DOCSLIB.ORG

Topic 3: Mutation (Mostly) and Recombination

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Topic 3: Mutation (Mostly) and Recombination Topic 3: Mutation (mostly) and recombination Introduction MUTATIONS are changes to hereditary material (DNA or RNA) that arise If you are looking at a population and a either by an error in replication, or an error in a repair process. In migrant from another population brings molecular evolution (and population genetics) we are interested in the with it a new genetic variant, then the mechanisms of mutation as it is the ultimate source of novel genetic source of the new variation can be said variation. The scale of the change in DNA or RNA is hugely variable, it to be migration. However its ultimate can be at an individual nucleotide, at the level of an entire gene, part of origin was mutation. a chromosome, or doubling of the entire genome; we call all of these events mutations. We make a strict separation between the processes that generates mutation from the processes that influence the evolutionary fate of a mutation. Darwin made the same logical distinction in the first edition of the Origin of Species: “Whatever the cause may be for each slight difference in the offspring from their parents ⎯and a cause for each must exist⎯ it is the steady accumulation, through natural selection, of such differences, when beneficial to the individual that give rise to all the more important modification of structure …” This distinction has become the central principle of modern evolutionary theory. The processes of mutation and recombination operate at random with respect to the fitness of the molecule, cell or organism. Adaptations arise only as a consequence of the sorting of this random variation by natural selection. The ultimate fate of a mutation is either (i) FIXATION in a population, or (ii) complete loss from a population. During the period of time when a new genetic variant has arisen by mutation but has not yet been fixed or lost in a population, we refer to such genetic variation as POLYMORPHISM. We may use the term polymorphism at the level of the species as well, and, more rarely, above the species level. We use the term MUTATION only to refer to the result of a mutagenic event, and its use makes no claim to the ultimate fate of that mutation. We use the term SUBSTITUTION to refer to a mutation that has completed the process of being fixed in a population. For example, we use the term NUCLEOTIDE SUBSTITUTION to refer to a single nucleotide mutation that grew in frequency in a population until it replaced all other alternative nucleotide variants at that particular site. Mutations may be divided into two very broad categories: 1. Point mutations (nucleotide mutations). 2. Insertion, deletion, or rearrangement of nucleotides. The objective of this lecture is to review the causes and types of mutations. We also introduce the process of recombination, which functions to “shuffle” the pre-existing variants that arose via mutation. The processes that determine the evolutionary fate of such genetic variation will be covered in future lectures. Point mutation 1. Transitions and transversions: Nucleotides can be divided into two classes: (i) purines (A and G) and (ii) pyrimidines (C and T). In many genomes, point mutations are more likely to occur within these classes A G than between them, so their rates are often estimated separately. TV When a mutation is within a class, e.g., from A to G, we say that a TRANSITION (TS) has occurred (blue arrows in figure to the right). When a mutation is between classes, e.g., from A to T, we say a C T TS TRANSVERSION (TV) has occurred (red arrows in figure to the right). If such mutations go to fixation, we can say that either a transitional or transversional substitution has occurred. This class of point mutation applies to all types of nucleotide sequences, coding and non-coding. 