Modern Railway Track Second Edition

MODERN RAILWAY TRACK

Second Edition

Coenraad Esveld Professor of Railway Engineering Delft University of Technology

2001 MRT-Productions Delft University of Technology

Editing: Dior Zwarthoed-van Nieuwenhuizen Layout: Jan van ’t Zand, TU Delft Drawings: TU Delft Production: Koninklijke van de Garde BV

ISBN 90-800324-3-3 SISO 696.3 UDC 625.1

© Copyright 2001 C. Esveld This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the right of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitations, broadcas- tings, reproduction on microfilm or in other ways, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is only permitted under the Dutch Copyright Law.

This book can be ordered from: MRT-Productions . P.O. Box 331 . NL-5300 AH Zaltbommel . The Netherlands Tel.: +31 418 516369 . Fax: +31 418 516372 . Email: [email protected] Internet: www.esveld.com Major contributions to this Second Edition were made by the following persons:

Norbert Frank, Voest Alpine Schienen

Stanislav Jovanovic, TU Delft

Anton Kok, TU Delft

Amy de Man, TU Delft

Valeri Markine, TU Delft

Rainer Oswald, VAE

Peter Scheepmaker, TU Delft

Rainer Wenty, Plasser & Theurer

Gerard van der Werf, TU Delft and Arcadis

Jan van ‘t Zand, TU Delft

Arjen Zoeteman, TU Delft

Jan Zwarthoed, TU Delft and Volker Stevin Rail & Traffic Modern Railway Track Second Edition To my grandchildren Thomas Maud Fieke and Douwe Publication of this book has been made possible thanks to the sponsoring of the following companies:

Main Sponsors Delft University of Technology,The Netherlands BAM NBM Rail bv, The Netherlands German Track Systems Projektgesellschaft mbH, Germany

Sponsors Plasser & Theurer, Austria Vossloh Rail Fastening Systems, Germany

Advertisers Elektro-Thermit, Germany Speno International, Switzerland

Front Cover Sponsor Vossloh Rail Fastening Systems, Germany

Spine Sponsor Pandrol, England Modern Railway Track PREFACE

Acknowledgement

With the preparation of this Second Edition many experts have assisted to provide and check existing material and to write additional sections. In the first place I would like to thank my staff of the railway engineering group of Delft University of Technology: Jan van ‘t Zand, Peter Scheepmaker, Gerard van der Werf, Anton Kok, Valeri Markine, Ivan Shevtsov, Pedja Joksimovic and the secretaries Jacqueline Barnhoorn and Sonja van den Bos. I am most indebted to my Ph.D. students: Akke Suiker, Amy de Man, Arjen Zoeteman, Søren Rasmussen, Stanislav Jovanovic and Jan Zwarthoed for their invalua- ble ideas, suggestions and contributions. Those who have drafted significant parts have been men- tioned explicitly in the outset of the book. From TU Delft I would like to mention in particular Jan van ‘t Zand who made the entire layout of the book in Framemaker.

I would also like to express my gratitude to my colleagues of the management team of the Section for Road and Railway Engineering at the Civil Engineering Department of TU Delft: André Molenaar, Peter Scheepmaker, Lambert Houben, Martin van der Ven and Abdol Miradi for their support in pro- ducing this Second Edition.

For the high-speed section I would like to thank the Korean High Speed Rail Corporation for contribu- ting information of the high-speed project between Seoul and Pusan. In this respect I would also like to refer to the many interesting discussions in the Special International Track Advisory Committee (SITAC), comprised of Dr. Kee-Dong Kang, Dr. Yoshihiko Sato, Mr. Serge Montagné, Prof. Klaus Riessberger, Mr. Gerhard Kaess and myself, with the active assistance of Mr. Arne Svensoy, Mr. Ber- told Pfeifer and Mr. Ki-Jun Son.

Valuable information was received from my Japanese colleagues Dr. Yoshihiko Sato from the Railway Track System Institute, Dr. Katsutoshi Ando and Mr. Noritsugu Abe from the Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI) and Mr. Tetsuhisa Kobayashi from the Japan Railway Construction Public Corporation (JRCPC) for which I would like to express my gratitude.

I very much appreciated the indirect contributions by the companies and members participating in the Coordinating Committee for Railway Engineering of the Information and Technology Centre for Trans- port and Infrastructure (CROW) in The Netherlands.

I also owe much gratitude to Mr. Rainer Wenty from Plasser and Theurer for revising the section on track maintenance and renewal, and providing information on various other related subjects.

I highly appreciated the input on stone blowing from Mr. Peter McMichael of Railtrack and Mr. David Hill-Smith of AMEC Rail.

The section on rail grinding was checked by Mr. Wolfgang Schöch for which I would like to express my thanks.

For the section on rails I am very grateful for the contribution of Dr. Norbert Frank from Voest Alpine Schienen, who revised large parts of the original text.

I very much appreciated the assistance of Mr. Paul Godart of NMBS/SNCB for providing the information on the work of CEN and UIC concerning new rail standards.

I would like to express my gratitude to Mr. Hugo Goossens of TUC Rail for the many interesting discussions on track maintenance.

I owe much gratitude to Mr. Rainer Oswald from VAE, for his suggestions on revising the section on switches and crossings.

I would like to thank Dr. Frank Kusters of Elektro-Thermit for checking the section on ET welding.

ix PREFACE Modern Railway Track

Thanks to Dipl.-Ing. Hans Bachmann, Dipl.-Ing. Jens Kleeberg and Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Martin Kowalski of Pfleiderer I was able to incorporate the latest information of the Rheda system in the chapter on slab track.

Furthermore essential information on track components were provided by the suppliers, for which I would like to thank in particular Mr. Gerrien van der Houwen of Edilon, Mr. Dirk Vorderbrück from Vossloh, Mr. Chris Eckebus from Phoenix Benelux, Mr. David Rhodes from Pandrol, Mr. Patrick Carels of CDM and Mr. Olaf Unbehaun of Cronau.

