Timeline / 1820 to 1910 /

Date Country Theme

1820 - 1825 Germany Rediscovering The Past

The German naturalists and explorers Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich and Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg embark on a research tour in cooperation with Martin Lichtenstein (who published Reisen im südlichen Afrika (Tourism in Southern Africa) in 1810 and was appointed director of the Berlin Zoological Museum in 1813) from Cairo to Derna in Libya, along the Nile, and through the Sinai Desert and Lebanon, collecting natural and historical specimens.

1820s - 1860s Germany Travelling

The formation of modern tourism grows in stages, first the nobility, then the educated middle classes and finally citizens of much more modest means. Karl Baedeker, who published the first successful travel book in 1827, was one of the innovators of modern mass tourism. The first group- and corporation-travel tours were inaugurated by the English firm Thomas Cook in 1840. In 1863 the first travel agency opened in Breslau, followed in 1869 by the founding of the German Alp Society, which opened up the Alps to tourism.

1822 - 1829 Germany Political Context

The War between Greece and the Ottoman Empire concludes with Greece attaining its independence with the help of Russia and the Western nations.

1824 - 1829 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces

Rosenstein Palace is built by Giovanni Salucci under Wilhelm I; it has been a public museum since 1954.

1825 - 1848 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

This era, one marked by the politician and statesman Klemens von Metternich, a supporter of restoration politics and conditions prior to the French Revolution, is satirised by the Junges Deutschland, a movement in literature (i.e. the works of Büchner, Heine and Grabbe) that is characterised by a rejection of these beliefs in support of a free press and freedom of expression.

1830 - 1847 Germany Political Context

Stimulated by the French July Revolution, the Vormärz (pre-March) Revolution refers to the formation of political programmes and factional movements.

1830 - 1871 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces

Due to the rise of industrialisation in Germany, in 1862, the Hobrecht-Plan aims to modernise Berlin over the following 50 years.

1830 - 1840 Germany Economy And Trade

Industrialisation and the Industrial Revolution. Date Country Theme

Since 1830 Germany Migrations

Transatlantic migration from Europe, to America, Canada, Brazil, Argentina and Australia.

1830 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

The French July Revolution strengthens the power of the Besitzbürgertum (the landed gentry). Revolutions in central and north Germany enforce constitutional state reforms.

1832 Germany Political Context

From 27 to 30 May an apparently non-political country fair, the “Hambacher Fest”, was held by a German national democratic assembly, demanding freedom, national entity and popular sovereignty.

1832 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

The “Hambacher Fest” demonstrates the liberal, democratic and national opposition in Germany.

1833 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

First communication by telegram.

1834 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Standardisation of the Abitur (equivalent to the A-Level system used elsewhere) which allows students to enter German universities.

1834 Germany Travelling

The Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam is connected to Berlin by rail, one of the first electrified railway sections in Old Germany. Since 1911, the Palace has been used as a film location (i.e. The Blue Angel, 1930).

1835 - 1838 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces

The first section of railway is established between Nürnberg and Fürth (6 km); the building of the long-haul between Leipzig and Dresden is finished in 1838.

1840 - 1880 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces

Development of a railway network across the whole of Germany, much of which still exists today. The most important stations are developed during this period, including: Berlin Ostbahnhof (1842), Nürnberg Central Station (1844), Central Station (1846) and Munich Central Station (1849).

Around 1850 - Around 1900 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces

Development of the urban district known as the “Ruhrpott” from where, by around 1850, many factories operated (known particularly for coal mining). Due to rapid Date Country Theme urbanisation and lack of housing several important cities expanded rapidly at this time, including Duisburg and . The railway network reached the “Ruhrpott” in 1900.

1841 - 1844 Germany Travelling

The Berlin Zoological Gardens was established in 1841 and opened to the public in 1844. The oldest zoo in Germany, today, it hosts more visitors than any zoo in Europe (around 3 million visitors per year).

1842 - 1846 Germany Rediscovering The Past

The Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius is appointed director of an expedition to Egypt by Friedrich Wilhelm IV.

1843 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Friedrich Gottlob commodifies paper production (the mass production of cheap paper).