2. Synonymous and nonsynonymous: If a mutation occurs in a protein-coding region then they are classified according to its effect on the protein product of the gene. Due to the redundancy of the genetic code, we can classify all mutations into two categories. SYNONYMOUS (SILENT) mutations result in a change among codons that code for the same amino acid; hence, such mutations have no effect on the protein product of the gene. NONSYNONYMOUS (also called REPLACEMENT or MISSENCE) mutations result in a change among codons that code for different amino acids, thus changing the polypeptide encoded by the gene. 3. Nonsense: Another type of mutation in a coding region is one that changes a codon from one that encodes an amino acid to one that encodes a termination signal. This can be a dramatic change if it occurs anywhere other than near the natural end of the polypeptide, as it causes premature end to translation and a truncated polypeptide. Ser Ter Seq 1 ATG CTG GTC AAG TTG AGA AGT TAA ↓ (1) (A) Seq 2 ATG CTG GTC AAG TTG AGA AGC TAA Ser Leu Ter Seq 1 ATG CTG GTC AAG TTG AGA AGT TAA ↓ (2) (B) Seq 2 ATG GTG GTC AAG TTG AGA ACT TAA Val Lys Ter Seq 1 ATG CTG GTC AAG TTG AGA AGT TAA ↓ (3) Seq 2 ATG CTG GTC TAG Ter Two sequences showing the different types of mutations (1) synonymous mutation, (2) nonsynonymous mutation, (3) nonsense mutation, (A) transition, (B) transversion. We can compute the expected proportions of mutation types in coding regions if we are willing to assume all nucleotide mutations occur at the same rate (ts = tv) and all codons are used equally frequently (1/61). Although very unrealistic assumptions for most genes, the expected proportions are useful in giving us a rough idea of the relative “mutational opportunities” for these different types of change. There are 61 sense codons in the standard code, and 9 ways for each to change to another codon (3 alternative nucleotides × 3 codon positions); so there are 61 × 9 = 549 possible mutational pathways to consider. The table below shows the expected proportions of each type of change. Relative proportion of different types of mutations in hypothetical protein coding sequence. Expected number of changes (proportion) Type All 3 Positions 1st positions 2nd positions 3rd positions Total mutations 549 (100) 183 (100) 183 (100) 183 (100) Synonymous 134 (25) 8 (4) 0 (0) 126 (69) Nonsyonymous 392 (71) 166 (91) 176 (96) 50 (27) nonsense 23 (4) 9 (5) 7 (4) 7 (4) Modified from Li and Graur (1991). Note that we assume a hypothetical model where all codons are used equally and that all types of point mutations are equally likely. Molecular basis of point mutation is varied. Replication errors can give rise to mismatches between strands of DNA which can be incorrectly repaired, or proofreading enzymes can simply fail to recognize an error. UV or a variety of chemicals can lead to direct damage to DNA. The process of transcription can leave the non-coding strand vulnerable to damage by, for example, spontaneous decay. Single stranded DNA has much higher rates of spontaneous decay by process such as deamination, as compared with double stranded DNA. Insertion, deletion, or rearrangement 1. Nucleotide indels: The term “INDEL” is an informal way of referring to an insertion or deletion mutation. When nucleotide indels occur within a coding region they cause FRAME-SHIFT mutations. A frame shift mutation usually has a very dramatic effect on the encoded polypeptide, as translation is not terminated, but all the encoded amino acids downstream of the frame-shift are altered. insert T 1↓23 Leu Arg Ser Ter Seq 1 ATG CTG AAG TTG AGA AGT TAA … ↓ Seq 2 ATG CTG ATA GTT GAG AAG TTA AGA Val Glu Lys Leu Arg The insertion of a T causes the amino acids encoded beyond the insertion to change and since no stop codon is found it would continue until one is reached resulting in a longer polypeptide. 2. Genic indels: Entire genes can be inserted or deleted. A gene originating from another organisms genome might be inserted by a process called LATERAL GENE TRANSFER (LGT). A gene may originate from within an organism’s own genome via the process of gene duplication. When gene indels are compared among different lineages the variation is often referred to as gene PRESENCE-ABSENCE POLYMORPHISM. Presence-absence polymorphism is an important area of research; e.g., it is critical to understanding the evolution of bacterial pathogenicity. Specific sets of genes are often involved in conferring the capabilities for pathogenicity. When such sets of genes are located together in a genome they are called PATHOGENICITY ISLANDS, and they often are present in a genome as the result of a LGT event. 