Behaviour of the horse – part 2

Boglárka Köböl Viktor Jurkovich Social behaviour

Horses are social animals, meaning that they live in groups rather than alone Advantages: Disadvantages:

• having other potential meals around • significant stimuli from higher ranking individuals • less time is needed for surveillance and more time can be used for • food competition grazing

2 Social behaviour

Isolation from the group is a strong stressor

• Agitation

• Excitement Visual contact is often sufficient to negate Eg. horses taken for a trail ride become very distressed, especially the first time

• young horses are typically accompanied by an older, experienced horse

• many horses learn to go alone, particularly if they are trusting of 3 their rider Social behaviour

Studies done on groups of feral horses suggest that the social groups consist of: 1. harem groups (natal band), typically one male, a variable number of females and immatures; 2. bachelor groups composed of excess males. Under this permanent harem-type of social organisation, females are in constant association with a male and so detection of heat is assured. It is the harem male who does all or most of the breeding. In the feral state the stability of the harem group depends on: 1. the herding instinct of the stallion; 2. the strong social attachment between harem members; 3. rejection of intruders. 4 The natal band The natal band is a stable association of mares, their pre-dispersal offspring and one or more stallions who defend and maintain the mare group, and their mating opportunities, from other males year round. It is important to note that the stallion may not always be the alpha member of the natal band. Similarly, gender has been demonstrated to be a poor predictor of rank in foals. Bands with more than one stallion are not uncommon. Mares are more likely to leave single-stallion harems and that therefore harems with several stallions are generally more stable.

5 The bachelor group

The bachelor group comprises males that have dispersed from natal bands. Generally, colts gravitate to bachelor groups because that is where they find many potential play partners. Bachelor groups also provide sanctuary to older stallions, including some that have been unsuccessful in defending their bands from other stallions. Bachelors live in their groups adjacent to natal bands, waiting for opportunities to capture dispersing mares, perform sneak matings, herd away mares and to challenge natal band leaders. For this reason, membership of the bachelor band is subject to the greatest flux during the breeding season. The bachelor group provides valuable physical and social learning opportunities for its transient members. 6 Social grouping of free-ranging horses

7 Dominance hierarchy

In any group of horses, feral or domesticated, a dominance hierarchy develops and, once it is established it remains stable. In feral groups the adult males tend to rank at the top, with dominance being expressed as threats to bite or kick, or actual biting and kicking.

8 Social orders (dominance)

Minimization of psychological and physical stress in competitive situations Social order within a herd of horses is linear-tending Individuals that share a position or form a triangular relationship are more likely to be in the middle of the social order

9 The leaders

In a group of horses, the lead animal

● shows the way to resources, such as water, saltlicks and rolling sites,

● as well as initiating activities, such as grazing or resting. This individual is often an older experienced mare but, depending on the context, the stallion may also direct its herd by herding and snaking, for example when he detects predators or competitors. Increasingly, the importance of mares as the functional core of the group is being recognized, with 25% of them staying permanently in their original natal band and with matrilineal dynasties spanning generations. 10 Role of stallions in natal band cohesion The main roles of a resident stallion involve

● monitoring and maintaining the integrity of the group and

● protecting his band from predators and other stallions that may attempt to steal or perform sneak matings with mares and fillies. If a predator threatens, the stallion will herd his group together and lead or drive them away from the threat using snaking gestures. By. placing himself between the band and a predator the stallion can reduce the fragmenting effects such stimuli can have on the group. 11 Role of stallions in natal band cohesion If the threat is from another stallion, the initial response by the band’s stallion will be to attempt to chase the challenger away. Band integrity is further enhanced by a harem stallion when he facilitates bonding between mares and their neonatal foals by keeping other conspecifics away from them. Again, Snaking behaviour snaking and herding may be used for this purpose. Despite the benefits of having the company of a stallion, band members lose some of their freedom. In the absence of a stallion, mares mutually groom more, form more stable pair bonds and have better developed hierarchy. 12 Role of mares in natal band cohesion

