Handbook for Dive Controller Training Course for Tourism and Coral Reef Ecosystem Sustainability

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Office of Marine and Coastal Resources Conservation Department of Marine and Coastal Resources Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment Handbook for Dive Controller Training Course for Tourism and Coral Reef Ecosystem Sustainability

Contents page

Preface 1 Section 1 3 The geographic character and management of Thai marine and coastal areas 3 1.1 The marine and coastal geography of Thailand 3 1.2 Coastal features of the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea 3 1.3 Important coastal resources and environments 5 1.4 Marine Protected Areas 6 Section 2 7 The Coral Reef Ecosystem 7 2.1 Coral biology 7 2.1.1 What is coral? 7 2.1.2 Coral species in Thailand 7 2.1.3 Coral reproduction 8 2.1.4 Feeding behavior and growth 11 2.2 Coral reef formation 13 2.3 Chemical and physical factors influencing reef development 15 2.4 Balance of the coral reef ecosystem 16 2.5 Marine life in coral reef ecosystems 18 2.6 Food webs in the coral reef ecosystem 20 2.7 Dangerous coral reef creatures 22 2.8 Coral reef structure and environment 30 Andaman Sea 30 Gulf of Thailand 34 2.9 Coral reef status in Thailand 36 2.10 Coral reef status in Thailand 37 Problems arising from human causes 38 Naturally occurring problems 45 2.11 How do coral reefs recover naturally? 51

Section 3 54 The benefit of coral reefs 54 3.1 Importance of reefs tying in with human lifestyles 54 3.2 Types of marine tourism in Thailand 55 3.3 Impacts on coral reefs from tourism 56 Session 4 59 Coral reef vulnerability 4.1 Factors related to the vulnerability of coral and risk of damage from diving activities 59 4.2 Choosing suitable areas for diving activities 61 Session 5 62 Diving destination in Thailand 62 5.1 The east coast of the Gulf of Thailand 62 5.2 Inner part of the Gulf of Thailand 62 5.3 West coast of the Gulf of Thailand 62 5.4 Andaman Sea 63 5.5 Artificial reef and shipwreck dive sites 64 Session 6 66 Laws and regulations involved with diving tourism 66 6.1 Laws which protect resources in relation to diving activities 66 6.1.1 Act on the Promotion of Marine and Coastal Resources Management, B.E. 2558 (2015) 66 6.1.2 Announcement of the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment “Measures to Protect Coral Resources from Diving Tourism Activities, Year...” (draft) 67 6.1.3. National Park Act, B.E. 2504 69 6.1.4 Announcements and other regulations concerning the National Park Act, B.E. 2504 71 6.1.5. Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act, B.E. 2562 (2019) 74 6.1.6. Royal Ordinance on Fisheries B.E. 2558 (2015) 75 6.1.7 Enhancement and Conservation of the National Environmental Quality Act, B.E. 2535 77 6.1.8 Announcement by the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment: Determination of the Area and Measures for Environmental Protection 79 6.2 Laws relative to controlling and supervising underwater tour operators and protection of divers 81 6.2.1 Tourism Business and Guide Act (Second Edition) B.E.2559 81 6.2.2. Ministerial Regulations on Tourism and Sports: Permission required for tourism businesses to operate B.E. 2561 82 6.3 Measures relative to diving 83 6.3.1 Use of mooring buoys for various purposes 83 6.3.2 Methods for correct mooring buoy use as advised by National Parks 83 6.3.3 Special cases for diving site closure 84 6.3.4 Limitation of the number of tourists 84 6.3.5 Announcement of the Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plants to limit the number of tourists 85 6.4 Conservation activities and cooperation in conservation activities 86 Session 7 88 Standards for diving tourism operations 88 7.1 Scuba diving standards 88 7.2 Environmentally friendly scuba diving and snorkeling 90 7.3 Analysis of the activities and skills essential for tourists to access dive sites 92 7.4 Providing knowledge to tourists 92 References / Read more 93

Preface

The Seas are the Earth's most important resource. Marine ecosystems are full of diverse marine life, they are a source of food and energy, and are valuable resources for the tourism industry. Thailand is a country which has many tourism destinations. It is one of the ASEAN countries with the most varied marine activities in the region and has a marine area of over 350,000 square kilometres including the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand. Thailand lies between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and forms a link between the two. It has one of the richest and most diverse marine environments and Thai people benefit from the sea in the fishing, transportation, energy and industrial fields, including tourism, an important industry which brings significant revenue to the country. There are many kind of marine tourism. One of these is underwater tourism, such as scuba diving, seawalking and snorkelling. At present bringing tourists into the beautiful but fragile marine ecosystem, especially the coral reef ecosystem, is becoming increasingly popular. Many tourists are interested in visiting Thailand to engage in these activities. Some places are becoming intensive destinations for underwater tourism, such as Koh Khai Nai and Koh Khai Nok in Phang Nga Province, Koh Racha Yai in Phuket Province, Koh Phi Phi in Krabi Province and Koh Tao in Surat Thani Province. Coral Reef tourism brings great revenues but at the same time, has a significant impact on the ecosystem because of behavior such as stepping on coral, collecting or touching marine wildlife, and physical impacts by divers or dive leaders. Such impacts from tourists, divers, tour leaders, instructors as well as from anchoring by the boats which bring tourists to dive sites create unsustainable use. Although dive leaders know international diving standards, they might lack knowledge about the Thai environment and ecosystems as well as the law, regulation and management which are specific to some areas. In foreign countries, coral reef tourism is an activity which is intensively controlled, and many countries have strict regulations, such as the Maldives, Indonesia, Malaysia, etc. The governmental sector is one of the sectors that must control this tourism so that it is suitable, leading to long-term sustainable use. However, Thailand lacks a clear framework for transmitting knowledge and controlling such activities. This will therefore bring increasing problems in the future as the number of tourists grows. According to the government’s tourism promotion policy, in order to have the greatest benefit from controlling these activities clearly, this dive leader training has been created as a strategy for establishing standards for tourism that promote coral reef conservation and protection. The Office of Marine and Coastal Resources Conservation, Department of Marine and Coastal Resources has created measures to protect tourists from illegal practices. Therefore this Office has drafted the Announcement of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment 2

