Reviving Lakes and Wetlands Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China



Reviving Lakes and Wetlands Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

Qingfeng Zhang, Yoshiaki Kobayashi, Takafumi Kadono with Robert Crooks, Zhong Ma © 2008 Asian Development Bank

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Reviving lakes and wetlands: lessons learned from the People’s Republic of China. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2008. 1. Lakes. 2. Wetlands. 3. People’s Republic of China. I. Asian Development Bank.

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6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines Tel +63 2 632 4444 Fax +63 2 636 4444 www.adb.org For orders, please contact: Department of External Relations Fax +63 2 636 2648 [email protected] APPENDIXES 36 A Promising Example 54 Early and Projected Contents of Lake Rehabilitation: Setbacks of Baiyangdian West Lake, Hangzhou Lake Restoration City 62 Integrated Management Foreword 4 Comparison with Other 46 Lessons Learned from Needed for Sanjiang Projects Lake Rehabilitation: Plain Rehabilitation Tai Lake Restoration 68 Summary of Discussions: Acknowledgments 17 Introduction Consultation Workshop 18 Tai Lake on the Knowledge Executive Summary 21 Baiyangdian Lake Product 24 Sanjiang Plain 1 Introduction 5 Discussion and Conclusion 2 Background on Issues 3 A Promising Case of Lake Rehabilitation: West Lake 9 Background 11 Some Key Features of Planning and Implementation 15 Conclusion: Four Success Factors Foreword

quatic ecosystems in the land restoration in the PRC and pro- Project and the Baiyangdian Lake This publication will convey the People’s Republic of China vides lessons learned. A recent Asian Project. lessons of reviving lakes and wetlands (PRC) are being destroyed Development Bank (ADB)-financed The lessons learned highlight in the PRC. It will contribute to a bet- by the combined effects of comprehensive review of the high- the need to recognize the connected ter understanding of the processes depletion, pollution, and profile restoration program of Tai Lake nature of all activities within a particu- behind aquatic ecosystem deteriora- Aengineering developments. Lakes and prompted this study. It was also, in lar catchment, and clearly demonstrate tion and the restoration approaches to wetlands are especially at risk because part, a result of the inspections of one that the problem is ecological rather be taken so that integrated planning of their relatively lower ability to absorb reasonably successful lake restoration than an engineering one. Each case of water and land resources are rein- sudden change. program—the West Lake Restoration has its unique combination of fac- forced, and the coordination among Over the last 15 years, the PRC Program in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Prov- tors, but the analysis highlights four stakeholders are strengthened. The Government has invested substan- ince. These two cases are compared key elements for success: strong and publication should prove useful to tially in restoring lakes and wetlands, with ADB’s ongoing Sanjiang Plain consistent political leadership, inte- all those concerned with reviving the but the efforts have not been as suc- grated planning and analysis, effec- aquatic ecosystem in the PRC and in cessful as planned. In fact, restoration tive management structures, and other countries.  Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2004. programs of lakes and wetlands have Technical Assistance to People’s Republic financial engineering. been especially problematic. of China (PRC) for Evaluation of Environ­ mental Policy and Investment for the This publication assesses some Water Pollution Control in the Huai River  The project was approved by the Board of recent experiences with lake and wet- and Tai Lake Basins. Manila. Directors of ADB on 24 June 2008. Klaus Gerhaeusser Director General East Asia Department

iv Acknowledgments

his knowledge product By analyzing various lake and earlier draft and participated in the dinating the counterpart team from highlights general lessons wetland recovery efforts in the PRC, consultation meetings. the PRC Government and closely from recent experience with this paper confirms that lakes and Kunhamboo Kannan provided the working with the team. restoring lakes and wetlands wetlands deteriorate for many com- inspiration and support for this activ- The report also benefited from the in the People’s Republic of plex and interrelated reasons and that ity. Several reviewers in ADB offered multistakeholder consultative work- TChina (PRC). Its creation was prompted a rehabilitation strategy, to be success­ valuable comments at different stages shop conducted to gain feedback on by an urgent problem with algal bloom ful, needs to address all elements of the during the preparation of the report, the final draft, held on 23 June 2008 in Tai Lake in June 2007, which moved problem within the framework of the including Wouter Lincklaen Arriens, in Harbin, Heilongjiang province. the Government to seek advice on how integrated ecosystem. This successful KyeongAe Choe, Akmal Siddiq, Sergei About 90 participants from multilater- to address the situation. A simultaneous approach takes into account not only Popov, and Zhiming Niu. al and bilateral development partners, review of Asian Development Bank water resources but also the land as The report benefited from the government organizations, univer- (ADB)-assisted projects in the Sanjiang well, and it takes a greater effort to close cooperation with the Ministry of sities, and international nongovern­ Plain wetland and Baiyangdian Lake, and strengthen coordination both bet­ Environmental Protection (then State ment organizations attended and inspection of the West Lake restoration ween sectors and jurisdictions. Environmental Protection Adminis- gave valuable feedback. program in Zhejiang Province—one of Qingfeng Zhang (Task Manager), tration), Ministry of Water Resources, Melissa Alipalo, Ellen Pascua, the few lake restoration programs that Yoshiaki Kobayashi, and Takafumi Chinese Academy of Environmental Ma. Christina Dueñas, Ma. Priscila can reasonably claim to have had some Kadono developed this product Science, and Zhejiang Environmental del Rosario, Josephine Lucero, and success—yielded insights that can prove through initiating the concept, final- Protection Bureau. The ADB team is Rosario Soriano helped edit, design, crucial as the PRC’s rapid economic izing the report, and consulting with particularly grateful to Xiaozhi Song, and produce this report. development and urban sprawl continue the stakeholders. Consultants Robert Wang Xin, Xie Yongming, Li Ge, Li to endanger lakes and wetlands. Crooks and Zhong Ma prepared the Yuanyuan, and Zhang Cheng for coor-

 Currency Equivalents Abbreviations (as of 15 October 2008) ADB — Asian Development Bank Currency Unit – yuan (CNY) BOD — biological oxygen demand CNY1.00 = $0.146 COD — chemical oxygen demand $1.00 = CNY6.83 EPA — Environmental Protection Agency FYP — five-year plan GDP — gross domestic product GEF — Global Environment Facility IRBM — integrated river basin management MOC — Ministry of Construction NH3-N — ammonia nitrogen NPS — nonpoint pollution source Weights and Measures PRC — People’s Republic of China SARS — severe acute respiratory syndrome TN — total nitrogen cm — centimeter TP — total phosphorus ha — hectare UNEP — United Nations Environment Programme km — kilometer US — United States km2 — square kilometer WWTP — wastewater treatment plant m — meter m2 — square meter m3 — cubic meter mg/l — milligrams per liter 1 mu — 0.067 ha

NOTE In this report, “$” refers to US dollars.

vi Executive Summary

akes and wetlands in the ing lakes and wetlands in the PRC and able water resources, they are likely People’s Republic of China identifies general lessons. Its prepa- to affect economic development sig- (PRC), particularly in eastern ration was prompted partly by the nificantly and adversely in the coming This approach considers parts of the country, are in a recent completion of a comprehen- years. The Government has long been both land and water very poor condition. The Gov- sive review of one of the country’s aware of these growing problems. resources and the ernmentL is aware of the problem and has highest profile lake restoration pro- Over the last 10–15 years, it has sub- underwritten and/or encouraged lake grams—the Tai Lake program, which stantially invested in and taken efforts need to strengthen and wetland restoration programs over was evaluated as part of an ADB- to reverse these problems in particular coordination between the last 20 years or more. For the most financed technical assistance—and areas, such as in some of the larger part, these have been unsuccessful. The also by inspections of one of the rea- lakes (Tai and Dianchi Lakes) and rivers sectors and jurisdictions Government has sought assistance from sonably successful lake restoration (Huai River). its development partners, most nota- programs—the West Lake restora- The analysis confirms the widely bly the Asian Development Bank (ADB). tion program in Hangzhou, Zhejiang accepted view among specialists that ADB, for its part, has already supported Province. These two cases are com- lakes and wetlands deteriorate for one project (Sanjiang Plain Wetland Pro- pared with ADB’s ongoing Sanjiang many complex and interrelated rea- tection Project), and has prepared a sec- Plain Project and the Baiyangdian Lake sons and that a rehabilitation strategy, ond (Baiyangdian Integrated Ecosystem Project. to be successful, needs to address all Management Project); other new proj- The PRC is confronted with a seri- elements of the problem within the ects are now also being prepared. ous water crisis and imminent water framework of the integrated ecosys- This knowledge product assesses shortages; combined with the serious tem. This approach takes into account some recent experiences with restor- degradation of the quality of avail- not only water resources but the land as well, and considers the greater  ADB. 2004. Technical Assistance to effort needed to strengthen coordina-  The Government of the PRC has recently People’s Republic of China for Evaluation tion between sectors and jurisdictions. requested ADB to support the Yancheng of Environmental Policy and Investment Wetland Protection Project and Jiaozhou for the Water Pollution Control in the Huai Each case has its unique combination Bay Wetland Protection Project. River and Tai Lake Basins. Manila. of factors, but this review suggests

 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

that, as a minimum, four key elements cessful rehabilitation strategies are and effective management to ensure spending only on activities that cre- need to be present for a successful almost always grounded in a thorough that implementation of all compo- ate short- and medium-term revenue- rehabilitation. understanding of all the relevant fac- nents of the plan proceeds at the raising possibilities. tors that have contributed to the correct time and sequence and, more Prior to finalizing this report, a Strong and consistent political problems and are designed not only important, the regulatory and insti- multi-stakeholder consultative work- leadership. These projects take time to rectify the problems of the past but tutional changes that are usually shop was held on 23 June 2008 in and resources for successful imple- also to avoid their reemergence in the required as part of a comprehensive Harbin, the capital of Heilongjiang mentation and usually require effective future. A truly comprehensive strat- plan are also carried out. Catchment Province and home to Sanjiang Plain. cross-sectoral and cross-jurisdictional egy also needs to take into account boundaries are rarely, if ever, the same The workshop focused on key positive coordination. These conditions can only issues governing land use and man- as jurisdictional boundaries; and effec- results from several site-specific stud- be met if political leaders who have the agement within the catchment as well tive management structures take into ies and pilot projects, namely: (i) water ability to encourage and, if necessary, as maintenance and operation. Suc- particular account the need to ensure charge into Zhalong wetland and require the cooperation essential for cessful plans recognize the need for a coordination across administrative water recharge into Baiyangdian Lake; success are strongly involved. Leader- step-by-step approach that allows boundaries. (ii) payment of ecological services in ship is particularly important to ensure for sufficient time to make the funda- Lashi Lake in Lijiang, Yunnan Prov- that effective cooperation is achieved mental changes necessary for success. Effective financial engineering. It ince; (iii) alternative livelihood devel- between different sectors, between Programs driven by 5-year planning is understood that adequate funding opment in Dongting Lake in Hunan different divisions of government constraints and short-term perspec- delivered timely is an essential element and Caohai Lake in Guizhou; and (e.g., between counties, between tives are rarely successful. Finally, for any successful plan. However, it is (iv) comanagement of Caohai Lake. counties and provinces, between prov- programs that focus too much on even more important to ensure that Overall, the participants concurred inces and the central government), “hardware” investments (engineer- all elements of the plan are sufficiently that the four success factors presented by establishing relevant management ing structures, etc.) at the expense of funded and, in the PRC context, must in this document are essential to a structures and, if required, crafting the “software” modifications (changes in consider the revenue-raising capacity successful rehabilitation. required laws and regulations. planning and management activities, of the participating governments. Too protection and restoration of ecologi- many programs have failed because Integrated planning and analysis. cal systems) are also rarely successful. of the inability of lower-level govern- Aquatic ecosystems usually collapse ments to raise counterpart funds, or because of a complex array of factors Effective management structures. have been distorted because of the operating over extended periods. Suc- Comprehensive plans need a strong need for local governments to focus

 Introduction

quatic ecosystem restora- Without much success, the PRC (i) Completion of an ADB-financed tion is a pressing issue in Government has supported, among technical assistance (TA), which the People’s Republic of others, three very high-profile lake has provided a wealth of techni- Compared to rivers China (PRC). The Govern­ restoration programs over the last cal detail on experience with the and streams, lakes ment is aware of the gener- 15 years (Chao Lake, Tai Lake, and Tai Lake restoration program. and wetlands are more Aally poor and still deteriorating condition Dianchi Lake). ADB is supporting two (ii) ADB’s focus on knowledge pro- of many of the country’s aquatic sys- related projects—Sanjiang Plain Wet- duction and sharing, which has closed, interdependent tems and has been devoting substantial land Protection Project, which is under provided a mechanism for pro- amounts of time, money, and effort to implementation, and Baiyangdian ducing short, analytical, and systems reverse the situation. The Government is Integrated Ecosystem Management timely products that could con- also looking to its development partners, Project, which has been approved tribute to the resolution of prac- most notably the Asian Development recently and, although much smaller tical and operational problems Bank (ADB), for assistance, and ADB is in scale, promises to be no less chal- associated with restoring lakes responding positively. lenging. and wetlands. One of the most intransigent In light of the lackluster perfor- (iii) Identifying one relatively small- aquatic rehabilitation challenges mance of lake restoration projects scale exercise in lake restora- relates to lakes and wetlands. In con- over the years, the operational ques- tion (West Lake Restoration in trast to rivers and streams, lakes and tion facing the Government and Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province) as wetlands are more closed systems its development partners today is one of the few programs of its with a tendency to accumulate resi- whether any lessons can be learned kind in the PRC that has shown dues and involve a much closer and from these experiences and applied to more dependent relationship between current and future efforts. This report  ADB. 2004. Technical Assistance to conditions in the aquatic system and intends to address this question. People’s Republic of China for Evaluation activities within and the condition of Three factors prompted the prep- of Environmental Policy and Investment for the Water Pollution Control in the Huai the watershed. aration of the report: River and Tai Lake Basins. Manila.

 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

some encouraging signs of suc- cess and was thought to offer some instructive lessons.