While 75% of the fillies disperse to other bands, the females that remain are the most fixed and stable members of most natal bands, often taking leadership roles in governing the band’s daily activities. Affiliative behavior between females is important because mares of an established band remain together even in the absence of a stallion – strong social bond among mares The rank of a mare has a predictive effect on her role in band cohesion. 13 Role of juveniles in natal band cohesion In a natal band, the juveniles issue the least amount of aggressive behavior and conduct the most nonagonistic behavior. One of the main behaviors of foals is play that is very important for them to learn how to interact with one another and for the establishment of pair bonds. Play in foals is unrelated to rank.

14 Pair bonds

Under free-range conditions, even where the territory is extensive, group bonding is important to the extent that horses maintain continual visual and olfactory contact with each other. A central mechanism of band cohesion is the establishment of pair bonds and mare-foal bonds.

15 Pair bonds

Most horses have one or more preferred associates with whom they maintain closer proximity than with other herd members. The bonds are demonstrated by reciprocal following, mutual grooming and standing together. The cardinal signs of stability among groups of horses include group activities such as rolling and trekking and mutual maintenance behaviors including insect control and grooming.

16 Pair bonds Horses tend to bond with conspecifics of similar age and rank. – This means that in biological terms they associate with their closest competitors, and this may account for ongoing disputes over resources. Mutual grooming characterizes the relationship in filly–filly and colt– filly partnerships. This is regularly interspersed with sustained episodes of playfighting if the partners are both colts. Since natal bands are largely female, the bonds formed between fillies at this stage can be lifelong. As testament to the robust memory horses boast, pair-bonds can withstand extended periods17 of separation (6 months – 5 years). Stable mirror – pair bond?

When given mirrors, isolated horses often stand beside their own image.

There is evidence that mirrors can provide some of the stimuli that isolated horses need.

Horses do not appear to recognize the mirror images as their own, since they will sometimes show transient aggression towards them.

18 Dispersal

The proximate causes of dispersal from the natal band vary with the youngster’s sex. The resident stallion plays a cardinal role in the dispersal of colts and only rarely allows a member that has been driven away to rejoin the natal band. Lead mares may also take a role in driving away colts that are beginning to make sexual overtures.

19 Vocal communication

Noises produced by the larynx are considered more important in communication between horses than the non-laryngeal noises such as groaning. Depending on the sound that is being produced, the mouth may be opened or closed during vocal communication. Field studies suggest that, by 3 weeks of age, foals can recognize their dam’s neighs. The importance of the neigh as a means of connecting affiliates is demonstrated by its increased frequency when one places a horse in unfamiliar company. The sight of another horse often prompts neighing, presumably in a bid to ascertain whether the conspecific is familiar.

20 Vocal communication

Laryngeal vocalizations Non-laryngeal vocalzations ● squeal

● ● neigh (whinny) snort

● ● general greeting nicker snore

● ● mare nicker blow

● stallion nicker

● groans and grunts

21 Body language

A band’s behavior can be synchronized between 50% and 98% of the time. Horses most often communicate without using their voices – social prey animals, they must organize themselves as a group without attracting predators. The ears are the most important body part in equine non-vocal communication.

22 Body language

Changes in neck posture are also important signals. The nares dilate and constrict with changes in mood. In combination with head position, the ears and nares contribute to expressions of forward attention, lateral attention, backward attention, alarm, aggression, submission and pleasure. Expressions of lateral attention.