For the parts on inspection systems we received many contributions from the industry. I would like to express my thanks in particular to Mr. Anton Weel and Mr. Han Wendt of Eurailscout, Mr. Jaap Roos and Mr. Erwin Giling of TNO-TPD, Mr. Aad van der Linden and Mr. Jan van der Schee from Konink- lijke BAM NBM, Mr. Wido de Witte from Erdmann Softwaregesellschaft, Mr. Kevin Kesler of Ensco, Mrs. Danuše Marusicová of Czech Railways (CD), Prof. Willem Ebersohn of Amtrack, Mr. Charles Penny of Balfour Beatty, Mr. Paolo Redi of S.E.I. Sistemi Energetici Integrati and Mr. Ted Slump of NS Rail Infrabeheer.

Finally I would like to thank Dior van Nieuwenhuizen for her magnificent work to check and correct the English text.

I would like to conclude with expressing the hope that this Second Edition will once again prove to be a useful contribution to the training of students and railway engineers.

Coenraad Esveld

x Modern Railway Track PREFACE

PREFACE

After the success of Modern Railway Track this Second Edition is an extension and complete revision of the original book, in which the developments of the last ten years have been incorporated. The research projects carried out at the Railway Engineering Group of Delft University of Technology have played a central role. The theory of railway track and vehicle track interaction has been substantially enhanced and much more attention has been given to dynamics. Undoubtedly one of the most important extensions was the part on slab track structures. But also track management systems have been given much more attention. Numerical optimization and testing, as well as acceptance are new chapters.

When revising the lecture notes for the railway course at the Civil Engineering Department of TU Delft in the period 1994 - 2000 the first edition of this book was taken as a starting point. The first edition and the TU Delft lecture notes, together with various publications and research reports, mainly of the railway engineering group of TU Delft, were then forming the base for the second edition.

The staff of the railway engineering group at TU Delft has made a great contribution to the composi- tion and revision of the various chapters. Also the industry provided some important contributions, specifically on the chapters dealing with rail manufacturing, track components, maintenance and renewal, as well as inspection systems.

The first seven chapters are dealing with the basic theory of the wheel rail interface and track design. In the design attention is given to both static and dynamic aspects, whereby a number of examples is given of results obtained from computer models like RAIL, GEOTRACK and ANSYS. In the part on stability and longitudinal forces the CWERRI program is extensively discussed.

The discussion of track structures has been split up into a chapter on ballasted track and one on slab track. The first one is dealing with the conventional structures and modern ballasted designs, whereas the slab track chapter focuses on developments of the last decades. Both continuous slabs and prefabricated solutions are addressed in combination with discretely supported and continuously supported rails.

The chapter on rails has been brought to the state of the art, with introducing the new EN standards and discussing the latest inspection systems. Also the latest information on bainitic rail steels has been incorporated.

For switches and crossings high-speed turnouts are discussed, together with the geometrical design criteria, and also modern inspection systems for controlling switch maintenance.

In railway engineering practice track maintenance and renewal forms a key factor. The latest track maintenance methods and the associated machines are presented, being a major extension compared to the first edition of this book. The part on track deterioration has now been incorporated in this chapter.

Optimization was one of the issues very much underestimated in railway engineering. Such techniques are not only applicable to components and structures, but also to decision support systems and resource optimization. A separate chapter has been added called numerical optimization with the main emphasis on structural components.

From the outset railway engineering has always had a strong component in experimental work. Therefore a new section has been added on testing and acceptance, in which also the issue of acceptance criteria for new railway components is addressed.

The chapter on noise and vibration is describing the fundamentals and has been taken over from the first edition with only a few modifications.

xi PREFACE Modern Railway Track

The chapter on inspection and detection methods has been completely revised. The original chapter was primarily based on NS experience. Now the state of the art inspection systems have been intro- duced. However the fundamental parts of the first edition have been left in tact.

The chapter on high-speed tracks contains some applications of high-speed projects and some dedi- cated issues such as pressure waves in tunnels. Also a section is devoted to magnetic levitation.

In track maintenance management systems various issues on track maintenance and renewal decision support are described, as well as monitoring of phenomena relevant to the various maintenance processes. Special attention is given to the ECOTRACK system, developed under the auspices of UIC and maintained and supported by TU Delft.

Railway assets involve a large capital and need to be managed carefully. The chapter on this issue deals with the general principles of asset management and the way in which such systems can be set up.

The final chapter is dealing with life cycle cost analysis. After describing the general principles a number of case studies are discussed.

Zaltbommel, Summer 2001

Coenraad Esveld

xii Modern Railway Track TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Historic development...... 1 1.2 Railways ...... 1 1.3 Tramways and metro...... 3 1.4 Operational aspects ...... 4 1.4.1 Functions of a railway company...... 4 1.4.2 Infrastructure...... 4 1.4.3 Rolling stock...... 5 1.4.4 Personnel...... 5 1.4.5 Electrification...... 6 1.4.6 Catenary systems...... 7 1.4.7 Road crossings ...... 8 1.4.8 Major rail infrastructure projects...... 9 1.4.9 Developing countries ...... 9 1.5 Geometry of a railway line ...... 10 1.5.1 Clearances...... 10 1.5.2 Alignment...... 13 1.6 General track considerations...... 13 1.6.1 Track requirements...... 13 1.6.2 Load-bearing function of the track ...... 14 1.6.3 Indication of rail forces and displacements...... 15 1.6.4 Track geometry components ...... 15 2 WHEEL-RAIL INTERFACE

2.1 Wheel-rail guidance...... 17 2.2 Wheelset and track dimensions ...... 17 2.3 Conicity...... 18 2.4 Lateral movement of a wheelset on straight track ...... 19 2.4.1 Theory according to Klingel ...... 19 2.4.2 Hunting movement...... 20 2.5 Equivalent conicity...... 21 2.6 Worn wheel profiles...... 22 2.7 Wheel-rail contact stresses ...... 23 2.7.1 Hertz theory ...... 23 2.7.2 Hertz spring constant...... 24 2.7.3 Single and two-point contact between wheel and rail ...... 25 2.7.4 Spreading forces ...... 26 2.7.5 Wheel-rail creep...... 27 2.7.6 Spin...... 28 2.7.7 Creepage coefficients...... 29 2.8 Train resistances...... 30 2.8.1 Types of resistances ...... 30 2.8.2 Required pulling force...... 31 2.8.3 Adhesion force...... 32 3 CURVES AND GRADIENTS