1843 - 1876 Germany Fine And Applied Arts

Formation of the Neues Museum (1843–55), built by Friedrich August Stüler, a follower of K. F. Schinkel. Stüler and Carl Busse then design the Alte Nationalgalerie (1867–76).

1844 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

First proletarian uprising: 3000 weavers in Silesia are protesting against the inhumane working conditions and their exploitation. They are all being killed by the Prussian military.

1844 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

The first Proletariat uprising, the Weber Rebellion, witnesses 3,000 weavers in Silesia protesting against inhumane working conditions and exploitation. The uprising is quashed by the Prussian military – which murders them all.

1848 Germany Political Context

Establishment of the first parliament in German history (at the Paulskirche, Frankfurt am Main), and elaboration of the German Imperial Constitution.

1848 - 1849 Germany Political Context

The Pre-March Revolution involves a series of protests, gatherings and disturbances, but by July 1849 the Bundes troops are victorious and the revolution fails.

1848 Germany Political Context

The German National Assembly meets in Frankfurt. Date Country Theme

1848 - 1890 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The era of Realism in literature (i.e. the works of Raabe, Fontane and Busch) is characterised by exact descriptions of reality, subjective narration and irony.

1848 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish the Communist Manifesto.

1848 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Liberal regimes, now with seats in government, herald a series of liberal reforms in all German states. After riots in Berlin, Prussian King Frederick William IV promises liberal and national reforms.

1849 Germany Political Context

The German National Assembly approves the Constitution of the .

1849 Germany Political Context

The Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV refuses the German Imperial Crown.

1849 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Popular movements in Saxony, Baden and the Pfalz attempt to put into effect the Constitution of the Empire, but they are defeated by Prussian troops.

1850 - 1900 Germany Fine And Applied Arts

The painting by Max Liebermann, Die Gänserupferinnen (1872), exemplifies Impressionism in art at this time.

1850 - 1870 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Surveillance, spying and so on, creates fear and leads to political persecution of musicians (e.g. both Richard Wagner and Gottfried Semper are forced into exile). Music of this era falls under the label “late Romanticism” (i.e. when emotional expression and freedom of style are enhanced), and new genres are born; i.e. symphonic poetry (Franz List) and musical drama (Richard Wagner’s Tristan and Isolde, 1865).

1851 Germany International Exhibitions

The First World Fair is opened by Prince Albert in London.

1853 Germany Economy And Trade

Levi Strauss & Co founds the first company to manufacture blue jeans.

1854 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Date Country Theme

Heinrich Göbel invents the light bulb.

1856 Germany Rediscovering The Past

A Neanderthal is discovered and examined by Johann Carl Fuhlrott and Hermann Schaaffhausen. Rudolf Virchow, friends with the famous archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, claims that the Neanderthal is not prehistoric man. He is wrong.

1857 - 1859 Germany Economy And Trade

The Great Depression, which starts in the United states with the panic of 1857, represents the first global economic crisis.

1858 Germany Political Context

King Wilhelm I – later Kaiser (Emperor) of the Second Empire – assumes his regency.

1859 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Johann Phillipp Reis invents the telephone.

1860 - 1910 Germany Fine And Applied Arts

Realism (a backlash to both Classicism and Romanticism) is exemplified by French artist Gustave Courbet’s Die Steinklopfer (1849), although long before then Albrecht Dürer had painted his highly realistic Junger Feldhase (1502).

1862 Germany Political Context

Otto von Bismarck becomes prime minister of Prussia.

1864 Germany Political Context

As a consequence of the Prussian–Danish war, Denmark retracts its demand for Schleswig and Holstein.

1864 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The chemist Julius Lothar Meyer (1830–95) develops the first periodic table of chemical elements.

1866 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Werner von Siemens invents the dynamo.

1866 - 1871 Germany Economy And Trade

Formation of the North German Confederation in 1866/7 sees a federation of the 22 independent states of northern Germany, with nearly 30 million inhabitants. It was the first modern German nation-state and the basis for the later German Empire (1871–1918). Date Country Theme

1866 - 1905 Germany Economy And Trade

Henri Nestlé founds the company Nestlé, which becomes the world’s largest corporation for comestible goods.