3. Chromosomal rearrangements: CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS include any change from the normal number and condition of the chromosomes. Entire segments of chromosomes can be DELETED, DUPLICATED, INVERTED, or TRANSLOCATED. The figure to the right illustrates some broad classes of chromosomal rearrangement. Although the examples in this figure are based on eukaryotic chromosomes, chromosomal mutations occur in prokaryotes and viruses as well. As long as the brakes in the DNA do not fall within a gene, chromosomal mutations do not directly alter the gene. However, there is a possible contextual effect on the phenotype of a gene known as the POSITION EFFECT. In such cases the chromosomal context (i.e., what genes are found Figure courtesy of national health museum near it) defines the expression of a gene and a chromosomal mutation that affects the location of such a gene results in a change of its regulation and expression, and ultimately the phenotype of the organism. A classic example of position effect is an eye colour gene in Drosophila.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Gene Linkage and Genetic Mapping 4TH PAGES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC
    © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Gene Linkage and © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 4NOTGenetic FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONMapping NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION CHAPTER ORGANIZATION © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR4.1 SALELinked OR alleles DISTRIBUTION tend to stay 4.4NOT Polymorphic FOR SALE DNA ORsequences DISTRIBUTION are together in meiosis. 112 used in human genetic mapping. 128 The degree of linkage is measured by the Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) frequency of recombination. 113 are abundant in the human genome. 129 The frequency of recombination is the same SNPs in restriction sites yield restriction for coupling and repulsion heterozygotes. 114 fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs). 130 © Jones & Bartlett Learning,The frequency LLC of recombination differs © Jones & BartlettSimple-sequence Learning, repeats LLC (SSRs) often NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONfrom one gene pair to the next. NOT114 FOR SALEdiffer OR in copyDISTRIBUTION number. 131 Recombination does not occur in Gene dosage can differ owing to copy- Drosophila males. 115 number variation (CNV). 133 4.2 Recombination results from Copy-number variation has helped human populations adapt to a high-starch diet. 134 crossing-over between linked© Jones alleles. & Bartlett Learning,116 LLC 4.5 Tetrads contain© Jonesall & Bartlett Learning, LLC four products of meiosis.
    [Show full text]
  • Horizontal Gene Transfer
    Genetic Variation: The genetic substrate for natural selection Horizontal Gene Transfer Dr. Carol E. Lee, University of Wisconsin Copyright ©2020; Do not upload without permission What about organisms that do not have sexual reproduction? In prokaryotes: Horizontal gene transfer (HGT): Also termed Lateral Gene Transfer - the lateral transmission of genes between individual cells, either directly or indirectly. Could include transformation, transduction, and conjugation. This transfer of genes between organisms occurs in a manner distinct from the vertical transmission of genes from parent to offspring via sexual reproduction. These mechanisms not only generate new gene assortments, they also help move genes throughout populations and from species to species. HGT has been shown to be an important factor in the evolution of many organisms. From some basic background on prokaryotic genome architecture Smaller Population Size • Differences in genome architecture (noncoding, nonfunctional) (regulatory sequence) (transcribed sequence) General Principles • Most conserved feature of Prokaryotes is the operon • Gene Order: Prokaryotic gene order is not conserved (aside from order within the operon), whereas in Eukaryotes gene order tends to be conserved across taxa • Intron-exon genomic organization: The distinctive feature of eukaryotic genomes that sharply separates them from prokaryotic genomes is the presence of spliceosomal introns that interrupt protein-coding genes Small vs. Large Genomes 1. Compact, relatively small genomes of viruses, archaea, bacteria (typically, <10Mb), and many unicellular eukaryotes (typically, <20 Mb). In these genomes, protein-coding and RNA-coding sequences occupy most of the genomic sequence. 2. Expansive, large genomes of multicellular and some unicellular eukaryotes (typically, >100 Mb). In these genomes, the majority of the nucleotide sequence is non-coding.
