Chapter 4 Al-Biruni’s Views on Indian Linguistics

In the field of linguistics, there are three influential linguists. The first, Panini (around 500 BCE), a Sanskrit grammarian from ancient India, the second, Slbawayh (760-796 A.D.) Arab linguist and grammarian from Iraq, and the third, Biruni (973-1048 A.D.) Persian grammarian and linguist from Iran. It means that Biruni as a linguist on one hand, was completely aware with the theories of linguistics, and on the other hand, he had proficiency over many languages, that’s why he was able to analyse different languages together accurately. In this chapter, which is dealing with scope of Biruni’s views on Indian linguistics, the theories of Biruni on Indian linguistics are discussed, in three sections: 1) Section I: Language, 2) Section II: Linguistics, and 2) Section III: Philosophy of Language.

Introduction:

Some philosophers assert, “The language is the ultimate principle of the universe, the master of gods, the ruler of the universe, omnipresent in the universe, and imperceptible by the sense.”‘ They did not think of language as a symbolic means for communication of the will, but they acknowledge it was substantial principle. In this regard, the Indian idea of language to some extent corresponds to the Japanese belief in the “soul of language.”^ The Greeks began their study of language chiefly to enhance the beauty of their language,^ whereas the Indians were lead to the study of their power of language from sacred point of view and mystical opinion. Since they believed in the mystical and sacred power of language. In India, the Brahmana

scholars were the first people who started to study linguistics.'' At a very early stage, they concentrated their efforts on the study the sentences in the Vedas. But, gradually, they extended their study to a systematic analysis of their language. The Sanskrit grammar was first established by Panini in the fourth

century A.D. After that, the critical modifications added by Katyayana (S'** Cen. A.D.)^ was a Sanskrit grammarian. This grammar was transformed into a

final authoritative form by Patanjali in the 2'^*’ Cen. A.D. their study of the Sanskrit grammar after Patanjali ended in the elaboration of the established

246 doctrine. And except some growth in the philosophical theory of language, they made no advancement from the established grammar. The ancient grammarians of India analyzed all words into three elements: the declensional ending, the stem, and the root. Not all these root forms are correct, when re-examined by present methods o f comparative grammar. Nevertheless, we are surprised at the thoroughness and consistency of the ancient Indians in their study of grammar. The Western grammarians adopted abstract concepts such as the stem and the root for the analysis of their languages only after the modem age,’ when they came into contact with the ancient grammar of India.* Also in the field of morphology and phonology Indians also made very careful studies. For instance, in the morphological study of language, they made strict distinctions between the primary and the secondary verbal endings. Moreover, they accomplished a very elaborate system of declensions and conjugations. No other ancient nation has ever produced such a detailed system of grammar as India. In the phonological field they invented a very reasonable and scientific arrangement of the Sanskrit alphabet. They put the vowels first in order and then arranged the consonants. In the West, until very recently, phonology or the study of sonic elements never developed an adequate system. Although the Greeks and Romans in some measure inquired into the physiological structure of vocal sounds, they failed to achieve a clear and distinct view that equaled the system of the ancient Indians.’ Modem linguistics began to develop in the 18‘'’ century. The most eminent figures of Modem linguistics are Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913 A.D.) in Europe, Edward Sapir (1884-1939 A.D.), Leonard Bloomfield (1887- 1949 A.D.) in the United States, Johann Gottfried Herder (1744 -1803 A.D.) in Europe and Johann Christoph Adelung (1732-1806 A.D.) in Europe. The 1960s saw the rise of many new fields in linguistics, such as Noam Chomsky’s generative grammar, William Laboy’s socio-linguistics, Michael Hallidays’ systemic functional linguistics and also modem psycho-linguistics.

