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The Umayyad World

Andrew Marsham

Prophetic Dominion, Umayyad Kingship

Publication details https://test.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315691411-4 Sean W. Anthony Published online on: 23 Nov 2020

How to cite :- Sean W. Anthony. 23 Nov 2020, Prophetic Dominion, Umayyad Kingship from: The Umayyad World Routledge Accessed on: 02 Oct 2021 https://test.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315691411-4

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 was notoneofthemuntilthereign of theearlyIslamicpolityassumedtwooffi evidence (suchascoins,papyri,inscriptions,andgraffi polity hasuncoveredarathersurprisingfi Inrecentdecades,researchintotitlesassumedbytheearlyrulersofIslamic titulature ofByzantium,one mustwaituntilthefi its neighborsratherthanthe otherwayaround.Hence,eveninthepietistic,royal coinage, until anemperordeignsto callhimself infl slave ( given name,and,afterhis known inoffi Even withthereignof dominant offi mu military leader’s forcethatmakesthetitle tary commanderintheirarchaicsense.Itistheadditionofahostbelieversas whence theEnglish‘emperor’,inasmuchasbothtitlessimplymeantapowerfulmili- long- had adoptedtheGreektitle title of‘king’inoffi to be Sasanians intheirinscriptions,monuments,andcoinage. Therulersdidnotclaim of theearlyIslamicpolityrejectedimperialtitulature oftheByzantinesand equally strikinginthetitulatureisbreakwithregional precedents.Therulers uence ontitlesdoesappear, itistheearlyIslamictitulaturethatseemstoinfl ThepietyandmilitarismoftheseearlyIslamictitlesare, ofcourse,striking,but ʾ PROPHETICDOMINION,UMAYYAD minin standing vernacularprecedentofreferringtoRomanemperors a‘kings’. shahanshah ʿ abd 3

justasaMuslimrulerwould refertohimselfas ). )and,second,amilitarycommander( Amir cial title oftherulersearlyIslamicpolity.Rather, a rulerwas cial documentsandinscriptionsas inmanywaysisdirectlyparallelwiththeRomantitle Varieties of ,‘thekingofkings’,ontheSasanianmodel,andthey avoidedthe cial proclamationsjustaftertheByzantineemperorHeraclius ʿ Abdal- SeanW. Anthony CHAPTERTHREE basileus Islamic period INTRODUCTION KINGSHIP Malik, ‘caliph’canbynomeansberegardedasthe amir al- ,or‘king’,asanoffi mulk ʿ Abdal- mu nding. Lookingmerelytothe documentary 39 servus Christi amir al- cial titles,but thetitle‘caliph’( ʾ minin intheearly Malik b. Marwan (r.Malik b. Marwan 685/ ʿ mu amir . rst reignofJustinianII(685– abdAllah 1

Thatis,therulerwasfi ʾ minin

ti), one fi one ti), )ofthefaithfulbelievers( ,‘servantofChrist’,onhis

ʿ abdAllah cial title,thuscodifyinga distinctivelyIslamic. ,usuallyinfrontofhis nds thattherulers , ‘servant of God’. ,‘servantof imperator 692– rst God’s 2

khalifa Where uence 705). 95) al- ) , Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 kingship ( caliphs oftenblamedthem forthedevolutionofcaliphate( rule oftheIslamicpolity.Polemicalpropagandadirected againsttheUmayyad cept of Islamic rulers,modernhistorianshaveoftenalsoclaimed thattheArabiccon- throne, herefusedtowearacrownlikeotherkings.He wasarulerofdiff hesatupona(new) ceremonial surroundinghisrisetopowerwasdistinct: though WhiletheSyriacchroniclerregardsMu sources aswell. a divisionbetweenliteraryandoffi ( – are eitherrareorabsentinthedocumentaryrecord titles thatconnotetheruler’s vicariouskingshipvis- picture ofthetitleschosenbyrulersIslamicpolity.Mostconspicuously, narratives andotherliterarysources – as vividtheserulers’rejectionofthetitle‘king’(Ar. marked adistinctdeparturefromregionalprecedents.Perhapsnoexampleofthisis is onthepointthatoffi Muslim historiansassertedthatthereasontheycalledtheiridealrulers seventh- A if theystillreferredtotheirnewrulersas‘kings’(Syriac, witnessed thearrivalofnewpowerintheirlandsnotedchange,too,even assumption ofpowerinJerusalemasfollows: their audacitytoclaim rule assublimecaliphswho – enemies’ eyes,theonlything thatexceededtheaudacityofUmayyadimpietywas kings( name, butintruththeywere theworstsortofrulers: the title who populatedthepost- According toasayingattributedtheCompanionAbuMusaal- rather than‘kings’isthat ghalaba Muslim sovereignsadoptedtheirtitles,theybrokefromthisancientprecedent. a periodstretchingovermillenniumpriortotheIslamicconquests.However, when is inhisabilitytoconquerwiththesword( 688 khalifa Syriac- Becausethetitle‘king’( Oneofthereasonsthatthisfi Thetitle thecommanders( allegiance ( proclaimed king( the world.Heplacedhisthrone( … Furthermore,Mu Muhammad’s throne. ce ), ‘Thepowerofan )’and‘shadowofGod( mulk malik ʿ alayhibi- speaking chroniclersoftheEasternChristiancommunitieswhofi al- century chroniclerdescribedMu malik mulk ,takentomean‘kingship’,waslikewiserejectedas amodelforthe iswidelyattestedintheepigraphicrecordofArabianPeninsulafor 4

yamina Wherethedocumentaryandliterarysourcesdoconverge,however, wasnotunknowntopre- l- ).TheUmayyads,theold polemicgoes,were‘caliphs’onlyin sayf malka )toMu amire ).’ conquest elite of the early Islamic polity – conquest eliteoftheearlyIslamicpolity – ʿ 7

6

ā

cial titulatureusedforrulersintheearlyIslamicpolity

amir amir malik wiya didnotwearacrown( — )inallthevillagesandcitiesunderhisrule( )andmanyArabsgatheredoff SeanW. Anthony — isinhisabilitytocommand,butthepowerofaking sandkingswererulersofanentirelydiff ʿ awiya.Thenanorderwentoutthatheshouldbe )wasexcludedfromtheoffi zill Allah nding issurprisingthatearlyArabichistorical cial titlesisnotablycharacteristicforByzantine such as poetry and oratory – suchaspoetryandoratory – kursayeh ʿ awiyaasaking,thechroniclernotesthat 40 al- ’ – )’ Islamic ArabiaandtheArabiantribesmen imra ma‘tamarafi aremuchmoreprevalent.Yet, such ʿ wy . AbiSufyan’s (r. 661– awiyab. )inDamascusandrefusedtogo à - vis God’s sovereignty,which especiallytitleslike‘caliph

malik inthewordsofonetheir klila malke cial repertoireofearly ha fa- )likeotherkingsin ). Ash )intheirlanguage. ered theoathof muluk paintadiff tothecontrary, al- ʿ ari(d. inna l- khilafa erent sort. erent erent sort. ).Intheir š mulk ma c. ū

ltaneh ah 5

)into Early erent amir 48/ 80) rst s ) Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 by selfi for theocracy,governmentbyGod,whereas ( distinguish theautocraticgovernanceofkingsandemperorsfromcaliphalauthority Mulk shedding thebloodofProphet’s kin. most debaucheddynastsWal prophecy ( today wewouldcall‘empire’. and presumablyonethatisjustrighteous.Here, universal tyranny;itisamandategiventotheProphet’s Thepromised with referencestoMuhammad’s prophetic usages oftheterm early Islamicpoliticaldiscourse.Indeed,thisunderstandingrendersincoherentmany glaringly, thisaccountof neatly, butithasfundamentaldrawbacksandstandsinneedofacorrective.Most early Islamicpolity.Or, asonescholarhasrecentlywritten, were soloathed,theargumentoftenruns,becausetheyreintroduced something thatearlyMuslimsdespisedinthemostabsoluteterms.Umayyadcaliphs Muhammad’s adventinthe Torah: in whichtheearlyJewishconverttoIslam,Ka Muhammad describesavisionaryexperience: khilafa Thisaccountof Hence,itiscommontofi and oppression. Umayyads wasdismissedas was referredtoas and thejustdivineruleofcaliphs.SowhileeraOrthodoxCaliphs tinguish betweentheman- IntheearlyIslamiccenturies his dominioninSyria. birthplace isinMecca,hisplace ofrefugeinTayba [thatistosay,Medina],and evil withevil,butrather clemencyandforgiveness[compareIs.42:1ff nor coarse,doesheraise hisvoiceinthestreets( ItiswrittenintheTorah: Muhammad ismychosenservant.Heneithercrude before me. the dominionofmycommunity( MyLordlaidouttheEarthbeforemefromitseasterntowesternhorizons;truly isthusdepictedasmerelyacounter- sh,arbitrary,andshortsightedhumanbeings’. ).AsPatriciaCronesummarizestheclassicdistinction,‘ ʿ alaminhajal- — 12

mulk Propheticdominion,Umayyadkingship—

mulk mulk 10

ofMuhammad’s communityiscertainlynotapromiseofthe

tiesuptherelationshipofearlyIslamicrulersto intheearlyIslamicperiod.What,forinstance,doesonedo khilafa mulk 13

nubuwwa nd modernhistoriansportrayingtheconceptof

Mulk made impiousandarbitraryruleofworldlysovereigns ī failstomakesenseofthebroaderusages d II (assassinated in 744) – d II(assassinatedin744) – ,symbolizingjusticeandpiety,thereignof mulk mulk ofthistypeappearsinanotherfamoustradition )’, mulk ummati