“Measures to Protect Coral Resources from Diving Tourism” inline with the Marine and Coastal Resources Management Promotion Act 2558, Section 22 & 23. This Announcement’s goal is to control, advise and provide services for tourists, dive leaders, guides, instructors, tourism entrepreneurs, and all people who take part in subaquatic tourism on coral reefs. This Announcement has also determined the measures and the methodology of dive tourism in order to suit coral reefs’ status. For this reason, tourists who wish to go diving must have a dive controller present on every dive. The Announcement also specifies that the dive leader must pass the Dive Controller Training Course for Tourism and Coral Reef Ecosystem Sustainability of the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources. In order to prepare for the reception of this Announcement, and to prepare all individuals involved with marine underwater tourism to abide by the law and to meet the objective of coral reef resource protection, the Office of Marine and Coastal Resources Conservation has developed and improved the Curriculum for Dive Controller Training Course for Tourism and Coral Reef Ecosystem Sustainability, which will be used to train dive controllers and increase the quality of their service and their capacity to meet the standards of the Announcement.

Section 1 The geographic character and management of Thai marine and coastal areas

1.1 The marine and coastal geography of Thailand Thailand is located on the Indo-Chinese peninsula and Malay Archipelago between the latitudes 5o 37’ N to 20o 27’ N and longitudes 97 o 22’ E to 105 o 37’ E. The total area is 513,115 km2. Thailand has a maritime zone covering more than two-thirds of the land area, or 350,000 km2. The length of Thailand’s shoreline is approximately 3,148 kilometers along 23 provinces, 2,055 kilometers of which border the Gulf of Thailand and the remaining 1,093 km, facing the Andaman Sea. Major coastal resources include mangrove forests, mudflats, sandy beaches, rocky beaches, coral reefs and seagrass beds.

Map showing the Thai’s sea;  Internal Waters (green)  Territorial Sea (yellow)  Contiguous Zone (brown)  Exclusive Economic Zone: (EEZ) (dark blue)

1.2 Coastal features of the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea The Gulf of Thailand (G.O.T.) is characterized as a drowned river valley estuary. The G.O.T. can be divided into 4 regions; the upper region (from Petchaburi Province to the western part of Chonburi), eastern region (from the eastern part of Chonburi Province to Trat), mid-western region (from Prachuab Kirikhan Province to Chumporn) and lower-western region (from Suratthani Province to Narathiwas). The upper region is the catchment basin of four main rivers, the Chaophraya, the Tachin, the Bangpakong and 4

the Maeklong Rivers. Generally, salinity in the G.O.T. is influenced by freshwater discharged from these rivers. However, according to its small annual volume, there isn’t a significant freshwater discharge impact on the variation of current circulation in the G.O.T. A diurnal tide cycle (one high tide and one low tide per lunar day) is found in the eastern and mid-western regions, while mixed tide cycles (two high tides and two low tides of different heights) occur in the upper and lower western regions. The tidal range is about 1 m in the eastern region and 2.6 m in the mid-western region. Wave characteristics in the G.O.T. are driven by the monsoons, the Southwestern monsoon and the Northeastern monsoon. The Northeastern monsoon produces larger waves in the western G.O.T., while the Southwestern monsoon produces larger waves in the eastern G.O.T. Generally, waves in the G.O.T. are relatively small with an average height of 1-2 metres. The coastal areas of the southern provinces along the Andaman Sea are submerged shorelines, characterized by steep, rough and indented shorelines, including many bays and islands such as Kraburi estuary in Ranong Province, Koh Pratong, Koh Phuket, Koh Yao, Koh Lanta, Koh Libong, Koh Tarutao, etc. A semidiurnal tide occurs along the coasts of the Andaman Sea where two nearly equal high tides and two nearly equal low tides occur every day. The high and low tides reported by the Tidal Monitoring Station of the Hydrographic Department, Royal Thai Navy at Koh Ta Phao Noi, Phuket Province were about 3.60 and 0.38 meters, respectively. The tidal range was 3.22 meters. The Thailand's climate is influenced by monsoons: the Southwestern monsoon and the Northeastern monsoon. The Southwestern monsoon starting from May brings a stream of warm, moist air from the Indian Ocean towards Thailand, causing abundant rain over the country. The Northeastern monsoon starting in October brings cold and dry air from the anticyclone in China’s mainland over major parts of Thailand. Results from the Ocean Monitoring and Forecasting System under development by M.A.S.N.U.M. (Laboratory of Science and Numerical Modeling) for the South China Sea and the Andaman Sea (Thailand- China Cooperation) have revealed the influence of these monsoon winds. In the G.O.T., Northeastern monsoon winds (November-January) and Southwestern monsoon winds (June-October) have been measured at average speeds of 4-8 m/sec. The Southwestern monsoon winds normally have their highest speed during July-August. Surface currents flowing past the coastline of Vietnam approach the upper Gulf during January-March and November-December. In contrast, during June-August the currents flow from Malaysia’s coastline to the Gulf. In the Andaman Sea, during the Northeastern monsoon, the currents flow northwest along the coast of Sumatra, while in the Southwestern monsoon the currents flow in the opposite direction.