247 Biruni as an Eminent Figure of Linguistics:

The earliest Persian grammarian and linguist, who is known to us called Sibawayh (760-793 A.D.).“ He was one the important student of the Arab grammarian and linguist Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al- Farahidi (718-786 A.D.).'^ The most important book of Sibawayh in grammar and linguistics called the Book on Grammar (i.e. Al-kitab ji al-nahw), which was frequently published in Baghdad, Paris, London, Germany (Berlin), Calcutta and Egypt. Therefore, Biruni after great Sibawayh, without a doubt is considered as the first Persian prominent linguist. And, in fact, Biruni is regarded as the pioneer expert linguist, who long before the Modem European linguists such as James Burnett (1714-1799 A.D), Lord Monboddo (1714-1799 A.D.) and Sir William Jones (1746-1794 A.D.) in the 18"’ century analyzed numerous languages and evolution of human language very carefully. The theories of Biruni in respect to language can be categorized in three parts: (1) Attitudes of Biruni towards language as a system, (2) Linguistics views of Biruni in respect to language, and (3) Philosophical approaches of Biruni in regard with language.

Section I: Language:

Language is the human ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication, and a language is any specific example of such a system.'^ Language is a system of symbols, generally known as words, and the grammatical and other rules by which they are manipulated. The word language is also used to refer to the whole phenomenon of language, and in this sense language is one of several forms of human communication. The scientific study of language includes their historical development, characteristics, and use in society, is called linguistics.‘‘‘ In this section we shall to explain views of Biruni towards language, as a system of communication and expression. He express his thoughts and reflections pertaining to Indian languages especially Sanskrit

248 Attitudes of Biruni towards Language as a System:

Biruni, who is thoroughly master in knowing more than six languages, indicates two aspects that are the primary traits of language as follows:

(i) Repetition of the Nouns:

According to Biruni this is as special peculiarity, which is considered as one the important characteristic of the Hindus language as well as the Arabic language. Although, Biruni believes that, this feature from the standpoint of linguistics is regarded as a defect. For instance, they call the Sun by a thousand different names according to their own statement, just as the Arabs call the lion by many. Some of these names are original, while, others are derived from the changing conditions of his life or actions and faculties. The Hindus and their like boast of this copiousness, whilst, in reality it is considered as one of the greatest faults of the language. For, it is the task of language to give a name to everything in creation and to its effects a name based on general consent, so that everybody, when hearing this name pronounced by another man, understands what he means. If, therefore, one and the same name or word means a variety of things, it discloses a defect of the language and compels the hearer to ask the speaker, what he means by the word. And thus the word in question must be dropped, in order to be replaced either by a similar one of a sufficiently clear meaning, or by an epithet describing what is really meant. If one is called by many names, so that every tribe or class of people uses a separate one of them, and if, in fact, one single name would be sufficient, therefore, all the other names are to be classified as mere nonsense. And keeping people in the dark, and throwing an air of mystery about the subject. Anyway, this copiousness offers painful difficulties to those, who want to learn the whole of the language, for it is entirely useless, and only results in a sheer waste of time.'® Finally, Biruni says that the Hindus have a strong predilection to have as many names as possible, and to practice on them the rules and art of their etymology, and they take glory in the enormous copiousness of their language which they obtain by such means.'^

249 (ii) Distortion of the Names:

Biruni believes that when a foreign nation with a different language occupies a country, their tongues frequently mangle the words, and thus transfer them into their own language, as is, e.g. the custom of the Greeks. Either they keep the original meaning of the names and try to translate, but then they undergo certain changes. So the city of Shash, which has its name from the Turkish language, where it is called Tash-kand, i.e. stone-city, is called stone-tower in the book Geographia. In this way new names spring up as translations of older ones. Or, the Barbarians adopt and keep the local names, but with such sounds and in such forms as are adapted to their tongues. As the Arabs do in Arabizing foreign names, which become disfigured in their mouth. For instance, Bushang they call in their books Fusanj, and Sakilkand they call in their books Farfaza.'^

(iii) Distinction between the Classical and Vernacular Language;

Biruni divides language into two parts. The first, a neglected vernacular and the second, a classical. The neglected vernacular is only in use amongst the common people, and the classical one is just in use between the upper and educated classes. The latter is much cultivated, and subject to the rules of grammatical inflection and etymology, and to all the accuracy of grammar and rhetoric.’’