    [Show full text]
  • Genetic Recombination Promote Genetic Diversity in Prokaryotes
    CAMPBELL TENTH BIOLOGY EDITION Reece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson 27 Bacteria and Archaea Lecture Presentation by Nicole Tunbridge and Kathleen Fitzpatrick © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Masters of Adaptation . Utah’s Great Salt Lake can reach a salt concentration of 32% . Its pink color comes from living prokaryotes © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 27.1 © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Prokaryotes thrive almost everywhere, including places too acidic, salty, cold, or hot for most other organisms . Most prokaryotes are microscopic, but what they lack in size they make up for in numbers . There are more in a handful of fertile soil than the number of people who have ever lived . Prokaryotes are divided into two domains: bacteria and archaea © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Concept 27.1: Structural and functional adaptations contribute to prokaryotic success . Earth’s first organisms were likely prokaryotes . Most prokaryotes are unicellular, although some species form colonies . Most prokaryotic cells are 0.5–5 µm, much smaller than the 10–100 µm of many eukaryotic cells . Prokaryotic cells have a variety of shapes . The three most common shapes are spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli), and spirals © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 27.2 1 µm 1 µm 3 µm (a) Spherical (b) Rod-shaped (c) Spiral © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 27.2a 1 µm (a) Spherical © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 27.2b 1 µm (b) Rod-shaped © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 27.2c 3 µm (c) Spiral © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Cell-Surface Structures . An important feature of nearly all prokaryotic cells is their cell wall, which maintains cell shape, protects the cell, and prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic environment .
    [Show full text]
  • A Mechanism for Genetic Recombination Generating One Parent and One Recombinant* by Thierry Boon and Norton D
    A MECHANISM FOR GENETIC RECOMBINATION GENERATING ONE PARENT AND ONE RECOMBINANT* BY THIERRY BOON AND NORTON D. ZINDER ROCKEFELLER UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK Communicated August 18, 1969 Abstract.-A mechanism is proposed for generating one parental and one re- combinant genome in a single recombination event between two DNA mole- cules. Three stages of the event are described: initiation, replication, and re- turn. Initiation requires breakage and joining of strands. Replication pro- ceeds through a biparental "replication fork" generated in initiation. Return also involves breakage and joining of strands. Some of the implications of such a mechanism for genetic recombination are discussed. Introduction.-We have undertaken a study of the products of recombination of bacteriophage fil under conditions in which the parental genomes cannot replicate in the cell prior to recombination. The results obtained suggest that the products of one recombination event between two parental genomes are one parental genome and one recombinant genome. Previous studies of genetic recombination in bacteriophage did not demon- strate a correlation between the yields of reciprocal recombinants produced in single cells.2-5 Similarly, recombination between closely linked markers is often nonreciprocal in Neurospora and other fungi.6' 7 Although the results with phage f, are still preliminary, we wish to propose a mechanism of recom- bination having main features that are compatible with such nonreciprocal events. This mechanism involves breakage and joining of DNA strands and also requires DNA synthesis. Description of the Mechanism. -The DNA of phage f1 (similar to M13 and fd) is single stranded and circular.8 It has a molecular weight of about 1.7 X 106.9 After entrance into the host cell this DNA is transformed into a circular double-stranded form.10' 11 As the mechanism to be proposed is primarily aimed at understanding the recombina- tion events in phage fl, we describe it, using two double-stranded circular DNA molecules as parents.