9 ,atermcarryingconnotationsofusurpations

wasusedasatermofcondemnationtodis- 8

allwhilepersecutingthetrulypiousand 41 factual ideamarshalledbyearlyMuslimsto mulk mulk ʿ bal- ?Take thefollowing stoodforautocracy,government )shallreachallthatGodlaidout 11

Ahbar, relatestheprophecyof

mulk aswaq umma ruled‘onthemodelof approximatestowhat ).Heshallnotrepay im foruniversalrule, ā ma/ mulk hadith khil

mulk ā intothe fa mulk mulk where .]. His rather stood as in Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 tent whenscornedasaking? construed asitsveryfoundation. not broadlyconstruedas the antithesisofIslamicpolity.Rather, thatacloser examinationrevealsthat sort ofgovernment,I contend sively negativetermsandtoholdthatearlyMuslims regarded death in 724: II b. the Israelites’KingDavid,whomQur FollowingaloosecitationofthebiblicalIsaiah,Ka Islamic legitimism. an assertionthatremainsequallytrueforthereligio- ‘it seemsdoubtfulwhetherIslam,aswerecognizeittoday,wouldevenexist’ – ‘Islamic’ form.‘Without thecontributionsofUmayyads’,notesFredDonner, ship; rather, theyactivelyshapedthatdiscourseintoitsearliest,recognizably Umayyads didnothavetineartothedebatesoverpoliticallylegitimateruler- while attemptingtoarticulatetheirowndiscourseofpoliticallegitimacy.The the Umayyadcaliphsasratherfecklessrulerswhoweremostlyontheirbackfoot wholly ateasewiththevocabularyofkingship.’ of to suggestthattheonceusefulhistoricalclich empires. between howtheearlyIslamicpolityarticulateditslegitimacy anditspredecessor of theearlyIslamicpolity,ithasnow, instead,cometoobscurethecontinuities caliph’ ( king Solomon. b. son Solomon.Accordingtoanotherstory,itwasthe Prophet’s grandson,al- from Qusayr also rendersmuchofUmayyadcourtlylifeunintelligible.constructions The commonviewof cannot betyrannyhere,butmustsomethingelse. Syria, wheretheUmayyadslaterestablishedtheirpowerbaseascaliphs.Again, division oftheprophet’s destiny,adestinytobefulfi court poets. and royaldominion,avocabularyofdominionsuff ʿ khilafa WhyelsewouldtheUmayyadcaliphMu AsGarthFowdenhasnoted,‘TheUmayyads…andtheircourtierswere Forreasonsstatedaboveandmanymoretobeaddressed below, like I would The‘ Ali,whofi mughtasabin Wrapped intheraimentofdominion( mu ʿ Abdal- Beforethemanofthirtydominionwasmixedlineage( ʾ tashib ana awwalumalikinwa- mulk

21 hasoutliveditsutility.Ratherthanilluminatingthe politicalideologies Againsttherecenttrendamongsomehistorianstoview 14

rst counseledMu Malik thattheUmayyadpoetJarirdeclaredinhisdirgeatcaliph’s Hence,itwastohonor, nottoimpugn,thememoryofyoungYazid astyranny/ ). ʿ AmratoKhirbatal- 19

15

Thus,Mu

). 17

mulk autocracy/ ʿ awiyareputedlyboasted,‘Iamthefi — astyrannyand,therefore,antitheticaltocaliphalrule SeanW. Anthony — ʿ

18 awiyatoemulatethekingship( Hechosetociteinhisdefensethesuccessionof akhiru khalifa

Mafjar areawashwiththeimageryofkingship kingship’ troperunsintootherproblems,too. 42 ʾ ancallsacaliph,byrighteousking,his sirbala mulkin ʿ ). awiyareputedlyexpressbeingcon- 20

é about

16 Itwouldbeamistaketocast ʿ b’s traditionoff lled inafuturedominion political discourseofearly

mulk )freelygranted( uses theversesoftheir mulk beingtheantithesis rst kingandthe last mulk )oftheIsraelites’ ers atripartite mulk inna la- astheworst mulk mulk inexclu- ghayra Hasan mulk mulk was was

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 third provestobethestrongestandmostcompellingsourceofpolemic. who pervertedthepristineidealofpropheticandcaliphalrule.Ofthesethree, sentiment cultivatedbyapietisticoppositionwhoregardedthedynastyasusurpers true king;2) an Arabiantraditionofrejectingtherulekings,and3) anti- anancientmonotheistictraditionthatexaltedGodasthesole Umayyad polemic: 1) located negativeattitudestoward pre- origins oftheanti- To reconstructthestoryof Abraham ‘agloriousdominion’( Most importantly,perhaps,theQur by anyoneafterme,’theQur ‘Lord, pardonmysinsandgrantmedominion( provides usourfi tique ofUmayyad with political reality.Two otherpassagesoftheQur kingship andarejectionofitslegitimacyastomere matter- terpart in1Samuel8:10– this versecertainlypaintskingshipinanegativelight – 18:79).While bring ittoruinandhumiliateitshonoreddenizens’ (Q. 27:34;Q. at Solomon’s court,shedeclarestotheIsraeliteking,‘Kings,whenthey enteratown, comes fromlipsofaqueenaddressingking.Thus,when theQueenofShebaarrives denunciation ofkings( does notcarryaninherentlynegativeconnotationintheQur evinces neitherastrongcondemnationof spouse notmerelywiththe treeofeternallife( IblistemptsAdamandhis me?’ andthusrevealshisarrogantimpiety.InQ. 20:120, possessdominionoverEgyptandtheseriversthatrunbeneath subjects, ‘DoI not apparent insofarasGodhimselfisdesignateda as muchthearroganceof notrecognizingthetruesourceoflifeand dominion ( calls God‘thetrueking’( all theIsraelitekings,Qur them’ whenHeplacedprophetsintheirmidstand‘madeyouintokings’(Q.5:20).Of God commandsMosestoremindtheIsraelitesof‘thegrace( ‘King’ isnotmerelyadivineepitheteither, butappliestorighteoushumans aswell. al- (Q. 2:246– the beinga 251). Davidisevencalledacaliph( (Q. 12:101)andthe quddus ItisnotablethatCronedoesnotmentiontheQur ThemostnegativeevaluationofkingsintheQur Umayyad andrefl mulk )(Q.59:23,62:1),and‘thekingofhumanity’( and its temptations. In Q. 43: 51, thetyrannicalPharaohboaststohis anditstemptations.InQ. 43: 51, 7); however, thescripturespeakspositivelyof khalifa mulk layabla — Propheticdominion,Umayyadkingship— rst glimpse beyondthehistorians’clich anda mulk Umayyad polemicinasmuchasthishasoftenbeencast mulk ective ofthemostarchaicformsMuslimreligiosity.Crone muluk .Thejustifi malik MULK ).Yet evenherethepoint isnotsomuchthat 20 – 20 – ofIsraelitekings,suchasDavidandSolomon(Q.2:102, mulk al- ;sing. malik al- ʾ weremoreorlesssynonymousintheQur ʾ thisamountsnotsomuchtoawitheringcriticismof anicSolomonsuccessfullybeseechesGod(Q.38:35). anexplicitlyconferstheepithetof initsfullcomplexityrequiresfi mulk INTHENEGATIVE cation forexcludingtheQur mulk khalifa ʾ anaversthatGodhasgiventheentireprogenyof malik ʿ azim haqq inthreesourcesthatconvergedtheanti- 43 ).Thatthedesignation‘king/ )with )(Q.4:53) – mulk )(Q.20:114),‘theholyking’( wa- ʾ shajarat al- andohintofthedangersthatcome mulk asevilnordoesitissueablanket malik hab limulkan ʾ an – ʾ anasadirectsourceofthiscri- (Q.38:20,26),suggestingthat atleastfi a verse we shall revisit below. averseweshallrevisit muchlikeitsbiblicalcoun- perhapsnotwithoutirony – é about malik al- khuld ni mulk ʿ ma of- rst anaccountofthe ve times.TheQur ʾ anisstrongandalso )nottobesurpassed )butwithundying ʾ ofJosephinEgypt )Godbestowedon malik fact descriptionof ā mulk n isimmediately nas ruler’ ( .TheQur )(Q.114:2). ʾ onlytoSaul

anicidiom. mulk mulk Umayyad 22

al-

: God’s isevil malik malik ʾ ʾ an an 23

)