Section II: Linguistics:

Linguistics is the scientific study of language. There are broadly three aspects to the study, which include language form, language meaning, and language in context. The earliest known activities in the description of language have been attributed to Panini around 500 BCE, with his analysis of Sanskrit in Ashtadhyayi. Linguistics analyzes human language as a system for relating sounds (or signed gestures) and meaning, and are divided into four parts: (1) Grammar is the set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language, (2) Phonology (how sounds

250 function and pattern together), (3) Morphology (the formation and composition of words), and (4) Syntax (the formation and composition of phrases and sentences from these words).™ In this section based on the four essential factors of Linguistic, we shall to discuss linguistics views of Biruni. In the Ketab Tahqiq Malel-Hind, there are three important peculiarities for Indian linguistics. They are as follows: (i) Grammar, (ii) Metrology and (iii) Phonology.

Linguistics Views of Biruni in respect to Language:

(i) Grammar:

The two sciences of grammar and metrics are auxiliary to the other sciences. Of the two, the former, grammar holds the first place in their estimate, called Vyakarana.i.e. the law of the correctness of their speech and etymological rules, by means of which they acquire an eloquent and classical style both in writing and reading. Then, Biruni says, “We Muslims cannot learn anything of it, since it is a branch coming from a root, which is not within our grasp - I mean the language itself.”^' Likewise, Biruni presents the title of Indian their grammar books as follows:^^ (1) Aindra, attributed to Indra, the head of the angels, (2) Candra, composed by Candra, one of the red-robe- wearing sect, the followers of Buddha, (3) Sakata, so called by the name of its author. (4) Panini, so called from its author, (5) Katantra, composed by Sarvavarman, (6) Susidevavritti, composed by Sasideva, (7) Durgavivritti, and (8) Sishyahiavritti, composed by UgrabhutiP

(ii) Metrology:

As it was mentioned earlier, Biruni says that the two sciences of grammar and metrics are auxiliary to the other sciences. Then Bimni propounds, “Grammar is followed by another science, which called Chandas, i.e. the metrical form of poetry, according to our metrics - a science indispensible to them, since all their books are in verse form. By composing their books in metre they intend to facilitate their being learned by heart; and to prevent people from all questions of science ever recurring to a written text, saved in case of bare necessity. For, they think that the mind of man

251 sympathises with everything in which there is symmetry and order, and has an aversion to everything that has no order. Therefore, most Hindus are passionately fond of their verses, and always desirous of reciting them. Even if they do not understand the meaning of the words, and the audience will snap their fingers in token of joy and applause. They do not want prose compositions, although it is much easier to understand them.” Afterwards, Biruni explains that most of their books are composed in the form of Sloka. It seems that Biruni himself was able to write in Sloka system. For, two of his scientific books such as Almagest ” and E u c lid ,as well as one treatise on the construction of the Astrolabe,^'’ have been translated by Biruni into Sloka form, just for the desire of spreading science. Then, Biruni goes on to say, “If the Hindus happen to get some book which does not yet exist among them, they set at work to change it into Sloka, which is rather unintelligible. Since, the metrical form entails a constrained, affected style, which will become apparent, when we shall speak o f their method of expressing numbers. And if the verses are not sufficiently affected, their authors meet with frowning faces, as having committed something like mere prose, and then they will feel extremely unhappy.” The first who invents this art is Pingala (bom possibly Cen. 200 A.D)^“ and then Chelto}'^ The books on the subject are numerous. The most famous of them is the book Gaisita, so called from its author, famous to such a degree that even the whole science of metrics has been called by his name. Other books are that of Mrigalanchana and Pingala and Ulyand. Biruni points out, “I have not seen any of these books, and I do not know much of the chapter of the Brahma-siddhanta,^^ which treats of metrical calculations.” Then, Biruni frankly declares, “I have no claim to a thorough knowledge of the laws of Indian metrics. Nevertheless, I do not think it right to pass on comments o f by a subject o f which I have only a smattering, and I shall postpone speaking of it, until I shall have thoroughly mastered it. ”