3.1 General considerations ...... 35

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3.2 Curvature and superelevation in horizontal curves ...... 35 3.2.1 Curve radius/curvature...... 35 3.2.2 Curve effects...... 35 3.3 Superelevation...... 36 3.3.1 General considerations ...... 36 3.3.2 Cant deficiency ...... 37 3.3.3 Effect of suspension on lateral acceleration ...... 38 3.3.4 Effect of body tilt coaches on cant deficiency...... 38 3.3.5 Switches and other constraints...... 39 3.3.6 Cant excess ...... 39 3.3.7 Maximum cant...... 39 3.4 Transition curves ...... 39 3.4.1 General remarks ...... 39 3.4.2 Clothoid...... 40 3.4.3 Cubic parabola...... 41 3.4.4 Curve displacement...... 41 3.5 Cross level transitions ...... 42 3.5.1 Relation with the transition curve...... 42 3.5.2 Length of normal transition curve...... 43 3.5.3 Adjacent curves ...... 43 3.6 Curve resistance...... 43 3.7 Gradients...... 44 3.7.1 Gradient resistance ...... 44 3.7.2 Magnitude of gradient...... 44 3.7.3 Vertical transition curves ...... 45 3.7.4 Guidelines for permissible quasi-static accelerations ...... 45 3.8 Alignment in mountainous areas ...... 46 3.9 Computer-aided track design ...... 48 3.10 PASCOM - software to estimate passenger comfort...... 51 3.10.1 Numerical model...... 51 3.10.2 Case 1: Investigation of dynamic effects...... 52 3.10.3 Case 2: Track HSL-Zuid (NL) ...... 53 4 TRACK LOADS

4.1 In general...... 55 4.2 Axle loads...... 55 4.3 Line classification...... 55 4.4 Tonnages...... 56 4.5 Speeds...... 56 4.6 Causes and nature of track loads...... 57 4.7 Vertical rail forces...... 57 4.7.1 Total vertical wheel load ...... 57 4.7.2 Tilting risk...... 58 4.8 Lateral forces on the rail...... 59 4.8.1 Total lateral wheel load ...... 59 4.8.2 Derailment risk ...... 59 4.8.3 Lateral force on the track ...... 60 4.9 Longitudinal forces...... 61 4.9.1 Causes...... 61 4.9.2 Temperature forces...... 61 4.9.3 Track creep ...... 61 xiv Modern Railway Track TABLE OF CONTENTS

4.9.4 Braking load...... 62 4.10 Influence of higher speeds and increased axle loads ...... 62 4.10.1 Speed ...... 62 4.10.2 Increase in axle loads ...... 63 4.11 Wheel flats...... 67 4.12 Forces due to bad welds ...... 68 4.13 Axle box accelerations ...... 69 5 STATIC TRACK DESIGN

5.1 Introduction...... 71 5.2 Supporting models ...... 71 5.2.1 Winkler support model ...... 71 5.2.2 Discrete rail support ...... 71 5.2.3 Exercise: Spring constant determination ...... 72 5.2.4 Continuous rail support ...... 73 5.2.5 Approximation of discrete rail support...... 73 5.3 Beam on elastic foundation model ...... 74 5.3.1 Solution of the differential equation...... 74 5.3.2 Several wheel loads...... 76 5.3.3 Two-axle bogie...... 77 5.3.4 Negative deflection ...... 77 5.3.5 Beam with hinge (jointed track)...... 78 5.3.6 Alternative expressions for characteristic length L ...... 79 5.3.7 Fast determination of vertical elasticity constants...... 79 5.3.8 Order of magnitude of elasticity constants...... 79 5.4 Double beam model ...... 80 5.5 Pasternak foundation model...... 81 5.6 Rail stresses ...... 83 5.6.1 Stresses in rail foot centre ...... 83 5.6.2 Dynamic amplification factor...... 83 5.6.3 Maximum bending stress in rail foot centre ...... 84 5.6.4 Stresses in the rail head ...... 86 5.6.5 Rail stresses due to a combined Q/Y load...... 88 5.6.6 Rail tables ...... 90 5.7 Sleeper stresses...... 91 5.8 Stresses on ballast bed and formation ...... 92 5.8.1 Introduction...... 92 5.8.2 Vertical stress on ballast bed ...... 92 5.8.3 Vertical stress on formation ...... 93 5.8.4 Odemark's equivalence method ...... 93 5.8.5 Classification of the quality of soils ...... 96 5.9 Some analytical exercises ...... 97 5.9.1 Fatigue rail foot ...... 97 5.9.2 Fatigue rail head...... 97 5.9.3 Sleeper ...... 98 5.9.4 Ballast bed ...... 98 5.9.5 Temperature effects...... 98 5.10 Computer models ...... 100 5.10.1 GEOTRACK program ...... 100 5.10.2 The ANSYS program ...... 102 5.11 Two Case ERS designs ...... 104

xv TABLE OF CONTENTS Modern Railway Track

5.11.1 Testing of the UIC54 ERS...... 104 5.11.2 Testing of the SA42 ERS...... 105 5.11.3 Input and output of static model...... 106 5.11.4 Results...... 106 6 DYNAMIC TRACK DESIGN

6.1 Introduction...... 107 6.2 Dynamic principles ...... 108 6.2.1 In general...... 108 6.2.2 One-mass spring system ...... 108 6.2.3 Wheel/rail forces due to dipped rail joints ...... 112 6.2.4 Track excitation origins ...... 113 6.3 Track modelling...... 113 6.3.1 General considerations ...... 113 6.3.2 Transfer function between track load and track displacement...... 113 6.3.3 Beam on an elastic foundation...... 114 6.3.4 Discrete support...... 121 6.4 Vertical wheel response ...... 121 6.4.1 Hertzian contact spring ...... 121 6.4.2 Transfer functions between wheel and rail ...... 122 6.5 Linear vehicle model...... 124 6.5.1 Schematisation ...... 124 6.5.2 Response to irregularities in level ...... 125 6.5.3 Combination of level results...... 128 6.5.4 Response to irregularities in alignment...... 129 6.5.5 Response to irregularities in cant...... 129 6.5.6 Combination of cant results ...... 131 6.5.7 ISO weighting of car body accelerations...... 132 6.5.8 Calculated transfer functions for the NS measuring coach ...... 133 6.6 Estimate of transfer functions using measured data ...... 137 6.6.1 General concept...... 137 6.6.2 Basic principles for 1 input and 1 output ...... 137 6.6.3 Multiple input single output (MISO)...... 140 6.6.4 Statistical reliability...... 141 6.6.5 Numerical aspects ...... 143 6.6.6 Applications...... 144 6.6.7 Comparison between transfer functions estimated by MISO and calculated with models ...... 151 6.7 Vehicle response analysis in real time ...... 152 6.8 Relation between Sperling's Ride Index Wz and ISO-weighted accelerations...... 155 6.9 Applications of advanced dynamic models...... 157 6.9.1 Introduction ...... 157 6.9.2 The RAIL-model...... 157 6.9.3 A comparison of several different track types ...... 158 6.9.4 Transitions in railway track on embankments and bridges ...... 162 6.10 Track response to a moving axle load...... 164 6.10.1 Track response at the critical train velocity ...... 164 6.10.2 Dynamic response of a ballast layer...... 167 6.10.3 Stiffness transitions...... 168 6.10.4 Brief discussion...... 170

