , , : 全宗 W 党校 国务院工商贸易小组 “: 东北人民政府卫生部 EAPONS AND EAPONS 干部学习中苏友好新条约的问题和 1/ , 105-00076-02, 16-19. [59] [59] 16-19. 105-00076-02, , 江西人民出版社 目录 : 《日本战犯的再生之地 , 105-00076-02, 80. [36]80. 105-00076-02, , vestigation is needed, however, however, needed, is vestigation ate further questions regarding regarding questions further ate , and the use of various sites in in sites various of use the and , emory surrounding Unit 731’s 731’s Unit surrounding emory and bureaucratic discourse on on discourse bureaucratic and zation. Local debates around around debates Local zation. 12/ an analysis of the masses, the the masses, the of analysis an nese and anti-BW discourses discourses anti-BW and nese cal agencies of the Chinese Chinese the of agencies cal C , 1949-1952 , and foreign audiences in the the in audiences foreign and y, because China’s thriving thriving China’s because y, fter with the emerging PRC PRC emerging the with fter particularly BW atrocities – atrocities BW particularly 52, and what role memories memories role what and 52, HINA today of the Soviet Union, Union, Soviet the of today oviets coincided with the the with coincided oviets anese BW crimes on the the on crimes BW anese layer of context to this this to context of layer 卷 Spring 2009 2009 Spring these questions require require questions these n were marshaled by the the by marshaled were n been helpful to China. China. to helpful been lis pig 92 BW 1952 spring nlai’s 55. [58] [58] 55. ’ S S to health campaigns campaigns health to C ns potent indeed. indeed. potent ns , 2007. [26] [26] 2007. , , “ , OLD OLD : “: Party’s complex complex Party’s 总结日本细菌 关于搜集日本 》 W . . AR AR 北京大学博 》

. . 北 87 87 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review ______: ______: Lü Da Ribao Da Lü Liu Shaoqi, Shaoqi, Liu Wen Jianfeng, Jianfeng, Wen Zhongguo Waijiaobu, Waijiaobu, Zhongguo Shangqun, Xu Jiang Pei, Pei, Jiang Renmin Ribao Renmin Zhongguo Waijiaobu, Waijiaobu, Zhongguo Ribao, Shenyang Hu Qiaomu, Qiaomu, Hu 88 Mei Ru’ao, Ru’ao, Mei Renshichu, Renshichu, Shen Zhihua, Zhihua, Shen Liu Dong, Dong, Liu The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The Li Dequan, LiDequan, Yang Kuisong, Kuisong, Yang [19, 40] 40] [19, [33] [33] 社 国以来刘少奇文稿 队到中国工作问题的电报 交部档案馆 关系 中国外交部档案馆 的信 社 哈尔滨 报 集专家座谈 见 国外交部档案馆 报 责同志的信 的 学家陈文贵证 政府 设 , 1999. [10] [10] 1999. , 告 ; [10] 2003. , “ ” 几点意 国 痛诉 江佩 ”, ”, ”, , 照会 际 关于讨论中苏条约和协定等情况给毛泽东的电报 刘东 人物卷 人 李德全 梅汝遨 刘少奇 中国外交部档案馆 中国外交部档案馆 卫生部的 特 , , 胡乔木 Hu Qiaomu Shuxinji Shuxinji Qiaomu Hu 沈 日战犯 旅大日报 , , 事 徐尚群 温剑风 : “: 见 ; 别 人民 杨 : “: 志华 ” [50].” 关于 处 沈阳 一九四六年春反苏运动述评 ”, ”, 军 ”. [65] 53 105-00076-02, , 奎松 刘东

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南 大 伯力续审讯 特 新知三联书店 第一册 A 市平 中央卫生部召开关于日本战犯细菌战争 ,“ 的信 林 中国外交部档案馆 别 DAM DAM 我 , 105-00076-02, 8. [31] [31] 8. 105-00076-02, , 48] [46, 15. 105-00076-02, , ” ; “ ; ” ，毛泽东 军 《胡乔 房 部 : “: “ : 与莫斯 裕仁等日本细菌战犯 , “ , C 事法庭审讯 》 ), ), 区是 参观 日 中央介绍电影摄影队到东北地区工作的电 ATHCART 外交部 关于全国卫生展览 边彦军编 ” [24], “ [24], ”