1867 - 1885 Germany Fine And Applied Arts

King Ludwig II of sets in motion the building of his second palace, Linderhof (1869–85), the smallest of the large palaces he had built, and the only one he lived to see completed. The king’s penchant for the so called Moorish style can be seen in several elements, such as the Moorish Kiosk (1867) and the Moroccan House (1878). The King’s House on the Schachen (1869–72), built with a Turkish Hall by Georg von Dollmann, further attests to Ludwig’s admiration for the “Oriental” style.

1868 - 1886 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces

Ludwig II (r. 1864–86) had several palaces built during his reign. The most famous among these are Neuschwanenstein (1868–92, still in construction when Ludwig died), Neues Schloss (1878–86, built along the lines of Versailles, but never completed), and Linderhof (1869–85), the only palace the king lived to see completed.

1870 Germany Economy And Trade

The Deutsche Bank is founded by Georg von Siemens.

Since 1870 Germany Migrations

The so-called Ruhrpolen migrate to the , where many work in coal mining.

1871 Germany Political Context

The German Empire, a union of sovereign states and free cities, is established under Prussian leadership.

1871 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces

Berlin becomes the imperial capital.

1871 - 1910 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces

The second Industrial Revolution sees massive immigration; the population rises from 41 to 65 million, and from only eight cities with no more than 100,000 inhabitants, more than 48 cities are formed.

From 1871 Germany Economy And Trade

The capital market is enlivened by France’s payment of 5 million French francs, paid to Germany as compensation following the war between the two countries (1870–1).

1872 - 1879 Germany Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme

As a consequence of the the influence of the Catholic Church is limited in Germany.

1873 Germany Rediscovering The Past

The development of Classical Archaeology is strongly influenced by Heinrich Schliemann in the second half of the 18th century when for example he finds the “Gold of Troy”.

1873 Germany Economy And Trade

The Krupp Corporation is the largest industrial concern in Europe.

1873 - 1880 Germany Economy And Trade

The economic crash known as the Gründerkrise sees companies and banks shut down and a rise in unemployment and social dissatisfaction.

1873 - 1878 Germany International Exhibitions

The Moorish Kiosk, built for the World Exhibition in Paris in 1878, was subsequently bought for Park by Ludwig II. The Moroccan House, which was actually built in Morocco for the International Exhibition in Vienna in 1873 and acquired by a private individual after the king’s death, was bought by the German state in 1980 and reconstructed in the Palace Park in 1998.

1873 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

Levi Strauss, a German citizen in exile in America, requests the patent for blue Jeans.

1874 - 1890 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

“Medicine is a social science, and politics is nothing more than medicine on a large scale”, Rudolf Virchow stated in defence of public health and the building of hospitals in Berlin (i.e. Friedrichshain (1874), Moabit (1875, now closed) and Am Urban (1890); even parks and playgrounds were important to improve city life for the proletariat, Virchow continued.

1876 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Robert Koch discovers bacteriology.

1878 - 1890 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

The anti-Socialist laws known as Sozialistengesetz prohibit socialist organisations, meetings and publications.

1879 Germany Economy And Trade

The German Empire moves from a free-trade system to protective duty. Date Country Theme

1879 Germany International Exhibitions

The Great Industrial Exposition is held at the Lehrter Bahnhof in Berlin, where one of main attractions is the first electric locomotive from Siemens & Halske.

1880 - 1900 Germany Fine And Applied Arts

The painting by Franz von Stuck, Die Sünde (1893), exemplifies the period in art known as Post-Imperialism and Symbolism.

From 1880 Germany Migrations

Germany’s colonisation of Namibia, Tanzania, Cameroon and Togo.

Since 1880 Germany Migrations

Foreign workers (especially from Austria-Hungary, Russia and ) arrive in the German Empire in increasing numbers to work in seasonal agriculture.

1880 - 1900 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The era of “Naturalism” in literature (i.e. the works of Hauptmann, Holz and Schlaf) is characterised by a reality without embellishment or subjective insight (the radicalisation of realism).