Map showing the location of diurnal tide cycle, semi-diurnal tide cycle and mixed- tide cycle

diurnal Semi-diurnal mixed

1.3 Important coastal resources and environments The major resource along the Andaman Sea is mangrove forest, which accounts for over 70 percent of total mangrove cover in the country. The Gulf coast has a combination of mangrove forests, mudflats, and sandy beaches. Thailand has a total marine area of 323,488 km2 which is divided into two distinct areas – the Gulf of Thailand (202,676km2) in the Pacific Ocean and the Andaman Sea (120,812km2) in the Indian Ocean. Marine fisheries and aquaculture, as well as coastal tourism and marine transportation are the main economic activities along the coasts. Coral reefs in Thailand’s seas cover approximately 238 km2 and are estimated to be home to around 300 species of hard coral. The coral reefs, which mainly consist of small fringing reefs, are observed both in the Gulf of Thailand (121 km2) and the Andaman Sea (117 km2). Approximately 40% of coral reefs in Thailand are located within marine protected areas. Approximately 300 species of hard coral exist there. Seagrass meadows cover a total of 256 km2. Seagrass, which grows in relatively shallow waters, forms a key feeding, breeding, and nursery ground for many marine lifeforms such as 6

fish, turtles, lobsters and dugong. There are seagrass beds in 19 of the 23 coastal provinces. 13 species of seagrass (out of the approximately 58 species found worldwide) have been recorded in Thai waters. Seagrass beds within marine protected areas are estimated at 52 km2 or 35 percent of the total area covered by seagrass in the country. Mangrove forests are located along both coasts where they stabilize the shoreline, protect against waves and storms, and provide a nursery and feeding ground for many species, including commercially important fish. There are mangrove forests in all 23 coastal provinces and they cover an area of approximately 2,455 km2. Thailand’s mangroves are also important on a global scale, as they are home to 34 species (out of 50 species found worldwide) of true mangrove trees. Only seven percent of the total mangrove area is in marine national parks. Other significant species found in the waters of Thailand include sea turtles (5 species), dugongs (1 species), dolphins (11 species), whales (16 species), and whale sharks (1 species). All of these are protected under the Preservation and Protection of Wild Animals Act (B.E. 2535). Sea turtles and dugongs are also protected under CITES Annex I, while dolphins, whales and whale sharks are under Annex II, except Irrawaddy dolphins which are under Annex I)

1.4 Marine Protected Areas Thailand has marine protected areas (MPA) which are categorized as follows; 1) Twenty-two Marine National Parks, covering marine/coastal areas of 5,716 km2, 2) Six Wildlife No-Hunting areas, covering marine/coastal areas of 138 km2, 3) One hundred and sixty Conserved Mangrove Forests, covering coastal areas of 2,304 km2, 4) Fifty-six Marine sanctuaries, covering marine/coastal areas of 167 km2, 5) Six Environmental Protected Areas, covering marine/coastal areas of 9,530 km2, 6). One Marine archaeological protected area, covering marine/coastal areas of 27 km2 In this regard, general coral reef area, seagrass bed area, the no-trawling fisheries area (3 km from shoreline) and fish-spawning seasonal closure area are not taken into account. In addition, there are MPA designated at international level, including the Wetlands of International Importance (RAMSAR site) (9 places, 4,226 km2), Biosphere Reserve (1 place, 246 km2) and ASEAN Heritage Park (2 places, 1,805 km2).

Section 2 The Coral Reef Ecosystem

2.1 Coral biology 2.1.1 What is coral? Coral is a marine invertebrate, but it has a calcium carbonate core as an exoskeleton. This skeleton supports the coral tissue. The coral tissue consists primarily of a cylindrical shape which has tentacles that move in the water to catch plankton. However, coral’s staple food comes partly from the food that algae produce. This algae is generally named Zooxanthellae, which is a single-celled brown algae of which a large number live within the coral tissue. Zooxanthellae use coral as a home and also use carbon dioxide from the coral’s respiration and waste from the coral’s ingested plankton to produce the amino acids which sustain them. In the pieces of coral skeleton that wash ashore, if observed clearly, can be seen small pores, as small as 1 millimeter or as large as 2 or 3 centimeters, depending on the species. The shape of the pores might be circular, oval or angular, or can be long valley-shapes. These pores are where coral polyps live. One coral head, bush, plate, or branch shape consists of many polyps which connect to each other with tissue, therefore we can say that corals form colonies. Polyps living in a colony form the colony’s shape by growing in a form of reproduction similar to cloning. However, there are other types of coral, of which there are relatively few species, which consist of a single polyp called a solitary coral – for example mushroom corals.

Colony of orange-cup coral Mushroom coral

2.1.2 Coral species in Thailand In science, true hard coral is classified in the Phylum Coelenterata, Class Anthozoa, Subclass Zoantharia, Order Scleractinia and Phuket Marine Biological Centre has collected a total of 285 species of coral samples from the Andaman sea, of which there are new species named Acropora kosurini, Wallace 1994, which was discovered at Muh Koh Surin and Acropora sirikitiae, Wallace, Phongsuwan and Muir, 2012. All sampled species were carefully stored and 8

referenced for taxonomy studies. Coral samples from the Gulf of Thailand have been collected and stored in the Museum of Marine and Coastal Resources Research Centre in Chumporn Province and Rayong Province, and at Burapha University, Prince of Songkla University, Chulalongkorn University, Kasetsart University, and Walailuk University. However the collection from the Gulf is not complete.

2.1.3 Coral reproduction Sexual reproduction Sexual reproduction consists of the fertilization of eggs by sperm and the result is larvae which may have different genetic characteristics from their parents. Young colonies might develop, and have the capability to survive and adjust to their environments, better than their parents. Coral might be hermaphrodites, each polyp having both ovaries and testes embedded in the mesentery, for example the Faviidae family. They might alternatively have separate genders (gonochoric) such as the Poritidae family. The reproduction process in each species can be very different. Over 80% of coral species release eggs and sperm into the water column for fertilization outside their bodies (exo- fertilization). These corals are called broadcasters or spawners. The larvae from fertilization float far in the current from one island to another. Around 15% of coral species release sperm into the water which then swims into other colonies’ polyps (endo-fertilization). The larvae develop inside the mother polyps (brooders). Then the larvae are released and settle onto the sea bed near the mother colonies, rather than floating further away as is the case with broadcasters.