The main report has five sections:

(i) Section 1: Introduction. (ii) Section 2: Background on Issues. (iii) Section 3: A Promising Case of Lake Rehabilitation in the West Lake, which looks at a case where a focused program of analysis and investment has led to the significant recovery of a seriously polluted lake ecosystem. The discussion identifies four key factors that were considered to account for the results achieved to date. Song Guojun, Renmin University of China (iv) Section 4: Comparison with Tai Lake, February 2006 other projects, which compares the achievements of West Lake against three less promising concern for many years and project is discussed in light of Endnotes and appendices provide rehabilitation programs in the for which ADB has approved a the key lessons drawn from the further elaboration on the four proj- PRC—Tai Lake, which has been lending project to support; and West Lake experience. ects discussed. under implementation for more Sanjiang Plain, a major wetland (v) Section 5: Discussion and Con- than 10 years; Baiyangdian Lake, protection project already under clusion. which has also been a focus of way with ADB cofinancing. Each

 Background on Issues

fter two decades of rapid is exceedingly low—one of the low- economic growth, the PRC est levels in the world, accounting for is faced with widespread 28% of the world average. Therefore, degradation of its aquatic it is inevitable that as population and ecosystems. The nation is wealth increase, serious water man- Asuffering from critical water shortages agement problems will be encoun- and chronic water pollution. Aquatic tered, which has been the case. The flora and fauna have been seriously PRC’s annual per capita water avail- degraded. ability has dropped by 23% in the last The most obvious manifesta- 20 years, and it is expected to become tion of these problems are the water the most water-stressed country in shortages that the PRC have been East and Southeast Asia by 2010. experiencing for several decades. Total At present, the PRC is using an naturally available water flows from average of about 44% of its available all surface and underground sources water—defined by the International Song Guojun, Renmin University of China Sewage outlet of Li Town in Baiyangdian are about 2,812 billion cubic meters Water Management Institute as “com- (m³) per annum, placing the PRC sixth fortable”—but usage is expected in the world behind Brazil, Russian to exceed 60% by 2020, which will ween different geographical areas.

Federation, Canada, Indonesia, and  Jiao Yong. 2005. China Water Policy place the entire country in the “envi- Likewise, many aquatic ecosystems the United States (US). On a per and Practice. Conference on Water and ronmentally overexploited” category. in northern PRC are already “environ- capita basis, the naturally available Sustainable Development: Towards However, the national average dis­ mentally overexploited.” For example, Innovative Solutions. New Delhi. water flow (2,206 m³/person in 2004)  The International Water Management In- guises considerable variability bet- in 2000, the Hai and Huai rivers had stitute uses a four-part scale to classify water use rates of 95% and 64%, countries’ overall water use: (i) low exploi­  Shalizi, Z. 2006. Addressing China’s tation (<20%); (ii) comfortable usage plus water needs of aquatic ecosystems respectively and, thus, were already Growing Water Shortages and Associated (20–59%); (iii) environmentally overexploit- as a percentage of all naturally available environmentally overexploited. The Social and Environmental Consequences. ed (60–100%); and (iv) mining (>100%). surface and groundwater flows, excluding Yellow River, with a water use rate of World Bank Policy Research Working Paper “Water use” is defined as the average an- stocks and reserves in dams, lakes, and un- 3895. Washington, DC. nual consumption for all human activities derground aquifers. 53%, was approaching it.

 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

Water shortages have been adverse effects of sudden change, and (i) Integration of ecological con- accompanied by significant increases it is on these systems that this report cerns into the water system The combined effects in the incidence and severity of water mainly focuses. management to correct exist- pollution. Combined with the declin- Given current projections of ing failures because of excessive of overuse, pollution, ing availability of base flows, rivers, population and economic growth in focus on water resource man- and water engineering streams, and lakes have seen a pro- the PRC, and without any change in agement and pollution control; developments are gressive increase in the quantity of how water resources and the natu- (ii) Integration of concerned local wastewater discharged into them. ral systems associated with them are governments into the manage- destroying aquatic The total volume of wastewater dis- managed, the prospects are that the ment system to encourage coor- resources in the PRC, charged in the PRC has been increas- situation outlined above will worsen dination of efforts; ing since 1991, with about 54 billion significantly in the foreseeable future. (iii) Integration of all concerned sec- of which lakes and tons in 2006. The water pollution This reality is occupying the attention tors and interest groups into the wetlands are most problem has been growing for years, of technical experts and policy mak- management system and for vulnerable but it has taken a series of major acci- ers, and it is becoming clear that a trans-provincial systems; and dents, including a major chemical much more comprehensive approach (iv) Integration of the Government spill in the Songhua River and persis- needs to be taken to the whole ques- into the management system tent algal blooms in Tai Lake, among tion of water systems management as the only institution capable others, to attract serious attention by in the PRC. This more integrated of mediating disputes between national policy makers. approach would treat water systems provinces. The combined effects of over- as complete ecosystems, taking into use of water, water pollution, and account all factors affecting the phys- This approach is often called inte- water engineering developments are ical, chemical, and biological charac- grated river basin management (IRBM) destroying aquatic ecosystems in the teristics of both the water system and when referring to the management of PRC, although, because of a lack of its catchment, with the aim to create complete river systems, although the regular and systematic monitoring, it a long-term and sustainable balance same principles can be applied to the is difficult to quantify the effects. Most between the maintenance of a stable management of water systems at all vulnerable among these aquatic sys- and natural ecosystem and meeting levels. tems are lakes and wetlands because human welfare needs. In the PRC con- There is a broad and growing of their lower assimilative capacity text, this requires four types of inte- consensus among water management and vulnerability resulting from the gration: and environmental experts in the PRC

 Background on Issues

on the need to adopt a more integrat- but there is still a long way to go. The Province, Dianchi Lake in Yunnan ed and comprehensive approach, par- report set out detailed recommen- Province, Tai Lake in Jiangsu and ticularly to the management of river dations for medium- and long-term Zhejiang Provinces) and are conti- basins. In 2004, the China Council for action in five main areas (i.e., legal nuing with programs that are being International Cooperation on the Envi- and organizational reform, policy planned for Baiyangdian Lake in Hebei …there will likely be ronment and Development completed integration, IRBM master planning, Province and Sanjiang Plain Wetlands an important policy recommendation public participation, and science and in Heilongjiang Province. Unfortu- a continuation of the entitled Promoting Integrated River technology support), making it clear nately, the great majority of these ad hoc or “emergency” Basin Management and Restoring the IRBM strategy offers only limited programs have been failures or, at response approach that China’s Living Rivers. Since then, the hope of an immediate solution to the best, only partial successes. challenges associated with its adop- current crisis. On the other hand, and as noted has been a feature tion have been discussed in a wide In the interim, and while the in the introduction, there have been of aquatic restoration variety of forums, including the Second Government is acting on the wide- some small if rather limited successes. activities over the past Yangtze Forum in April 2007 and the ranging reforms necessary to make One instructive example is the case Third International Yellow River Forum IRBM a reality, there will likely be a con- of the rehabilitation of West Lake in 15 years on Sustainable Water Resources Man- tinuation of the ad hoc or “emergency Hangzhou Municipality, Zhejiang Prov- agement and Delta Ecosystem Main- response” approach that has been a ince, which still offers the potential to tenance in October 2007. feature of aquatic restoration activities learn valuable lessons from even if it is A recent comprehensive review over the past 15 years. With regard to a special case given its relatively small of progress in adopting the IRBM lakes and wetlands, these emergency size and its location within a single approach in the PRC concluded that responses have included programs in municipality. there has been considerable progress, the “three lakes” (Chao Lake in Anhui

 Y. Wang, L. Li, X. Wang, X. Yu, and Y. Wang. 2007. Taking Stock of Integrated River Basin Management in China. Beijing: Science Press.

 A Promising Case of Lake Rehabilitation: West Lake

 Background

A Promising Case of Lake Rehabilitation: est Lake is located in pollution from both point and non- the Westlake District point sources. The former included of Hangzhou City, industrial enterprises and waste Zhejiang Province, and discharge from residential and tour- is one of the most ist facilities, and the latter included West Lake Wfamous scenic lakes in the PRC. The lake runoff in the basin, fertilizers and is highly valued as a recreational resource pesticides applied in the agricultural for the people of the city as well as visi- areas, and pollution caused by the tors, but as the city grew rapidly during development of tourist spots. The the 1980s and 1990s, the lake became main pollutants were organic mate- badly polluted. rials plus nitrogen and phosphorous. In recent decades, because of Eutrophication in the lake was seri- anthropogenic disturbance and cli- ous, and the water quality situation mate change, the upstream flow has was exacerbated by water resource decreased and West Lake has begun to shortages (Appendix 1). face water shortages. Since the 1950s, Efforts to improve the situation in the water in the lake has been turning the lake began as early as the 1950s yellow, dark, and odorous; it has even when a series of major dredging dried up from time to time. In 2002, operations were carried out, includ- the water quality in the West Lake ing the removal of 7 million m3 of was worse than Class V because of sludge, which deepened the lake from

 Overall water quality in the PRC assessed according to the worst indicators, i.e., if only one main indicator exceeds Class V, the overall water quality is classified as worse than Class V.

 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

0.55 meters (m) to 1.8 m. To solve situation, but since all the actions in the lake and reduce eutrophication the water shortage problem, Hang- taken thus far were only treating the significantly.11 zhou City constructed a water diver- symptoms of the problem and not the The program is still a work in sion project in 1986. The water quality underlying causes, the current situa- progress. Not all monitoring locations in the lake subsequently improved, tion does not pass as sustainable. The in the lake have achieved the objective although the situation was largely final gap in the strategy was filled of Class III of National Water Quality dependent on the quality of water in when a wide range of other actions Standards, although all monitoring the supply source, the Qiantang River, were taken to deal with the underly- stations are significantly improved which periodically was not good ing causes, among them, controlling over the levels being measured in 2002 and was diverted untreated. Thus, land use in the catchment of the lake; before the major elements of the proj- the water diversion project on its removing significant point sources of ect were implemented (Appendix 1, own was insufficient to achieve the pollution (e.g., certain factories and Table A1.1). The ecological value of the water quality and quantity objectives even some households); strengthen- lake has also significantly improved. for West Lake. In 2003, two major ing compliance with pollution control The number of migratory birds visit- water pretreatment plants, with a regulations, reconstructing streams ing the lake has risen from 1,000 to combined capacity of 0.4 million and wetlands, and controlling pollu- more than 10,000, including 10 spe- m3 per day, were constructed to deal tion from tourism developments in cies such as wild duck and cormorant. with the inflow water quality prob- the catchment. In 2007, even rare species like swan lem.10 This significantly improved the The overall principle applied in the and mandarin duck were seen in restoration program was “protecting the lake. first, and prioritizing ecosystem con-  A second series of regular dredging occurred between 1976 and 1996, servation and sustainable develop- dredging around 0.2 million m3. A third ment.” The combined effect of the dredging in late 1999 (completed in 2000) dredged 2.8 million m3. program was to improve water clarity 10 These two water pretreatment plants and associated pipelines were the most important components of the 2003 water allocation project for improving lake quality. After treatment began, the in the Qiantang River. Since 2004, the 11 deepest water visibility increased to 1.2 m, water diversion quantity has reached Ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) dropped by and water diversion was no longer 120 million m3 per year, refilling the West 100% and total nitrogen (7N) dropped by influenced by the water quality variation Lake monthly. 30%.

10 Some Key Features of Planning and Implementation

s mentioned previously, the Lake Integrated Protection Project. was accountable to the municipal example of West Lake has He maintained a high level of inter- government and responsible for com- many factors unique to its est thereafter, which was backed by a prehensive protection, management, particular situation, and its similar level of support from the pro- planning, and construction of the success so far is qualified vincial governor, Lu Zushan. The pro- West Lake scenic area. Thus, a wholly Arather than complete. Nevertheless, the vincial government and committee new institution was created and experience has several success factors appropriated funds totaling CNY90 regarded as a historic breakthrough that, even as they set West Lake apart million to support the project, and the in the area’s resource management from other river restoration programs, Provincial Development and Reform system. The committee’s legal respon- can serve as inspiration and are poten- Committee successfully issued CNY15 sibilities were comprehensive. It was tially applicable to other situations. million in treasury bonds. responsible for the following: Financial support was backed by a wide range of legislative develop- (i) making the scenic area’s eco- Recognition from Decision ments to strengthen management nomic and social development Makers and Creation of arrangements and institutionalize the plans in accordance with the development plan. Management was general plan and the economic an Effective Management strengthened by creating the Hang- Structure zhou West Lake Scenic Area Manage- the extended protection zones that the ment Committee12 in 2000, which local district government will manage. The local ordinance requires the relevant West Lake has long been considered administrative departments or branches “the root and soul” of Hangzhou, 12 The committee, whose legal status and of other departments to continue their and there was a high level of politi- administrative functions were established mandates as usual but to coordinate in the form of local regulations, was with the committee to protect the cal interest in improving its quality. In equipped with planning, finance, per­ scenic area. The ordinance also called for November 2002, the Zhejiang Provin- sonnel, environmental protection, con­ establishing the scenic area protection and struction, land management, and other management supervision and inspection cial Party Secretary, Xi Jinping, visited sectors. The committee will participate in system, which is to be organized by the the lake for a briefing on the West protecting, planning, and constructing Hangzhou City government.

11 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

sight, and managing government- owned assets and assisting tax collection in the scenic area; (vi) ensuring cooperation and coor- dination with the branches of the relevant administrative departments dispatched to the scenic area for working; (vii) implementing other responsi- bilities required by the munici- pal government or the relevant administrative departments; and (viii) participating in the protection, planning, and construction within the extended protection zones (outside but adjacent to the central planning zone), although these areas would continue to be managed by the relevant local district govern- ments. Ma Zhong, Renmin University of China West Lake wastewater treatment by artificial wetland The Hangzhou City government and social development plan of ces for protecting and manag- tion, forestry administration, also organized relevant departments Hangzhou, and to implement ing the scenic area; landscape, heritage, and water to inspect the protection and manage- them after approval; (iii) planning and managing land, resource protection in the scenic ment of the scenic areas regularly and (ii) protecting and managing the real estate, and construction in area; report to the Standing Committee of scenic area’s natural environ- the scenic area; (v) finance, statistics, audit, prices, the Municipal People’s Congress. ment and resources in terms of (iv) environmental protection, personnel, labor, social security, laws, regulations, and ordinan­ municipal amenities, sanita- and financial accounting over-

12 Some Key Features of Planning and Implementation

Comprehensive Planning environmental quality. The plan was based on a long-term planning hori- The West Lake Scenic Area Manage- zon: a short term of 2002–2010, a ment Committee drafted the origi- ­medium term of 2011–2020, and the nal development plan, but it went long term (beyond 2021). The plan through a comprehensive review defined a wide range of quantitative process by relevant agencies, includ- measures that reached beyond the ing state-level agencies such as the normal environmental goals (water Ministry of Construction, Ministry of quality, air quality, etc.). For example, Land and Resources, State Forestry the plan included target capacities for Administration, National Tourism open spaces, visitors, residents (village Administration, State Administration and city), and buildings. of Cultural Heritage, and others. The Finally, the plan did not focus overall process, culminating in the solely on the lake and the associated State Council’s approval, took nearly hydrological system; it addressed the 3 years, yet it ensured that the plan entire ecosystem found to influence was comprehensive and took into the lake, as well as that which will be Consulting locals as part of planning account the technical advice from a affected by the lake. This extended wide range of perspectives, including area was designated as the “landscape engineering and cultural aspects. for 10 miles around lake.” The plan Funding of the plan (Appendix 1, Table A1.2) The plan covered not only the mea- identified activities to be carried out and the budgeted funds were actu- sures required to solve the water pollu- within this landscape, such as demol- During the implementation of the ally disbursed according to the plan. tion problem but also aspects of cultural ishing buildings that have been built 10th Five-Year Plan (FYP), 2001–2005, One of the most interesting financial and tourism development. The overall illegally or were disfiguring the land- CNY3.73 billion was invested in the aspects of the project was the deci- objective of the plan was to achieve scape and had no preservative value, program.13 More importantly, fund- sion to eliminate all entrance fees to a balance among social, environmen- relocating some residents (2,600 ing was provided for all key aspects the park, associated viewing spots, tal, and economic benefits to enhance households were relocated, reducing and scenic areas, which is exactly the environmental protection, conform to the population in the catchment by opposite of strategies usually adopted 13 www.hangzhou.com.cn/20070515/ biodiversity rules, and reduce the need 7,300), and creating new public green ca1312943.htm; www.hznet.gov.cn/hzdpc/ by local governments to recover the for artificial interventions to maintain spaces (Appendix 1). 0401/6144.htm. costs of public works. This was partly

13 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

caused by the government’s strategy In 2005, all indicators for Hangzhou of “giving the lake back to the peo- tourism reached new records. In com- ple” but also because the government parison with 2001, the number of Elimination of all believed that by eliminating entrance foreign tourists increased by 85%, entrance fees to the park fees, more visitors would be attracted reaching 1.5 million; and the num- and associated viewing and more willing to spend money and ber of domestic tourists increased by likely a larger amount on shopping, 27%, reaching 32 million. The tourism spots and scenic areas accommodations, and sightseeing, income increased by 86% and reached paid off which would increase the govern- CNY46.5 billion.14 ment’s revenues indirectly. An economic assessment by the government showed that this strategy of waiving entrance fees paid off. Before this new policy was implement- ed, ticket sales at parks along West Lake grossed about CNY26 million per annum in revenues. Under the new policy, costs for park security and cleaning increased; and the combined cost of lost ticket revenue plus higher security and cleaning costs amounted to CNY60 million per annum. How- ever, this was offset by increased business opportunities and indirect economic benefits. A greater volume of tourists increased demands for hotels, restaurants, shopping malls, transportation, and other services, all 14 of which support and benefit tourism China Youth Daily. 2006. Economic Significance of the Immense Fishnet in development of the towns nearby. Hangzhou West Lake. 14 February.