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 ancient rootsinRoman- tarian socialstructureofthetribesArabian Peninsula, aperceptionwith in theQur Pythagorean andStoicpoliticalphilosophyinsofaras the cosmogonickingdevelopedinHebrewBible,earlyChristianity,andeven You willjustasYou exaltwhomYou willandhumblewhomYou (Q.3:26). will’ God wills: ‘You grantdominiontowhomYou willandtakedominionfromwhom is providentiallydistributedthroughoutthecourseofhumanhistorytowhomever providential dispensation.Hence,withregardto indomitable tribalpeoplewho defi neighboring empires.Thestereotypes foisteduponthesepeoplesbyoutsidersas an of theArabianPeninsula had evadedinclusionintotheterritorialboundaries of against ByzantiumandIran, theArabiantribesthatinhabitedinnerreaches to affi ship manifestedinmanyhierarchicalforms. the ArabianPeninsulaknewnohierarchywouldbeagrave mistake,astriballeader- hierarchy fedintothepolemicsagainstUmayyad is anotherquestionaltogetherastowhetherornotthis allegedlyancientaversionto Islamic historiographyratherthanaresourceforitspreservation. Islamic tribalsocietyoftenappearsastheenemytoMuslim egalitarianisminearly condemnation suggest thattheconnotationsof realm ofdivinedominionandsovereignty.ThisbaselineQur God andgrantedtospecifi are appliedtobothGodandmen; with thepassageoftime: fundamental vocabularyofearlyIslamicpietywhosesalienceremainsunmitigated 15:17– logical andeschatological(forexample,Q. 22:56, 25:26;cf.Ps.24:1f.,7ff ment (Q.2:255;Psalms47,93– both traditions,divinekingshipisexpressedthroughtheroyalimageryofenthrone- by specifyingthatkingshipisbestowedonmenonlythroughadivinedispensation.In strongly rejectthesacralityofearthlykingsbyassociatingtruekingshipwithGodand ( and theearth’( rae hns ‘inhishandresidesthe[divine]kingdom ofallthings’( created things: malkutu kullishay š malkutehd- the NewTestament notionof‘thekingdomGod’(Greek, ition (Hebrew, resembles cognatenotionsdrawnfromancientmonotheisticthemesthebiblicaltrad- malkut maya Hostilitytokingsandkinglyrulehasalsolongbeen confl TheQur Asiswellknown,longbeforetheadventofIslam in Hijazandthevictories ThisQur rm Godastheultimate‘sovereignof[all]dominion( ). 18). 26

).God’s However, intheQur 25

ʾ an’s ideal kings (for example, Q. 2:251). an’s idealkings(forexample,Q. 2:251). ʾ anoff ʾ alaha TheQur anicdataisimportantforanumberofreasons.First,itrepresentsthe mulk malkut malkut al- malkut ers, therefore,arepriseofancientmonotheisticthemesGodas )and‘thekingdomofheaven’( ʾ )(Q.23:88,Y asunjustortyrannical. ;cf.1Chr29:11,30;Ezra1:1f.)andstronglyresonateswith ʾ anspeaksofGod’s dominionasmanifestinhis‘kingdom’ istheentirecosmos,‘the[divine]kingdomofheavens era depictionsofArabianwarriorsandmarauders. c persons andpeoples; malik samawat wa- — SeanW. Anthony — ʾ an 9), andtheaffi anditsplural mulk ā 27

ed civilization andpreferredbarbarismenjoyeda malkut s

ī mulk n 36:83).Ofcourse,theQur areessentiallyneutralandbereftofablanket l- ,‘sovereignty’or‘dominion’,ispossessedby 44 ard isexclusivelydivineandneverhuman.

28

30 rmation ofdivinesovereigntyiscosmo- )(Q.6:75,7:185)andencompassesall

Indeed,thesocialstratifi muluk mulk mulk basileia tonouranon/ ,meaning‘king(s)’or‘ruler(s)’, 24

malkut mulk ,themessageofQur .To imaginethatthetribesof ThePsalmsandtheQur

malik al- joins basileia toutheou/ istheall- ated withtheegali- ʾ anic hikma 31

ʾ anicdatastrongly mulk

malkut cation ofpre- encompassing )’.Dominion ,orwisdom, malkuta da- .; Exodus bi-

29 closely Yet, it yadihi Syriac ʾ anis ʾ an

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 any manexceptforGod. kings, assimilatedperhapsintoIslamintheproverbial Muslimrefusaltobow Quraysh ofMecca,reputedlyrankedamongtheirnumber. petitioned Muhammadtoexemptthemfromthepractice, albeittonoavail. and Hawazin,famouslychaff and rejectedtheirreligions,thepre- kings ofHimyarandtheYemen. alliances, suchasthecrown- kings whospoketheirownlanguagesandcultivatedfamiliartriballineages Ofcourse,theinhabitantsofArabianPeninsuladidknowmanykings – mulk idealized, literaryaccountsof theearlyconquests.BeforebattleofYarmuk in636, poet selves. AsearlyasthewritingsofGreekhistorianDiodorusSiculus(fl long currency;itevencametobeappropriatedbytheinhabitantsofArabiathem- and ‘theyrecognizedtheauthorityofnoking’. freemen ( Thesignifi recognized theauthorityandreligion( of thesekings’reachanddeemedtheirtribesbe in prayer. paying alms- curried favorwith Muhammad’s mainrivaltoprophecyinArabia,MusaylimaofYamama, reportedly Emblematicofthedefi bce customs andlaw. apparently refl only thesenseof‘religion’butalso‘judgement’;thesetribes’rejectionakings’ Vestiges ofthedefi OnlysomeArabiantribesboastedofbeing ), onealreadyfi wa- Mulkunamulkunlaqahunawwalun andourfathersoftheAwd arethebest. Ourdominionisthefi Andmakekingstremblewhentheyrushtowar. Theyarethefreemen( maintain theirlibertyunimpaired. at anytimeacceptamanofanothercountryastheirover- diffi [T] ʿ ,too.Thepre- Amrb. Hawtal- culttoovercomeinwar, remainalwaysunenslaved;furthermore,theynever he Arabianswhoinhabitthiscountry[thatis,betweenSyriaandEgypt],being abuna minBaniAwdin khiyarun laqah 42

cance of

tax andtheindignityofraising theirbuttsintotheairwhileprostrating — ects notmerelyarejectionofroyalculticidentity,butalsoking’s )’,asoneearlyscholarnotes,because‘theyacceptednoking’s religion’ Propheticdominion,Umayyadkingship— ndsthisthemeoftheindomitableArabians: din laqah Islamic poetAfwahal- Riyahi: hereissomewhatdiffi at ant ant spiritofthe oftheTamim byexemptingthemfromthehumiliationof

40 rstdominionoffreemen ManyArabiantribes,suchasMecca’s neighbors,Thaqif laqah laqah wearing phylarchsinSyriaandSouthernIraqthe ed atthepracticeofprostratingeveninprayer, and )andrejectthekings’religion(

33 ’s attitude towardskingsalsoenteredthehighly ButmanyArabiantribesboastedoftheirevasion Islamic poetsclearlybelievedthatthe 32

din

. 45 39

laqah )ofnoking. Awdi boastsofhis tribe:

cult toparsegiventhat 38

tribeswastheirrefusaltobow laqah Yet, thoughthe laqah 35

,

36

34 ,thatistosay,freemenwho butMuhammad’s tribe,the Inwordsofthepre-

37 ‘Meccawasalandof lord andcontinueto din al- laqah din muluk . fi . cancarrynot

defi rst century rst laqah ed kings ed ) Islamic even had din

41

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 Prophet portends,‘thenafterthatthereshallbetyranny ( by afreedmanoftheProphetnamedSafi akin to‘tyranny’. sheds itsmeaningof‘dominion’or‘sovereignty’tomeansomethingunambiguously currency beyondtheircircles,itisinthetraditionsof primarily adevelopmentofthe lute asmodernhistorianshadonceimagined. hostility tothehistoricalmemoryofUmayyadcaliphswas,furthermore,notasabso- kings andMu of a30- the emergentdominionofanewhegemon. yet theyarenoticonsoftheendalldominion;rather, theyaretheharbingersof of society.TheseArabianbraveshumbledkingsandwouldnotbecowedbythem, of earlyIslamictriumphalismmorethantheyareemblemsanew, egalitarianvision these narratives: despite thesebraves’defi ling protagonists.Yet, oneshouldalsonotlosesightoftheideologythatundergirds courage populatethenarrativesofearlyIslamicconquestsandmakeforcompel- Piousbraveswhodefykingsandleavetheirenemiesabashedbyotherworldly with theByzantinehighcommander, namedBahan,inwhichthetopicofkings arose: the QurashigeneralKhalidb. al- biguously negativesenseof historical periodization.The30- caliphs’ beginningwithAbuBakr’s reignin dynasty’, Cronenotes. ‘The hostilitytotheUmayyadsistoopervasiveinsourcesrefl not, asoftenassumed,anAbbasid- main transmitterofthe versions ofthetradition,thisattackagainstUmayyad legitimacyisexplicit.The caliphs asitcomparedtheircaliphalruleunfavorably toanidealizedpast.Inother of Sunnihistoriography.Itwasalsoadirectattackon the legitimacyofUmayyad earliest statementsofthe‘four- assassination in pale- Safi Perhapsthemostfamousversionofthistropecomesin apropheticreportrelated Hence,neithertheQur na, ‘TheUmayyadsclaimthatthe caliphateresideswiththem.’‘Thosesonsof excellent thanussaveinhispietyorfearofGod.’ to beourking,thenwewouldremovehim!We donotregardour your scriptureandwhomadethe our prophetandyourprophet,whomadeusaffi is thebestcommunity…’ of prophets,ourking[Heraclius]themostexcellentkings,andcommunity Bahansaid,‘PraiseGodwhomadeourprophet[thatis,Jesus]themostexcellent eyed women( ButKhalidinterruptedhisspeech,saying,‘PraiseGodwhomadeusfaithfulto year spanfeaturedinSafi ʿ awiyaisthefi ah 40/ banu l- 45