We can categorize sexual reproduction as follows: 1) Hermaphroditic broadcaster: this is coral in which in a single colony each polyp has both male and female sex organs which produce eggs and sperm. They release both eggs and sperm for external fertilization, giving rise to planula larvae that drift far from their parents in the current. Species include Acroporidae, Faviidae, Pectiniidae, Merulinidae, and Mussidae. 2) Hermaphroditic brooder: this is coral in which in a single colony, each polyp has both male and female sex organs which produce eggs and sperm. Sperm is released from one polyp and swims into another polyp to fertilize its eggs (internal fertilization). The larvae develop in the mother polyps and are released when development is complete. Larvae drift away, but not as far. Species include Pocilloridae. 3) Gonochoric broadcaster: this is coral which has separate genders, that is to say male colonies and female colonies. The male colonies release sperm and the 9

female colonies release eggs for fertilization in the water column. Larvae drift far away. Species include: Fungiidae, Agariciidae, Caryophylliidae. 4) Gonochoric brooder: this is coral in which colonies can be male or female. Male colonies release sperm to fertilize eggs within female colonies, which give rise to larvae that develop inside the female colony. When they are ready, the females release the larvae into the water column and they drift for a distance not far from parents. Species include: Siderastreidae, Dendrophylliidae. The size of the colony determines sexual maturity. It has been found that Goniastrea favulus has to have a number of polyps higher than 30, after which it can reproduce sexually. It is hypothesized that the colony has to be large enough to gather enough energy for production of the gametes. Therefore, if a small part of a mature colony is broken off, it doesn’t reproduce until it reaches a large enough size. Breeding season Brooders mostly release larvae at different times (asynchronous) because the period when they produce gametes and larvae follow different lunar cycles. These corals release larvae every month at specific times in the lunar cycle throughout the year. Other types of coral which release eggs and sperm for external fertilization take several months to produce gametes before releasing them into the water column only once or twice a year. They send out chemical signals so that every colony releases them at the same time (synchronous). In some areas such as the Great Barrier Reef, the eggs and sperm of every species are released at the same time, this is known as mass spawning.

Factors that influence the settlement of coral larvae Although coral planula behaviour includes being attracted to light, this behaviour changes to avoiding light when they are ready to settle on the sea bed. Most choose to settle on substrate which is sheltered from light, in crevices, to avoid predators and smothering by sediment. In addition, the larvae like to settle on surfaces which are covered in calcareous algae or bacteria. Such algae and bacteria produce chemicals to induce the settlement, development and metamorphosis of the young coral colony.

Development of juvenile corals after settlement When coral larvae settle on suitable substrate, they change their shapes. The primary polyp develops tentacles and a basal plate to attach firmly to the substrate and a complex calcium carbonate structure whose shape depends on the species. When the primary polyps have completely formed the hard skeletal structure, they start to bud within one week. This is known as asexual reproduction colony forming. After recent settlement, if environmental factors 10

aren’t suitable, polyps might detach from their calcium carbonate structure and float away to find a new location.

Asexual reproduction In asexual reproduction, new polyps have the same genes as their parents. There are several categories, as follow.

Budding: a new colony starting from a single polyp attached to the sea bed starts to produce new polyps (budding) which thereby increase the colony’s size. This is the main method for coral growth. Budding gives rise to the different growth shapes of coral colonies depending on species. For example, the massive form, branching form, submassive form, leafy form, table form, and encrusting form. However in some species, when budding, the young detach from the parent in such a way that no colony is created. This is the solitary coral form, such as mushroom coral. Fragmentation: several kinds of branching coral such as staghorn coral (Acropora sp.) or a thin leafy form such as Montipora aequituberculata are easily broken by physical impacts due to waves or when they grow larger, they have the ability to break into smaller pieces (autotomy) such as Diaseris sp. and Herpolitha limax. The broken part continues to grow further. Polyp bailout: this occurs when the environment isn’t suitable for growth. The polyp detaches into the water column to find a new suitable attachment point. This happens in species such as Pocillopora damicornis and Seriatopora hystrix. The colony forms a knob which contains a small group of polyps, and which then detaches from the colony and continues to grow, such as Goniopora stokesi. Eggs develop into planulae without fertilization by sperm. This is called Parthenogenesis, such as in Pocillopora damicornis.

Sexual reproduction of cauliflower coral From a study of the cauliflower coral, Pocillopora damicornis in Samaesan, Chonburi Province, it was found that coral release planulae monthly or yearly. The peak time is the second to fifth day of waxing after a new moon at 18:00 to 20:00. The same colony can repeatedly release larvae four times a year. From observations in tanks, the larvae settle onto substrate within half an hour after spawning. They develop a polyp and calcareous structure at the age of 20 hours. The polyp is complete at the age of 40 hours, with a size of 1 millimeter, and starts to bud at the age of 4 to 10 days. It starts to grow vertically at six months of age.

Left; coral larva starts to settle on substrate Middle; coral larva starts to create tentacles and calcareous structure at the age of 20 hours Right; young coral at the age of 12 months

Source: Kuanui P., 2008

2.1.4 Feeding behavior and growth Coral feed using two methods. The first is to receive nutrients by directly catching zooplankton (copepods, artemia, juvenile marine fauna) as well as bacteria, dissolved organic material and suspended organic material. The second method is to absorb the food which zooxanthellae produce. Coral colonies which have zooxanthellae in their tissues receive nutrition directly from direct consumption of plankton, or absorption of the nutrients which zooxanthellae generate, while corals which have no zooxanthellae feed by catching zooplankton and dissolved or suspended organic material. Each type of coral has a different growth rate. Coral which has the branching form has a faster growth rate than the others. From a study of the growth rate of Staghorn coral Acropora formosa at Phuket island, it has been found that for each colony, each branch increases 3.0 to 5.7 millimeters per month. However, in several branches, while they increase in length, there is new budding producing new branches, so if the length of these new branches is included, the 12

total length would be 3.35 to 8.60 millimeters per month. Massive corals have slower growth rates than branching forms. From a study of Porites lutea at Phuket Island, it was found that the coral increases its thickness 0.62 to 1.54 millimeters per month (Chansang et. al. 1987).

Carbon dioxide and nutrients are recycled between coral polyps and zooxanthellae embedded in the coral tissue. Zooxanthellae take dissolved carbon dioxide and nitrogen in the form of ammonia which coral excrete, and use them during photosynthesis to produce food of which about 78 to 90% is used by the coral to grow. (Photo credit: Marine Biology (Castro and Huber, 2003)

(Photo credit: Marine Biology (Castro and Huber, 2003)

How can corals be consumed by other animals? There are many marine animals that consume coral as food, such as Crown of Thorns Starfish, Triggerfish, Parrotfish, Butterflyfish, Sea urchins, Flatworms, and Drupella snails. In addition, there are many animals which consume the mucus that coral excretes to cover itself and which washes away into the water column. The creatures that consume this mucus include sea fans, small shrimps, small crabs, bacteria, zooplankton, etc.