23 Body language The ears Pricked (Forward) - Alert or awake. Can indicate interest in an object or sound; curiosity, and/or anticipatory happiness Drooping/Floppy - Dozing, content, relaxed and/or happy. Laid Back - Requesting something (nose out), listening to or focusing on something behind him (head usually up), or concentrating intently (head lowered slightly and nose pulled in toward chest). Pinned Back - Annoyance or anger. If the horse is mildly annoyed, he may pin them back for a moment (this is usually accompanied by the head moving back and to the side slightly) before pointing them forward again; if he is very angry, they will all but disappear into his mane. Multidirectional - Hesitancy or confusion (flicking forward- back-forward or forward-side-forward) or listening in 24 two directions at once. Body language

When the rain slicker is placed on her back, she is still paying attention to the handler, but she is also focused on the slicker

25 Body language

The horse on the left is dozing and/or listening to something behind him. The pony on the right, however, is obviously angry about something (note the pinched nostrils) 26 Body language

Left: He was very curious and eager to "meet" the bunny, (ears are up, nose is out, nostrils are flared and neck is arched). Right: He was not quite as sure, however, about the piglet. Notice how his ears 27 are flicking front to back, indicating his uncertainty; his neck is straight, plus his head is a little higher and pulled back slightly. Body language

In a group of horses, those that are not leading tend to focus their aural surveillance on stimuli from the rear and are therefore usually seen with their ears pointing back. This strategy makes sense for the safety of the group since it allows the leaders to concentrate on hazards ahead of the group. The alarm is often indicated by switching the direction of the ears and by a tense mouth and dilated nostrils. Aggressive horses look similar to alarmed horses.

28 Expression of alarm 29 Expression of agression 30 Body language

Although rarely used in isolation from other forms of body language, the tail, or more especially its position, is an important indicator of mood or intention. As a characteristic of anti-insect responses, swishing movements of the tail are a sign of irritation. Tail-raising is generally associated with the high postural tonus of arousal and an intention to move forward, while tail-lowering signals to observing horses that the bearer is intending to decelerate. The tail is also lowered in horses as they withdraw from threatening stimuli.

31 Body language

There is usually a small space under the horse's tail (L). The horse on the right has his tail clamped due to cold (if it is due to

fear, it is usually a precursor to either bolting or kicking). 32 Body language

Quarter horse, arabian

33 34 Body language

Lifting of the fore- or hindlegs is used as part of striking or kicking threats, respectively. Pawing is recorded in free-ranging horses as they attempt to unearth hidden water soaks or remove snow from forage. A similar feet-stamping response is seen as a sign of frustration in domestic contexts.

35 Tactile communication

As social creatures, horses have a behavioral need for tactile communication. Foals are first licked (immediately post-partum), and nuzzled (during suckling) by their dams. In return, mares are regularly nibbled by their offspring in attempts to initiate mutual grooming and play. Tactile contact with the conspecific’s flank and groin forms a pivotal stage when two horses greet. Abnormal behaviors are commonly associated with stable designs that deny tactile communication between neighbors.

36 Communication by odours

As demonstrated by the accuracy with which mares can recognize the odor of their own foals, horses use odor to identify group members. Similarly they are sensitive to the odors of alien conspecifics, and this is why they investigate excrement carefully when given the opportunity. By leaving a sample of urine, mares are able to communicate their proximity to estrus. Stallions investigate mares’ urine using the characteristic flehmen response.

37 Communication by odours

Marking, especially with feces, enables horses to communicate their presence and status and to be able to know the whereabouts of other groups of horses. Because rank dictates the order in which bachelors eliminate onto one another’s excrement, the highest- ranking member of the group may try to ensure that his scent, be it from rolling, urine or feces, prevails. This is why highest-ranking members of a group tend to be the last to roll in a given site.

38 Recommended readings

Beaver, B.V. 2016. Efficient livestock handling. Elsevier, ISBN: 978-0-12-418670-5 Ekesbo, I. 2011. Farm animal behaviour. Characteristics for assessment of health and welfare. CABI, Wallingford, UK, ISBN: 9781845937706 Jensen, P. 2009. The ethology of domestic animals. 2nd ed. An introductory text. CABI, Wallingford, UK, ISBN: 9781845935368 McGreevy, P. 2004. Equine behaviour. A guide for veterinarians and equine scientists. Saunders, ISBN: 0702026344

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