252 Comparing between Indain Metrics and Arabic and Persian Metrics:

Biruni declares that in counting the syllables (ganachandas), the Hindus use similar figures to those used by Alkhalil Ibn Ahmad-e-Frahidi (718-791 A.D.), and our metricians to denote ‘the consonant without vowel and the consonant with vowelviz. these two signs,‘I’a n d T h e former of which according to Hindus is called Laghu, i.e. light, and the latter called Guru, i.e. heavy. In measuring (mtarachands), the Guru is reckoned double of a Laghu, and its place may be filled by two Laghus. Further, the Hindus have a syllable which they call long (Dirgha), the measure or prosody of which is equal to that of a Guru. This, Biruni thinks, is a syllable with a long vowel (like ka, kT, ku). Here, Biruni confesses that, up to the present moment he was not able to gain a clear idea of the nature of both Laghu and Guru, so as to be able to illustrate them by similar elements in Arabic. However, he prefers to think that Laghu does not mean a consonant without vowel, nor Guru a consonant with vowel. But that, on the contrary, Laghu means a consonant with a short vowel (e.g. ka, ki, ku), and Guru means the same with a vowelless consonant (e.g. kat, kit, kut), like an element in Arabic metrics called Sabab (i.e. a long syllable the place of which may be taken by two short ones). That which makes Biruni doubt, as to the first- mentioned definition of Laghu is this circumstance, that the Hindus use many Laghu one after the other in an uninterrupted succession. Biruni says, “The Arabs are not capable of pronouncing two vowelless consonants one after the other, but in other languages this is possible. The Persian metricians, for instance, call such a consonant ‘moved by a light vowel’ (i.e. pronounced with a sound like Hebrew Schwa). But, in any case, if such consonants are more than three in number, they are most difficult, nay, even impossible to pronounce.^^ Whilst, in Sanskrit, as in the other foreign language, two or three consonants may follow each other without an intervening vowel-consonants, which in our Persian grammatical system are considered as having a hidden vowel. Since most Sanskrit words and names begin with such consonants without vowels, we find it very difficult to pronounce.^’ Besides, some of the sounds (consonants) in Sanskrit are neither identical with the sounds of Arabic

253 and Persian, nor resemble them in any way. Our tongue and Uvula could scarcely manage to correctly pronounce them, nor our ears in hearing to distinguish them from similar sounds, nor could we transliterate them with our characters. It is very difficult, therefore, to express an Indian word in our writing, for in order to fix the pronunciation we must change our orthographical points and signs, and must pronounce the case-endings either according to the common Arabic rules or according to special rules adapted for the purpose.’* Further, as our people have composed out of the feet certain schemes or types, according to which verses are constructed, and have invented sings to denote the component parts of a foot, i.e. the consonant with and without a vowel, in like manner also the Hindus use certain names to denote the feet which are composed of Laghu and Guru, either the former preceding and the latter following or vice-versa, in such a way, however, that the measure must always be the same, whilst the number of syllables may vary. By these names they denote a certain conventional prosodic unity (i.e. certain feet). By measure, Biruni means that Laghu is reckoned= one matra, i.e. measure, and Guru= two mdtra. If they represent a foot in writing, they only express the measure of the syllables, not their number, as, e.g. (in Arabic) a double consonant (kka) is counted as a consonant without vowel plus a consonant with vowel. And a consonant followed by Tanwin (kun) is counted as a consonant with a vowel plus a consonant without vowel, whilst in writing both are represented as one and same thing (i.e. by the sign of the consonant in question). Finally, according to the Hindus the Laghu and Guru are called by various names: the former, la, kali, rupa, chamara, and graha. The latter, ga, nTvra, and a half arhsaka. The latter name shows that a complete arhsaka is equal to two Gurus or their equivalent. These names they have invented simply to facilitate the versification of their metrical books. For this purpose, they have invented so many names, that one may fit into the meter if others will not.”