(Photo credit: Marine Biology (Castro and Huber, 2003)

2.2 Coral reef formation Coral reefs found in Thailand consist exclusively of fringing reefs. Most of them are distributed around islands, while there are relatively few around the mainland coast, and they are usually very shallow because the mainland coast receives an environmental influence which makes it unsuitable for coral growth. Coral reefs form from the growth of a variety of coral species. Types of coral that can form reefs are known as hermatypic corals. This kind of coral grows quite fast because it contains zooxanthellae which help construct calcium carbonate, while other types which don’t have zooxanthellae grow slowly and sparsely. They don’t therefore form coral reefs and are known as ahermatypic corals, such as Tubastraea spp. and Dendrophyllia micranthus.

Naturally, during their planktonic stage, coral larvae float in the water column and later settle and attach onto hard substrate such as rocky coastline. These corals then grow larger and later on, sections might break off due to erosion by boring organisms such as shellfish. The broken sections gradually extrude horizontally over the sea bed and continue to grow upward, but some parts might die if smothered by sand or silt. However, the dead sections still form a hard substrate for young corals to settle on and grow. In Thailand, shallow reef formation has 14

been studied at Ao Tung Khen, Phuket Island (Tudhope and Scoffin, 1994). They found that the coral reef started to develop on the rocky coast of the bay 6,000 years ago and the reef has gradually extruded into the sea. At present, the depth of the reef is 5 to 8 metres. Coral reefs which have been developing for a long time in Thailand include those at Surin and Similan islands in Phang Nga province. These reefs cover a large area down to a depth of around 30 meters. The dominant coral species in terms of the number of colonies and the volume which covers an area, or in other terms, the main reef-forming species in Thailand, include Hump coral (Porites lutea), Wrinkle coral (Porites rus) and Staghorn coral (Acropora formosa).

Hump coral (Porites lutea) Wrinkle coral (Porites rus) Staghorn coral (Acropora formosa)

The illustration represents massive coral being eroded by boring mollusks for habitat. The coral continues to grow and increase in thickness (the dotted line shows the layer of increased thickness over several years). Finally, although the boring action breaks chunks of coral off, the coral chunks continue to grow.

The coral broken due to bio-erosion falls in front of the reef which makes it extrude into the sea.

Illustration at Ao Tung Khen showing the formation of the reef, starting at the rocky coastline 6,000 years ago. The reef has gradually extruded into the sea; the dotted lines show the age of the oldest coral skeletons found under the seabed at that spot.

Types of coral reef and how they form. Coral reefs are divided into three distinct types. 1) fringing reef: the reef develops in connection to the shoreline, be it mainland or island. 2) barrier reef: the reef forms far from the shoreline with a lagoon separating them. 3) atoll: the reef forms a ring around the lagoon.

Charles Darwin (1842) hypothesized that the last two types of reef are a result of changes in the fringing reef around a gradually submerging marine volcano. The illustration shows a fringing reef that has formed around the volcano, after that, the volcano has gradually sunk. Especially at the reef edge, coral gradually grows to reach the sea surface. A lagoon forms between the volcanic island and the reef. At this stage the reef is a barrier reef. Finally the volcano totally sinks while the reef continues to grow towards the sea surface. At this final stage, the reef has become an atoll.

(Photo credit: Marine Biology (Castro and Huber, 2003)

2.3 Chemical and physical factors influencing reef development The chemical and physical factors which directly influence the development of coral reefs include sunlight, temperature and oxygen. Hard coral cannot grow if the sea isn’t shallow enough for light to penetrate to the sea bed, because coral has a strong symbiotic relationship with the zooxanthellae which require light to survive. Zooxanthellae are important for the calcification process in coral as well as getting rid of excess waste and provide nutrition for coral to live on. Coral reefs develop well in areas where average yearly temperature is around 27 to 29 degrees Celsius (in Thailand) and cannot develop at temperatures lower than 18 degrees Celsius (other region). Hard coral cannot grow in areas of unstable temperature. Temperature change is a significant factor which can determine the distribution on the reef flat where there are only a limited number of species that can adjust to this environment. Water circulation is not as important for bringing oxygen to the reef as it is in washing out carbon dioxide (there is an excess of carbon dioxide that the Zooxanthellae cannot use). In 16

addition, the current washes away waste products such as phosphates which can inhibit calcification. The amount of dissolved calcium carbonate may be a factor for enhanced coral growth, usually dissolved calcium carbonate is already sufficient in seawater with salinity between 30 and 40 ppt. 2.4 Balance of the coral reef ecosystem Coral reefs are distributed in tropical seas over an area of more than 190,000 km2, normally anywhere in the tropics where there is a seabed for coral to firmly attach to, and where there is enough light penetration. Coral reefs can form in these areas unless there is a cool upwelling, too much sediment in the water column, or too much freshwater runoff. Coral reefs may be defined as “calcium carbonate structures that form on the seabed at a level where light penetrates. These structures are the calcareous skeleton of various marine lifeforms, of which the dominant forms are hermatypic coral and calcareous algae.” These complex structures trap the sediment which results from reef erosion. We can say that coral reefs are in a state of near-balance between construction (growth) and destruction. The structure of coral reefs in ancient times as well as in the present is a result of this balance between construction and destruction, and this is how coral reefs develop. “Construction” refers to the increasing amount of calcium carbonate resulting from the growth of marine life which has a calcareous skeleton, such as coral, calcareous algae, Foraminifera and mollusks. Construction in this manner is known as the organic constructional force. Another type of construction is the deposit of calcium carbonate from coral, calcareous algae, Foraminifera and mollusks which have died. These deposits fuse together due to chemical reactions in the sea water. This is known as the physical- chemical constructional force. In addition, calcareous algae help to fuse substrate elements together. Rocky beaches may be formed by this type of reaction.