661 Beyondtheviolenceofdynastictransition,Abbasids’ hadith ʾ annorthepre- zurqa mulk rstking!’ — ce . Assuch,thetraditioncertainlycountsasoneof SeanW. Anthony — ,theBasrantraditionistSa caliph thesis’thatwouldeventuallybecomeastaple hadith foundinanti- year spanencompassestheso- ʾ Walid purportedlyenteredintoacolorfulexchange ) na’s reportis,inmanyways,anearlyattemptat 48

lie’,Safi era inventionintendedtotarnishtheUmayyads. 49

amir folkofIraq.Althoughthetropegainedwide

na: ‘The caliphateshalllastthirtyyears’,the ance ofkings,theyarenonethelessemblems 46 Islamic tribaltraditionimpartedtheunam- overustobeoneofus.Were hetoclaim

44 na responds,‘rathertheyareworstof

46

ah Umayyad polemic Aswillbeseenbelow, thetropewas 11/ rm thetruthofourscriptureand 632

43

ʿ hadith ce id b. Jumhan, responds to idb. Jumhan,

mulk andendingwith called ‘rightly- )’. folkthat . Thetropewasalso

47 ect thechangeof Thecalculation amir mulk asmore guided ʿ fi Ali’s rst Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 declares. caliphate ofprophecy,then GodgivesdominiontowhomHewills’,onesuch mulk altogether. Thecommunity beginswithanideal,butthenGodsubsequentlygrants Such‘gradualist’versionsofthetraditiondispensewith thenegativemeaningof sequently, implicate traditions implicatecommunalstrifewithendingtheidealcaliphalperiodand,con- ernor ofYemen inSan the assassinationofhissolerival, watershed momentattheaccessionofMu and manymoreattributedtohisCompanions.Asabove,mostversionsplacethe then aperiodoftyrannyappearsinmanyversions,someattributedtotheProphet governor ofSyria,Abu Medinan scholar, Sa Othertraditionspositanevenearliertimeforthedevolutionofcaliph.The ʿ when thecaliphateofprophecy( the caliphateof assassination. Othersassert,rather, thattheageofutopiancaliphsendedwith caliphs arethreeandtherestkings: Abu Bakr, Mu now becometyrannyanddespotism( kubra his assassinationandsimultaneouswiththeoutbreakoffi caliphal ideal. ultaneously praisedasthe‘yearofunity( b. presses himtonamethesecond clearly understoodthatheportendedthefuturecaliphateofUmayyad as caliphafterthedeathofhisfather Bakr and Amr b. al- Amrb. al- ʿ Theexpectationofaperiodprophecyfollowedbycaliphalruleand Notalltraditionsdrawthelinessostarkly.TheQurashi Companionandearly Abdal- ʿ awiya – wa- silk willbedeemedlicit( then sullieddominion,dominionanddespotismunder whichevenwineand Your religionshallbeginwithprophecyandmercy,thendominion wa- You sonsof missible acts! declared sacred,orjustbecauseyoucovetafterdominionandcarryoutimper- because youkillcaliphsanddeclarelicitthesheddingofbloodthatGodhas – ). here, ‘sovereignty’ or ‘dominion’ and not ‘tyranny’ – here,‘sovereignty’or‘dominion’ andnot‘tyranny’ – 51

rahma, thummamulka l-

56 Forinstance,whenthenewsofcaliph’s assassinationreachedthegov- harir ʿ

Umar. ʿ Aziz(r. 717– ʿ reproachedal- As(d. — 50

). Yet, notallversionspositthatthetyrannyof 55

Propheticdominion,Umayyadkingship— ʿ 54

Uthman b. Uthmanb.

53

ʿ

Abdal-

c. ʿ idb. al- 662– ʿ AlialongwithMu ʿ a ʿ 20) andranked Ubaydab. al- ʾ , Thumama b. ,Thumamab. Muttalib, Godwillnotgrantyoudominion( 4) – 4) – Hasan b. Musayyib (d. ʿ Aff awwalu dinikumnubuwwawa- thefamedQurashiconquerorofEgyptandally an (r. 644– ʿ farthummamulkwa- ʿ Umar, whomtheydidnotknow, butlaterreaders khilafat al- ʿ Ali b. Abi Talib, Alib. Abi in ʿ AliforhisinitialrefusaltorecognizeMu ʿ Jarrah (d.639),quotestheProphetassaying: Ali: wa- ʿ UmarII’s caliphateashighlythoseofAbu ʿ Adi,hereportedlyopined,‘Thisisthetime 47 c. ʿ awiyainitsdissolution.Alongthisvein, sara l- 56), placingtheappearanceof 709– al- ʿ awiyatothecaliphateinwakeof nubuwwa jama 10), purportedlyoncedeclared: ‘The amru mulkanjabriyyatan ʿ Umar, and ʿ a )’andbemoanedastheendof jabrut yastahillufi )issnatchedaway;rulehas ah 40/ rst civilwar( ʿ tolessidealrulers.‘A Umar.’ Sa rahma, thummamulk 661 mulk ce beginsat – ʿ

ha al- id’s audience ayearsim- mulk al- mulk ).’ fi tna al- tna 52

khamr ʿ hadith ʿ awiya Such Umar )just after mulk ʿ Ali’s

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 of Mus the poetIbnQaysal- utterance toIbn and ushersinanewera. munity, notasingleman’s autocracy,iswhatmostoftenendstheutopianphase tion. early Islamichistoriographyandimbeddedinthearchitecturallogicofitsperiodiza- victory overtheZubayridsin692. freedman untilthedaysofal- inspired tocirculateSafi ThesecondcivilwarisalsothepurportedcontextinwhichSa governor inhishomeland,traveledtothecourtofUmayyadcaliph the storyofaYemeni manwho,whenfacedwiththeoppressionofcaliph’s is despotism!’ tyranny anddespotism.Prophecythecaliphatehave certainlydeparted,forthis have heardthatfi caliph threatenedtokillhimifhedareutteranotherword,andthemanreplied,‘I interrupted himtoaskforredressagainstthemisdeedsofcaliph’s governor. The in distantSyria.While Ibn and theZubayridsinHijazbattledforcontrolofcaliphate.TheHashimite expressed duringthesecondcivilwar(683– against Mu a caliphate,buttodayitisfutiletyranny( they beledtoHell,stating,‘Thisaff affl of simplertimes.Indeed,throughoutearlyIslamichistoriography, nostalgiaoften tion andwhowasnot.Suchtraditionsalsogavevoice toanostalgiaforpastglories served ahortatoryfunction,markingoff a full- ideal didcomeattheexpenseofdowngradingcurrent rulers, butthiswasnotalways to earlyIslamichistoriography.Positingtheearliestcaliphs asembodyingahigher of prophecy,caliphaljustice,andkingship/ and I seekrefugeinGodfrom thefateofseeingthattime.’ hasneverappearedwithout beingreplacedbytyranny, his warriorsthus: ‘Prophecy founding ofBasra,thevictorious Qurashigeneral tragedy hasreareditshead. Inhisfi as theSyriachistoriographyfromUmayyadSyria. icts theparticipantsinearly Islamicconquestbeforeanyindicationoffuture Whereversuchtraditionsdrawtheline,civilstrife( TherudimentaryperiodizationofearlyIslamichistory intothreestages – ʿ jabarutunminhuwa- Mulkuhumulkurahmatinlaysafi Isneitherdespotismnorhigh- Hisdominionisaofmercy,init AbbaswarnsfellowMuslimstofl 57

frontal attackonthelegitimacyofthoseinauthority. Theperiodizationalso Theimpactofthisthemeonnon- ʿ abb. al- ʿ awiyaandtheUmayyadsasguiltyparty,suchcomplaintsarealso

62

Zubayr: ʿ rstthereshallbeprophecy,thenthecaliphateandmercy, andthen Abbasislikelyspurious,butonefi Ruqayyat (d. 699) as hepraisesthevictoriousarrival inBasra Ruqayyat (d.699) as ʿ Abdal- na’s report.Sa la kibriya Fitna — Ḥ SeanW. Anthony — isamongtheearliestandmostimportantthemesof ajjajb. Yusuf al- Malik deliveredhisFridaysermon,theYemeni man handedness. rstpublicaddresstotheMuslim armiesafterthe ʾ 61 u air startedwithprophecyandmercy then . TheAbbasid- hi 60

ee boththeUmayyadsandZubayridslest

Arabic historiographyappearsevenasearly ʿ 48 whowasworthyoftheirrulers’emula- db JumhanhadnotmettheProphet’s idb. 92), duringwhichtheUmayyadsinSyria mulk Thaqafi tyranny – tyranny – ʿ ʿ Utba b. Ghazwan (d. 638) warns (d.638) warns Utbab. Ghazwan aqim 58

era historianal- nds similarthemesinaverseof Althoughaccusationsabound fi tna , that is,aftertheUmayyads’ ).’