    [Show full text]
  • Genetic Engineering and Protein Synthesis
    Key: Yellow highlight = required component Genetic Engineering and Protein Synthesis Subject Area(s) Biology Life Science Curricular Unit Title What does DNA do? Header Image 1 Image file: DNA.gif ADA Description: A computer generated model of DNA Source/Rights: Copyright © Spiffistan, Wikimedia Commons (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bdna_cropped.gif) Caption: Double Stranded DNA structure Grade Level 9 (9-12) Summary This unit begins with an introduction to genetic engineering to grab the students attention before moving on to some basic biology topics. The entire gene expression process is covered, focusing on DNA transcription/translation and how this relates to protein synthesis. Mutations are also covered at the end of this unit to emphasize that changes to DNA are not always intentional. Multiple activities are included to help the students better understand the lessons. Engineering Connection Version: August 2013 1 Genetic engineering is a field with a growing number of practical applications. Engineers have developed genetic recombination techniques to manipulate gene sequences to have organisms express specific traits. It is integral that genetic engineers understand how traits are expressed and what effects will be produced by altering the DNA of an organism. Gene expression is a result of the protein synthesis process which reads DNA as a set of instructions for building specific proteins. Once this process is well understood, and genes are classified based on the desired trait, engineers develop ways to alter the genes to create a net benefit to us or the organism. This could include anything such as larger cows that produce more meat, pest resistant crops, or bacteria that produce fuel.
    [Show full text]
  • Section 4. Guidance Document on Horizontal Gene Transfer Between Bacteria
    306 - PART 2. DOCUMENTS ON MICRO-ORGANISMS Section 4. Guidance document on horizontal gene transfer between bacteria 1. Introduction Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) 1 refers to the stable transfer of genetic material from one organism to another without reproduction. The significance of horizontal gene transfer was first recognised when evidence was found for ‘infectious heredity’ of multiple antibiotic resistance to pathogens (Watanabe, 1963). The assumed importance of HGT has changed several times (Doolittle et al., 2003) but there is general agreement now that HGT is a major, if not the dominant, force in bacterial evolution. Massive gene exchanges in completely sequenced genomes were discovered by deviant composition, anomalous phylogenetic distribution, great similarity of genes from distantly related species, and incongruent phylogenetic trees (Ochman et al., 2000; Koonin et al., 2001; Jain et al., 2002; Doolittle et al., 2003; Kurland et al., 2003; Philippe and Douady, 2003). There is also much evidence now for HGT by mobile genetic elements (MGEs) being an ongoing process that plays a primary role in the ecological adaptation of prokaryotes. Well documented is the example of the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes by HGT that allowed bacterial populations to rapidly adapt to a strong selective pressure by agronomically and medically used antibiotics (Tschäpe, 1994; Witte, 1998; Mazel and Davies, 1999). MGEs shape bacterial genomes, promote intra-species variability and distribute genes between distantly related bacterial genera. Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) between bacteria is driven by three major processes: transformation (the uptake of free DNA), transduction (gene transfer mediated by bacteriophages) and conjugation (gene transfer by means of plasmids or conjugative and integrated elements).
    [Show full text]
  • Electron Microscopic Observation of Recombination Intermediates
    Proc. Nati. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 73, No. 9, pp. 3000-3004, September 1976 Biochemistry On the mechanism of genetic recombination: Electron microscopic observation of recombination intermediates (electron microscopy of DNA/chi form/Holliday model/plasmid DNA) HUNTINGTON POTTER AND DAVID DRESSLER Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138 Communicated by J. D. Watson, June 1, 1976 ABSTRACT This paper deals with the nature of recombi- nation intermediates. Using the electron microscope to study the DNA of the plasmid colicin El, we have observed more than 800 molecules that appear to represent intermediates in the process of recombination. Specifically, after isolating colicin DNA and linearizing it with the restriction enzyme EcoRI, we find crossed molecules with twice the normal colicin DNA content. These forms consist of two genome-length elements held together at a region of DNA homology. The molecules can be recovered from wild type and Rec B-C host cells but are not present among the colicin DNA forms isolated from recombi- nation-deficient Rec A cells. We have termed the experimentally observed molecules "chi forms" and believe that they represent the recombination in- termediate of the Holliday model. FIG. 1. A double-size colicin DNA molecule with the shape of a The study of DNA metabolism falls into three general catego- figure 8. Such molecules may represent two monomer circles in the ries: replication, repair, and recombination. In contrast to our crossover stage of recombination. Alternatively, they might simply consist of two monomer rings interlocked like links in a chain. Lastly, knowledge about replication and repair, relatively little is the structure could be a double-length DNA circle that accidentally known about the nature of the intermediates or the enzymes crosses itself in the middle.