14 Conclusion: Four Success Factors

he success of the West (iii) Effective management struc­ Lake project can be ture was adopted. A strong ­attributed to four impor- management structure was cre- tant factors: ated that clarified responsibility T for planning and implementa- (i) Strong and consistent political tion, provided management leadership. There was a high control over all participating level of awareness among senior units, and provided a clear political leaders on the signifi- accountability framework. cance of the problems being (iv) Comprehensive investment encountered, which led to sup- plan covered all aspects of port for the comprehensive plan the problem. Adequate fund- that continued throughout the ing was provided for all aspects implementation period. of the plan and, perhaps even (ii) Integrated planning and more importantly, all aspects of analysis. Through many years the investment program were of experience during earlier carried out in accordance with efforts to clean up the lake and the plan, due in large part to the from engineering and scientific effective management structure analysis, a clear understanding that was created. of all the factors contributing to the problem, not only within Further information about addi- the water system itself but also tional administrative measures taken in the surrounding catchment, for the West Lake project is available was developed; and all relevant in Appendix 1. aspects were eventually incorpo- rated into the plan.

15 Comparison with Other Projects

16 Introduction Comparison with Other hen considering the First is Tai Lake, which has been experiences of other one of the highest-profile lake resto- aquatic ecosystem res- ration programs undertaken in the toration programs in the PRC. Tai Lake has been the subject PRC, their past inability of detailed analysis under a recently Projects Wto achieve successful results from reha- completed ADB-financed TA study. bilitation projects can be associated with Second is the Sanjiang Plain Wetland a failure to accomplish one or more of Protection Project, an ADB-cofinanced the four success factors summarized for rehabilitation project that has com- the West Lake project. To illustrate this menced implementation and already point, this study examined three projects offers some practical lessons learned. that have undergone failed attempts at Third is the Baiyangdian Lake Environ- rehabilitation and are undergoing new mental Protection Plan, for which ADB efforts with ADB’s help. recently approved a lending project.15

15 ADB. 2008. Integrated Ecosystem and Water Resources Management in the Baiyangdian Basin. June.

17 Tai Lake

ith a surface area of and very highly developed in economic Appendix 2, Table A2.3 for a summary tent throughout the planning peri- around 2,400 square terms (in the year 2000, the gross of Tai Lake rehabilitation investments ods, resulting in significant planned kilometers (km2),16 Tai domestic product [GDP] generated proposed under the 10th FYP). funds—CNY34.95 billion (CNY12.95 Lake is the third larg- per unit area of the catchment was The remainder of this section billion during the ninth FYP, mainly for est freshwater lake CNY29.1 million/km2). assesses the characteristics of the Tai industrial and domestic point source inW the PRC. Its catchment is located in Tai Lake has suffered various Lake program against the four factors water pollution control, pollution con- three provinces (Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and effects of development over the past leading to the success of the West trol at lakeside facilities, demonstra- Anhui) and a provincial level municipal- 50 years, beginning as early as the Lake program. tion projects, and management and ity (Shanghai).17 The catchment is very 1960s (see Appendix 2, Table A2.1 for capacity development. This amount heavily populated (average population percentages of samples from Tai Lake was followed by CNY22.00 billion density in 2000 was 1,137 persons/km2) in various water quality classes). It has Political Leadership during the 10th FYP—an increase of lost many, if not most, of its endemic nearly 60%). 16 Figures ranging from 2,250 km2 to fish species because of water resource Political leadership on restoring Tai Whether total funding planned 2,400 km2 are quoted in various sources. developments, foreshore conversion, Lake has been very high and consis- under the 9th and 10th FYPs was ade- The largest lake in the PRC is Poyang Lake followed by Dongting Lake. and overfishing. This culminated in quate to solve the problem is specu- 17 Its most notable features from a pollution severely deteriorated water quality dur- improve water quality in Tai Lake through lative, but undoubtedly, the level of management point of view are the very ing the late 1990s, which led to the the “Coordinated Water Quality and funding was substantial. On the other large catchment area (36,500 km2), Quantity Operation.” This operation would the large ratio between the area of the implementation of large cleanup pro- direct Yangtze River water into Tai Lake hand, the application of funds was catchment and the surface area of the lake grams during the 9th and 10th FYPs via the Wangyu River to accelerate water considerably less than proposed. By (15.21), the lake’s shallowness (1.9 m on flow into and through Tai Lake, increasing average with a maximum of only about and continued into the current plan- the rate at which water flows through the end of the 10th FYP, only 74% of 2.5 m), the high ratio between the surface ning period. In general, these programs the lake and thus reducing residence the total (CNY26.00 billion) had actu- area of the catchment and the volume of have not achieved their objectives18 (see time. However, the declining quality of ally been disbursed—a substantial gap the lake (564.6 km2/cubic kilometer [km3]), water from the Yangtze River may be and the lake’s relatively short residence affecting the utility of this concept since between the planned expenditures time (<0.8 years—figures for the Great it is increasing sedimentation in Tai Lake, and what was actually spent on the Lakes on the border of the United States 18 A lack of comprehensive control is and its tributaries and pollution discharges and Canada range from 1.9 years for Lake adversely affecting certain hydraulic into the Wangyu River may be adversely ground (Appendix 2, Table A2.2). Superior to 2.6 years for Lake Erie). measures that have been considered to affecting the quality of the flushing water.

18 Tai Lake

Integrated Planning and (i) The plan was too static and insuf- Analysis ficiently forward looking. It took inadequate account of the dele- The problem of Tai Lake has been the terious effects of continued eco- subject of many comprehensive plan- nomic and population growth. ning studies and investment programs Unlike the West Lake plan, the over the years, particularly during the Tai Lake plan included no mea- 10th FYP. The studies have consid- sures to contain or restrict eco- ered a wide range of possible factors nomic and urban growth within behind the problem of failed clean- the catchment during either of ups. For example, the programs under the planning periods. both the 9th and 10th FYPs included (ii) Similarly, and although the plan Jin Shuqin, Renmin University of China investments in point source pollution included substantial funds for Tai Lake, August 2007 control (both industrial and munici- nonpoint source (NPS) pollu- pal), in-lake ecosystem rehabilitation, tion control, no measures were Ineffective control has led to rapid dredging to control eutrophication included to control the growth Effective Management and significant increases in the urban sourced within the lake, nonpoint of livestock numbers during the Structure population within the catchment and source control, water resource man- planning periods, outweigh- of urban wastewater flows. The large agement, and management and capac- ing some success achieved A notable obstacle to all progress in investment programs under the 9th ity development. The program under in restricting the growth of reversing water pollution trends in and 10th FYPs provided a significant the 10th FYP was particularly nota- in-lake aquaculture activities the Tai Lake Basin has been the lack of increase in municipal wastewater ble for the breadth of interventions (see Appendix 2, Table A.2.6. effective control over land use in the treatment capacity throughout the Tai planned (see Appendix 2, Table A2.3 for estimated quantities of total catchment, partly because of the large Lake catchment, but lack of coordi- for the summary of Tai Lake rehabilita- nitrogen and total phosphorus number of jurisdictions governing the nated expenditure resulted in under- tion investments proposed under the from NPS pollution in the Tai management of different parts of the investment in drainage systems, 10th FYP). Lake Basin). catchment.19 resulting in many treatment plants in Despite the breadth of the invest- ment plan, the restoration plan itself 19 The catchment falls within three different has been deficient in two major provinces, one provincial level municipality, and three in Zhejiang), and 30 county-level respects: seven prefecture level cities (four in Jiangsu cities.

19 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

the basin operating significantly below authority (see Appendix 2, Table A.2.5 significant under-expenditures were their design capacity (see Appendix 2, for compliance rates on industrial for activities such as ecosystem Table A.2.4 for municipal wastewater chemical oxygen discharge). rehabilitation, dredging, NPS con- Unlike the West Lake treatment plant ratios). trol, and water resource protection, plan, the Tai Lake plan In the industrial sector, significant which are all activities that have no included no measures advances in wastewater discharge Comprehensive Investment revenue-earning potential for repay- compliance rates are far more vari- Plan Covering All Aspects of ing loans and other financial obliga- to contain the growth able than they should be, especially tions incurred from implementing the within the catchment because of the critical water pollution the Problem planned activities. This highlights a in Tai Lake and its national significance. recurring problem that undermines A stronger and more integrated man- During the ninth FYP, the main dis- successful implementation of all such agement structure is needed, such as bursement problem was the slow plans—too much financial obligation a lake basin management authority. construction of the wastewater treat- is placed on provincial and lower levels This kind of a body may have provided ment plants. By the end of the plan- of government, which, under the PRC more steady, effective, sustainable ning period in Zhejiang Province, fiscal system, have very little poten- compliance rates if it was structured only three of 28 planned treatment tial to generate revenues and finance to gain the concurrence of all relevant plants had been completed and total investments, particularly for local levels of government (especially pro- expenditure on all components of the government infrastructure that can- vincial and municipal) and if it was plan was only 77% (CNY10 billion) not generate cash returns in the short given the right degree of enforcement of planned expenditure. The most term to repay financial obligations.

20 Baiyangdian Lake

aiyangdian Lake in Hebei lands and peripheral zones, as the of the lake has decreased by almost proposals in light of the West Lake Province is the largest lake resources provide them with half because of reduced inflows, more experience in Zhejiang Province and remaining semi-closed (i) livelihood opportunities (i.e., frequent droughts, and increased see what lessons can be learned. freshwater body in north- freshwater fishery, reed production, sedimentation because of increased ern PRC. The lake and most and tourism-related jobs and busi- soil erosion in the catchment. The of its watershed are located entirely nesses); (ii) water for drinking and decreasing inflow of water and the Political Leadership B 20 within Baoding Municipality. irrigation; and (iii) major transporta- increasing discharge of pollutants The open water and aquatic beds tion routes. Furthermore, the lake over the past 40 years have reduced Awareness of the declining water of the lake serve as spawning grounds regulates floodwater and moderates the lake’s water quality from Class quality situation in Baiyangdian Lake and feeding habitats for a diverse the microclimate of the surrounding III to Class V—and even worse in dates as far back as the 1970s. Since array of fish and other animal spe- areas. In the last four decades, the some areas—resulting in the loss then, the Government has repeatedly cies. The lake is also a globally impor- functions and values of the basin and of biodiversity and livelihood (see issued instructions for a thorough tant resting site for migratory birds the lake itself have been eroding, with Appendix 3, Table A3.1 on the pres- solution to be worked out for the on the East Asian—Australasian fly- adverse affects on its ecosystem. Con- ent water quality of Baiyangdian problem, although these instructions way. Baiyangdian Lake has economic struction of large reservoirs upstream Lake). were not backed up by any decisive importance, especially for more than of the lake have seriously reduced The Baoding municipal govern- action from the central level. Despite 200,000 people living within its wet- inflows, with water demands in the ment has recognized these problems the long-standing high level of politi- Daqing River having risen rapidly and and has prepared a comprehensive cal awareness, it was not until 2005 now exceeding supply, resulting in an plan to reverse the situation. Imple- that the Hebei provincial government 20 The Baiyangdian Lake in Hebei Province, and Baoding municipal government with a surface area of 366 km2, is the increase in the incidence of “no” or mentation of the plan has not yet com- largest remaining semi-closed freshwater “low” inflows to the lake.21 The size menced. The purpose of the following announced that a comprehensive body in northern PRC. It lies in the middle discussion is to review the planning plan to address the problem had been reaches of the Daqing River basin and ultimately discharges into the Bohai Gulf 21 Moreover, rising population, expanded developed. of the Yellow Sea. Baiyangdian Lake and agricultural and industrial activities, limited most of its watershed, totaling 31,500 m2, solid waste and wastewater disposal have transformed the lake into a major are located entirely within Baoding measures in the watershed and within the depository of wastewater discharges, solid Municipality. lake, plus deforestation of the watershed wastes, and sediments.