254 Criticism of Biruni in respect to Indian Metrics:

Biruni says, “It is well-known that in all metrical compositions, there is much obscure and constrained phraseology merely intended to fill-up the metre and serving as a kind of patchwork, that necessitates a certain amount of verbosity. This is also one of the reasons why a word has sometimes one meaning and sometimes another. From all this it will appear that the metrical form of literary composition is one of the cause which make the study of Sanskrit hterature particularly so difficult.’'*®

(iii) Phonology:

Another important subject of linguistics is phonology. Indian phonology is so different from that of Arabic that in itself can be a constant source of error. Biruni pointed out how some of his Muslim predecessors had fallen into sad mistake through their misspelling of Indian words, which they thought they had got right but actually had not. In this regard, Biruni gives an example about the pronunciation of the name of Aryabhata, which is written Arjabhad between the Arab astronomers. The Hindus pronounce the ‘d’ of this word something between ‘d’ and an ‘r’. So the consonant became changed to ‘r’, and people write Aijabhar. Afterwards it was still more mutilated, the first ‘r’ being changed to a ‘z’, and so people write Azjabhar. If the word in this garb wanders back to the Hindus, they will not recognize it.*"

Section III: Philosophy of Language:

Philosophy of language is concerned with four central problems; the nature of meaning, language use, language cognition, and the relationship between language and reality. For continental philosophers, however, the philosophy of language tends to be dealt with, not as a separate topic, but as a part o f logic. Firstly, the nature of meaning, which includes: (a) The nature of synonyms (Synonyms can be any part of speech such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), (b) Sentences are composed into a meaningful whole out of the meaning of its parts.

255 Secondly, the language as an instrument of communication, and how it is used socially. Specific interests may include the topics of language learning, language creation, and speech acts. Thirdly, the philosopher of language would like to know how language relates to the minds of both the speaker and the interpreter. Of specific interest is the grounds for successful translation of words into other words. Finally, philosophers of language investigate how language and meaning relate to truth and the world. They tend to be less concerned with which sentences are actually true, and more with what kinds of meanings can be true or false. A truth-oriented philosopher of language might wonder whether or not a meaningless sentence can be true or false, or whether or not sentences can express propositions about things that do not exist, rather than the way sentences are used.'*^ Now based on the theories of philosophy of language, the philosophical approaches of Biruni can be categorized as follows:

Philosophical Approaches of Biruni in regard with Language:

(i) Language as an Instrument of Communication:

Biruni puts forward, language is considered as the most important instruments of communication and each language has its own special peculiarities. But, indeed, this characteristic (language as an instrument of communication) can be regarded as one of those barriers, which extremely separates the nations from each other like the Muslims and the Hindus. Afterwards, Biruni emphatically mentions that if they (The Muslims and the Hindus) could resolve this problem, the more relationships would have been created between them."*^ Further, Biruni says that language communicates thought of the speaker to the hearer. But, its action has a momentary life only. Meanwhile, it is impossible that accounts of the past to the later generation have been delivered just by oral tradition, more particularly, if they are separated by long periods of time. But, this has become possible only by a new discovery of the human mind, by the art of writing, which spreads news over space as the winds

256 spread, and over time as the spirits of the deceased spread. Praise therefore be unto Him, who has arranged creation and creates everything for the best!

(ii) Language as a Dynamic Phenomenon:

Biruni regards language as a dynamic phenomenon, and therefore, believes that some part of these changes happen in between the common people. In this regard, Biruni says, “What is more curious and strange is that sometimes one and the same language changes in mouth of the same people who speak it. In consequence strange and uncouth forms o f words spring up, which is not intelligible to him who discards every rule o f the language. And such changes are brought about in few years, without there being any stringent cause or necessity for it.”'*’

Conclusion:

Biruni after great Sibawayh is considered as the first Persian significant linguist. The theories of Biruni in linguistics can be highlighted as follows; (1) Attitudes of Bimni towards language as a system, (2) Philosophical approaches of Biruni in regard with language, and (3) Linguistics views of Biruni in respect to Indian language. Biruni to deal with his observations towards language as a system considers three important peculiarities for language. They are: 1) Repetition of the Nouns, 2) Distortion of the Names, and 3) Distinction between the Classical and Vernacular Language. In respect with philosophical perspectives of Biruni we can mention two factors like: 1] Language as an Instrument of