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7 TRACK STABILITY AND LONGITUDINAL FORCES

7.1 Introduction...... 171 7.1.1 Straight track and elastic lateral resistance ...... 172 7.1.2 Track with misalignment and constant lateral shear resistance...... 174 7.2 Track stability: finite element modelling...... 176 7.2.1 General considerations...... 176 7.2.2 Finite element model...... 176 7.2.3 Results...... 180 7.2.4 Continuous welded switches...... 183 7.3 Longitudinal forces: analytical modelling ...... 184 7.3.1 General considerations...... 184 7.3.2 Axial rail model...... 184 7.3.3 Modelling of the longitudinal interaction problem...... 186 7.4 Longitudinal forces: finite element modelling ...... 189 7.4.1 General considerations...... 189 7.4.2 Finite element model...... 189 7.4.3 Examples of longitudinal force calculations ...... 191 7.5 Advanced numerical models of track buckling ...... 194 7.5.1 Introduction...... 194 7.5.2 Analysis of track behaviour using CWERRI...... 195 7.5.3 Analysis of longitudinal forces...... 195 7.5.4 Track lateral behaviour ...... 197 7.5.5 Vertical stability of track ...... 198 7.5.6 Buckling mechanism...... 198 7.5.7 Approach in order to determine the allowable temperature TALL ...... 199 7.5.8 Study case: Stability of tram track...... 201 8 BALLASTED TRACK

8.1 Introduction...... 203 8.2 Formation ...... 204 8.3 Ballast bed...... 205 8.4 Rails ...... 206 8.4.1 Functions ...... 206 8.4.2 Profile types ...... 206 8.4.3 Geometry of flat-bottom rail ...... 207 8.5 Rail joints and welds...... 208 8.5.1 Introduction...... 208 8.5.2 Fishplated joints...... 208 8.5.3 Expansion joints and expansion devices ...... 209 8.5.4 Bridge transition structures...... 210 8.5.5 Insulated joint...... 210 8.6 Sleepers ...... 212 8.6.1 Introduction...... 212 8.6.2 Timber sleepers...... 213 8.6.3 Concrete sleepers...... 214 8.6.4 Steel sleepers...... 216 8.7 Improvements in ballasted tracks...... 216 8.7.1 Introduction...... 216 8.7.2 Wide sleeper ...... 217 8.7.3 Frame sleeper...... 218

xvii TABLE OF CONTENTS Modern Railway Track

8.7.4 Local ballast stabilisation by means of a chemical binder ...... 219 8.8 Fastening systems...... 219 8.8.1 Introduction ...... 219 8.8.2 Subdivision of fastenings ...... 220 8.8.3 Baseplates ...... 220 8.8.4 Elastic fastenings ...... 221 8.8.5 Rail pads ...... 222 8.9 Track on structures with a continuous ballast bed and sleepers...... 223 8.9.1 Ballast mats ...... 223 8.10 Reinforcing layers...... 225 8.11 Level crossings...... 226 8.12 Tramway Track ...... 227 8.12.1 Tramway track characteristics ...... 227 8.12.2 Examples of paved-in tramway track...... 229 8.13 Crane Track...... 230 9 SLAB TRACK

9.1 Introduction...... 231 9.2 Ballasted track versus slab track ...... 231 9.2.1 Ballasted track ...... 232 9.2.2 Slab track ...... 232 9.3 Designs of slab track superstructures ...... 233 9.4 Sleepers or blocks embedded in concrete ...... 234 9.4.1 Rheda 2000 ...... 235 9.4.2 Züblin ...... 242 9.5 Structures with asphalt-concrete roadbed...... 245 9.6 Prefabricated slabs...... 246 9.6.1 Shinkansen slab track...... 247 9.6.2 Recent design of Shinkansen slab track...... 248 9.6.3 Bögl slab track ...... 251 9.7 Monolithic slabs and civil structures ...... 252 9.8 Embedded Rail...... 253 9.8.1 The characteristics of embedded rail...... 253 9.8.2 Construction of embedded rail track ...... 254 9.8.3 Experiences with embedded rail...... 255 9.8.4 DeckTrack ...... 257 9.9 Flexural stiff slabs on top of soft soil...... 258 9.10 Clamped and continuously supported rail structures...... 261 9.10.1 CoconTrack...... 261 9.10.2 Continuously supported grooved rail ...... 263 9.10.3 Web-clamped rails ...... 264 9.11 EPS as subbase material in railway slab track structures ...... 265 9.11.1 Introduction ...... 265 9.11.2 Slab track structures with an EPS subbase...... 265 9.11.3 Static performance...... 265 9.11.4 Dynamic performance...... 266 9.11.5 Applications...... 267 9.12 Track resilience ...... 267 9.13 System requirements...... 268 9.13.1 Requirements for the substructure...... 269 9.13.2 Requirements for slab track in tunnels...... 271 xviii Modern Railway Track TABLE OF CONTENTS

9.13.3 Requirements for slab track on bridges ...... 271 9.13.4 Requirements for transitions...... 272 9.14 General experiences with slab track systems...... 273 9.15 Maintenance statistics of slab track...... 274 10 THE RAIL