21 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

government leaders at various levels. domestic wastewater; (ii) irrational These could have provided a good and unsustainable aquatic farming in basis for developing and implement- the lake itself; and (iii) overall socio- ing a comprehensive solution. In most economic development in the lake cases though, they were not accom- basin and surroundings. plished until after many projects had Weak institutions, inadequate already been attempted, and failed. capacity of the local government, and As early as the 1970s,23 industrial pol- poor planning in the use and alloca- lution control and prevention proj- tion of the lake’s water resources were ects were initiated with the support behind the degradation. This was of the Government. However, these aggravated by gaps and overlaps in the only addressed part of the problem roles of government agencies at the and not much was done to deal with provincial and municipal levels on water (i) other pollution sources, particularly use and allocation driven by single- sector approaches. Also, as economic growth became the primary goal of by the same two organizations on the local governments, environmental pro- structure, function, environmental effects, Dead fish as one of the manifestations of pollution in the lake and prospects for future development of tection laws and regulations were not the lake ecosystem. adequately enforced. The provincial 23 Starting in the 1970s, the Hebei provincial and Baoding municipal governments government, with the support of the Integrated Planning and ally led to the commissioning of many central Government, initiated 53 control now recognize that a more holistic studies22 and official inspections by and prevention projects; at the beginning approach needs to be adopted. An Analysis of 1992, the two biggest paper mills in the catchment were forced to suspend integrated plan to be implemented Planning and investments in the lake’s production or change their product line over a 10-year period has been devel- 22 problems have often preceded—to Important studies included detailed to reduce pollution emissions. At the same oped, requiring an investment of investigations on environmental pollution time, two industrial wastewater treatment their detriment—the many compre- in the area conducted in the 1970s by plants with a combined capacity of CNY8 billion (about $991 million). hensive studies accomplished about the Shijiazhuang Institute of Geography 8,000 tons per day were constructed The plan involves both pollution con- of Hebei Province and the Institute of or under construction to lay a sound the lake’s problems. The early politi- Zoology of the Chinese Academy of foundation for water pollution control and trol activities and an ecosystem reha- cal awareness of the problem eventu- Sciences, followed by studies in the 1990s prevention in Baiyangdian Lake. bilitation component that addresses

22 Baiyangdian Lake environmental degradation of both the new comprehensive plan will Comprehensive Investment emissions from about 100,000 people the lake and its watershed.24 be the Baoding Development and Plan Covering All Aspects of whose houses are located in the lake or Reform Commission, where a cen- right on the waterfront. tral project management office will the Problem Finally, some components of the Effective Management be established. Project implementa- plan—most notably a proposal to Structure tion units will also be established The comprehensive plan calls for 27 supplement inflows to Baiyangdian in each county government to pro- new wastewater treatment plants Lake by constructing a water transfer The executing agency of the proposed vide oversight of the projects to be in the watershed to treat all urban system—may not be the optimum ADB-supported project to implement implemented within the county. sewage in Baoding City and about solution. The feasibility of other This approach may be adequate 60% in the 22 counties by 2010 (see options has not been considered 24 The comprehensive plan has two parts. for managing and coordinating the Appendix 3, Table A3.2 for a sum- adequately, such as changing water The first part requires constructing 27 implementation of the individual proj- mary of the investment plan’s capital release rules for dams in the upper wastewater treatment plants in the watershed to treat all urban sewage ect components, but it will not be able outlay). The plan also calls for a com- parts of the catchment or introducing in Baoding City and about 60% in to provide the long-term and compre- prehensive range of other actions, water savings programs for industrial the 22 counties by 2010 along with a hensive basin management operation including rehabilitating the Baiyang- and irrigation water.25 comprehensive range of other actions. Such other actions include (i) rehabilitating necessary to ensure that future growth dian Lake Wetland Reserve, improving the Baiyangdian Lake Wetland Reserve; and development of the lake and its the disposal of fly ash from thermal (ii) improving disposal of fly ash from 25 The 5-Year Environmental Protection Plan thermal power plants in the catchment; catchment do not lead to problems. A power plants in the catchment, pro- and Baiyangdian Ecosystem Rehabilitation (iii) promoting clean energy by developing short-term solution might be to estab- moting clean energy by developing Master Plan (BERMP) are just getting geothermal resources, and (iv) reducing lish a leading group of senior officials geothermal resources, reducing the started. Whether the required financing will the number of people without access to be secured remains to be seen, although safe drinking water. The second part of from all relevant departments, but a number of people without access to early indications show the program is the plan is intended to reduce by 8% the better solution would be to establish safe drinking water, and reversing underfinanced and that there will be either chemical oxygen demand from the 2000 delays or certain components will not be level and improve lake water quality to an agency with a high level of con- the environmental degradation of implemented at all. Securing the financing Class III. The associated Baiyangdian trol over future developments in the Baiyangdian Lake and its watershed. has been problematic because (i) BERMP Ecosystem Rehabilitation Master Plan catchment that would work with rel- Despite the comprehensive range of has not been endorsed and approved by (2005–2015) specifically addresses the National Development and Reform environmental degradation and calls for evant departments to define develop- activities proposed, some gaps remain— Commission, and thus, is being approached an integrated approach with a planned ment standards for all activities in the most notable is the lack of plan to deal on a project rather than on a program investment of over $1.0 billion. It comprises basis; and (ii) some participating counties 17 projects in Phase 1 (2005–2009) and catchment. with the problem of “in-lake” pollu- are having difficulty providing the counter­ 7 projects in Phase 2 (2010–2015). tion, such as the domestic wastewater part funds.

23 Sanjiang Plain

he Sanjiang Plain contains To protect the wetlands, the lands. (see Appendix 4 for a brief dis- (iii) 1994 – The PRC’s Biodiversity the largest area of wetlands Sanjiang Plain Wetlands Protection cussion of preliminary discussions). Action Plan identified biodiver- in the PRC, yet the wet- Project (SPWPP), cosponsored by the sity conservation in the Sanjiang lands have receded by more Heilongjiang provincial government, wetlands as the highest prior- than 80% in 50 years (see ADB, and Global Environment Facil- Political Leadership ity by ranking Honghe National TAppendix 4, Table A4.1 for estimates ity (GEF), started in March 2007. This Nature Reserve in the Sanjiang on the decline in wetland area since the 5-year project is expected to cost There has been a high level of political Plain as a Category A-I (inter- founding of the PRC). The Sanjiang Plain $55 million. The project aims to involvement and leadership on issues national importance or signifi- is located in the northeastern corner of (i) protect the natural resources of facing the Sanjiang Plain over a long cance, Grade 1). the PRC with a total area of 108,900 km. the Sanjiang plain wetlands and the period: (iv) 1995 – The Committee of Envi- The wetlands are considered globally watersheds from continued threats, ronmental and Resources Pro- important and represent one of the most (ii) promote the sustainable use (i) 1992 – The PRC ratified the tection of the National People’s important breeding sites and migratory of natural resources through inte- Ramsar Convention.26 Congress released an official routes for water fowl in northeastern grated conservation planning, and (ii) 1992 – The PRC’s Agenda 21 document requiring the central Asia. They are significant for the num- (iii) improve the well-being of inhabi­ identified the wetlands as a spe- and local governments to protect ber and variety of globally threatened tants in local communities. cial land resource and habitat, the wetlands in Sanjiang Plain. waterfowl species. Since the 1950s, the As is the case with the Baiyangdi- and put forward objectives and (v) 1996 – In a report to the Sanjiang Plain has been a major area an Lake project, the Sanjiang project is requirements for wetland con- State Council, the Ministry of for extensive agricultural development, still at an early stage and it is too soon servation and rational use. ­Agriculture stressed the impor- which has resulted in a considerable loss to determine whether the plan would tance of coordinating wetland of wetlands. In 1950, wetlands covered be successful. But valuable experience conservation and agricultural 5.34 million hectares (ha), or nearly half has already been gained and it is pos- 26 By 2005, 26 natural reserves were development in the Sanjiang of the Sanjiang Plain. By 2000, the area sible to draw some lessons regard- established in the Sanjiang Plain with a total Plain. area of over 1 million ha, of which three had been reduced to only 0.89 million ha, ing its overall contributions toward are listed under the Ramsar Convention as (vi) 1998 – Heilongjiang provincial or only about 8% of the Sanjiang Plain. improving the management of wet- globally important wetlands. government issued a decision

24 Sanjiang Plain

ing uses of water resources28 and water Integrated Planning and pollution. Field monitoring activities Analysis included in the SPWPP have revealed that the water quality is quite poor in A considerable number of background Qixinghe National Nature Reserve—one researches—supported both by the of the most well-preserved wetlands in Government and international organi- the Sanjiang Plain (frequently class II, IV, zation27—on sustainable land use strat- V, and even V+ for certain parameters). egies for the Sanjiang Plain had been This result has been quite surprising carried out, but very few dealt with because the national standard pre- all aspects affecting the wetlands in a scribes class I for national level nature comprehensive manner. Subsequently, reserves. The main sources of the prob- two key issues have been emerging at lems are from upstream activities, such this stage of the SPWPP, i.e., conflict- as coal mines, gold mines, and NPS in the ADB Photo Library Sanjiang Plain surrounding area, while the main con- cern at the downstream wetlands were 27 These include (i) the Sustainable Land for restoring adequate level of water to suspend any kind of wetland Despite this high level of political Use and Allocation Program for the quantity for ecosystem. Integrated Ussuri/Wusuli River Watershed Project development in the province. interest, degradation of the wetland (1995, funded by the United States (US) and comprehensive perspectives are (vii) 2000 – The State Council ecosystem in the Sanjiang Plain has Agency for International Development and the US National Committee on approved Heilongjiang Province continued. During the initial imple- US–PRC Relations); (ii) a $12 million as the Demonstrative Ecological mentation period, the SPWPP has United Nations Development Programme/ 28 These conflicts include (i) water use in the Province. identified various threats unknown Global Environment Facility (GEF) Project Sanjiang plain is determined largely by (2001–2006), which produced a review agricultural development; (ii) the water flow (viii) 2006 – The national 11th FYP previously. Further, it noted that some of Sanjiang Plain biodiversity and the in Sanjiang plain has been more and more specified the Sanjiang Plain as contradictory policies relevant to wet- protected areas system; (iii) the United controlled by engineering works, including Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/ reservoirs, drainage, and diversions; (iii) a the national wetlands ecological land management make the SPWPP GEF Amur River Basin Trans-boundary proposal of diverting large-scale water from zone and limited agricultural and difficult to generate conducive out- Cooperation Project, which is focusing on Sanjiang plain to support the State Council’s urban development in this area. puts (Appendix 4). pollution along the Amur–Heilong River; Promotion Plan of Northeast Industrial Base and (iv) the UNEP/GEF Siberian Crane accepted contrary to conservation plans Project. (Appendix 4).

25 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

needed in planning and analyzing wet- (i) The boundaries of natural should be taken into account for with restoring nature reserve in the lands management issues. reserves are usually determined wetlands management. wetland largely, but not for dealing by jurisdictional borders instead (ii) Water use, water pollution con- with water pollution sources from the of watershed boundaries. This trol, nature reserve management, upstream, beyond the current project Effective Management often results in conflicts instead and water ecosystem conserva- area. The proposed investment pro- Structure of cooperation. One typical case tion are run by different agencies. gram (equivalent to $55 million over is the upstream water users’ dam Coordination among and across 5 years) will obviously not be suffi- The SPWPP was designed to pro- construction, aiming for irriga- multi-sectoral stakeholders needs cient to meet all the protection needs mote institutional coordination, tion without considering the to be significantly strengthened of the Sanjiang Plain wetlands, given and has identified three underlying effects on the water supply to for wetlands management. over 50 years of accumulated prob- bottlenecks which may prevent truly the downstream nature reserves. (iii) Regional economic development lems and huge geographical cover- sustainable management of the The extent and scope of water planning should incorporate age. Regional economic development wetlands: balance in a watershed area wetlands management issues plan should integrate planning and as integral part of its planning management of the Sanjiang Plain, factors, and should take into including the nature reserves, as a account the potential impacts of complete ecological system. Subse- social, economic, and emerging quently, a regional economic and urban development on wetlands investment plan requires attention habitat in the watershed areas. to cover multi-sectoral coordination, with a longer time horizon to restore natural habitat. The long-term secu- Comprehensive Investment rity of the remaining wetland areas is Plan Covering All Aspects of vulnerable, until these requirements are met. the Problem

Monitoring activities are uncovering water pollution as critical threats to wetlands habitat. However, the cur- PRC Loan 2157 Mission for Sanjiang Plain Wetlands Protection Project rent SPWPP fund is limited to deal

26 Sanjiang Plain

Sanjiang Plain at dusk ADB Photo Library

27 Discussion and Conclusion

28 Discussion and Conclusion

he country is facing a serious characteristics—shows clearly that by the failure to apply a comprehen- sometimes, new laws and regu- water crisis and imminent aquatic ecosystems deteriorate for sive, integrative framework. lations. water shortages combined many complex and interrelated rea- A close study of the West Lake with serious degradation sons and that a rehabilitation strategy, experience shows that four key ele- (ii) Integrated planning and analy­ of the quality of available to be successful, needs to address all ments are required if success is to be sis. Aquatic ecosystems usually Twater will likely affect the cost of eco- elements of the problem within the realized in aquatic ecosystem rehabili- collapse gradually from multiple nomic development significantly and framework of the total ecosystem. The tation programs. factors—all of which need to adversely in the coming years. The Gov- successful approach takes into account be addressed in project designs ernment has long been aware of these not only the water resource and uses (i) Strong and consistent politi­ to prevent the reemergence of growing problems and, over the last 10 but the land as well, and makes great- cal leadership. To create the the same issues that led to the or 15 years, has invested substantially er efforts to strengthen coordination conditions for successful aquatic ecosystem’s crisis in the first to reverse these problems in particular between sectors and between jurisdic- rehabilitation, projects need the place. Successful strategies also areas, such as some of the larger lakes tions. The comprehensive approach commitment of political lead- recognize that investment and and rivers (Tai and Dianchi Lakes and the includes a combination of (i) preventive ers who understand the seri- construction are only part of the Huai River). measures (planning and development ousness of the problems and solution. A truly comprehensive Overall, these efforts have not restrictions, much better environmen- have the ability to encourage strategy also needs to take into been as successful as planned, and tal impact assessment); (ii) regulatory and, if necessary, require coop- account issues governing land programs for restoring lakes and wet- measures (control of pollution sources); eration for cross-sectoral and use and management within the lands have been particularly prob- and (iii) rehabilitation measures (eco- cross-jurisdictional coordination catchment as well as mainte- lematic. Nevertheless, there have also system restoration, etc.). (e.g., between counties, bet­ nance and operation. Programs been a small number of encourag- Other cases, particularly Tai Lake, ween counties and provinces, that focus too much on one part ing successes, such as the West Lake show that the Government is capa- between provinces and the cen- of the solution rarely succeed. in Hangzhou Municipality, Zhejiang ble of mobilizing all the necessary tral government). This level of Specific account also needs to be Province. The West Lake experience— resources to tackle complex problems, coordination often requires new taken of ecological measures of although it has certain unique but success is frequently compromised management structures and, success, and relevant indicators