Communication, and 2] Language as a Dynamic Phenomenon. At the end, for linguistics views of Biruni in regard with Indian language we can propound these characteristics as follows: (i) Grammar, (ii) Metrology, and (iii) Phonology. Therefore, we can claim that the authority o f Biruni in the 11*^ Cen. is as much as the doctrines of the modem European linguists. And Biruni much earlier than the Modem European Linguist has analyzed many languages and evolution of human language very carefully.

257 Notes and References:

‘ o f Thinking of Eastern People: India, China, Tibet and Japan', Nakamura. H; The East -

West Center Press; 1964; P. 40.

= lbid\ P.40.

^ Ibid.

■* Ibid.

^ Ibid.

‘'Ibid.

^ Ibid.

* Ibid.

■' Ibid.

o f Thinking o f Eastern People: India, China, Tibet and Japan', Nakamura. H.; P.40.

" Http:// WWW. Wikipedia; Sibawayh', last modified on 16 November 2014 ;at 17:44.

Http:// WWW. Wikipedia; Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi, last modified on 7 November

2014; at 11:26.

” Http:// WWN. Wikipedia; Philosophy o f Language; last modified on 7 November 2014; at

11:26.

'■* Http:// WWW. Wikipedia; Language, last modified on 4 November 2014; at 13:26.6. Biography and Works ofBiruni', Safa. Z; Amirkabir Pub.; lran;1655; P.20.

Al-Beruni's India; Sachau. E; Rupa Pub.; New Delhi; 2007; Pp.217-218.

'’ /Wd;P.290.

Ibid. Ibid, P.m. “ Http:// WWW. Wikipedia; Morphology; last modified on 2 October 2014; at 19:10.

•' Al-Beruni’s India; Sachau. E; P. 120.

--Ibid.

Ibid; P.121.

“ The Alm agest is a 2nd-century mathematical and astronomical treatise on the apparent

motions of the stars and planetary paths. Written in Greek by Claudius Ptolemy, a Roman

era scholar of Egypt. Http;// WWW. Wikipedia; Alm agest, last modified on 12 November

2014; at 13:59.

“ Euclid (300 B.C.), also known as Euclid of Alexandria, was a Greek mathematician, often

referred to as the “Father of Geometry”. He was active in Alexandria during the reign of

Ptolemy I (323-283 B.C). His Elements is one of the most influential works in the history of

mathematics. Http:// WWW. Wikipedia; Euclid; last modified on 30 October 2014; at 18:37.

An astrolabe”star-taker” is used by astronomers, navigators, and astrologers. Its many uses

include locating and predicting the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars,

determining local time given local latitude and vice-versa, surveying, triangulation, and to

258 cost horoscopes. It was used in classical antiquity, the Islamic Golden-Age, the European

Middle-Ages and Renaissance period for all these purposes. In the Islamic world, it was also

used to calculate the kibla and to find the times for Salat (pray). Http;// WWW. Wikipedia;

Astrolabe-, last modified on 4 November 2014; at 00:50.

■* Pihgala is the traditional name of the author of the Chandahsastra, the earliest known

Sanskrit treatise on prosody. Little is known about Pihgala himself. Http:// WWW.

Wikipedia; Pihgala; last modified on 13 November 2014; at 09:37.

•’ Al-Beruni’s India; Sachau. E; P. 122.

Ibid.

Ib id

” /6W;P.122.

^ Ibid; P. 123.

“ Ibid-, P.5.

^ Ibid-, P I 23.

” Ibid.

Ibid. ” Ibid-, P .m . " Ibid-, P.3.

■" Ibid; P.422.

Http:// WWW. Wikipedia; Philosophy of Language-, last modified on 6 November 2014; at

22:31.

A l-B eruni’s India; Sachau. E; P.2.

Ibid-, P. 157.

■*’ Ibid; P.290.

259