10.1 Introduction...... 275 10.2 Modern rail manufacturing...... 275 10.2.1 Blast furnace...... 275 10.2.2 Steel-making ...... 277 10.2.3 Vacuum degassing and argon flushing...... 279 10.2.4 Continuous casting ...... 279 10.2.5 Rolling mill...... 281 10.2.6 Finishing shop...... 282 10.2.7 Inspection and acceptance ...... 286 10.2.8 Rail profiles ...... 288 10.2.9 Indication of profile types according to CEN ...... 288 10.3 Rail properties ...... 292 10.3.1 Metallurgical fundamentals ...... 292 10.3.2 Heat treatment...... 294 10.3.3 Rail grades...... 296 10.3.4 Wear resistance ...... 299 10.3.5 Fatigue strength ...... 300 10.3.6 Fracture mechanics ...... 300 10.4 Rail welding...... 306 10.4.1 Introduction ...... 306 10.4.2 Flash butt welding...... 306 10.4.3 Post-processing of flash butt welds in the NS welding depot ...... 309 10.4.4 Thermit welding...... 310 10.4.5 Cooling rates...... 314 10.4.6 Improvement of weld geometry...... 316 10.4.7 Weld geometry standards...... 316 10.5 Rail failures...... 317 10.5.1 Defects in rail ends ...... 317 10.5.2 Defects away from rail ends...... 318 10.5.3 Weld and resurfacing defects ...... 323 10.5.4 Rail defect statistics ...... 326 11 SWITCHES AND CROSSINGS

11.1 The standard turnout...... 333 11.1.1 Set of switches...... 334 11.1.2 Common crossing ...... 335 11.1.3 Closure rail...... 337 11.1.4 Rails and sleepers in turnouts...... 337 11.2 Geometry of the turnout...... 337 11.3 High-speed turnouts...... 338 11.3.1 General...... 338 11.3.2 Traditional turnout design method ...... 338 11.4 Vehicle dynamic ...... 338 11.4.1 Examples of modern high-speed turnouts ...... 339

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11.5 Notations used for switches and crossings ...... 340 11.6 Types of turnouts and crossings...... 340 11.7 Cross-overs ...... 341 11.8 Switch calculation...... 344 11.8.1 Relation between curve radius and crossing angle ...... 344 11.8.2 Calculation of main dimensions ...... 345 11.8.3 Geometrical design of switches and crossings...... 347 11.9 Production, transport and laying of switches...... 347 12 TRACK MAINTENANCE AND RENEWAL

12.1 Introduction...... 349 12.2 General maintenance aspects...... 350 12.3 Spot maintenance of track geometry...... 350 12.4 Rail grinding and reprofiling...... 352 12.4.1 Rail grinding machines...... 352 12.4.2 Rail reprofiling machines...... 354 12.5 Correcting weld geometry...... 356 12.5.1 STRAIT principle...... 356 12.5.2 Mobile weld correction ...... 357 12.6 Tamping machines ...... 357 12.6.1 General considerations...... 357 12.6.2 Tamping principle...... 359 12.6.3 Levelling and lining ...... 363 12.6.3.1 Smoothing principle of modern tamping machines ...... 363 12.6.4 ALC...... 366 12.6.5 EM-SAT ...... 367 12.7 Stone blowing ...... 369 12.7.1 General principle...... 369 12.7.2 Measuring philosophy used for the stone blower...... 370 12.7.3 Stone blowing applications ...... 371 12.7.4 Results of track geometry measurements ...... 373 12.7.5 Stone blowing future...... 373 12.8 Design overlift tamping...... 374 12.9 Ballast profiling and stabilization ...... 375 12.10 Mechanised track maintenance train ...... 377 12.11 Ballast cleaner...... 377 12.12 Formation rehabilitation machines...... 379 12.13 High temperatures...... 383 12.14 Maintenance of the track structure ...... 383 12.15 General observations on track renewal...... 384 12.16 Manual track renewal...... 385 12.17 Mechanical track renewal...... 386 12.17.1 Introduction ...... 386 12.17.2 Track possession ...... 386 12.17.3 Gantry crane method ...... 386 12.17.4 Track section method...... 386 12.17.5 Continuous method...... 388 12.17.6 Track renewal trains...... 392 12.18 Switch renewal ...... 393 12.19 Track laying ...... 396 12.19.1 General considerations...... 396 xx Modern Railway Track TABLE OF CONTENTS

12.19.2 Track construction trains...... 396 12.19.3 Platow system ...... 397 12.19.4 TGV tracks ...... 397 12.20 Deterioration of Track Geometry ...... 399 12.20.1 Introduction ...... 399 12.20.2 Historical records ...... 399 12.20.3 Factors influencing the deterioration of track geometry ...... 400 12.20.4 Deterioration rates of geometry ...... 402 12.20.5 Effects of tamping ...... 403 12.20.6 Effect of weld straightening...... 403 12.20.7 Development of corrugation...... 405 12.20.8 Effect of stone blowing...... 406 12.20.9 Development of lateral track resistance...... 406 13 NUMERICAL OPTIMIZATION OF RAILWAY TRACK

13.1 Introduction...... 409 13.2 Elements of structural optimization ...... 410 13.2.1 General optimization problem...... 410 13.2.2 Solution process ...... 411 13.2.3 Approximation concept ...... 411 13.3 MARS method ...... 413 13.4 Optimal design of embedded rail structure (ERS)...... 415 13.4.1 Introduction ...... 415 13.4.2 Requirements for optimum design of ERS...... 416 13.4.3 Optimization problem...... 420 13.4.4 Remarks and conclusions...... 426 13.5 Determination of ballast lateral resistance using optimization technique ...... 426 13.5.1 Introduction ...... 426 13.5.2 Measuring the lateral resistance of track ...... 428 13.5.3 Ballast parameter identification...... 430 13.5.4 Conclusions ...... 435 13.6 Identification of dynamic properties of railway track...... 435 13.6.1 Introduction ...... 435 13.6.2 Hammer excitation test...... 436 13.6.3 Numerical model...... 437 13.6.4 Track parameter identification...... 438 13.6.5 Numerical results ...... 439 13.6.6 Conclusions ...... 440 14 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE

14.1 Introduction...... 441 14.2 Component testing and acceptance...... 441 14.2.1 Mechanical properties...... 441 14.2.2 Elasticity properties ...... 442 14.2.3 Strength properties ...... 446 14.2.4 Stability properties ...... 447 14.2.5 Durability and fatigue properties ...... 448 14.2.6 Specific component properties...... 449 14.3 Structural testing and acceptance ...... 451 14.3.1 Noise and vibration testing of track structures ...... 451

xxi TABLE OF CONTENTS Modern Railway Track

14.3.2 Passenger comfort and ride quality ...... 453 14.3.3 Dynamic properties of track structures ...... 454 15 NOISE AND VIBRATION

15.1 Introduction...... 459 15.2 Some definitions...... 459 15.3 Ground vibrations ...... 460 15.3.1 Introduction ...... 460 15.3.2 Wave propagation in soils...... 462 15.3.3 Human perception...... 464 15.3.4 Measured vibrations...... 466 15.3.5 Vibration reduction...... 468 15.3.6 Measures for ballasted tracks...... 469 15.3.7 Measures for slab tracks...... 469 15.3.8 Measures for tracks in the open...... 470 15.4 Railway noise ...... 470 16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS

16.1 Railway Infrastructure Monitoring ...... 475 16.2 Tunnel monitoring...... 475 16.3 Bridge monitoring and management ...... 476 16.4 Substructure Monitoring ...... 477 16.4.1 Substructure condition parameters...... 478 16.4.2 Ground Penetrating Radar...... 479 16.4.3 Track Stiffness Measurement ...... 480 16.4.4 Infrared thermographic inspection data ...... 484 16.4.5 Laser Induced Fluorescence (LIF) Cone Penetrometer measurement...... 484 16.4.6 Non-invasive moisture monitoring...... 485 16.5 Monitoring and management of switches and crossings...... 486 16.5.1 Introduction ...... 486 16.5.2 Switches and crossings monitoring by EURAILSCOUT ...... 487 16.5.3 SwitchView...... 488 16.5.4 Condition monitoring and maintenance management of switches...... 489 16.5.5 CEDIAS - Railway Lines Diagnostic System ...... 494 16.6 Ultrasonic rail inspection...... 495 16.6.1 Introduction ...... 495 16.6.2 The EURAILSCOUT ultrasonic train...... 496 16.6.3 Architecture of the URS ...... 497 16.6.4 Probe system ...... 498 16.6.5 Sensor electronics ...... 500 16.6.6 Incident Processor ...... 501 16.6.7 On-line control and data interpretation...... 501 16.6.8 Off-line data analysis and report generation...... 503 16.6.9 NS Ultrasonic inspection program ...... 504 16.7 Track Recording Cars...... 506 16.7.1 Introduction ...... 506 16.7.2 Track recording systems...... 506 16.7.3 Rail recording systems...... 508 16.7.4 Overhead wire recording...... 509 16.7.5 Video inspection...... 510

xxii Modern Railway Track TABLE OF CONTENTS

16.7.6 Processing and recording the measured data ...... 510 16.7.7 Track recording cars...... 511 16.8 Track recording systems ...... 513 16.8.1 Introduction ...... 513 16.8.2 Some aspects of geometry recording ...... 513 16.8.3 Assessment of track quality for maintenance decisions ...... 515 16.9 Universal measuring coach EURAILSCOUT ...... 515 16.9.1 Introduction ...... 515 16.9.2 Track geometry measurement...... 516 16.9.3 Overhead wire measurement...... 517 16.9.4 Rail Profile measurement...... 520 16.9.5 Rail Check System...... 521 16.9.6 Video inspections systems...... 522 16.9.7 Data processing and storing ...... 523 16.10 The NS track recording system BMS ...... 526 16.10.1 Short-wave recording via axle box accelerations...... 526 16.10.2 Inertial measuring principle...... 526 16.10.3 Dynamic signals ...... 527 16.10.4 Quasi-static signals...... 530 16.10.5 Signal combination for determining track parameters...... 531 16.10.6 Signal analysis ...... 534 16.11 Vehicle response analysis according to VRA ...... 543 16.11.1 Introduction ...... 543 16.11.2 Principle of calculation ...... 543 16.12 Results from BMS campaigns...... 544 16.12.1 NS distribution functions...... 544 16.12.2 Results from the ORE D 161 Europe Tour ...... 544 16.12.3 Track geometry spectra ...... 545 16.13 T-16: FRA's High Speed Research Car ...... 547 16.13.1 Introduction ...... 547 16.13.2 Instrumentation and measurement capabilities ...... 547 16.14 Rail Profile Management ...... 548 16.15 Rail Defect Management...... 549 16.15.1 Introduction ...... 549 16.16 Ballast monitoring and management...... 551 16.17 Hand-held inspection equipment...... 552 16.17.1 Ultrasonic Hand Equipment MT 95...... 552 16.17.2 Hand-held Georadar...... 552 16.17.3 AUTOGRAPH ...... 553 16.17.4 MINIPROF ...... 554 16.17.5 RAILPROF ...... 561 16.18 Pandrol Jackson SYS-10 Rail Flaw Detector ...... 565 17 HIGH-SPEED TRACKS

17.1 Introduction...... 567 17.1.1 Vehicle reactions...... 567 17.1.2 Track geometry ...... 568 17.1.3 Rail geometry and weld geometry ...... 570 17.1.4 Track quality standards for 300 km/h ...... 570 17.2 The Korean High Speed Railway Project...... 574 17.2.1 Introduction ...... 574

xxiii TABLE OF CONTENTS Modern Railway Track

17.2.2 Civil Works...... 574 17.2.3 Track Characteristics...... 575 17.2.4 Track Laying ...... 575 17.2.5 Track Installation...... 575 17.2.6 Catenary and Systems...... 576 17.3 Dimensions of railway tunnels...... 577 17.3.1 Introduction ...... 577 17.3.2 Air resistance in the open field situation ...... 577 17.3.3 Tunnel situation...... 578 17.3.4 Basic design criteria for tunnels...... 579 17.3.5 Calculations of external air pressures on the train...... 580 17.3.6 Modeling of the tunnel...... 580 17.3.7 Calculation of air-pressure variations in trains ...... 581 17.3.8 Criteria ...... 583 17.3.9 Results of calculations for tunnels in the HSL in The Netherlands ...... 584 17.4 Maglev Applications...... 584 17.4.1 Introduction ...... 584 17.4.2 The Japanese system...... 584 17.4.3 The German Transrapid system...... 586 18 TRACK MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