59

63

)overcontrolofthecom- hadaninherentappeal Theattributionofthis

ʿ id b. Jumhan was idb. Jumhan Mada ʿ Abdal- ʾ inirelates theeras Malik Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 distinguished betweenthetwoinhissermon.’ ( of thefaithfulareallkings( cites forthesermon,Ibrahimal- oppression anda Thisstatement,andthoselikeit,easilylentthemselvestotheviewthat Thus, thecaliphAbuBakral- ition emergesinparticulartheliteraryadaptationandexpansionsoftradition. and onecanonlyemulatethatpastinthepresent.Thishortatoryfunctionoftrad- unbridled honesty: asks fortheman’s opinionoftheUmayyadcaliphs,AbuHazimanswerswith when seizedunjustly. Again,although falls squarelythemannerinwhich is rumoredthatAbuHazimhadmetCompanionsoftheProphet. Abu HazimwhilehetarriesinMedinabeforecontinuingonwardstoMeccawhenit (r. 715– ‘the Lame’( and, moreover, todissuaderulersfromoversteppingtheirbounds. tinct sensetheearlycaliphsaredepictedinsuchloftytermsordertobeaspirational neutral termsasmeaningsimply ‘sovereignty’or‘dominion’. the feet ofMu into atypeoftyrannical that manyoftheearly,piety- at theveryleasthispietydrovehimtoseekclarifi apportion ittoanyunworthypurpose,thenyouarea king andnotacaliph.’ ‘If youlevymoreorlessasingle Salman al- wa- Still, the message is clear: what’s doneisdone,theutopianpastwillnotreturn, Still,themessageisclear: what’s Ofallpeople,even OnealsoseesthisinafamousexchangebetweentheMedinanscholarAbuHazim Earlierscholarlytreatmentsof hadith Ofallpeopleinthisworldandthenext,kingsaremostpitiable( the Muslimsandtheirconsent( and theyseizedthisdominionwithviolencewithouttheconsultationof CommanderoftheFaithful,yourfatherusedswordtosubduepeople, anny goneawry( prophecy andatacrossroads,butaftermeyoushallseebitingkingshiptyr- thatothershave…Todayhim covet all youareinthetimeofcaliphate a kingcomestopower, Godmakeshimloseinterestinwhatheownsand mashwaratin minal- number ofthem. laysa kullumalikyakunukhalifatanwa- 17). Intheframestoryofexchange,calipharrangesameetingwith folkandotheropponentsof Umayyadlegitimacy – ʿ Farisi whetherornothewasacaliphking,andSalman warnedhim, awiyaandsubsequentUmayyads giventheirembraceofthecourtlypomp al- — a Propheticdominion,Umayyadkingship— ʿ raj mulk malik , d. ,d. 67

mulkan stillreceivesstrongcondemnationinthesestories,the focus

ʿ ca. wasatyrant,yeteventheauthoritythatbelletristal- Umar b. al- Umarb. al- mulk 758) and the Umayyad caliph Sulayman b. theUmayyadcaliphSulaymanb. 758) and muslimin wa- muluk minded Muslimsbemoaned thedeclineofcaliphalrule andthattheylaidtheblame forthedevelopmentat Siddiq allegedlydeclared: ʿ adudanwa- Ansari, comments: ‘Caliphs, imams,andcommanders mulk dirham ),butnoteverykingcanbeacaliphoranimam Khattab reportedlyfeltconfusedontheissue,or mulk akhadhu hadhal- inIslamicpoliticaldiscourse – la ridanlahum 49 fromthelandsofMuslimsandthen hsbe lie: hasbeenclaimed: mulkan imaman

65 Fromthesecomments,onegetsadis- cation thereon.Once ʿ anudan ),andforthatreasonAbuBakr ).Theyevenslaughtereda mulk ). 64

regarded

69 mulk Still,itremainstrue ʿ anwatan 66

WhenSulayman becomesunjust lessrelianton ʿ Abdal- mulk

ʿ mulk Umarasked ashqa ʿ alaghayr inmore 68

meant Malik )…If

Jahiz Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 ( gatherwealth the pursuitofwealth.‘RevelationwasnotgiventomesothatI might Other traditionsstruckasimilarchordbuthighlightedtheprophet’s rejectionof demonstrated thatMuhammad’s motivationlaynotinloveofpowerandwealth. into thecitywhileseatednexttoProphet’s uncleal- the MeccanQuraysh,AbuSufyan,beheldspectacleofMuhammadmarching AccordingtoanearlynarrativeofMecca’s conquestin630,theUmayyadleaderof Roman andPersianmonarchs,suchas of regionalspeciesdespoticmonarchism(oftenlabelledwithtermsreferringtothe sense, meaningnot‘sovereignty’or‘dominion’ingeneralbutspecifi a capacioustermthatthepiety- current ofearlyMuslimpietisticdiscourseongovernanceamongmany. salient asananti- make youaprophetkingormessengerservant( second angeldescendedtopayhimavisitandposedquestion,‘ShallyourLord prophethood ( scious decision,yetsimultaneouslypositedkingship( believe – prophecy and conquering king.Yet, asseenabove,inthebroaderframeofearlyIslamicdiscourse, of theProphet’s triumph,Muhammadwasforemostaconqueringprophet,not averred. and exclaimed,‘Thedominion( Muhammad’s faith, AbuSufyanobservedhisformernemesisatlastenterthecity aw a messengerservant. a rejectionof of Muhammad’s prophecy,butarejectionofroyaloffi rebuked him,‘Itisnotdominion;rather, itisprophecy( Ibn Ishaq(d.150/ a famousincidentfromtheearlyMeccanperiod Muhammad’s lifenarratedby between thetwotypesof viewed hisprophecyasconcomitantwiththepolity’s earthlytriumph.Thedistinction Muhammad’s prophethoodasasourceofitsmandatetoruleandhow itsearlyrulers key forunderstandinghowtheearlyIslamicpolity drew upontheprecedenceof as kingshipand keen toderidehiskinsman, opposition begantointensify againsttheProphetandhisearlyfollowers.Neverone Mu In response,Muhammadrecites theopeningversesfromSuratal- ( shall beMuhammad’s ifhehasneedofit,status ( ajma mulk AnothertraditionportrayedMuhammad’s rejectionofthekinglyoffi Mulk ʿ ʿ awiya’s maternalgrandfather, approached Muhammadtoconciliatehimasthe abdanrasulan ʿ )ifhedesiresit,andevena doctor totreathimifitismadnessthataffl aal- 73

inthenarrowsenseofbeingaking, indeed,theyoftengohandinhand.

mal mulk mulk )orbeamerchant( nubuwwa mulk 767). Umayyad critique,itmustalsobecontextualizedasmerelyone )?’CounseledinhumilitybyGabriel,Muhammadchosetobe as‘dominion’inabroadersense.Thisdistinctionbetween werenotprimafacieasincompatiblethestorywouldhaveus 72

asdominionissubtleand,therefore,oftenmissed, but itis Thetraditiondidnotdenouncekingshipperse,ratherit ): once whileMuhammadsatinthecompany ofGabriel,a ): once ʿ Utba b. Rabi Utbab. Rabi MULK mulk ʿ — UtbapresentsMuhammad with aproposal: wealth ( SeanW. Anthony — – – mulk ‘kingship’and‘dominion’ – minded oppositionwinnoweddowntoanarrower INTHEPOSITIVE akuna minal- )ofyournephewhasbecomegreat!’Al- ʿ a,an qaysariyya, hiraqliyya 50 ʿ AbshamichieftainoftheQurayshand malik tajirin sharaf ,doesnotapplytoearlyportraits a- mulk fa- )’,theProphetissaidtohave nubuwwa )ifheyearnsforit,kingship malikan nabiyyanyaj ʿ ce wasnottantamountto

Abbas. A recent convertto Abbas.A recent )asentirelyinaccordwith appearsquitevividlyin , kisrawiyya )!’ 71

cally‘tyranny’. Fussilat untilhe Atthemoment ce asacon- Mulk icts him. ).

70 ʿ While Abbas ʿ aluka mulk was mal

)

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 The storybeginswiththeYemeni kingRabi also interweavesthisstorywithvividportentsofMuhammad’s prophetic destiny. call us…’Strickendumbwithaweatthescripture’s eloquence, reaches thefi dence. Viewed throughthislens, but ratherwithinapanoramicviewofhumanhistoryaslaidoutbythedivineprovi- dynasty, theso- to makeapactwiththeSasanianShahofPersiain order establishtheruleofhis is abouthowthekingRabi the pre- as signalingamanifestdestinyconferreduponhisfuture communityinastoryof tectonics ofdivineprovidenceonthegrandestscale. in thenarrativesthatrecountIslamic destiny broughtbyMuhammadtohispeople,aanticipatedandforeshadowed pagan divinersalike. ( Likewise, astheprophettravelsaboutaboy,heisrecognizedfutureking Enter thefameddivinersSatihandShiqq,eacharenowned diviner( astrology, andauguriestohiscourt,buttheyareat a losstointerprethisdream. by adreamwhosemeaningeludeshim.Hesummons mastersofdivination,magic, Ishaq’s account, thetwodivinerssuccessfullyinterpretdream ofRabi capable intheinterpretation ofdreamsthantheking’s courtiers. BytheendofIbn spread farandwide( nor divinationandadvisesthemtoleaveMuhammadbe.‘Hiswordswilldoubtlessly elders ofthepaganQurayshanddeclareswhatheheardtobeneitherpoetry,magic, of Axumiterulefromacross theRedSea,thenHimyarites’expulsionofAxumite future eventsbeyondtheend oftheking’s ruleinYemen and prophesythecoming and provideadireprophecy ofthefatehisdynastyinYemen. Theyevenforetell freely ofthe depicting Muhammad’s propheticoffi ethood bringswithitafuturedominion( Muhammad roundlyrejectsthetrappingsofkingship( if oftenneglected,themefoundinthe ʿ of Syria( mother, Amina,whensheconceiveshim;andathisbirthAminawitnessesthepalaces the prophet’s fatherbearsaholylightbetweenhiseyesthatpassesontotheprophet’s glory andtriumphofhiscommunityfromtheverymomentconception.Hence, positive terms.Inthe Utba’s lastcommentechoesthewordingofQ. 3: 26andhomesinonanimportant, malik IbnIshaqagainprovidesuswithoneoftheclearestvisions oftheprophet’s EarlybiographicalaccountsofMuhammad’s liferejectroyalimagerywhen fortunate ofpeople( dominion, hisexaltationyourexaltation,andthroughhimyouwillbethemost …ifhegainstheupperhandoverArabs,thenhisdominionwillbeyour ʿ izzakumwa- ),orascarryingdominion( Islamic, LakhmidkingofYemen, Rabi qusur al- fth verse,‘Theysay: our heartsareshieldedfromthefaithtowhichyou — mulk Propheticdominion,Umayyadkingship— called Nasrids,inal- kuntum as oftheprophetandhiscommunity( sham 75