    [Show full text]
  • Working with Molecular Genetics Chapter 8. Recombination of DNA CHAPTER 8 RECOMBINATION of DNA
    Working with Molecular Genetics Chapter 8. Recombination of DNA CHAPTER 8 RECOMBINATION OF DNA The previous chapter on mutation and repair of DNA dealt mainly with small changes in DNA sequence, usually single base pairs, resulting from errors in replication or damage to DNA. The DNA sequence of a chromosome can change in large segments as well, by the processes of recombination and transposition. Recombination is the production of new DNA molecule(s) from two parental DNA molecules or different segments of the same DNA molecule; this will be the topic of this chapter. Transposition is a highly specialized form of recombination in which a segment of DNA moves from one location to another, either on the same chromosome or a different chromosome; this will be discussed in the next chapter. Types and examples of recombination At least four types of naturally occurring recombination have been identified in living organisms (Fig. 8.1). General or homologous recombination occurs between DNA molecules of very similar sequence, such as homologous chromosomes in diploid organisms. General recombination can occur throughout the genome of diploid organisms, using one or a small number of common enzymatic pathways. This chapter will be concerned almost entirely with general recombination. Illegitimate or nonhomologous recombination occurs in regions where no large- scale sequence similarity is apparent, e.g. translocations between different chromosomes or deletions that remove several genes along a chromosome. However, when the DNA sequence at the breakpoints for these events is analyzed, short regions of sequence similarity are found in some cases. For instance, recombination between two similar genes that are several million bp apart can lead to deletion of the intervening genes in somatic cells.
    [Show full text]
  • A New Resolution on Consumer Concerns About New Genetic Engineering Techniques
    DOC NO: FOOD 39/16 DATE ISSUED: 7 September 2016 Resolution on consumer concerns about new genetic engineering techniques Introduction This resolution builds on TACD’s February 2000 Resolution: Consumer Concerns about Biotechnology and Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs), by considering the implications of new genetic engineering techniques for TACD’s existing recommendations in this area. TACD considers that new genetic engineering techniques will create genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that require risk assessments and labelling, consistent with the aforementioned TACD February 2000 Resolution, and more recent resolutions regarding international trade of products of modern biotechnology1. Risks to human health, animal welfare and the environment must be assessed before products derived from these new techniques are placed on the market or released into the environment. Products must also be labelled in accordance with consumers’ rights to know and choose what they are buying, including what they eat. Recommendations TACD urges the EU and US governments to: Regulate products of new genetic engineering techniques as genetically modified organisms (GMOs); Strengthen regulatory systems to include mandatory pre-market human health evaluation that will screen all foods produced using new genetic engineering techniques for potential hazards; Develop strong systems of pre-market environmental safety evaluation and post-market monitoring; Fully consider the welfare of animals altered using new genetic engineering techniques prior to approval; Adopt mandatory labelling rules for all food produced using new genetic engineering techniques; Adopt and enforce strict rules for corporate liability and mandatory insurance for companies that want to release organisms altered using new genetic engineering techniques into the environment; Establish and maintain systems to ensure that identity-preserved supplies of non-genetically- engineered ingredients remain available.