The illustration shows the development of a coral reef. Fig.(a) shows coral on a hard substrate. Fig.(b) shows dead coral fragments and sand sediment being deposited in the reef’s crevices. In Fig.(c), after a lengthy period of time, these deposits harden on the sea bed by chemical and biological processes. This is how reefs gradually grow towards the sea surface. (Credit: Marine Biology, Castro and Huber, 2003) 17

"Destruction" refers to the destruction of calcium carbonate, the structure of coral, calcareous algae, etc. The destruction of coral reefs can result from “physical, chemical and biological erosion”. There are two types of marine organism which erode coral (Bio-eroders), i.e. borers and grazers. Borers: Most borers are pelagic at the juvenile stage. Later on, they settle on dead coral and bore into the calcium carbonate to create a habitat. There are two types of borer. Mircoborers e.g. algae, bacteria, fungi Macroborers e.g. polychaete, sipunculid, sponge, bivalves Grazers: this group feed by scraping algae off hard substrate. For example, parrotfish and sea urchins.

Scarring on a coral boulder caused by parrotfish grazing.

Each area is impacted in a different manner by bio-erosion. On reef slopes or in lagoons, significant erosion is caused by grazers. In this zone, most coral grows fast so the reef remains in balance. In contrast, on the reef flat, there is less impact from grazers because of regular low tides. Most bio-eroders are borers rather than grazers. Algae also acts as a bio-eroder. Some species of algae can erode calcium carbonate and bore into living or dead coral. On a coral head, a crack with a blue-green edge might be seen, caused by Mastigocoleus testarum, Ostreobium reineckei or Acetabularia moebii algae. The mechanism of erosion is believed to be due to the production of organic acid whereby the pH decreases resulting from respiration at night, when no photosynthesis occurs. Calcium carbonate eroded by any of these methods breaks into smaller and smaller pieces and finally becomes fine sediment, which floats away in the current, possibly being deposited on reef flats, in lagoons, or is washed away from reefs and forms a sand cay, which might later be strengthened via natural colonization by plant life.

2.5 Marine life in coral reef ecosystems Marine life on coral reefs can be divided into two groups 1) Essential fauna and flora: including coral and calcareous algae, they are dominant in terms of the number of individuals and volume. This is due to this group's ability to adapt to a wide variety of environmental conditions. They reproduce often and give rise to a large number of offspring. They have a rapid growth rate, a rigid structure, and few predators. 2) Associated fauna and flora: this group is divided in two subgroups. 2.1. Epifauna & Epiflora: these organisms might be in the form of symbionts (such as crabs living among coral branches, or zooxanthellae that live in coral tissue), or in parasitic form (such as Polychaete worms that bore a tubular habitat into the coral head). There are hundreds of species of algae on coral reefs. They play a highly important role in coral reef ecosystems, for example as primary producers, nitrogen fixers, nutrient sinks, recyclers, reef formers, and reef modifiers.

Halimeda algae has a calcium carbonate main structure within its leaves. When the leaves decay, white calcium carbonate remains and is deposited on the reef. Part of it might wash ashore, giving rise to clean, white sandy beaches, for example at Koh Tachai, Phang Nga Province.

2.2. Mobile fauna is known as Nekton and includes fish, squid, sea cucumber, nudibranch, etc.

Coral reef fish Coral reef fish may be divided into groups depending on their feeding strategy. 1) Benthic/demersal fish. Some of these fish forage along the sea bed, for example goatfish and parrotfish. Others hide themselves in crevices in order to ambush their prey, for example groupers. 2) Pelagic fish swim from midwater to the surface in the water column, for example Fusiliers and Barracuda. Fish behavior might include remaining solitary, in a pair, in a small group or in a school. And there is also a group that maintains its own territory, such as Damsel fish which live among Acropora branches, and Triggerfish that create a nest on the sandy floor.

Fish diversity depends on a number of factors, such as percentage of live coral cover, reef architectural complexity, the growth form of coral, current, etc.

School of Bigeye snapper in coral reef

Invertebrate variety in coral reef ecosystems Many people don’t like sea urchins. They can cause pain when touched intentionally or unintentionally, usually a segment of spine remaining embedded at the point of contact (the level of pain depends on individuals’ sensitivity). However, it should be remembered that these animals are beneficial to coral reefs because sea urchins forage by grazing on algae which grow on dead coral, in such a way as to free space for coral planulae to settle on. The orange structure which can be seen on top of the body might be mistaken for the eye, but is in fact the urchin’s anus. The term “reef cleaner” can be used for many kinds of invertebrate, such as sea cucumbers, sea stars, feather stars, brittle stars, and even small nudibranchs. Sea cucumbers are obvious and can easily be noticed. Their excreta are noticeably long clumps of sand, which is what they ingest. However this doesn’t mean that sand itself is the food: sea cucumbers digest organic matter within the sand, thereby cleaning it. Beautiful feather stars have arms 20

that look like feathers, and that wave in the current in order to filter food from the water column. Mollusks also filter food from coral reef water, however some mollusk species can cause negative impacts to coral reefs if their numbers are too high. For example, if there are too many mollusks that bore into coral heads, this can weaken the coral structure, making it easier to break. Even some smaller species of mollusk might have digestive enzymes that can cause abnormal function in coral polyps. There are many small creatures on coral reefs, sometimes less than 3 cm long, which are quite attractive due to their striking colours and charismatic appearances. Most divers would stop to admire nudibranchs, for example. There are many species, and many colour and shape variations. Some live in pairs or in groups, some are solitary. The species are distributed differently per location because each species is adapted to different environmental conditions, such as those affecting turbidity and current. They can sometimes be found on dead coral covered with filamentous algae or sponge, because they use the algae or sponge as food sources. Small shrimps are usually found in groups on sea anemones or hidden in coral crevices. Some species use sea stars as food sources. Crabs that protect coral live among coral branches and use their claws to attack predators that try to harm their coral homes, especially Cushion sea stars which prey on coral.