la- sira- Thesenarrativesframe yakunnana li- )fi in yazhar maghazi ll withthatsamelight,anomenoffutureconquests. ʿ ʿ a b. Nasr cametoabandonhiskingdominYemen ab. Nasr and adal- mulk nas bih literature,theprophet’s birthportendsthefuture mulk ʿ alal- qawlihi …naba ce; however, theydospeakfrequentlyand Hira insouthernIraq. sira-maghazi anditsvicissitudesappearasapreordained ),byChristianmonks,Jewishrabbis,and praeparatio coranica 51 mulk ). ʿ

arabfa- ʿ ʿ )forhispeopleandcommunity. aawakeningtofi mulk ab. Nasr. Ostensibly,IbnIshaq’s tale literature: although asaprophet literature: although mulkuhu mulkukumwa- notintermsofapoliticaloffi ʾ un mulk umma ʿ azimun )forhimself,hisproph-

76 anddisclosethearchi- However, IbnIshaq )inoverwhelmingly nd himself terrifi himself nd ʿ Utbareturnstothe )’, ʿ kahin Utbaportends,

)farmore ʿ a b. Nasr ab. Nasr ʿ izzuhu mulk ce ed 74

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 Rabi Muhammad. rule undertheleadershipofDhuYazan, and(fi who willendthedominion( with thekerygmaticexpectationsofcomingIslamanditsprophet.Whenasked appears yetagainintheseconddiviner’s utterances.AfterSatihhasbeendismissed,Rabi until theendoftime’. [thatis,fromQuraysh]…dominionshallresidewithhistribe geny ofGhalibb. Fihr Rather, itwasanextrapolationofQur rhymed, cadencedproseoftheArabiandiviners, account issignifi of oneanother. Thewordingofeachdiviner’s prophecyasitappearsinIbnIshaq’s when askedthekingdomofDhuYazan shallend,hedeclares b. Nasr summonsShiqq,theseconddiviner. Shiqq’s prophecyconfi a discourseforthelegitimacyofcaliphalruleby Quraysh. IntheQur His prophesy thatthe from onedynastyandpeopletoanotherasthewheeloffateturns,yettheyalso Bothpropheciesthatthedivinersutterforetelltransferalofdominion,or gave ‘amightydominion( chose theMessenger’s communityofbelieverstofollowthereligion( dramas, thatinlateantiquethoughthadcometobeseen asacontestofempires. story writesthetribe( father Abraham(Q.22:78).Theywereacommunity( true progeny( obedience, theIsraelitesand Jewsnolongerhadashare( ard the landsoftheirenemies,as theQur manifests inthis- promised themis,inpart,otherworldlyandeschatological (Q.20:20),butitalso answer totheprayersofAbrahamandIshmael(Q.2: 25– prayer andasignofGod’s covenant.GodraiseduptheMessengerfromtheirmidstin Lord shalldestroyyourenemies andcauseyoutoinherittheland( EachdivinerdelivershismessagetoRabi Thatdominionfelltotheprophet’s kindredintheseaccountswasnoaccident. ),sotakecarehowyouact’ (Q.7:128– Nabiyyunzakiyy Aprophetpure fadli Yanqati Judgment. of religionandvirtue Itwillendbyaprophetsent mulk ʿ aasksSatihwhothismanshallbe,andthedivineranswers,‘afrompro-

* shallremainamonghistribe(

yakunu l- ʿ ubi- dhuriyya cant inbothformandcontent.Theirutterancesarecouchedthe rasulin mursali worldly realities.Inthepast, theIsraelitesconqueredandinherited mulk * 79

mulku fi

tohimwillcomerevelation * Thethemeofthedominion( qawm

)andchargedwiththecustodianshipofMeccaasaplace of ofthecomingprophetshallbeanentirelydiff ya ʾ * tihil- mulk amonghistribedominionshallremainuntiltheDayof — mulk qawmihiilayawmil- )ofMuhammad,Mecca’s Quraysh,intoeschatological SeanW. Anthony —

wahiyy * ʿ * )oftheDhuYazan inYemen, Satihdeclares:

azim ya withtruthandjusticehecomes ʾ ʾ tubi- anicMosespromisedhispeople, ‘Perhapsyour )’toAbraham’s descendants(Q.4:54).God

ʾ anicthemesmobilizedinordertoarticulate * 52

9). But,cursedbyGodbecause oftheirdis- min qibalil- l- qawm haqqi wa- ʿ a b. Nasr individuallywithouttheaid ab. Nasr )untiltheDayofJudgment.The nally) thecomingofprophet 77

mulk * buttheyarealsoclearlyinfused fasli. fromonhigh. umma l- ʿ aliyy )oftheprophet’s tribe( ʿ

adli nasib

30). TheAbrahamic .

78

)raisedfromAbraham’s *

)inthedominionGod bayna ahlil- rms that of Satih, and rms thatofSatih,and yastakhlifakum fi * fromapeople milla erent sort. erent dini wa- )oftheir ʾ an,God qawm mulk mulk 80

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Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 narratives oftheearlyconquests. appear sporadicallyinthe the dominionofAbrahamand,therefore,landsandwealthsinfulnations CitationsofthisQur was void,forGod’s covenant( promise wascontingentontheirrighteousness – decreed intheBookPsalms( granted them(Q.4: 52– tury: even madeitsimpactoninearlySyriacdisputational literatureintheeighthcen- righteous servantsshallinherittheearth’(Q.21:105,citingPs.37:29). dominion. TheUmayyad- a prophetwhobroughtwithhimthemandatetospread God’s religionandtheir progeny maderighteousbyfollowingtheGod’s chosenprophetfromtheirmidst, pable. TheearlyconquesteliteoftheIslamicpolitywere acommunityofAbraham’s their favorinGod’s eyesandexplainedwhythespreadoftheirdominionwasunstop- munity ofrighteousbelievers,Abraham’s dominionwastheirstoinherit(Q.24:55): most deservingtolayclaimAbraham’s legacy(Q.3:68).FortheMessenger’s com- promise didawaittherighteousbelieverswhofollowedMessenger, thoseprogeny ( quips aMuslimemirinaneighth- this claimexplicitlyinthefollowingverses: was fargranderthattheseearliergains.AbuJa a landhadneversteppedfootonbefore’(Q.33:27).Yet, thepromiseofQ. 24:55 promise, ‘andHecausedyoutoinherittheirland,homes,andwealth Victories overJewishopponentsmentionedinQur subjects!’ ramifi š ultana HebuiltGod’s andHebequeathedtousglory andtimelessdominion( We are pleased withwhattheKing ‘stakhlafa lladhinaminqablihimwa- shall maketheirreligionfi bequeath tothemtheearthjustasHebequeatheditthosebeforethem. GodhaspromisedthoseofyouwhobelieveandactrighteouslythatHeshall OurfatherisGod’s friend ard al- and makethemthekingsmanagersofthoselands( Godshallcause[thebelievers]toinheritthelandsofpaganArabsandnon- ( the tyrantsinSyriaandmadethemkingsinhabitantsofthoselands … justasHehaddonewiththeIsraelitesbeforethemwhentheydestroyed 84

mulukaha wa- cations ofthisversefromSuratal- ‘ThisisthesignthatGodlovesusandpleasedwith our religion( )overallfaiths( 85

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rmly established( ). - maghazi andGodisourLord 82

ʿ )andpeoples.Andbehold,theyareourslaves

83 ahd

ThetriumphalistadaptationofthisQur century Syriactext,‘thatHehasgivenusauthority ) – ) – )excludedtheunrighteous(Q.2:124).Yet, the afteradmonition( l- 87