1880 Germany Travelling

The dome of Cologne is completed (construction began in 1248). It is the tallest church building in the world at the time.

1881 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Werner von Siemens develops the tram.

1882 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Robert Koch discovers the cause of tuberculosis.

1883 - 1889 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Imperial Chancellor Otto von Bismarck initiates German social laws and the basic system for a modern social state.

1884 - 1890 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Gottlieb Daimler develops the petrol engine and Rudolf Diesel invents the diesel engine.

1884 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

The goal in founding the Society for German Colonization was to acquire colonial territories overseas. Date Country Theme

1884 - 1885 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Germany establishes protectorates in south-west Africa, Cameroon, Togo, East Africa and New Guinea.

1886 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler invent the modern automobile.

Since 1886 Germany Travelling

Seven weeks after the death of King Ludwig II in 1886, – built in order that the king could withdraw from public life – opened to the public.

1887 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Emil Berliner invents the phonograph.

1888 Germany Rediscovering The Past

Julius Stinde writes Frau Buchholz im Orient. He has already documented the cities of Cairo, Jerusalem, Athens, and Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey).

1890 - 1910 Germany Fine And Applied Arts

The paintings by Heinrich Vogeler, Das Konzert (Sommerabend) (1893), and Gustav Klimt, Der Kuss (1908), exemplify the period in art known as Jugendstil or Art Nouveau.

1890s Germany Migrations

The Prussian policy of Abwehrpolitik sees Polish seasonal workers in agriculture forced to leave the German Empire during winter.

1890s - Around 1900 Germany Migrations

After the United States, the German Empire was the most popular country of immigration.

1890 - 1910 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion

The era of Modern literature (i.e. the works of Hesse, Hauptmann, Mann and Zweig) is characterised by pluralism, the merging of Art Nouveau, Symbolism, Impressionism, etc.

1890 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Emperor Wilhelm II dismisses Bismarck; and so begins the era of the emperor’s personal regiment.

1890s Germany Reforms And Social Changes Date Country Theme

Sigmund Freud formulates his theory of psychoanalysis in Vienna.

1891 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Founding of the Pan-German League (Allgemeine Deutsche Verband; since 1894 the General German Association or Alldeutscher Verband) to advance an active, nationalistic German foreign policy in Europe and overseas.

1894 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Otto Lilienthal invents the glider.

1895 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The Roentgen ray (X-Ray) is discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen.

1896 Germany International Exhibitions

The Great Industrial Exposition opens at Treptower Park, south of central Berlin.

1897 - 1904 Germany Fine And Applied Arts

Formation of the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum (now the Bode Museum), proposed by Wilhelm von Bode, and built by Ernst von Ihne and Max Hasak.

1898 - 1900 Germany Political Context

Development and rearmament (Aufrüstung) of the German Navy.

1900 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Planck’s Law, which describes electromagnetic radiation.

1900 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

The establishment of the beneficence “Nobel Prize” by Alfred Nobel.

1900 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century

Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin invents the zeppelin, a steerable airship.

1903 Germany Rediscovering The Past

A large part of the richly ornamented south facade of Qasr al-Mushatta – one of the most important works of early Islamic architecture – was presented as a gift from the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II to Emperor Wilhelm II and transported from Jordan to Berlin via rail and sea.

1904 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Publication of Max Weber’s The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber is known as the originator of social science. Date Country Theme

1905 Germany Migrations

Foundation of the German field-workers central office (Deutsche Feldarbeiter Zentralstelle; later Deutsche Arbeitszentrale), initiated by the Prussian Ministry of Agriculture, in order to control work-based migration to Germany.

1906 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Alois Alzheimer describes a type of dementia, Alzheimer’s, for the first time.

1908 Germany Political Context

Austria-Hungary annexes the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Following international protests, Germany shows solidarity with Austria.

Since 1908 Germany Reforms And Social Changes

Women are admitted to study at German universities.

1910 Germany International Exhibitions

A groundbreaking exhibition on Islamic art opens in Munich, “Ausstellung von Meisterwerken Muhammedanischer Kunst”.