29 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

need to be included in the plan. take a much more active role aquatic ecosystem rehabilita- and built more than 15,000 municipal Finally, successful plans recog- in encouraging cooperation. At tion programs, the Government wastewater treatment plants. In the nize the need for a step-by-step the project level, comprehensive needs to take on more of the course of constructing this vast infra- approach that allows for suffi- plans need strong and effec- financial burden. structure, the US destroyed more than cient time to make the funda- tive management structures to 60% of its inland wetlands. It has since mental changes necessary for ensure the proper timing and These factors need to be consid- realized the damage that was being success. Programs driven by FYPs sequence of component imple- ered in preparing any aquatic restora- done and has devoted enormous and short-term perspectives are mentation. tion project in the PRC. financial and management resources rarely successful. (iv) Effective financial engineer­ The PRC is unique because of its to reverse the trends. The situation has (iii) Effective management struc­ ing. Assuming that funding in extraordinary economic growth and since improved significantly, although tures. Most important, imple- general is adequate and timely, the unique environmental and social it has by no means been completely menting regulatory and all the specific elements of the conditions surrounding this growth. reversed. The scale of lake and wet- institutional changes that are plan must be adequately funded The picture is further complicated by land rehabilitation and management almost always required as part and, in the PRC context, ade- the imbalance of power and author- activities undertaken in the US rang- of a comprehensive plan needs quate account must be taken ity between government levels, the es from the incomparably large (i.e., strong management. This can of the revenue-raising capacity inadequacies of the fiscal system, the Great Lakes National Program, a be complicated by the fact that of participating governments, and the top–down nature of govern- bi-national program intended to catchment boundaries are rarely, particularly the lower-level gov- ment activities that exclude meaning- address environmental management if ever, the same as jurisdictional ernments of counties and town- ful public participation. Nevertheless, challenges in the greatest freshwa- boundaries. Effective manage- ships. Too many programs have there are some instructive lessons ter lakes system on earth) to the very ment structures ensure coor- failed because of the inability of from foreign experience, particularly small (a vast number of small-scale dination across administrative lower-level governments to raise from the US, where water resource local lake cleanup programs, fre- boundaries—this has been the counterpart funds or have been development during the early and quently initiated by local community most consistent failure of large- distorted because local govern- mid-20th century shares close paral- groups, run collaboratively with local scale rehabilitation programs ments focus their spending on lels with the PRC experience. agencies with a public–private fund- in recent years. Problems with activities that generate short- By the end of the 20th century, ing mix). Each activity has had its interprovincial coordination and medium-term revenue. In the US had built over 80,000 dams own characteristics; yet no matter have been particularly notable, general, and given the major and reservoirs, installed nearly 90,000 the project size, they share the four and the State Council needs to externalities associated with megawatts of hydroelectric capacity, basic criteria behind the comparative

30 Discussion and Conclusion

nected nature of all activities within a particular catchment and that it is an ecological problem rather than an engineering problem to be solved. If there is no change in the approach taken in the PRC to the man- agement and development of lakes and wetlands, the problems being experienced in the eastern areas— where development pressure has been highest and most concentrated—will be repeated in the central and west- ern regions. The PRC cannot afford this environmental approach, which undermines economic progress.

Jin Shuqin, Renmin Univesity of China Blue green algal blooms in Tai Lake, August 2007 success of the West Lake experience Government agency, and (ii) a state- These comparative case studies in Hangzhou. Table 1 provides two wide lake cleanup program in Iowa. suggest that the PRC needs to take a illustrations: (i) the Lake Erie Rehabili- Many other examples could be used, far more comprehensive approach to tation Program being implemented but the four basic criteria are fairly the management of aquatic systems. as part of a national program by a consistently applied. Such an approach recognizes the con-

31 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

Table 1: Some Characteristics of Two US Lake Cleanup Programs

Program Lake Erie Iowa Lake Restoration Characteristic

Strong and consis- The lake was declared biologically dead in 1970, an important driv- Driven by a high level of public interest in the quality of lakes in Iowa (60% of Iowans tent political lead- ing factor behind the passage of the Federal Clean Waters Act in use the state’s lakes each year; and each user, on average, visits a lake eight times ership 1972. The Clean Waters Act not only provided a strong regulatory a year), the legislature and the governor agreed to coordinate and identify all lakes basis but also a funding mechanism to support waterway cleanups in the state classified as, or in danger of being classified as, having “impaired water throughout the US. Programs for cleaning up Lake Erie have had quality.” The process began with a “Water Summit” to identify a plan by focusing strong political support, led by the state governor (the PRC equiva- on three criteria: (i) comprehensive, locally led watershed planning action approach lent is the provincial governor), before the completion of the first to water quality improvement, (ii) target scarce available financial resources for best state of the lake report in 1992. results, and (iii) ability to demonstrate success.

Integrated plan- The Lake Erie Commission follows the Lake Erie Protection and ning and analysis Restoration Plan, which was developed based on extensive tech- nical studies by relevant state departments and the results of 16 discussion groups convened by the commission and involving stakeholder experts, representatives from numerous environmen- tal organizations, local government, universities, and think tanks (research and policy organizations). The plan includes 84 recom- mendations on specific strategic actions to improve the environ- ment, recreational opportunities, and economy of the lake and its watershed. The plan also set out a series of “guiding principles” intended to change how basic development decisions on issues (such as land use, energy use, and industrial structure) are made within the watershed.

continued on next page

32 Discussion and Conclusion

Table 1 continued: Some Characteristics of Two US Lake Cleanup Programs

Program Lake Erie Iowa Lake Restoration Characteristic

Effective manage- The State of Ohio created the Lake Erie Commission to preserve Primary responsibility for implementation is assigned to the State Department of ment structures the lake’s natural resources, protect the quality of the waters and Natural Resources, whose secretary reports directly to the state governor. Concerned ecosystem, and promote economic development. Commission communities surrounding the lake are involved and expected to lead planning and members include the directors of the main relevant state agen- implementation. Strenuous efforts are made to involve and coordinate the work of all cies (Department of Natural Resources, EPA, and Departments of relevant agencies and levels of government including municipal and county govern- Agriculture, Development, Health, and Transportation). The com- ments, local nongovernment organizations, and relevant state agencies, particularly mission has its own staff, administers its own business, and exe- the Department of Agriculture and Land Stewardship. Regular public meetings are cutes many of its own programs (e.g., the Lake Erie Protection held to keep affected communities informed and to generate support. Fund, “coast weeks,” Lake Erie License Plate Sales, and the Lake Erie Quality Index). The commission’s quarterly meetings are open to the public.

Effective financial The work of the Lake Erie Commission is effectively a subset of The managers used innovative analysis to tap into funds allocated for related pur- engineering the Great Lakes National Program, covering the entire Great Lakes poses. For example, background research established just how important lakes were region. It was established by the Clean Waters Act to support to the tourism industry in Iowa, which provided justification for tapping into ongoing investments consistent with the US–Canada Great Lakes Water tourism development grants programs. The Department of Natural Resources also Quality Agreement, which aims to restore and protect the chemi- contracted with Iowa State University to develop a classification of Iowa’s Lakes for cal, physical, and biological integrity of the Great Lakes. Activities Restoration, which provided a basis for tapping national lake restoration funding are governed by a series of rolling FYPs prepared under the direc- programs managed by the US EPA under the Clean Waters Act. The level of federal tion of the US EPA, beginning in 1997. Specific management plans funding varied but was usually about half of total expenditures. are prepared for each of the five lakes by the relevant states. Cost-benefit analysis is applied to all planned investments to ensure maximum effi- ciency of funds use.

continued on next page

33 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

Table 1 continued: Some Characteristics of Two US Lake Cleanup Programs

Program Lake Erie Iowa Lake Restoration Characteristic

Lake Erie has improved remarkably over the past 25 years. Water Three lakes have implemented and completed cleanup programs. They are no longer quality has improved considerably, largely from steep reductions classified as “impaired.” Implementation has begun on three more programs, and in phosphorus as a result of upgrading sewage treatment plants, watershed control activities in preparation for lake restoration activities are being adopting pollution prevention technologies, and improving indus- completed on 11 lakes. trial wastewater treatment. Water clarity has increased eightfold, resulting in significant increases in tourism. Nevertheless, many goals remain unmet. For example, only two of the lake’s 12 major tributaries are considered in “good” condition, four are rated only “fair,” while six are still rated as “poor.” Sediment inflows are not yet fully under control; the current inflow of 1.5 million tons per annum is thrice the acceptable level. Swimming beaches are still classified as unsuitable for 20% of the summer which—although a significant improvement—is still below the planning objective. The quality of near-shore biological communities, although much improved, is still below planning objectives, with none of the 21 areas assessed by the Index of Biotic Integrity being rated as “excellent”, two as “good”, 14 as “fair”, and five as “poor”.

PRC = People’s Republic of China, US EPA = United States Environmental Protection Agency, US = United States.

Source: Compiled from literature review.

34

Appendix A Promising Example of Lake Rehabilitation: West Lake Hangzhou City

36 Appendix Basic Conditions he lake is 3.3 kilometers foreign income. Westlake District’s (km) long, 2.8 km wide, GDP was CNY5.88 billion in 2005, A Promising Example of 15 km in perimeter, covers an increase of 17.8% for the year. a water area of 6.03 square Fiscal revenues of the district gov- Lake Rehabilitation: kilometers (km2) and has ernment were CNY3.14 billion, Ta catchment area of 27.25 km2. The up by 16.6%, and local revenue average depth of the lake is about went up to CNY1.766 billion, a 1.55 meters (m), with the deepest part 19.8% increase over the previous being 2.80 m. The usual water control year. The average income of down- West Lake line is around 7.15 m, at which level town employees in the district in the lake has a volume of 9.23 million 2005 was CNY29,850, an increase of m3. The West Lake scenic area is a part 16.5% over the previous year, while of the West Lake National Ecological the farmers’ income was CNY9,108, Landscape Conservation Function Zone, an increase of 12.5%. Hangzhou City which covers an area of 195 km. In 2005, Hangzhou’s gross domes- tic product (GDP) climbed to yuan (CNY) 294.26 billion, an increase of 13.1% at constant prices compared to the previous year. Hangzhou’s GDP per capita in 2005 was CNY44,853. Tourism income was about CNY46.51 billion, including $0.76 billion of  Hangzhou Statistical Yearbook 2006: www. hzstats.gov.cn/webapp/tjnj/nj2006/8/ nj.htm.  http://zj.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/  www.hangzhou.gov.cn/main/zjhz/ 2006-12/08/content_8730307.htm. hzlj/2006/qxs/T159949.shtml.

37 Water Pollution Problems

efore 2002, the monitor- followed by Longhong Stream The water quality of the Lake Area After comprehensive treatment, ing data for the Changqiao and Jinsha Stream. Changqiao of the West Lake was mainly sta- the water quality still has not reached

Stream, Longhong Stream, Stream had concentrations of ble. Indicators including CODMn the requirements for planned func-

Jinsha Stream, and the Lake BOD5, TP, and TN one to two and TP reached Class IV, but TN tions. The water environmental sta- Area showed the following times higher than other monitor- and chlorophyll-a exceeded the tus of the West Lake is shown in Bfeatures compared to the National Stan- ing sections. There were many standard and the lake was still in Table A1.1. dards of Surface Water Environmental rural residents and enterprises eutrophication status. The water Quality (GHZB1-1999) and standards for upstream of Changqiao Stream, quality in the four streams that eutrophication. resulting in substantial quantities run into the West Lake was worse of domestic wastewater and agri- than Class V, with fluctuation of (i) Organic pollution evident. The cultural pollutants flowing into different indicators. TN and fecal monitored concentrations of che­ the lake. According to statistical coliforms substantially exceeded

mical oxygen demand (COD)Mn, data, the average monthly waste- the standard. Through a series biological oxygen demand water discharge from Changqiao of comprehensive rehabilita-

(BOD)5, total nitrogen (TN), and Stream reached 25,182 tons, and tion measures including dredg- total phosphorus (TP) in the the water quality was worse than ing, intersecting discharges, streams exceeded standards. The Class V all year round. diverting, and allocating water highest CODMn concentrations (iii) Serious eutrophication. The from the Qiantang River, the in the streams occurred in the Hangzhou Environmental Status eutrophication process has been summer. While CODMn concen- Bulletin 2002 noted: slowed down, however, the trations were stabilized between water quality has not shown Classes III and IV in the Lake Area, remarkable improvement. TN concentrations were worse than Class V.  Ecological and Environmental Research Group of the West Lake Basin. 2002.  The Hangzhou Environmental Status (ii) Pollution levels high. Changqiao Pollution Control Measures in the West Bulletin 2002: http://sixx.cn/hb/Article. Stream was the most polluted, Lake Basin. March. asp?ID=146.

38 Water Pollution Problems

Table A1.1. Water Environmental Status of the West Lake

2004 2005 2006

Water Water Indicators Water Indicators Section Indicators Exceeding Quality Nutrients Quality Nutrients Exceeding Quality Nutrients Exceeding Standards Class Class Standards Class Standards

Central Lake V Heavy CODMn, BOD5, Oils, TN, TP V Light TP, TN V Light Oils, TN, TP eutrophication eutrophication eutrophication

Children’s V Heavy CODMn, BOD5, Oils, TN, TP Worse Light TP, TN V Light Oils, TN, TP Palace eutrophication V eutrophication eutrophication

North Xilihu Worse Heavy Oils, TN, TP Worse Light TP, TN Worse Light Oils, TN V eutrophication V eutrophication V eutrophication

Average V Heavy BOD5, Oils, TN, TP Worse Light TP, TN Worse Light Oils, TN, TP eutrophication V eutrophication V eutrophication

BOD = biological oxygen demand, COD = chemical oxygen demand, TN = total nitrogen, TP = total phosphorus, V = Class V.

Source: China Academy of Environmental Planning. 2007. Water Protection and Management Policy for Main Lakes and Reservoirs in China. Study Report. March.

39 Planning

s it is a national key scenic Land and Resources, State Forestry version incorporating the comments area, West Lake needed a Administration, National Tourism from this meeting was approved comprehensive restoration Administration, and State Adminis- by Vice Premier Zeng Peiyan on plan prepared for national tration of Cultural Heritage, met in 1 September 2005. The committee review and approval. It Hangzhou to review and discuss the spent 33 months to prepare, revise, Ahad taken 3 years to obtain national plan. A comprehensive note (No. 25, improve, and obtain the final approval approval, but this process proved valu- 2004, MOC) about the further revision for the plan. able in terms of taking into account all of the plan was generated from this In this approved plan, the over- aspects of rehabilitating an ecosystem. meeting. The notes—the Guidance all planning area is 59.04 km2, while The Hangzhou West Lake Scenic on Review and Approval of National the core area for protection covers Area Management Committee (the Key Scenic Areas’ Management Plan 14.6 km2 and the rest of the 39.65 km2 committee) submitted the master (No. 83, 2001, MOC) and the Require- is assigned to an extended protection plan to the municipal government ments for Preparing and Approving zone. In the West Lake scenic area, in December 2002. It took 6 months National Key Scenic Areas’ Plans (No. nine scenic sections have 122 view for the committee to get the munic- 126, 2003, MOC)—provided a good spots, over 40% of which are special ipality’s approval and incorporate the basis for further improving the master and first-class spots. municipality reviewers’ comments. In plan. It took a year for the committee The master plan also specifically June 2003, the plan was discussed in to improve the plan’s design based on prescribed the environmental stan- the provincial government executive the above-mentioned documents. dards for the West Lake scenic area: meeting. After obtaining provincial On 13 and 14 January 2005, approval, the plan was submitted MOC, on behalf of the State Council, (i) The air quality should reach to the State Council for review in organized an interministerial review the national Class-I standard of September 2003. meeting to discuss the master plan. GB3095-1996. In February 2004, the ministries All ministries concerned expressed (ii) The surface water quality should concerned, including the Ministry their principal approval of the plan be consistent with the provi- of Construction (MOC), Ministry of and offered a few comments. The final sions of Class-IV standard of

40 Planning

GB3838-2002, and the drink- aspects of residential relocation, ing water with the provisions of ecotourism, water engineering, GB5749-85 standard. safeguards, sewage and drainage (iii) The noise allowed in the scenic system, transport, adjustment of area should follow the Class-I inflow from Qiantang river, and standard of GB3096-93. outlet from West Lake, etc.; (ii) focusing the efforts more on In 2005, based on the approved improving water quality, ecosys- master plan, the committee devel- tem service, water circulation, oped the 11th FYP for the West Lake landscape attraction (harmoni- Scenic Area Rehabilitation, which was zation among mountains, lakes, identified as a priority program in the and grasses) and coordination Hangzhou municipality’s 11th FYP for among the related aspects; economic and social development. (iii) paying attention to transforming The plan called for the further forests, integrated pest manage- strengthening of nature and cultural ment, biodiversity conservation, heritage in the lake, and the continu- etc.; and ous improvement of water quality to (iv) setting clear targets for 2010— enhance the lake’s ecological func- 80% of lake planned areas tions. An integrated approach was become a natural park; overall clearly presented in this plan, sewage treatment rate reaches 95%; extraction of groundwater (i) taking into account all correlated decreases to 50% compared to issues including land use, social 2005.