ʿ literature,butitisnearlyubiquitousinthe Nur inanunambiguouslytriumphalist vein: ajamfa- gaveandordained 53 la- ʿ AtiyyadrawsfromtheQur yumakkinana lahumdinahum la- yaj withoutrighteousnessthepromise ʿ faral- yastakhlifannahum fi ʿ aluhummulukahawa- ʾ anprovidedaforetasteofthis min ba aai(.93 readsthe Tabari (d.923) la- mulk yurithannahum Allahu ʿ dil-

an

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)’, ) Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 during theconquesthavebegunexpressingtheirangeratthirdcaliph b. b. ( inherit thewealthandglory ofnationspast;and3) God hadgivenQurayshdominion theProphetandhiskinsmen, God chosetheArabsto strongest allies;2) through of allpeoples,Godchose the QurayshofMeccatobeProphet’s kinandhis articulated atriumphalistdiscourse ofpoliticallegitimacy.Thesethemesare: 1) that, that mightshedlightonhowearlyQurayshand, by extension,theUmayyads, Ridwanal- ʿ discourse developedinanintriguingepisodethatheplacesduringthecaliphateof raphy ofthe800s. establish acaliphaldynasty,isclearerandstillintheIslamichistoriog- dominion oftheQurayshtoUmayyads,fi discourse oflegitimacyisdiffi Quraysh justifi complex machineryofconquestandexpansion.How, at the earlieststages, selves asoverseersofavastdominionandatopthecommandingheights With theconquestsfollowing Muhammad’s death,theQuraysh soonfoundthem- Sayf choosestocounterthediscontentsofKufansis dissidents areexiledtoSyriawheretheybedetained.Themouthpiecewhom the fl and thefutureUmayyadcaliph,Mu He rebukestheirdefi Kufan dissidentsreadsasanelegantmanifestoinfavorofthehegemonyQuraysh. state. Sayf nonethelesshadaknackforexplainingthedynamicsofearliestconquest Uthmanb. mulk ʿ Alate- Aff protected theminthebarbaricage( Quraysh fromyourilknowthattheypracticeHisreligion? themselves areligionthatwasnotHis.Doyouimagine thatHewillnotprotect come topossesstheirpatrimonies( Islam youhaveattainedaloftystation.You haveconquerednations( You areagroupofArabswhopossesseloquenceandthewisdomage.Through nation whomfatehasnotstrickendownintheirsafestrefuge( that youwishtotakevengeanceagainstQuraysh!… suites nonebutthem( ( were Quraysh.GodthenerectedthisdominionwithQuraysh asitsfoundation to say,Muhammad].Hethenchosecompanionsfor him – this worldanddamnationinthenext,Hesingledout Hisbestcreation[thatis to deliverthosewhowouldhonorandfollowHisreligion( plotted againstthemGodhasshovedtheirfacesintothedirt!Whenwilled land bysometurnoffortune( ames ofwhatpromisedtoquicklyigniteintoaninfernosedition,theIraqi bana hadhal- 89

an andhisfavoritism fortheQurayshandhisUmayyadkinsmen.To putout )inordertooverseetherealization ofthisinheritanceandtopreserveit. Inthefamousepisode,malcontentsfromArabtribesmenwhosettledinKufa DoyouknowofanyArabornon- eighth- Sayyid hassingledoutatthreekeythemesembedded within thispassage ʿ Aff an. Staunchlypro- ed theirhegemonyoverthisearly conquestpolityinacoherent century historiannamedSayfb. mulka anceofQurashihegemonyasfollows: ʿ ja alayhim ʿ — alal- cult toknowprecisely,buttheimportanceof SeanW. Anthony — khilafa fi ʿ Uthmanandrelentlesslyanti- )andestablishedthecaliphateforQuraysh,it ʿ awiyab. Abi Sufyan.Mu bi- dawlatin mawarithahum al- 54 him fa- Arab peopleoranydarklight- jahiliyya )?AllbutQuraysh!Anywhohave ʿ Umaral- la yasluhuillalahum )althoughtheypracticedamong rst oftheclansQurayshto ),butstillithasreachedme ʿ

Uthman’s governorinSyria Tamimi imaginedhowthis ʿ awiya’s warningtothe 90

Shi din

thebestofwhom hurma ʿ ite,asahistorian )frommiseryin ).Godalready umam )orintheir ʿ Uthman skinned

91 )and

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 boast Ishmaelitedescent. refl Yemeni descendent,andtheexclusionofhistribefromAbrahamiclineage RawhwasanotableofthetribeJudham,‘southern’Arabclaiming and claimedonlyby‘northern’tribes,suchasTamim andQuraysh. eventually expandedtoincludetheYemeni tribes,itsoriginalremitwasnarrower eage insofarastheyremainedcustodiansoftheKa however, alwaysremainatthetopofthisputativehierarchyAbrahamiclin- their custodianshipofhisshrine,theKa derived fromtheirkinshiptotheProphet,descentAbraham,and pan- keep inmind,however, isthattheirhegemonywasnotseenassomesortof of thedominionthatProphetbequeathedtohiscommunity.Whatiskey Umayyads sawthemselvesastheleadersofQurayshand,therefore,vanguards dominion inauguratedbytheprophethoodofMuhammad,theirkinsman.The sub- and regardedthemselvesas itsmostpowerfulandrightfulcustodians.Evenother hadith mulk shrine. Evenifpower- caliph takesadvantageofthepresencehisadvisor, Rawhb. Zinba ‘northern’ Arab), al- one conceivesof‘Arabness’,canbeseeninthefollowingnarrativetransmittedby this mandateofQurayshtoanyotherArabiantribes. ʿ Allah b. Allah b. engage and trusteeship( Ansar, thecalltoprayerEthiopians( ership ofthe UthmanthusreliedonMu Baladhuri (d. ects theoldview, predating theAbbasidperiod,thatYemeni tribescouldnot Inthisview, Qurayshwereattheepicenterofanever- TheUmayyadsheldtenaciouslytothe Thatthisinherited,propheticdominionismoreAbrahamicthanArab,however ʿ Rawh – ( We, thedescendantsofIshmael,alsohaveprophecyanddominioninourlineage kings ofYemen. ThedominionofDavidandSolomonevencamewithprophecy. Jews, thedescendantsofAbraham’s sonIsaac,isgreaterthanthedominionof of Ishmael,Abraham’s son,andeventhedominion( brethren theJewsgreaterthandominionofkingsYemen ( wa- clans oftheQurayshostensibly lackedtheirclaim.Inaletterwrittento Arab mandatetorule.Rather, Quraysh’s mandatetoexpandtheirdominion Abdal- fa- bequeathedtothemwastheirsalone.Anideaalsoexpressed inaprophetic ,‘Dominion( ‘CommanderoftheFaithful,’ ʿ fi mulk ikhwatinaa Ayyash inconversationandtohavesomefunatRawh’s expense: na l- na ʿ Umar b. al- Umarb. al- ‘braggingonandaboutthekingsofYemen?’ Malik said,‘ umma — nubuwwa wa- Propheticdominion,Umayyadkingship— c .892).WhenaprominentArabnotablefromthetribeofTamim (a al- ʿ Ayyash b. al- withinthegraspofUmayyads: amana Khattab, Mu al- sharing wasarequisiteofruleforQuraysh,theprophetic mulk ʿ Ayyash, whatisyourviewofthisYamani man’ – ʿ 93

zamuminmulkihim )toal- AlthoughthegenealogicalcircleofIshmaelitedescent l- )belongstoQuraysh,thejudiciary( ʿ mulk awiya’s diatribetomollifyanyattemptsexpand Zibriqan, comestovisitthecaliph ʿ Azd.’ ).Thusisourdominionandtheof awiyaexplainshisrationale forkeepingthelead- ʿ Ayyash thedescendants replied,‘youandI are 95

55 al-

mulk ʿ ba,inMeccaalongwithitsculticrites. Habasha ).’ oftheQurayshaspoliticalhegemons 92

),speed( ʿ ba,thesupremeAbrahamic mulk al- )ofourbrethrenthe expanding circleof sur ʿ Abdal- al- ʿ ʿ a al- )toYemen … qada

94 Judhami, to fa- Quraysh, Malik, the meaning mulkuna ʾ )tothe ʿ Abd Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 ( the UmayyadsascustodiansofinheritanceMuhammad’s prophethood wa- before Islam,andwithIslamdominionwastheirsaswell( ascent tothecaliphateandregardeditasasignofdivinefavor. ‘Lordshipwastheirs between theirpoweroverMeccapriortotheadventofIslamandsubsequent ʿ caliphal hegemony.TheUmayyads’ fatewasthusforetoldbytheHashimite Ibn legitimist discourseagainst theUmayyads,ultimatelyledtoundoingoftheir Hashimite legitimacyfl descendants of ThegreatestchallengetothislateUmayyadideology camefromtheother that grantedthemamandatetorule. having collectivelyinheritedthedominionofallprophetsinhistory,aninheritance edly entrustedwiththesupervisionofKa the Umayyads- the ideologywasinitsmostbasicformasfollows: the caliphateofAbuBakrand ThestatementechoesearliernarrativesofthesuccessiontoMuhammadthatviewed pioneers ofArabicproseas of Umayyadcourtandtheoffi nevertheless mainstaysoflate- of historicalmemory,thethemestheyconveyandideologiesdisplayare on tohistwinsonsHashimand to pilgrims( nity totheclanof Umayyads soughttoaid but thesentimentthatAbuBakrand Taym and when theProphetwascloserinkinshiptothemremainedsalient. Abbasinaliteraryaccount ofanexchangewithMu mawarith nubuwwatih Whilesuchliteraryaccountsare,admittedly,fashionedfromthepiousfi l- Rule( Simplifi of Hislastprophetandcontinuetoprotectreligion; thiswasthecaliphate. again; Hecreatedanewinstitutiontotakecareofthe aff Godgavemenprophets;thelastprophetdied;took thingsintohishands to AbuBakrand of theMessengerGod.WhenGod’s Messengerdied,thepeopleconferredrule date (torule)byGod. caliphate isactuallycalledtherethe‘ al-Hamid al-Katib]claimforthecaliphate.Thebest proof forthisisthatthe caliphate ( the sonsof mulk fi hadha l- ʿ ed thoughthisschemamayseem,itispreciselywhattheletters[of Adirespectively,seizedtheleadershipwithoutassentof l- al- islam min ghayrma Abshamis andHashimites, siqaya ʿ AbdManaf,andthereitshallremainuntiltheDayofResurrection. ʿ AbdManaf,fromMuhammad’s clanofHashim.Theideology amr ʿ AbdManaf. )’,asthepro- )inpre- ʿ )felltothesonsof Umar, thoughtheywerenotfromthefountofdominionand ourished under theUmayyads ). ʿ