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七 科的 《日本细菌战犯罪行证据展览 与朝鲜 , 2003. [52] [52] 2003. , 关于日本细菌战证据展览 保留 三一部队细菌战犯的罪行 致新华日报社

苏联政府致 恩恩源源 ”, ”, . . 日本细菌战犯 1. 1. 集》 原样 《中华民国史新论 北京 战争 , 105-00076-02, 84-85. [63] [63] 84-85. 105-00076-02, , 北京 ; . . 的 苏 : 》 中央文献出版社 Spring 2009 2009 Spring 北京 ” ; “ ; ” 意 法医 : 》 ” [38], “ [38], ” 人民出版社 会 . . 广州 见 我 . 会服 《细菌战犯 南宁 : 关于苏联电影摄影 专家 [ 国政府 人民出版社 ” ” 外交部 ” [40, 53], “ 53], [40, ” ，给新华日报负 : 见刘少奇 ” [50], “ [50], ” 务 : 广 苏联政府致 江西人民出版 委 室 东人民出版 员 照会 : , 1992. [33] [33] 1992. , 负责同志 亚 政治 ” ” 会 资 卫生部邀 座谈会 》 中国外 洲 , 2005. 2005. , 发表 料 ；提议 : 会 ”, ”, , 2002. 2002. , 局 《建 , 细菌 中外 ”, ”, 》 中 我 致 意 的 Published by Maney Publishing (c) The Chinese Historical Review Zhou Enlai Bangongshi, Bangongshi, Enlai Zhou The Chinese Historical ReviewHistorical Chinese The ______Zhongguo Zhongyang Weishengbu, Weishengbu, Zhongyang Zhongguo Zhongguo Waijiaobu, “ Waijiaobu, Zhongguo Zhongguo Zhongyang Weishengbu, Weishengbu, Zhongyang Zhongguo urel. Quarterly. arca ahs nelcul netet n ad vit and project. in, investment intellectual Nash’s Patricia recog which College Hiram via administered award an Re Faculty-Student Foundation Freeman - ASIANetwork eerh ae otcmn with forthcoming are relations, Sino-Japanese research, on articles new the Korea, Cathcart’s in North of Kraus, The Occupation Charles Influence: Soviet the “Peripheral and include Incident history War Cold Jorda hisDonald of direction the under University received Ohio He Washington. Tacoma, in University 00076-02, 21. [43] [43] 21. 00076-02, 交部 问题 证据经过 Adam Cathcart Cathcart Adam 亚 座谈会记 洲

J [[email protected]]. APANESE APANESE ”, ”, 局 中国外交部档案馆 的 ao fnig o te rsn rsac ws provided was research present the for funding Major 批示 录 B ”, ”, 为 ACTERIOLOGICAL ACTERIOLOGICAL s sitn Poesr f itr a Pcfc Luther Pacific at History of Professor Assistant is 周 中国外交部档案馆 ”. ”. 讨论搜集日细菌战犯 恩 中国外交部档案馆

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中国中 中国中央卫生部 , 105-00076-02, 14. [56] [56] 14. 105-00076-02, , W ： EAPONS AND EAPONS Twentieth-Century China China Twentieth-Century ” 周 央卫生部 , 105-00092-01. [47] [47] 105-00092-01. , 恩 , 105-00076-02, , 来 ”, ”, 中国外交部档案馆 办公室 C : “: : HINA 关于 搜集日本细菌战犯罪行 Spring 2009 2009 Spring al contributions to, this this to, contributions al n. Cathcart’s articles on on articles Cathcart’s n. ，章 ’ also based on MFA MFA on based also S S 惩办 C nized and facilitated facilitated and nized hD i 20 from 2005 in Ph.D. OLD OLD (December 2008). 2008). (December 汉夫 ______

search Fellowship, Fellowship, search 9514, with 1945-1947,” 6-7. [30, 32] 32] [30, 6-7. Sinuiju Student Student Sinuiju 日本细菌战犯 W , , AR AR 胡乔木和外 , 105- , and and by an an by China China 89 89 an an