Nudibrach with striking colour commonly found in the coral reef

2.6 Food webs in the coral reef ecosystem The community of living organisms on coral reefs is complex. There is a constant exchange of energy through the food web. Coral reefs can be said to be an important source of nutrient creation and recycling. In the picture, coral, algae and photosynthetic bacteria are shown as primary producers. The energy that they generate in the form of food is transferred to the next level, for example, 21

butterflyfish and crown-of-thorns starfish eat coral tissue, and surgeonfish and sea urchins eat filamentous algae. They in turn are consumed by predators on the next level such as trumpet triton conchs and sharks. When they die, all organisms decay and become detritus which is then consumed by coral and sea cucumbers.

(Credit: Marine Biology, Castro and Huber, 2003)

Table showing the diversity of marine life recorded in coral reefs in Thailand Diversity of hard corals - Number of species; 296 species - Most abundant species; : Porites lutea, P. rus, Acropora formosa, A. nobilis - Common species : Diploastrea heliopora, Heliopora coerulea, Lobophyllia hemprichii, Pavona decussata, Hydnophora spp. Diversity of reef fauna - Cnidarians other than hard coral; 75 species, plus some other unidentified species within 51 genera - Demosponges 57 species - Fish; 400 species in GOT and 880 species in the Andaman Sea - Prosobranchia 805 species - Opisthobranchia 134 species - Bivalves 625 species - Cephalopod 77 species - Shrimp/prawn/lobster 68 species - Crab 108 species - Feather star 39 species - Sea star 69 species - Brittle star 112 species - Sea urchin 67 species - Sea cucumber 94 species Diversity of marine flora Algae 77 species

2.7 Dangerous coral reef creatures Thailand’s coral reefs are fertile and rich in marine life, some of which might cause harm to humans or other life forms in different ways. For example, creatures which have sharp teeth can cause bite injuries. Some species can cause harm if consumed because they might contain toxins in their organs, for example Pufferfish. Some species can be dangerous when touched, for example some jellyfish. These creatures can be classified according to the type of harm that they cause.

2.7.1 Marine animals that bite Sharks Sharks are large carnivores that have sharp teeth for hunting prey. In some cases, large sharks might attack divers or people swimming near beaches because they mistake them for food. There have been cases where sharks have attacked humans in foreign countries such as Australia and Hong Kong. Examples of sharks which are potentially dangerous for humans include Mako sharks, White sharks, and Hammerhead sharks. Protection and treatment Avoid swimming or diving where sharks are common and don’t panic when seeing a shark. Avoiding attracting sharks, for example by spearfishing, because blood and the distressed movements of the fish can attract sharks, which are sensitive to these stimuli. If bitten by a shark the primary concern is stopping the flow of blood, and removing the victim from the water. If the victim loses consciousness, provide oxygen. Most deaths occur due to loss of blood, therefore applying direct pressure or a tourniquet before reaching emergency services is crucial.

Moray eels Moray eels are predators that live hidden in rock or coral crevices on the reef. They ambush predators, using sharp teeth to catch smaller prey. Although Moray eels don’t have poisonous fangs like Sea snakes, the mucus in their mouths can be mildly poisonous. Protection and treatment When finding a Moray eel, don’t come too close to it, or reach inside crevices in reefs or shipwrecks. Don’t play with unfamiliar Moray eels. If bitten, deep fang wounds may cause serious bleeding, and the victim might lose consciousness due to loss of blood, it is therefore urgent to stop the flow of blood, remove the victim from the water and alert emergency services immediately.

Sea snakes Sea snakes have flattened tails for swimming, which is different from land snakes. All species of Sea snake have poisonous fangs. The poison is highly potent, even if a Sea snake has somehow arrived onland, it shouldn’t be touched. When walking around a coral reef, long rubber shoes should be worn. Dead Sea snakes are still dangerous because even after 24 hours the poison is still active. The poison impacts the muscular system, the victim’s urine becomes brown within two to five hours because pigment is released from damaged muscle cells. Breathing is obstructed and heart failure might occur. There are a number of Sea snake species found in Thailand. Most of them have strong poison, for example black banded sea snake. Protection and treatment Avoid swimming in locations where Sea snakes are common. If bitten, victims should lie down, stay still and a tourniquet should be applied between the bitten area and the heart, releasing it every thirty minutes to allow blood circulation. The victim should remain still in order to slow blood circulation. The wound should be cleaned and emergency services alerted as soon as possible.

Octopus These cephalopods are members of the mollusk family. They are highly evolved and able to move at high speeds when hunting. Their bodies have no shell but have a rigid support structure inside. They have eight tentacles which have evolved from mollusk feet. Inside their mouths there is a strong beak used for biting and crushing their prey. Some species, e.g. Hapalochlaena maculosa which inhabits coral reefs in Australia, but is not found in Thailand, have poisonous glands that can cause fatal injuries. Protection and treatment Touching or holding living octopus can cause painful injuries. If bitten, the flow of blood should be stopped and the wound should be cleaned with an antibacterial product. If the wound is large, a doctor should be consulted. If there are suction cup marks, cold water may be applied.

2.7.2. Marine organisms that cause piercing injuries Crown-of-thorns starfish Crown-of-thorns starfish are a type of sea star which have numerous arms. The body surface has thorns that can be one inch long. They inhabit coral reefs and feed on coral polyps. Other than the Crown-of-thorns’ impact on coral reefs, they can also be dangerous for divers because if they are touched, they can cause painful injuries.

Protection and treatment If the skin has been pierced, the wound might redden and if any spines remain embedded, they should be removed with a sharp implement. The wound should be cleaned with fresh water, submerged in hot water of 50-60 degrees celsius, and medicinal alcohol applied to prevent infection.