100 Aliand 102

InlateUmayyadideology,thecaliphswereregardedas —

ʿ ʿ danal- Abdal- Islamic times,andhethuspassedhisauthority SeanW. Anthony — Umayyad ideology,asattestedinboththepoetry cial epistolographycomposedbysuchmasterful ʿ AlirejectedtheideaofdeposingAbuBakroutright, ʿ Umayyad poetAbuSakhral- AbdShams. ʿ ʿ Umarasill- Uthmantorestoreleadershipoftheearlycommu- mulk wa- Hamid al- ʿ 101 Umar, beingfromtheweakerQurashiclansof AsbrilliantlysummarizedbyWadad Kadi, 56 ʿ wilayat AbdManafbecausetheyarethehousehold ʿ Abd Manaf b. Qusayy, hadbeenpurport- AbdManafb. Qusayy, ʿ ba( l- 98

conceived andthatrecounthowthe khilafa TheUmayyadsthussawacontinuity Katib. Thelatterspeaksexplicitlyof al- ʿ ahdAllah riyasa ʿ awiya: )...Thendominionreturnedto

103 and,whenwieldedasanti- lahum al-

)andtheprovisionofwater ’,thetenureofman- airsofthecommunity Hudhali proclaimed. su 97

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99 96

Downloaded By: 10.2.98.160 At: 11:13 02 Oct 2021; For: 9781315691411, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315691411-4 could replacetheUmayyadswithAbbasidcaliphsin132/ response toUmayyadtriumphalism,andakeyreasonwhytheHashimitemovement destined tofi as theantithesisofanearliercaliphalideal to predominateinthesecondaryliterature. and tocorrecttheratherfl Thisre- and aMahdi- Inotherexchanges,Ibn ‘caliphate onthemodelofprophecy’.Rather, inthediscourseofQur prophetic and ‘dominion’inbothitshumandivineinstantiations.Theideaofagod- Muslim piety, also the legitimism andasserttheauthorityofnotmerelyanidealizedcaliphalpast,butlikely of this polemicemergedamongthe asty foradevolutionofrulershipfromthecaliphalidealintoanunjustautocracy, granted toMecca’s Quraysh.Whileanti- claim tolegitimateruleastheinheritorsandvanguardsofpropheticdominion ical ideologyoftheUmayyads,bothwithregardtoUmayyadtriumphalismandtheir surpass imperialandregionalrivals. date forconquestandlegitimizedIslamicpolity’s hegemonicclaimstoreplaceand Prophet’s legacy. 1 4 3 2

mulk Shahin SeeMarsham Haldon Chrysos Allah fi 2001 already referredtohimselfas ‘theshadowofGodonearth’accordingtoal-Baladhuri Abbasid title(forexample,Darling of emperoras ‘shadow ofGodonearth’isperhapstheIslamictitleclosest totheByzantinedesignation parative assessmentsoflate Zanjawayh With us[theH [Umayyads] haveahasteneddominion( ( be noother. mulk mu examination of for a particular purpose – foraparticularpurpose – : 362.Moreover, themaxim,‘TherulerisshadowofGodonearth ( hadith l- 2009 mulk 1990 1978 ard ll theearthwithjustice. — CONCLUSION: THEVARIETIES OF ʾ 2007 ajjal mulk : 410– Qa )’,isattributedtoMuhammad atquiteanearlydate;forexample,seeIbn : 73. ,moreover, waskeytoareligiousdiscoursethatarticulatedman- - Propheticdominion,Umayyadkingship— ; Shahid 104

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im( ).Thoughyourdominionprecedesours,afterourshall : 64 (citingtheauthorityofKathir b. MurraofHims,acontemporary ō

wasacapacioustermthatembracedideassuchas‘sovereignty’ ā n theo, 8. shimids] theaff : 25–

mulk hashimiwa- mulk 1981 ʿ AbbaspredictstoMu 8 andPapoutsakis ‘theimageofGod’.Althoughoftenregardedasquintessentially at andcolorlesstreatmentsofthetermthathavecome . inearlyIslamicpoliticaldiscoursehassoughttoredress

antique andearlyIslamicconceptionsofrulership.Thetitle hadith namely,tounderscorethefalsehoodofUmayyad 2014 air opened,andwithusitwillbesealed.You Mulk 105 NOTES Suchpro- - : 424 andal- folk whonarrowedthecapaciousmeaning 57 Umayyad criticsdidindeedblamethedyn- alsoplayedintheformationofpolit- mahdi qa Mulk 2017 mulk mu ʿ awiyathefutureHashimitedominion al- : 193– , I contend, cannotmerelybeseen ,I contend, Hashimite discoursewasapotent khilafa Azmeh ʾ im ʿ 4 ajjal ),anapocalypticredeemer et passim 750. 1997 ʿ alaminhajal- )butoursisadeferred

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38 26 25 24 23 22 21 39 11 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 10 43 42 41 40 35 13 12 46 45 44 36 14 47 5 6 8 7 9

Khalifab. Khayyat ‘queen’ ( AlthoughtheQueenofShebaappearsinQur ʿ Abu IbnWadih IbnHanbal Donner Ibn Fowden shay granted allthingandpossessesamightythrone’( KadiandShahin ‘shadow ofGod’,althoughoftenasserted,arenon- IbnSa Al- Itisworthnoting,however, thattheQur SeealsoJanowski SeealsoMore Kadi Crone AsnotedbyMarsham ( CroneandHinds Brooks1904:71;seealsoMarsham Ibnal- Crone ʿ Hoyland Macdonald Marlow Shahin Klein Shahin ElCheikh Bosworth IbnA Kister Kister Tottoli Ab IbnShabba IbnHanbal SeeEl- Crone Sizgorich Kister Nadler IbnHanbal Abdal- Athamina basileia toupatros ū Mubarrad ʿ

ʾ Asakir2000:LVI, 177; compareIbnWadih ʿ ʿ inwa-laha 1988 Ubayda Ubayda ʿ 2015 tham ʿ 2002 1979 Mu 1968 Hibri 2004 2004 2004 d 1998a 2009 2009 1990 Malik) andIbnAbi 2010 malika 2004 2002 1957 2009 2009 ʿ 1980 2004 : 404. tazz : 31– 1998 1883 : 21– : 2– : 153– 1973 1991 : 44– : 46;seealsoH : 44. 2008 2001 2008 2008 : 401– : 389– 2002 : 39– : xii. : 20– : 171. 1991 1905– : 14– : IV, 113. 1874– . 2012 : 207.

1935 )butratherdescribesheras‘awomanwhorulesofthemandhasbeen 7. : 42– : 113. 5. . ʿ : 269;seealsoBorrut

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9 92

6. : 9.

: 1, 69 l. 13;compareKister

: 39.

2009 : I, 185,706. : 120.

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ʿ : 332.

azim 63.

— ö ʿ : 1– Azd Asim fert

)(Q.27:23). SeanW. Anthony —

2; seealsoAzmeh ī

2015

1854 26. 1980

2013

: 286– Darimi 2011 : 179– : 492.SasanidandPersianantecedentsforthetitle ʾ anbanishesabsolutely‘thekingdomoftheFather’ 58 : 93ff

: 217ff 7. 80. 1983

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ʾ 1883 an,thescriptureneverdirectlycallshera . 1968 1997 imra

: I, 16, 17 and Ibn existent. : II, 276. ʾ : 154 andal- andDarling atamlikuhumwa-

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ʿ Asakir 1964 . utiyat minkulli

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Al- IbnSa IbnHanbal Al- Al- Al- Borrut al- Al- Sayf IbnHisham Donner IbnAbiShayba See Richardson pale- Thereferencetothepalecolor(eithergreenorblue)ofUmayyads’eyesisaninsult,as SeeIbnHanbal Ma Ma IbnHanbal IbnHanbal Al- Compareal- Forexample,seeTyan Al- IbnHish IbnAbil- Al- Al- Al- CompareSaleh Shoemaker Nu SeealsoToral- Onwhich,seeStewart Abrahamiscalledthe‘friend’(Ar. Al- Taylor CompareSaleh Prophet wasdeniedbyhisson;seeal- Al- Al- Abu CompareQ. 54:55. Al- AbuDawud Anthony IbnSa Baladhuri 1996:577– Jahiz Baladhuri Baladhuri Baladhuri Sayyid Waqidi Jahiz Baladhuri Jahiz Tabari Darimi Sayyid Darimi Darimi ʿ ʿ ʿ aymb. Hammad mar mar 1995 colored eyesinthisperiodwereregardedasanill- ʿ Ubayda ʿ ʿ d d 2015 2014 1998 2014 2014 1964 1998 1998 ā 1957 1957 2012 Hadid m : 67– 2001 1997 1997 1983 1983 1983 1966 — 2014 2008 1994 2008 : 209,§9. : 48– Jahiz 1955 1955 2009 : 184ff 2001 2001 2001 1979 Propheticdominion,Umayyadkingship— : 6– : 6– 1905– : II, 10– : II, 43– : II, 43– : III, 306– : VII, 7. : 100– Niehoff 8; compareal- : XVII, 346. : 63. : 82– 2014 2014 2004 : I, 163– : II, 155;compareNu : I, 164. 2014 2008 : II, 822. 1964 . : XXXVI, 256. : 563. : XII, 76– 51.

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