41 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

Table A1.2. Projects and Investments (CNY billion) Planned Actual Project Main Construction Content Investment Investment

Sediment dredging 2.80 million m3 sediment 0.23 0.23

Conformity project of south line Construction of green area connection around 0.23 0.41 the lake and cultural landscape corridor

New lakeside landscape Land occupation of 2.8 ha; removed 0.65 0.65 (Shentang) construction area of 36,000 m2

First and second stage of Land occupation of 334 ha, with six spots 1.55 1.32 Yanggong Bank

West Hill historic streets House removing and construction maintenance 0.33 0.12 conservative project (stage 1)

Total 2.99 2.73 ha = hectare, m2 = square meter, m3 = cubic meter.

Sources: www.hangzhou.com.cn/20070515/ca/ca1312943.htm; www.hznet.gov.cn/hzdpc/0401/6144.htm.

42 Administrative Measures

n addition to reforming the sys- and Meijiawu tea culture village), and ing the integrated protection project tem and preparing the master 36 historic places were designated. of West Lake, a number of activities plan, the local government initi- A new lake area of 90 ha was also were carried out, such as a protection ated the integrated protection recovered, accomplished by the water project for the historic streets of West project in 2002 to protect West environment integrating protection of Hill, reconstructing Gaoli Temple, an ILake. Since then, overall protection and West Lake. As a result, the water qual- epigraph stone, and the Lin Huiyin renovation have been accomplished, ity and the ecosystem had improved monument. including ecological protection, environ- remarkably. In the 5 years of implementing ment beautification, culture continua- Activities in 2004 focused on the project, illegally built buildings tion, landscape restoration, water qual- protecting West Hill’s historic streets. or those that were disfiguring the ity control, and architecture renovation. After restoring and renovating them, landscape and had no preservation In 2002, implementing the south 15 historic scenic areas were desig­ value were torn down; 2,600 house- line conformity project at West Lake nated, further contributing to the holds (working units) were relocated, indicated the beginning of the inte- beauty of West Lake. thereby reducing the population in grated protection project. The “land- In 2005, under the precondition the catchment by 7,300 people. In scape for 10 miles around the lake” of protecting historic heritages and addition, a new public green space had been formed, too. In addition, original landscapes, eight projects of more than 110 ha was created, the the entrance fees of the parks were were implemented, the fourth pro- lake area was increased to 95.5 ha, abolished, and the objective of “giv- gram carried out for West Lake. and the average depth of West Lake ing the lake back to its citizens” was In 2006, three main projects increased from 1.65 m to 2.5 m. With accomplished. were implemented, including the an annual water supply amount of The year 2003 marked the com- integrated renovation of Lingyin sce- 0.12 billion m3 of better quality water, pletion of the construction of three nic area, Wushan Mountain, and the transparency increased from 50 centi- major landscapes (Yanggongti, Hubin, “8 spots of Longjin”. Further deepen- meters (cm) to 73 cm.

43 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

Results and Effectiveness the average visibility in 2007 was less eutrophication, notable decrease Before the project, waterweeds

65 cm, higher by 5 cm than that of in main indices (NH3-N, TP, and perman- would die from lack of oxygen when The comprehensive conservation proj- 2006; the ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) ganate indices close to Class III), and planted at the bottom of the lake. ect of the West Lake demonstrated and TN indices improved—the former average visibility improved to 65 cm Now they are able to grow smoothly, the principle of “protecting first, pri- seeing a 100% drop to 0.184 milli- (with maxima of more than 90 cm). which is rare in megacities. Although oritizing ecosystem conservation, grams per liter (mg/l), while the latter now they still need periodic artificial and sustainable development.” The decreased by 30%; and 22.9 km of Water Resources. A total lake area planting, a clear underwater forest streams were renovated and the lake drainage pipes were laid to intercept of 90 ha was recovered from 2002 to will result when they can grow in a area was enlarged. In addition, wet- 5,413 tons of sewage per day. A mul- 2007, accompanied by the West Lake large area spontaneously. lands were recovered, polluting facto- tifunctional Changqiao Stream eco- dredging project and water diver- Right now, two ecological chains ries were relocated, and sewage from recovery project for purifying domestic sion and distribution project, which exist in West Lake: (i) microorganism— retentions and premises was inter- sewage and sand interception was set resulted in an increase in average zoobenthos—zooplanktons—aquatic cepted and treated. Aquatic plants up, which substantially improved the depth from 1.65 m to 2.5 m. Since animal; (ii) submersed vegetation— were grown in a large area and water quality of water entering the lake. the water diversion project was com- floating leaf plant—emergent plant— diversion was increased so that the The water quality target in the pleted in 1986, daily water supply hydrophytes. Although the lake still water in the lake was circulated once West Lake is Class III, and three moni- of 0.3 million tons was recharged to relies on the people’s help to survive, a month. Consequently, the eco- and toring spots have been set up (cen- the West Lake. The annual amount of once the ecological chains can live tourism environments improved sig- tral lake, youth palace, and west Xili water distribution of the lake arrived harmoniously, the lake will adopt a nificantly, which helped enhance the Lake). Monitoring results for 2004– at 0.12 billion m3, ensuring that all recycling and metabolic system for living standard of local citizens and 2006 show gradual improvement water is exchanged each month. purification. Such water ecosystems laid solid foundations for “world heri- in eutrophication levels, although can be acclaimed as benign, natural, tage” and “ecologically friendly” city water quality has not seen remark- Water Ecosystem. The aquatic eco- and stable. applications. able changes. system in West Lake improved signifi- Since the project was imple- cantly. The number of migratory birds Social and Economic Effects. In Water Environment. The water qual- mented, the lake area to the west of Su visiting the lake has risen from 1,000 2005, the magazine Chinese National ity of the West Lake was improved Dyke experienced significant improve- to more than 10,000 birds of 10 spe- Geography honored West Lake as one through water diversion, surface ment; it is no longer in eutrophication cies, such as wild duck and cormorant. of the five most beautiful lakes in the greening, cleaning, sewage intercep- status. Water quality in the main body In 2007, even rare species, such as People’s Republic of China (PRC), rul- tion, upstream watershed renovation, of the lake and main branches is better swan and mandarin duck, were seen ing out five historically famous big and ecological conservation. Generally, than that in 2002 before the project: in the lake. lakes—Boyang, Dongting, Tai, Hongze,

44 Administrative Measures

and Chao—because of environmental domestic tourists visiting Hangzhou the number climbed to 2.55 million one of the “top 10 satisfied scenic pollution and ecological degradation. increased to 30.16 million, 2.4 million in 2004; and 3.01 million in 2005. areas in China” in the first consumer- On 26 August 2005, the Chinese more than the previous best in 2003. Although tourists no longer have favored brands survey initiated edition of the American magazine The number of stay-over tourists to pay to visit the West Lake scenic by the People’s Daily Press, more Forbes listed Hangzhou City as first exceeded 1.2 million (about 3,400 area, the higher numbers have led to than 100 industry associations, and among 661 cities—including Shanghai people per night), which was another increased demands for hotels, restau- more than 30 authority web sites. In and Beijing—on its best commercial record. As a result, Hangzhou ranked rants, shopping malls, transportation, September 2005, the management city billboard. It was the second time no. 6 among the domestic tourist and other services—all of which also committee of West Lake was rec- Hangzhou topped the list. cities and successfully surpassed the support and benefit tourism devel- ognized as among the “advanced While increasingly more famous well-known tourist cities of Suzhou opment in towns nearby. In 2005, units of integrated protection proj- scenic spots nationwide were raising and Guilin. all indicators for Hangzhou tourism ects in major scenic areas in 2004.” ticket fees, Hangzhou abolished fees The new scenic area of West Lake reached their highest records. These In October 2005, together with at all parks and scenic areas. The free today has become the priority sight- included the number of foreign tour- Qinghai and Kanasi Lakes, as well as ticket policy is an important instru- seeing choice of local and foreign ists reaching 1 million for the first Namucuo and Changbai Mountains, ment of the West Lake Integrated tourists. The number of visitors during time, foreign income increasing by West Lake was appraised as one of Protection Project in achieving its the National Holiday between 2002 26.8% compared to the same peri- the top five most beautiful lakes objective of “giving the lake back to and 2004 had been record breaking. od the previous year, the domestic in the PRC by the Chinese National the people”. The city carried out an In 2002, during the National Holiday, income increased by 11.9%, and the Geography magazine and 30 other economic assessment of the policy. the number of tourists in Hangzhou total income increased by 13.2%. news media. In 2006, during the Prior to its implementation, ticket sales was 2.44 million. In 2003, during the In 2004, the comprehensive con- first round of a civilized scenic at parks along West Lake provided severe acute respiratory syndrome servation project of West Lake won areas selection activity initiated by revenue of about CNY26 million per (SARS) epidemic in the PRC, the num- one of the 10 national major construc- the central civilization committee, annum. The loss of this revenue in ber of tourists unexpectedly climbed tion technology achievement awards Ministry of Construction, and State addition to the anticipated higher to 3.3 million, which was the high- of 2003, acclaimed the model of city Tourism Administration, West Lake costs of higher security and cleaning— est number ever. Another record-high ecosystem optimization. In July 2005, won first prize. totaling CNY60 million per annum— number came in 2004, at 3.04 million. West Lake scenic area won a prize as was expected to be offset by increased During Labor Day from 2002 to 2005, business opportunities and indi- the number of tourists in 2002 were  China Youth Daily. 2006. Economic rect economic benefits of increased pegged at 2.41 million; in 2003, they Significance of the Immense Fishnet in tourism. In 2004, the number of were lower because of SARS; but Hangzhou West Lake. 14 February.

45 AppendixH1 Lessons Learned from Lake Rehabilitation: Tai Lake Restoration

46 Characteristics of Tai Lake

ai Lake is the third lar-­ • the lake’s relatively short reten- gest freshwater catchment tion time—less than 0.8 years in the PRC, with a total of compared to ranges of 1.9 years 36,500 km2. Its surface area for Lake Superior to 2.6 years for alone, around 2,400 km2, Lake Erie, two of the Great Lakes makes it the third largest freshwater in North America. T lake in the country. The catchment stretches across three provinces— The catchment is heavily populat- Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Anhui—and the ed and highly developed in economic Shanghai metropolis. Other notable terms, which has proven problematic features of the catchment include: in the rehabilitation planning process. In 2000, the average population den- • the large ratio between the catch- sity was 1,137 persons/km2, and the ment and surface areas—15.21; GDP per unit area of the catchment • the lake’s shallowness—1.9 m on was CNY29.1 million/km2. average with a maximum of only about 2.5 m; • the high ratio between the catch- ment’s surface area and the lake’s volume—564.6 km2/ km3; and

 Figures are quoted in various sources ranging from 2,250 km2 to 2,400 km2. The largest lake is Poyang Lake followed by Dongting Lake.

47 Decline of Tai Lake

Table A2.1. Percentages of Samples from Tai Lake in Various Water Quality Classes s early as the 1960s, Tai (%) Lake began showing the adverse signs of environ- Proportion of Water Samples in Each Water Quality Class mentally inconsiderate Year Class I+II Class III Class IV Class V/V+ development. Today, many 1980–1981 69 30 1 0 (if not most) of its endemic fish species A 1987–1988 59 37 3 1 have been lost because of unsustainable water resource developments, foreshore 1993–1994 15 70 14 1 conversion, and over-fishing. A severe 2000 0 0 5 95 deterioration in the water quality of Tai Lake (Table A2.1) led to large cleanup 2004 0 14 29 57 programs during the 9th and 10th five- Source: Louis Berger Group and EED Consulting Ltd. 2007. Evaluation of Environmental Policy and Investment for the Water Pollution Con­ year plans (FYPs), which are being con- trol in the Huai River and Tai Lake Basins. Prepared for State Environmental Protection Agency and the Asian Development Bank, TA 4447-PRC; tinued in the current planning period. adapted from Tables 2.1.3—1 and 2).

48 Restoration Process: Planned Versus Actual

Table A2.2. Planned and Actual Pollution Control Expenditures in Tai Lake Basin ai Lake restoration is a les- during the 10th Five-Year Plan (CNY 10 Thousand) son in the difference bet­ ween planned and actual Item Planned Actual Actual/Planned (%) commitment. The 9th and Municipal WWTPs 1,073,155 1,068,450 +0.6

10th FYPs have budgeted Solid waste management 126,925 105,090 -17.2 considerable investments for the lake’s T Industrial pollution control 11,260 13,630 +21.0 restoration, but the disbursement of those funds and the follow-through Ecosystem rehabilitation 208,000 65,580 -68.5 of objectives have fallen short. By the Dredging 397,948 156,960 -51.9 end of the 10th FYP, only 74% of the NPS control 229,693 148,190 -35.5 total CNY34.95 billion budgeted for Tai Lake restoration had actually been Water resource management 139,500 63,010 -54.8 disbursed. That disbursements varied Special industrial pollution control 9,200 8,470 +17.6 widely between provinces indicates a Management and capacity building 5,800 17,420 +200.3 gap between the planning objectives and what could actually be achieved on Total 2,201,481 1,646,800 -22.2 the ground. Table A2.2 shows progress NPS = nonpoint pollution source, WWTP = wastewater treatment plant. in completed expenditures during the 10th FYP. Source: Louis Berger Group and EED Consulting Ltd. 2007. Evaluation of Environmental Policy and Investment for the Water Pollution Con­ Notably, the most significant trol in the Huai River and Tai Lake Basins. Prepared for State Environmental Protection Agency and the Asian Development Bank, TA 4447-PRC; adapted from Table 2.3.2-2. under-expenditures were for activities without revenue-earning potential— and water resource protection. This tion on the provincial and lower lev- generating potential, making it diffi- ecosystem rehabilitation, dredging, highlights the recurring problem of els of government, which under the cult for them to finance investments nonpoint pollution source control, placing too much financial obliga- PRC fiscal system have little revenue- in local government infrastructure.

