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BY ORDER of the SECRETARY of the AIR FORCE AIR FORCE HANDBOOK 11-203 VOLUME 1 12 JANUARY 2012 Flying Operations WEATHER FOR BY ORDER OF THE AIR FORCE HANDBOOK 11-203 VOLUME 1 SECRETARY OF THE AIR FORCE 12 JANUARY 2012 Flying Operations WEATHER FOR AIRCREWS COMPLIANCE WITH THIS PUBLICATION IS MANDATORY ACCESSIBILITY: Publications and forms are available on the e-Publishing website at www.e-publishing.af.mil for downloading and ordering. RELEASABILITY: There are no releasability restrictions on this publication. OPR: AF/A3OWP Certified by: AF/A3O-W (Dr. Fred P. Lewis) Supersedes: AFH11-203V1, Pages: 234 1 March 1997 This handbook familiarizes the aircrew member with fundamentals of weather. It serves as a text for flight training programs, all USAF instrument refresher training, flight instruction programs, and various unit and individual flying training programs. It is issued to each instructor and student involved in undergraduate flight training programs as well as to each flying unit. This handbook, when used with related flight directives and publications, provides weather guidance for visual and instrument flight under most circumstances. It is not a substitute for sound judgment. Refer recommended changes and questions about this publication to the Office of Primary Responsibility (OPR) using Air Force (AF) form 847, Recommendation for Change of Publication; route AF Forms 847 from the field through the appropriate functional’s chain of command. RECORDS MANAGEMENT: Ensure that all records created as a result of processes prescribed in this publication are maintained in accordance with AFMAN 33-363, Management of Records, and disposed of in accordance with the Air Force Records Disposition Schedule (RDS) located at https://www.my.af.mil/afrims/afrims/afrims/rims.cfm SUMMARY OF CHANGES This document has been substantially revised and should be completely reviewed. This revision reorganizes information into more appropriate sections of the document. Several erroneous figures were removed and improved illustrations were inserted to update aircraft inventory. Some sections were also removed or edited, as they were deemed erroneous or irrelevant for aircrews, or not tractable, and updates information as it relates to weather operations. A new 2 AFH11-203VI 12 JANUARY 2012 space weather chapter has been introduced to cover impacts to aircraft operations. Finally, several terms were changed to those more commonly used by current weather personnel. Chapter 1—THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE 15 1.1. Introduction. ........................................................................................................... 15 1.2. Composition of the Atmosphere. ........................................................................... 15 Figure 1.1. Composition of the Atmosphere. ........................................................................... 16 1.3. The Troposphere. ................................................................................................... 16 Figure 1.2. Troposphere--Decrease in Temperature with Height. ............................................ 17 1.4. Aircrew Environment. ........................................................................................... 17 Chapter 2—MOISTURE 18 2.1. Introduction. ........................................................................................................... 18 Figure 2.1. Hydrologic Cycle. .................................................................................................. 18 2.2. Changes of State. ................................................................................................... 18 Figure 2.2. Phase Transitions of Water. ................................................................................... 20 2.3. Relative Humidity. ................................................................................................. 20 Figure 2.3. Relative Humidity and Dew point. ........................................................................ 21 2.4. Dew Point, Dew and Frost. .................................................................................... 21 2.5. Condensation and Evaporation. ............................................................................. 22 Figure 2.4. Causes of Condensation. ........................................................................................ 22 2.6. Clouds and Fog. ..................................................................................................... 22 2.7. Precipitation. .......................................................................................................... 22 Figure 2.5. Precipitation Products. ........................................................................................... 23 Figure 2.6. Virga. ..................................................................................................................... 24 Chapter 3—TEMPERATURE 25 3.1. Introduction. ........................................................................................................... 25 3.2. Measuring Temperature. ........................................................................................ 25 Figure 3.1. Land has Greater Temperature Variance than Water. ............................................ 25 3.3. Temperature Scales. ............................................................................................... 25 Figure 3.2. Temperature Scales. ............................................................................................... 26 3.4. Diurnal Cycle. ........................................................................................................ 26 3.5. Land/Sea Difference. ............................................................................................. 27 Figure 3.3. Surface Temperature Distribution (Jan). ................................................................ 28 AFH11-203VI 12 JANUARY 2012 3 Figure 3.4. Surface Temperature Distribution (Jul). ................................................................ 29 3.6. Lapse Rate. ............................................................................................................. 29 Figure 3.5. Lapse Rate Temperature Reversals are Called Inversions. .................................... 30 3.7. Inversions. .............................................................................................................. 30 Chapter 4—ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AND ALTIMETRY 32 4.1. Introduction. ........................................................................................................... 32 4.2. Atmospheric Pressure. ........................................................................................... 32 Figure 4.1. Normal Atmospheric Pressure at Sea Level. ......................................................... 33 Figure 4.2. Aneroid Barometer Inner View. ............................................................................ 33 4.3. Pressure Distribution. ............................................................................................. 34 Figure 4.3. Larger Air Column = Higher Station pressure (assuming a standard atmosphere). 34 4.4. Pressure Correction. ............................................................................................... 34 4.5. Temperature Effects on Pressure. .......................................................................... 35 Figure 4.4. Pressure Rate Decrease with Height Varies with Temperature. ............................ 35 4.6. Pressure Maps. ....................................................................................................... 35 Figure 4.5. Surface Pressure Chart. .......................................................................................... 36 Figure 4.6. Upper Air Chart. .................................................................................................... 37 4.7. Standard Atmosphere. ............................................................................................ 37 Figure 4.7. Aneroid Altimeter. ................................................................................................. 38 Figure 4.8. Effects of Temperature on True and Indicated Altitude. ....................................... 39 4.8. Pressure Altitude. ................................................................................................... 39 4.9. Density Altitude. .................................................................................................... 39 Figure 4.9. Example. ................................................................................................................ 40 Figure 4.10. Density Altitude Chart. .......................................................................................... 41 Figure 4.11. Altitude Error Due to Nonstandard Temperatures Aloft (D-Value). ..................... 43 Chapter 5—WIND 44 5.1. Introduction. ........................................................................................................... 44 5.2. Causes of Wind. ..................................................................................................... 44 Figure 5.1. Three-Cell Model of the Earth’s Circulation. ........................................................ 45 5.3. Jet Streams. ............................................................................................................ 45 Figure 5.2. Formation of Jet Streams. ...................................................................................... 46 5.4. Circulation Patterns. ............................................................................................... 46 Figure 5.3. Pressure
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