18.1 Introduction...... 591 18.2 Basic data for prediction and planning ...... 592 18.3 Track geometry...... 593 18.4 Prediction of geometry deterioration...... 593 18.5 The basics of the analysis principle...... 594 18.6 Monitoring system for wheel defects ...... 596 18.7 Rational rail management...... 596 18.8 ECOTRACK...... 596 18.8.1 Introduction ...... 596 18.8.2 Overview...... 597 18.8.3 System functions and process ...... 598 18.8.4 Features of the ECOTRACK system ...... 602 19 RAILWAY ASSET MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

19.1 Railway Asset Management System concept ...... 604 19.2 Development of an AMS...... 604 19.3 Railway Assets Locating...... 605 19.3.1 Method using ortho-photo technology...... 605 19.3.2 Method using laser, video and GPS technology...... 606 19.3.3 Video Surveying...... 607 19.3.4 Method using Satellite Imagery...... 610 19.4 Integrating a Railway Asset Management System...... 611 19.5 AMS subsystems...... 612 20 LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS

20.1 Life Cycle Costing...... 615 20.1.1 Life Cycle Costing principles...... 615 20.2 Track Life Cycle Cost DSS ...... 620 20.3 Recent studies...... 625 xxiv Modern Railway Track TABLE OF CONTENTS

20.3.1 Track design for a high-speed line...... 625 20.3.2 M&R strategies for tracks and switches...... 627 20.3.3 Conclusion ...... 629

xxv TABLE OF CONTENTS Modern Railway Track

xxvi Modern Railway Track 1 INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Historic development

The rail as supporting and guiding element was first utilised in the sixteenth century. In those times the mines in England used wooden roadways to reduce the resistance of the mining vehicles. The running surface was provided with an uprising edge in order to keep the vehicles on the track. During a crises as a result of overproduction in the iron industry in England in 1760, the wooden rails were covered with cast iron plates which caused the running resistance to diminish to such an extent that the application of such plates soon proliferated. About 1800 the first free bearing rails were applied (Outtram), which were supported at the ends by cast iron sockets on wooden sleepers. Flanged iron wheels took care of the guiding, as we still practice now. In the beginning the vehicles were moved forward by manpower or by horses.

The invention of the steam engine led to the first steam locomotive, constructed in 1804 by the Eng- lishman Trevithick. George Stephenson built the first steam locomotive with tubular boiler in 1814. In 1825 the first railway for passengers was opened between Stockton and Darlington. On the mainland of Europe Belgium was the first country to open a railway (Mechelen - Brussels). Belgium was quick to create a connection with the German hinterland bypassing the Dutch waterways. The first railway in The Netherlands (Amsterdam - Haarlem) came into existence much later: only in 1839. Here the railway was regarded as a big rival of the inland waterways.

The railways formed a brand new means of transportation with up till then unknown capacity, speed, and reliability. Large areas were opened which could not be developed earlier because of the primi- tive road and water connections. The railways formed an enormous stimulus to the political, econo- mical and social development in the nineteenth century. Countries like the United States and Canada were opened thanks to the railways and became a political unity. In countries like Russia and China the railway still plays a crucial roll.

The trade unions originated when the railways were a major employer (railway strikes in England in 1900 and 1911 and in The Netherlands in 1903). The railway companies were also the first line of business which developed careful planning, organisation and control systems to enable efficient management. Moreover, they gave the impulse to big developments in the area of civil engineering (railway track building, bridges, tunnels, station roofing).

1.2 Railways

While the railways found themselves in a monopoly position up to the twentieth-century, with the advent of the combustion engine and the jet engine they had to face strong competition in the form of buses, cars and aeroplanes.

Mass motorization after World War II expressed by the growing prosperity brought about many prob- lems, especially in densely populated areas: lack of space, congestion, lack of safety, emission of harmful substances and noise pollution. Exactly in these cases railways can be advantageous as they are characterized by the following:

– Limited use of space compared to large transport capacity;

– Reliability and safety;

– High degree of automation and management;

– Moderate environmental impact.

1 1 INTRODUCTION Modern Railway Track

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1.6.2 Load-bearing function of the track

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Modern Railway Track 2 WHEEL-RAIL INTERFACE

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3 CURVES AND GRADIENTS Modern Railway Track

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3.10.2 Case 1: Investigation of dynamic effects

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Modern Railway Track 5 STATIC TRACK DESIGN

5 STATIC TRACK DESIGN

5.1 Introduction

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5.2 Supporting models

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5 STATIC TRACK DESIGN Modern Railway Track

5.11 Two Case ERS designs

5.11.1 Testing of the UIC54 ERS

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Table 5.11: Tests determining the elasticity

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Modern Railway Track 6 DYNAMIC TRACK DESIGN

6 DYNAMIC TRACK DESIGN

6.1 Introduction

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Modern Railway Track 6 DYNAMIC TRACK DESIGN

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6.3.4 Discrete support

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6.4 Vertical wheel response

6.4.1 Hertzian contact spring

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Modern Railway Track 7 TRACK STABILITY AND LONGITUDINAL FORCES

7 TRACK STABILITY AND LONGITUDINAL FORCES

7.1 Introduction

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Figure 7.2: Typical buckling shape

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7 TRACK STABILITY AND LONGITUDINAL FORCES Modern Railway Track

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Figure 7.47: Buckling energy concept illustration

Approach 1 for determining ΔT

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Approach 2 for determining ΔT

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Modern Railway Track 8 BALLASTED TRACK

8 BALLASTED TRACK

8.1 Introduction

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Modern Railway Track 8 BALLASTED TRACK

8.8.4 Elastic fastenings

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Figure 8.25: Vossloh fastening system Figure 8.26: Nabla fastening system

Modern Railway Track 9 SLAB TRACK

9 SLAB TRACK

9.1 Introduction

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9.2 Ballasted track versus slab track

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Modern Railway Track 9 SLAB TRACK

Integrated techniques for slab track installation

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10 THE RAIL

10.1 Introduction

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10.2 Modern rail manufacturing

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10.2.1 Blast furnace

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Figure 10.3: Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) (Corus) Figure 10.4: Filling proces of converter