49 Planning Gaps

Table A2.3. Summary of Tai Lake Rehabilitation Investments Proposed espite the breadth of the Under the 10th Five-Year Plan investment program, as Planned Investment Planned Investment as shown in Table A2.3, plan- Type of Activity ning has been critically (CNY 10 Thousand) Proportion of Total (%) deficient in two general Municipal WWTP 1,073,155 48.8 aspects. First, plans have not adequately D Solid waste management 126,925 5.8 accounted for the deleterious effects of continued, unabated economic, urban, Industrial pollution control 11,260 0.5 and population growth, which has led Ecosystem rehabilitation 208,000 9.4 to the second problem of pollution con- Dredging 397,948 18.1 trol measures that are limited in scope. NPS control 229,693 10.4

Water resource management 139,500 6.3

Special industrial pollution control 9,200 0.4

Management and capacity building 5,800 0.2

Total 2,201,481

CNY = yuan, NPS = nonpoint pollution source, WWTP = wastewater treatment plant.

Source: Louis Berger Group and EED Consulting Ltd. 2007. Evaluation of Environmental Policy and Investment for the Water Pollution Control in the Huai River and Tai Lake Basins. Prepared for the State Environmental Protection Agency and the Asian Development Bank, TA 4447-PRC; adapted from Table 2.3.2-1.

50 Planning Gaps

Table A2.4. Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Treatment Ratios, 2000 and 2005a Urbanization. Economic and urban (%) growth within the catchment is exac- erbated by the large number of juris- Wastewater Treatment Ratio City dictions governing the management 2000 2005 of different parts of the catchment. Hangzhou 56 78 Lack of effective control has led to rapid and significant increases in the Jiaxing 41 56 urban population within the catch- Huzhou 35 67 ment and of urban wastewater flows. The large investment programs under Shanghai 72 71 the 9th and 10th FYPs provided a sig- Wuxi 51 72 nificant increase in municipal waste- Changzhou 69 72 water treatment capacity throughout the Tai Lake catchment; but lack of Suzhou 80 73 coordination of expenditures resulted Zhenjiang 60 76 in underinvestment in drainage sys- a The wastewater treatment ratio is the actual throughput of a wastewater treatment plant as a percentage of its design capacity. tems, resulting in many wastewater treatment plants operating signifi- Source: Louis Berger Group and EED Consulting Ltd. 2007. Evaluation of Environmental Policy and Investment for the Water Pollution Control cantly below their design capacity, as in the Huai River and Tai Lake Basins. Prepared for State Environmental Protection Agency and the Asian Development Bank, TA 4447-PRC; adapted from Table 4.2.4.3. shown in Table A2.4.

Industry. In the industrial sector, sig- given the critical nature of the water its national significance. A stronger nificant advances in wastewater dis- pollution situation in Tai Lake and and more integrated management charge compliance rates were made structure as would be provided by, throughout the catchment during for example, some kind of “Lake Basin  Compliance was measured based on self-  The catchment falls within three different both FYP periods, particularly during reported discharge water quality data. Management Authority”— provided it provinces and one provincial level the 10th FYP period. But as shown in Spot surveys by the State Environmental was structured in a way to gain the municipality, seven prefecture level cities Protection Administration suggested that (four in Jiangsu and three in Zhejiang), and Table A2.5, compliance rates are far such data frequently overstate the level of concurrence of all relevant levels of 30 county level cities. more variable than they should be, compliance actually being achieved. government (particularly the provincial

51 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

Table A2.5. Industrial COD Discharge Compliance Rates 2000 and 2005 (%) Proportion of Sampled Enterprises Complying with the City Secondary Discharge Standarda 2000 2005 Hangzhou 73.4 70.9 Huzhou 89.6 93.0 Jiaxing 87.7 95.8 Suzhou 82.5 97.0 Wuxi 94.3 93.4 Zhenjiang 58.6 83.3

COD = chemical oxygen demand. a A total of 1,309 enterprises were included in the year 2000 assessment and 1,595 in the year 2005 assessment.

Source: Louis Berger Group and EED Consulting Ltd. 2007. Evaluation of Environmental Policy and Investment for the Water Pollution Control in the Huai River and Tai Lake Basins. Prepared for State Environmental Protection Agency and the Asian Development Bank, TA 4447-PRC; adapted from Tables 4.2.3.1–1 and 2. and municipal levels) and given the aquaculture activities. As shown in ing the rate at which water flows right sort of enforcement authority— Table A2.6, the net effect was to sig- through Tai Lake and thus reducing might have provided more effective- nificantly increase total nonpoint and retention time. However, the declin- ness in terms of compliance rates. total point source pollution over the ing water quality from the Yangtze two planning periods. River and pollution discharges into the Agriculture. In the agriculture sector, This lack of comprehensive pollu- Wangyu River may be increasing the planning included substantial funds tion control is having an adverse effect sedimentation in Tai Lake and its tribu- for nonpoint source pollution con- on certain hydraulic measures that taries. Ultimately, the lack of adequate trol but no measures were included have been considered to improve water pollution control planning for Tai Lake to control the growth of livestock quality, such as the “coordinated water is undermining the larger rehabilita- numbers during the planning periods, quality and quantity operation.” This tion processes being attempted. outweighing some successes achieved operation would direct Yangtze River in restricting the growth of in-lake water via the Wangyu River, increas-

52 Planning Gaps

Table A2.6. Estimated Quantities of Total Nitrogen and Total Phosphorus from Nonpoint Source Pollution in the Tai Lake Basin, 1995–2004a (tons) Form and Source of Nonpoint Increase 1995– 1995 2000 2005 Source Pollution 2004 (%) Total N Livestock 24,601 19,978 33,248 +35.0 Households 19,710 32,582 39,973 +103.0 Aquaculture 9,302 23,874 18,752 +101.0 Total 53,613 76,434 91,973 +71.6 Total P Livestock 4,911 3,915 6,514 +32.6 Households 3,185 5,265 6,459 +102.8 Aquaculture 900 2,310 1,814 +101.6 Total 8,996 11,490 14,787 +64.4

N = nitrogen, P = phosphorus, + = positive value. a Excluding rainfall runoff. These are not measured data but estimates derived from statistical data and assumptions about pollution genera- tion rates for different activities.

Source: Louis Berger Group and EED Consulting Ltd. 2007. Evaluation of Environmental Policy and Investment for the Water Pollution Control in the Huai River and Tai Lake Basins. Prepared for State Environmental Protection Agency and the Asian Development Bank, TA 4447- PRC; adapted from Tables 4.1.3.2–4.2.3.2.

53 Appendix Early and Projected Setbacks of Baiyangdian Lake Restoration Characteristics of Baiyangdian Lake

aiyangdian Lake in Hebei serve as spawning grounds and feed- Province is the largest ing habitats for a diverse array of fish remaining semi-closed and other animal species, and the lake freshwater body in northern is also a globally important resting site People’s Republic of China for migratory birds on the East Asian– B(PRC). With a surface area of 366 km2, Australasian flyway. The lake also has it lies in the middle reaches of the economic importance, with more Daqing River basin and ultimately dis- than 200,000 people living within charges into the Bohai Gulf of the its wetlands and peripheral zones. Yellow Sea. Baiyangdian Lake and most The lake resources provide them with of its watershed, totaling 31,500 m2, livelihood opportunities (freshwater are located entirely within the Baoding fishery, reed production, and tourism- Municipality. related jobs and businesses), drinking Historically, the lake served many water, and irrigation; and it is a major environmental and economic func- transportation route. The lake also tions and has been described as the regulates floodwaters and moderates “kidney” of northern PRC. The open the microclimate of the surrounding water and aquatic beds of the lake areas.

55 Decline of Baiyangdian Lake

n the last four decades, the func- lake into a major depository of waste- Table A3.1. Present Water Quality of Baiyangdian Lake Major Pollutants tions and values of the basin and water discharges, solid wastes, and Existing Water Water Quality Monitoring Section Exceeding the the lake itself have been eroded sediments. The decreasing inflow of Quality Target Required Limits with adverse impacts on its eco- water and the increasing discharge Shaochedian IV III system. of pollutants have reduced lake water Zhaolindian IV III Upstream construction of large quality over the past four decades I Wangjiazhai IV III reservoirs has seriously reduced in- (Table A3.1). Biodiversity and liveli- Quantou IV III flows from an average of 1,730 million hoods have been lost. BOD5, CODCr, 3 3 Duancun IV III m in the 1960s to 65 million m in The degradation is symptomatic NH3-N, TP 2002. Water demands in the Daqing of weak institutions, inadequate capa­ Caiputai IV III River have increased rapidly and now city of the local government, and poor Guangdianzhangzhua IV III exceed supply, resulting in an increase planning in the use and allocation of Nanliuzhuang Below V IV in the incidence of “no” or “low” the lake’s water resources. Further- Gudingdian – V inflows to the lake. Since the 1960s, more, there are gaps and overlaps in BOD = biological oxygen demand, COD = chemical oxygen demand, NH3-N = ammonia ni- the size of the lake has decreased by the roles of government agencies at trogen, TP = total phosphorus, – = data not available. almost half because of controlled water the provincial and municipal levels; and Source: Baiyangdian Ecosystem Rehabilitation Plan, Baoding Municipality, Hebei Province, flows, increasing drought frequency, approaches to water use and allocation PRC, 2004. and increased sedimentation and soil tend to be driven sectorally. Also, as erosion in the catchment. Moreover, economic growth became the primary rising population, expanded agricul- goal of local governments, environ- comprehensive studies that could all the pollution sources, particularly tural and industrial activities, limited mental protection laws and regulations have informed the programs on the domestic wastewater, irrational and solid waste and wastewater disposal have not been adequately enforced. full range of problems in the catch- unsustainable aquatic farming in the measures in the watershed as well as Historically, investments in ment. Investments have addressed lakes itself, and overall socioeconomic within the lake, and deforestation of Baiyangdian Lake’s rehabilitation have only parts of the problem and not development in the lake basin and the watershed have transformed the been premature, running ahead of much has been done to deal with surroundings.

56 Rehabilitation Process: The Plan

eibei Province and Baoding shed to treat all urban sewage calls for an integrated approach City have recognized that in Baoding City and about 60% with a planned investment of a more holistic approach in the 22 counties by 2010, over $1 billion. The master plan needs to be adopted. By the (b) rehabilitating the Baiyang- comprises 17 projects in Phase 1 end of 2005, the two gov- dian Lake Wetland Reserve, (2005–2009) and seven proj- Hernment levels agreed on a comprehen- (c) improving disposal of fly ects in Phase 2 (Table A3.2). sive plan to protect and rehabilitate the ash from thermal power plants The plans are only just getting lake. The plan covered a 10-year period, in the catchment, (d) promot- started, so it remains to be seen and it was envisioned that CNY8 billion ing clean energy by develop- whether the required financing ($991 million) would be required to carry ing geothermal resources, and will be secured when the various it out. It has yet to commence, but its (e) reducing the number of peo- components need to be imple- design offers some lessons for future ple without access to safe drink- mented. Even at this early stage, planning endeavors. ing water. This is intended to though, the program is under- reduce chemical oxygen demand financed. Unless this situation The plan has two parts: (COD) by 8% and improve lake is rectified, there will either be water quality to Class III. delays in implementing the plan (i) The 5-Year Environmental Protec- (ii) The associated Baiyangdian or certain components will not tion Plan (2006–2010) requires Ecosystem Rehabilitation Mas- be implemented at all. (a) constructing 27 wastewater ter Plan (2005–2015) addresses treatment plants in the water- environmental degradation and

57 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

Table A3.2. Investment Plan of Baiyangdian Ecosystem Rehabilitation Master Plan (CNY million) No. Project Investment Phase 1 (2005–2009) A Montane Ecological Restoration in Upstream Baiyangdian 1 Soil erosion control project (Phase 1) 582 2 Project for ecological restoration of forestry (Phase 1) 650 3 Dry farming project 45 Subtotal A 1,277 B Pollution Abatement in Baiyangdian Basin 4 Clean production project in key enterprises 580 5 Municipal sewage treatment plant construction project 1,911 i. Extension project for Baoding Municipal Sewage Treatment Plant 530 ii. Comprehensive treatment project for Baoding’s Moat and Fu River 303 iii. Baiyangdian reed wetlands management project 35 iv. Sewage treatment projects in upstream and neighboring Baiyangdian 1,043 6 Capacity building on environmental infrastructure 299 7 Demonstration project of ecological agriculture 44 8 Sewage reuse project in Baoding City 27 Subtotal B 2,861 C Pipeline Construction for Water Transfer in Baiyangdian 9 Water saving and waterproof projects in Baiyangdian irrigation regions 340 Environmental management project of Xiaoyi River 100 Wangkuai and Xidayang Reservoirs connecting projects 129

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58 Rehabilitation Process: The Plan

Table A3.2 continued

No. Project Investment Environmental management project of Zhongyi River 65 Reconstruction project of Cao River watercourse 120 Subtotal C 754 D Integrated Management of Ecological Environment in Baiyangdian Forestation projects in entry watercourses and neighboring Baiyangdian 18 Mao stone revetment project in Baiyangdian 107 Project of estuary management and dredging the fundus and watercourses of Baiyangdian 600 Ecological farming project in Baiyangdian 132 Nature reserve project of Baiyangdian Wetlands 42 North flood control project of Anxin Town 40 Subtotal D 938 Phase 1 Total 5,829 Phase 2 (2010–2014) A Montane Ecological Restoration in Upstream Baiyangdian 1 Soil erosion control project (Phase 2) 582 2 Project for ecological restoration of forestry (Phase 2) 400 Subtotal A 982 B Pollution Abatement in Baiyangdian Basin 3 Municipal sewage treatment plant construction project 252 Subtotal B 252

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59 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

Table A3.2 continued No. Project Investment C Integrated Management of Ecological Environment in Baiyangdian 4 Project of estuary management and dredging the fundus and watercourses of Baiyangdian 677 5 Solid waste reuse project in Baiyangdian Region 52 6 Reconstruction and resident control of water-surrounded villages in Baiyangdian Region 240 7 Integrated treatment field for municipal solid waste from Anxin Town 21 Subtotal C 990 Phase 2 Total 2,224 Grand Total 8,054

Source: Ecological Restoration and Integrated Environmental Management Project List for Baiyangdian in Hebei Province, PRC.

Despite the comprehensive range Baiyangdian Lake by constructing a watershed management has been of activities proposed, some gaps water transfer system may also not be promoted in many regions of the remain. There is no plan to deal with the optimum solution. Feasible alter- PRC, but the common challenge has the problem of “in-lake” pollution— natives may include changing water always been coordinating the relevant domestic wastewater emissions from release rules for dams in the upper institutions to adopt a concerted mul- the approximately 100,000 people parts of the catchment and introduc- tisector approach. The advantage of whose houses are located on the lake ing water savings programs for both the Baiyangdian Lake basin is that its or right on the waterfront. Some com- industrial and irrigation water. watershed is geographically confined ponents of the plan, most notably a An integrated approach to mostly within the city’s administrative proposal to supplement inflows to environmental management and boundary.