    [Show full text]
  • Genetic Recombination and Spatial Chromosome Relations in Maize Ming-Hung Yu Iowa State University
    Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Retrospective Theses and Dissertations Dissertations 1972 Genetic recombination and spatial chromosome relations in maize Ming-Hung Yu Iowa State University Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd Part of the Agricultural Science Commons, Agriculture Commons, and the Agronomy and Crop Sciences Commons Recommended Citation Yu, Ming-Hung, "Genetic recombination and spatial chromosome relations in maize " (1972). Retrospective Theses and Dissertations. 5879. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/5879 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Retrospective Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. INFORMATION TO USERS This dissertation was produced from a microfilm copy of the original document. While the most advanced technological means to photograph and reproduce this document have been used, the quality is heavily dependent upon the quality of the original submitted. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help you understand markings or patterns which may appear on this reproduction. 1. The sign or "target" for pages apparently lacking from the document photographed is "Missing Page(s)". If it was possible to obtain the missing page(s) or section, they are spliced into the film along with adjacent pages. This may have necessitated cutting thru an image and duplicating adjacent pages to insure you complete continuity. 2. When an image on the film is obliterated with a large round black mark, it is an indication that the photographer suspected that the copy may have moved during exposure and thus cause a blurred image.
    [Show full text]
  • Bacterial Conjugation
    16 Mechanisms of Genetic Variation 1 16.1 Mutations 1. Distinguish spontaneous from induced mutations, and list the most common ways each arises 2. Construct a table, concept map, or picture to summarize how base analogues, DNA-modifying agents, and intercalating agents cause mutations 3. Discuss the possible effects of mutations 2 Mutations: Their Chemical Basis and Effects • Stable, heritable changes in sequence of bases in DNA – point mutations most common • from alteration of single pairs of nucleotide • from the addition or deletion of nucleotide pairs – larger mutations are less common • insertions, deletions, inversions, duplication, and translocations of nucleotide sequences • Mutations can be spontaneous or induced 3 16.4 Creating Additional Genetic Variability 1. Describe in general terms how recombinant eukaryotic organisms arise 2. Distinguish vertical gene transfer from horizontal gene transfer 3. Summarize the four possible outcomes of horizontal gene transfer 4. Compare and contrast homologous recombination and site-specific recombination 4 Creating Additional Genetic Variability • Mutations are subject to selective pressure – each mutant form that survives becomes an allele, an alternate form of a gene • Recombination is the process in which one or more nucleic acids are rearranged or combined to produce a new nucleotide sequence (recombinants) 5 Sexual Reproduction and Genetic Variability • Vertical gene transfer = transfer of genes from parents to progeny • In eukaryotes – sexual reproduction is accompanied by genetic
    [Show full text]
  • Mechanism of Homologous Recombination: Mediators and Helicases Take on Regulatory Functions
    REVIEWS Mechanism of homologous recombination: mediators and helicases take on regulatory functions Patrick Sung* and Hannah Klein‡ Abstract | Homologous recombination (HR) is an important mechanism for the repair of damaged chromosomes, for preventing the demise of damaged replication forks, and for several other aspects of chromosome maintenance. As such, HR is indispensable for genome integrity, but it must be regulated to avoid deleterious events. Mutations in the tumour- suppressor protein BRCA2, which has a mediator function in HR, lead to cancer formation. DNA helicases, such as Bloom’s syndrome protein (BLM), regulate HR at several levels, in attenuating unwanted HR events and in determining the outcome of HR. Defects in BLM are also associated with the cancer phenotype. The past several years have witnessed dramatic advances in our understanding of the mechanism and regulation of HR. Homologous recombination (HR) occurs in all life homologous chromosomes and generates chromosome- Meiosis I The successful completion of forms. HR studies were initially the domain of a few arm crossovers. These crossovers are essential for proper meiosis requires two cell aficionados who had a desire to understand how genetic chromosome segregation at the first meiotic division2,4. divisions. Meiosis I refers to the information is transferred and exchanged between Mitotic HR differs from meiotic HR in that few events are first division in which the pairs chromosomes. The isolation and characterization of associated with crossover and indeed, crossover formation of homologous chromosomes 1 DNA helicases are segregated into the two relevant mutants in Escherichia coli , and later in the is actively suppressed by specialized (see daughter cells.
    [Show full text]