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10.2.3 Vacuum degassing and argon flushing

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10.2.4 Continuous casting

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10 THE RAIL Modern Railway Track

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Figure 10.7: Some pictures of the continuous casting process

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Modern Railway Track 10 THE RAIL

10.4.3 Post-processing of flash butt welds in the NS welding depot

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Figure 10.49: Press and operating console used at KHRC

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Modern Railway Track 11 SWITCHES AND CROSSINGS

11 SWITCHES AND CROSSINGS

11.1 The standard turnout

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11 SWITCHES AND CROSSINGS Modern Railway Track

11.1.1 Set of switches

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Figure 11.3: Cross-sectional drawing of switch blade and stock rail

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11.1.2 Common crossing

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Modern Railway Track 12 TRACK MAINTENANCE AND RENEWAL

12 TRACK MAINTENANCE AND RENEWAL

12.1 Introduction

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Maintenance Renewal

Manual Mechanical Manual Mechanical

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Structures Rail grinding Structures

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Ballast cleaning

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Figure 12.1: Schematic survey of maintenance and renewal process

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Figure 12.6: Grinding units with rotating stones Figure 12.7: Principle of pivoting the Speno grinding units

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Figure 12.44: Stoneblower operated at RAILTRACK

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12.10 Mechanised track maintenance train

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12.11 Ballast cleaner

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Blanketing machine with ballast rehabilitation

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Figure 12.61: Formation rehabilitation machine AHM 800 R

Modern Railway Track 13 NUMERICAL OPTIMIZATION OF RAILWAY TRACK

13 NUMERICAL OPTIMIZATION OF RAILWAY TRACK

13.1 Introduction

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Figure 13.5: 3-D (a) and 2-D (b) finite element models of ERS with SA42 rail

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Figure 13.6: RAIL model of ERS (moving train loading case)

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Modern Railway Track 13 NUMERICAL OPTIMIZATION OF RAILWAY TRACK

Figure 13.11: Initial design of ERS with conventional rail (a) and result of multi criteria optimization with equal preference (b)

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Figure 13.12: Geometrical results of multi criteria optimization, variation of preferences for noise (wN ) and maintenance (wM )

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13 NUMERICAL OPTIMIZATION OF RAILWAY TRACK Modern Railway Track

DE Figure 13.26: Hammer Excitation Test on classical track (a) and Embedded Rail Structure (b)

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13.6.3 Numerical model

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Modern Railway Track 14 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE

14 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE

14.1 Introduction

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14.2 Component testing and acceptance

14.2.1 Mechanical properties

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Elasticity Strength Stability Durability

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Table 14.1: Overview of the most important track properties of each component

Modern Railway Track 14 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE

14.2.4 Stability properties

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Figure 14.9: Longitudinal resistance test of an embedded Figure 14.10: Longitudinal resistance test of a fastening rail section system mounted on sleeper

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14 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE Modern Railway Track

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Figure 14.24: Recording properties of embedded rail Figure 14.25: Extracting embedded rail dynamic properties by means test sample in laboratory of curve-fitting of the recorded transfer function

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Modern Railway Track 15 NOISE AND VIBRATION

15 NOISE AND VIBRATION

15.1 Introduction

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15.2 Some definitions

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Figure 15.2: Relationship between dB scale and linear scale

15 NOISE AND VIBRATION Modern Railway Track

Silent steel bridges

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Figure 15.20: Silent bridge cross section and view of a bridge

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Figure 15.21: Measured noise energy levels at silent bridge and at conventional bridge

Modern Railway Track 16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS

16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS

16.1 Railway Infrastructure Monitoring

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16.2 Tunnel monitoring

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Modern Railway Track 16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS

Rail surface

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Figure 16.49: Real-time diagram of the rail cross-section

16.7.4 Overhead wire recording

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Figure 16.50: Overhead wire measuring system of Plasser & Theurer

Modern Railway Track 16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS

16.7.7 Track recording cars

High speed track recording cars

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16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS Modern Railway Track

Recording cars for standard speeds

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– UFM 120 on Netherlands railways

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– EM 130 on Belgium railways

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Figure 16.53: Track recording car UFM 120 Figure 16.54: Track recording car EM 130 of SNCB

Recording cars for smaller networks

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Figure 16.55: Track recording car EM 130 of SNCB

Modern Railway Track 16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS

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16.10.3 Dynamic signals

Vertical

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16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS Modern Railway Track

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16.10.4Quasi-static signals

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Modern Railway Track 16 INSPECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS

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Table 16.7: Conversion table for track recording car output

16.12.3 Track geometry spectra

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Figure 16.101: Psd-functions for vertical track geometry based on BMS measurements carried out for ORE D 161

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Modern Railway Track 17 HIGH-SPEED TRACKS

17 HIGH-SPEED TRACKS

17.1 Introduction

17.1.1 Vehicle reactions

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Table 17.1: Safety limits for high-speed operation

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17 HIGH-SPEED TRACKS Modern Railway Track

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17.2 The Korean High Speed Railway Project

17.2.1 Introduction

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17.2.2 Civil Works

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17.3.4 Basic design criteria for tunnels

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Modern Railway Track 17 HIGH-SPEED TRACKS

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Modern Railway Track 18 TRACK MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

18 TRACK MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

18.1 Introduction

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Figure 18.2: Types of data to be col- Infrastructure Costs lected for computer-aided Track Main- tenance Management Systems

18 TRACK MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Modern Railway Track

18.8.3 System functions and process

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Modern Railway Track 19 RAILWAY ASSET MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

19 RAILWAY ASSET MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

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Predictive Maintenance Figure 19.1: Core Elements of an AMS Preventive Plan Maintenance

19 RAILWAY ASSET MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Modern Railway Track

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19.3.2 Method using laser, video and GPS technology

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Modern Railway Track 19 RAILWAY ASSET MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

19.4 Integrating a Railway Asset Management System

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Modern Railway Track 20 LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS

20 LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS

20.1 Life Cycle Costing

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20.1.1 Life Cycle Costing principles

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Modern Railway Track 20 LIFE CYCLE COST ANALYSIS

1. Transportation data 3. Impact estimation 2. M&R process data

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2. Maintenance and renewal analysis

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3. Impact estimation

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Modern Railway Track INDEX

INDEX

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