60 Early and Projected Setbacks

couple of features about a central project management office the overall rehabilitation will be established. Project imple- project and the experience mentation units will also be estab- it has had in getting off lished in each county government the ground point to some for oversight of county-related activi- Aupcoming setbacks. First, the rehabili- ties. This approach may be adequate tation plan has not been endorsed and for managing and coordinating the approved by the National Development implementation of individual project and Reform Commission, which has components, but it will not be able to forced a detour from a project approach provide the long-term, comprehensive to a program basis, preventing full basin management that is necessary financing from being secured. A second for future growth and development in issue is that some participating counties the catchment. A short-term solution are having difficulty providing coun- might be to establish a leading group terpart funds, which means that some involving senior officials of all relevant components of the plan are also under- departments, but a better solution for financed for this reason. the long term would be to establish The executing agency of the ADB an agency with a high level of con- project will be the Baoding Develop- trol over future developments in the ment and Reform Commission, where catchment.

61 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China Appendix Integrated Management Needed for Sanjiang Plain Rehabilitation

62 Appendix Characteristics of the Sanjiang Plain he Sanjiang Plain, a 108,900 km2 area in the Integrated Management northeastern tip of the PRC, contains the largest area Needed for of wetlands in the country, Testimated at 0.89–1.28 million hectares in 2000. The wetlands represent one of the most important breeding sites and Sanjiang Plain migratory routes for waterfowl in north- eastern Asia, and are significant for the number and variety of globally threat- Rehabilitation ened waterfowl species.

63 Decline of Sanjiang Plain

Table A4.1. Estimates of the Decline in Wetland Area on the Sanjiang Plain ince the 1950s, the Sanjiang Plain has been a major focus Year Wetland on Sanjiang Plain Farmland on Sanjiang Plain for agricultural development, Area (ha ) Percent (%) Area (ha) Percent (%) which has resulted in consider- a Sable loss of wetlands (Table A4.1). 1949 5,340,000 49.0 786,000 7.2 To protect the wetlands, the 1983a 2,275,700 20.9 3,778,300 34.7 Sanjiang Plain Wetlands Protec- 1994a 1,481,600 13.6 4,572,400 42.0 tion Project—cosponsored by the b Heilongjiang provincial government, 2000 889,786 8.2 5,164,214 47.4

ADB, and GEF—commenced in ha = hectare. March 2007. This 5-year project costs a Data from Liu Xingtu and Ma Xuehui 2002. $55.55 million, of which $15 million b Unpublished data from Center for Chinese Agriculture Policy. is an ADB loan, $12.14 million is GEF co-financing, and $28.41 million is government counterpart funding. The objectives of the project are to (i) protect the natural resources of the Sanjiang Plain wetlands and the watersheds (biodiversity, water, for- ests) from continued threats; (ii) pro- mote sustainable use of natural resources through integrated conser- vation planning; and (iii) improve the well-being of local communities.

64 Threats

Table A4.2. Water Quality in Qixinghe Natural Reserve lthough a series of govern- of water volume flowing across the (mg/l) ment actions have been plain, which amounts to 200 billion m3.

undertaken to protect the The total water resource volume of 2006 2007 wetlands, degradation of the Sanjiang Plain is 17.5 billion m3. Pollutant the wetland ecosystem has The annual mean value of surface Level Class Level Class Ayet to be controlled. Continuous loss water runoff is 11.4 billion m3 and the of wetlands is only one major indica- annual mean value of groundwater is Oil 10.5 V+ 0.26 IV tor. The others are more fundamental, 5.8 billion m3. some are not even well understood and Water use in the Sanjiang Plain COD 245.5 V+ 32.0 V addressed. is determined largely by agricul- tural development. According to the TP 1.7 V+ 0.198 III Water Pollution. Water quality in the National Rice Base Development Plan -N 0 I 0.250 II wetlands has always been assumed to of Heilongjiang Province (2006), the NH3 be very high. However, field monitoring paddy acreage will increase from COD = chemical oxygen demand, mg/l = milligrams per liter, NH -N = ammonia nitrogen, in Qixinghe National Nature Reserve, 15 million mu (1 mu = 0.067 ha) in 3 TP = total phosphorus. one of the most well-preserved wet- 2006 to 28 million mu by 2020.10 lands in the Sanjiang Plain, revealed the The water flow in the Sanji- Source: Monitoring Results by School of Environment and Natural Resources, Renmin Univer- sity. water quality to be much worse than ang Plain has been more and more its assumed Class 1 status (Table A4.2). controlled by engineering works, The field survey showed that the main including reservoirs, drainage, and 25 are of medium and large size, all Sanjiang Plain and limited both agri- sources of pollution are upstream coal diversions. The total capacity of res- of which fundamentally change the cultural and urban development, there and gold mines and nonpoint sources ervoirs reaches 2.12 billion m3 in the natural patterns of river water flow. seem to be inconsistencies between in the surrounding area. Sanjiang Plain. Of these reservoirs, national policies. For example, in the Policy Conflicts. Although the national policy recommendation of the Chinese Water Use. The water resources in this 11th 5-year plan has addressed the Academy of Engineering to the State 10 Heilongjiang Daily. 2005. Development of area are abundant, especially in terms the Rice Farming Base. 23 October. priority of wetland conservation in the Council, 8 billion m3 of water will be

65 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

diverted from the Amur River, Ussuri of different local governments, River, and Xingkai Lake to support resulting in conflicts instead of expanding 15 million mu of paddy collaboration. field, which the State Council’s Pro- (ii) Water use, water pollution con- motion Plan of Northeast Industrial trol, nature reserves management, Base has accepted contrary to conser- and water ecosystem conserva- vation plans. tion are run by different agen- cies, without any coordination Institutional Barriers. Institutional between them. barriers in terms of water manage- ment and ecological conservation are (iii) Furthermore, management of making the threats more serious. The wetland natural reserves is fully main problems are: isolated from the social and economic development of the (i) The boundaries of natural regions and watersheds, where reserves are usually determined the reserves are located inside or by jurisdictional borders instead in the downstream, making con- of watersheds. Within one river servation plans hard to imple- basin, several neighboring ment effectively. reserves are under the control

66 Notes for the Future: Focus on Quality, Integrated Management

o summarize the analysis Overall, water management must on threats, the most critical shift from being driven by agricultural threat to the wetland natu- development to being integrated, ral reserves in Sanjiang Plain considering the sustainability needs is the exploitation of the of the environment itself, communi- Tentire basin for overall development— ties, and emerging urban economies agricultural development, urbanization, in the area. and industrialization. The ecological In balancing economic develop- effect of using these water resources ment and ecological protection, water for new rural construction is not being pollution and water quantity must be given enough attention. resolved together. The local govern- Ultimately, water resource short- ment level cannot resolve this alone. age is not as critical an issue because An integrated water basin manage- of the extensive storage. Adding fur- ment system needs to be established, ther storage could even address one incorporating the local level. But more pressing issue—the inefficiency overall wetland water supply must be of water usage. In addition to control- managed at the wider basin level. ling the exploitation of groundwa- ter, surface water could be used for recharging the ground table.

67 Appendix Summary of Discussions: Consultation Workshop on the Knowledge Product Consultation Workshop on the Knowledge Product Summary of Discussions, Harbin, PRC, 23 June 2008

his appendix is a summary of other local governments, and interna- (ii) Integrated planning and do not find attractive, such as discussions at a multi-stake- tional and national consultants. analysis. Planning needs bet- domestic wastewater networks holder workshop on the final The participants easily agreed on ter integration of many sectors, and nonpoint source pollution, draft of the “Reviving Lakes three of the four success factors for an especially land use sectors, and because they do not directly and Wetlands” knowledge effective restoration program identi- serves as a development strate- generate revenues. Tproduct. The workshop, held on 23 June fied in the report. Some of their com- gy agreed to by all stakeholders. 2008 in Harbin, capital of Heilongjiang ments reinforce the report while others The development of an inte- There was lesser consensus from Province and location of Sanjiang Plain, offer new points for consideration. The grated planning framework has participants regarding effective man­ elicited feedback from 90 participants comments on the three success factors often led to notable long-term agement structure as a key success that included representatives from cen- are summarized as follows: partnerships between the PRC factor. The report suggests establish- tral governments,11 international orga- and major development agen- ing a leading group of senior officials nizations,12 academic institutions,13 (i) Strong and consistent leader­ cies and banks. from all departments as a short-term Heilongjiang provincial government and ship and action. Restoration (iii) Effective financial engineer­ solution, and establishing an agency takes time and resources that are ing. Too many programs have with a high level of control over future 11 Among the government representatives are often beyond the narrow focus of failed because of the inability developments in the catchment in the delegates from the National Development the typical 5-year plan (FYP). Res- of lower level governments to long term. Risks to this long-term and Reform Commission, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Water Resources, and toration also requires effective raise counterpart funds, or have solution recommendation, however, State Forestry Administration. cross-sectoral and transjurisdic- been distorted because of the are coordination and whether the 12 These included delegates from ADB, tional coordination. Catchment need for local governments to proposed new agency would have European Union, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Conservation boundaries are rarely the same as focus spending only on activities sufficient authority to be effective. International, World Wide Fund for jurisdictional boundaries. Thus, that create short- and medium- Participants agreed that a more effec- Nature, and Australian Agency for Fund for International Development. there is a need to have strong and term revenue-raising possibili- tive management structure would 13 Among the participating academic consistent leadership to ensure ties. Development banks need refer to building on, strengthening, institutions were the Chinese Academy coordination across administra- to fund areas that traditional and streamlining current government of Social Sciences, Renmin University of China, and China Agricultural University. tive and sectoral boundaries. and/or private funding sources institutions rather than developing

69 Reviving Lakes and Wetlands: Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

new parallel departments.14 External This workshop also provided an initiative to protect Lashi Lake in participation of multiple stake- help may be needed to assist govern- opportunity for the participants to Lijiang, Yunnan Province. holders are important for recon- ment in moving from “rowing” to share their site-specific experiences (iii) Alternative Livelihood. It is ciling the needs of conservation “steering,” and enable government and related comments on a number vital for sustainable wetlands and livelihoods in ways that departments to work together under of issues: and lakes protection to support sustain and protect wetlands the umbrella of “leading groups.” or provide alternative livelihoods and lakes. This was suggested It was common understanding that (i) Water Charge/Recharge into for local communities living on from a number of experiences integrated planning is the first and Wetlands and Lakes. Water natural resources of the wet- by the European Union–China most effective step toward coordina- charge/recharge into wetlands lands or lakes. Alternative live- Biodiversity Program, Interna- tion. The authors appreciated these and lakes is fundamental to lihoods are organic fishery and tional Union for Conservation of useful inputs, and clarified that the rehabilitate heavily degraded ecotourism in the Dongting Lake Nature (IUCN’s) work on water long-term solution highlights the suf- wetlands and lakes. The repre- protection program initiated by and wetlands conservation in ficient authority of the new agency to sentative from the Ministry of World Wide Fund for Nature Asia, and the Caohe Lake pro- control future developments in the Water Resources introduced case (WWF), sustainable/ecological tection program. catchment. This is one key experi- studies of water charge into the agriculture in Yunnan program ence from the success of the West Zhalong Wetland, which is an initiated by the Center for Bio- A conservation planning specialist Lake restoration. internationally cited vital wet- diversity and Indigenous Knowl- from Aonyx Environmental pointed out Discussions reinforced a shared land in Heilongjiang Province, edge, and animal raising and that these site-specific, issue-focused concern on the sufficiency of the and water recharge into the Bai- handicraft in the Caohai Lake efforts will be very important in other integrated river basin management yangdian Lake, which is vital for protection program. Asian countries where there are diffi- approach to generate immediate solu- ecosystems in the northern PRC. (iv) Microfinance or community cult political and policy obstacles. He tions to the current crisis. The country (ii) Payment for Environmental revolving fund. Village-based cited three examples: was credited, however, for its progress Services. Payment for environ- microfinance proved conditional in this area. mental services is a promising for supporting alternative liveli- (i) Chilka Lake, India – one of the financing tool in addition to gov- hoods. This was discussed in the world’s top examples of com- ernment regulatory instruments presentation by the representa- munity-led conservation and 14 A participant cited the recently established Dianche Lake Management Bureau for its for wetlands and lakes protec- tive from Guizhou for the Cao- restoration initiatives, subject to ineffective management structure. The tion. Conservation International hai Lake protection program. a politically weak environment, bureau has no greater authority than the Water Resources Bureau and other line demonstrated how these pay- (v) Comanagement of Natural involved the participation of a agencies. ments were integral parts of an Resources. Comanagement and nongovernment organization,

70 Consultation Workshop on the Knowledge Product Summary of Discussions

and won the Ramsar award for In the PRC, there is a strong politi- lake conservation; cal willingness to change the course (ii) Laguna de Bay, Philippines – of the deteriorating ecosystems. demonstrates comanagement, Most notable is the 11th FYP that is resource partitioning, covenants, determined to develop a “resource- and community involvement; efficient and environment-friendly (iii) Tonle Sap, Cambodia – flood- society.” The question is how to turn plain ecosystem; demonstrates these concepts into solid, sensible, a lake system that differs from and well-considered interventions on the Chinese cases ecologically the ground. This workshop concluded but compares with traditional that with the support of the issue- community fisheries and sys- specific experiences, accomplishing tems; showcases alternative the above four success factors will livelihoods, village cooperatives, offer the promise of a change in and tourism based on waterbird course. colonies.

71 About Reviving Lakes and Wetlands – Lessons Learned from the People’s Republic of China

Lakes and wetlands in the People’s Republic of China face serious threats, yet the restoration programs designed to save them have achieved little success over the last 20 years. Today, more than ever, these resources need to be better managed and protected. The experience of three lake restoration programs highlights the need for an integrated strategy that takes on the complex challenges of rehabilitating water and land resources, while strengthening the links among stakeholders. The key elements for success are strong and consistent political leadership, integrated planning and analysis, and effective management structures and financial engineering.

About the Asian Development Bank

ADB’s vision is an Asia and Pacific region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its developing member countries substantially reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their people. Despite the region’s many successes, it remains home to two thirds of the world’s poor. Nearly 1.7 billion people in the region live on $2 or less a day. ADB is committed to reducing poverty through inclusive economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration. Based in Manila, ADB is owned by 67 members, including 48 from the region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue, loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance. In 2007, it approved $10.1 billion of loans, $673 million of grant projects, and technical assistance amounting to $243 million.

Asian Development Bank 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City 1550 Metro Manila, Philippines www.adb.org Publication Stock No. BBK129208 ISBN No. 978-971-561-699-7 Printed in the Philippines

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