Sea urchins Sea urchins are creatures that have spines on the body surface in the same way as some sea stars, however the spines of sea urchins are usually longer. Species that are common on coral reefs in Thailand include black, long-spined sea urchins (Diadema setosum). When swimming or diving in their vicinity, wave action might push divers against the sea urchins thereby causing injury. Spines are usually brittle and break off easily, embedding themselves into the flesh. They are difficult to remove and the victim might have reddening and swelling from 30 minutes to 4 hours after being injured. Some species such as the Flower urchin, Toxopneustes pileolus have pedecillariae around the spines. At the tips of the pedecillariae are three-pronged claws which are used to collect organic matter or micro-organisms on their body surfaces. There are poisonous glands within the claws, if stung, the poison causes reddening, pain, nausea and potentially, a serious, complex condition. So danger from sea urchins can come not only from the spines, but from the poisonous pedecillariae. Protection and treatment Normally sea urchins are not a danger to divers if they aren’t touched or approached. When struck by a spine, try to remove it if possible but if not able to do that, try to break it up inside the limb by massaging the pierced area. Or submerge in hot water 50 degrees Celsius, which will help to dissolve the spine faster. The spines of some species don’t dissolve easily so the spine might have to be surgically removed.

Stingrays Stingrays are flat-bodied cartilaginous fish which are usually disk-shaped with a long tail. Their mouths are on the underside and they usually feed on benthic organisms. Stingrays protect themselves by impaling attackers with spines at the base of their tails. Walking on the sea shore may cause people to step on Stingrays hidden under the seabed and be impaled, causing serious pain. In Thailand there are Blue-spotted stingrays commonly living on coral reefs, so divers in these areas may come into contact with these fish. Impalement by a Stingray barb can cause serious pain, shock, fainting, and sometimes even death. 25

Protection and treatment Prevent blood loss, look for remaining pieces of barb and remove them if possible. Because the ray’s toxin is a protein that can be degenerated in hot conditions, the wound should be submerged in water as hot as can be tolerated for 30-60 minutes. The pain should gradually disappear, and anti-inflammatory medicine can be taken. If there are any signs of worsening condition, contact emergency services immediately.

Eeltail catfish Eeltail catfish have slender, cylindrical bodies with large heads and barbels on the chin used for feeling and smelling prey on the sea bed. Their pectoral and dorsal fins have poisonous spines. They usually swim in schools. The spines can cause inflammation, nausea, tetanus, and can cause a fatal allergic reaction. Walking on the seabed with bare feet, especially on mud, should be avoided because of the risk of stepping on these fish. Even Eeltail catfish caught in fishing equipment are dangerous if removed carelessly. Protection and treatment Avoid touching these fish when they are alive, only dead ones should be handled. Treatment is the same as Stingray barb envenomation.

Lion fish Lion fish live in coral reefs and move quite slowly. They are often taken for the aquarium trade. Their pectoral and especially dorsal fins have long, highly poisonous spines which can penetrate deep into the victim’s flesh. The poison can cause serious pain. Protection and treatment Avoid catching or touching these fish when diving or swimming. Treatment is the same as Stingray barb envenomation.

Stonefish These fish look similar to Scorpionfish. They are camouflaged to look like a rock and have big heads, wide mouths and usually lie still on the sea bed waiting for prey. They ambush and eat their prey whole. These fish aren’t popular for human consumption. Their dorsal fins have poisonous spines which can be extremely painful or even fatal.

Protection and treatment Avoid catching or touching these fish when diving or swimming. Treatment is the same as Stingray barb envenomation. 2.7.3. Marine organisms that sting Jellyfish These are usually umbrella-shaped invertebrates (medusa), their bodies are translucent, with a texture similar to jelly. They are swept along by the current and waves. They consume fish, crustaceans and plankton, and the tentacles and mouth area are covered with nematocysts used to kill or paralyze prey. Within the nematocyst cell, there is often a dangerous poison that can cause itching, rash, swelling, reddening, serious pain, and chronic skin injuries, depending on the species. Some victims’ symptoms have included difficulty breathing, chest pain, confusion, insomnia, drowsiness, tiredness, nausea and death. In general, poisonous jellyfish are known as Fire jellyfish in Thailand. The seriousness of the toxin varies according to the species, for example Box jellyfish toxin may be fatal. Protection and treatment Avoid swimming in areas where jellyfish are known to be numerous or after storms, because the poisonous glands might have detached from the jellyfish and be floating freely in the sea. Treatment for jellyfish stings includes removing any jellyfish tentacles or stinging tissue as soon as possible using rigid, card-like material to scrape it off. Then use vinegar or seawater to wash the affected area. To remove smaller, invisible pieces, wipe with vinegar-soaked tissue paper. Fresh water or alcohol must never be used because they can trigger the nematocysts so that they fire again. Later on, an anti-allergenic cream may be applied to the area. Local people use the crushed leaves of Beach morning glory as a compress to treat jellyfish stings. In case of serious injury, apply first aid as necessary and alert emergency services immediately. Reports have been received of Box jellyfish found in the Gulf of Thailand (South and East) and in the Andaman Sea.

Sea anemone This is a soft-bodied creature, on the upper side there is a mouth surrounded by tentacles with a base that attaches to coral and reef rock, or embeds itself into sand or mud. It is solitary and doesn’t create a calcium carbonate structure as coral does. They are usually quite large with a diameter up to 30cm. Usually found in coral reefs, when they are touched the nematocysts on the tentacles discharge causing redness and itching. In serious cases they can cause swelling, dizziness, or even vomiting, depending on the victim’s tolerance.

Protection and treatment For first aid, use vinegar to wash the affected area, remove any mucous and tentacle fragments, and if the victim’s condition worsens, alert emergency services. Fire worms These are a kind of marine worm (polychaete) that have segmented bodies with pairs of hair clumps on each side of the segments that help them to swim. The hairs are also hard and brittle, penetrating the skin easily, thereby causing a painful rash. Fire worms naturally live under rocks and in coral crevices, particularly on reefs that are located near mangrove forest. Trawlers often dredge them up. They are usually trawled up with “trash fish” that is used for animal feed. Protection and treatment These organisms shouldn’t be touched with bare hands. In case of accidental contact, remove any hairs and apply cream or calamine lotion to relieve pain or rash, and to prevent infection.

Cone shells These are marine snails that prey on other animals. Their shells are cone-shaped and quite thick. In front of the body there is usually a long flexible tube known as a proboscis which fires a venomous tooth called a radula. There are about 500 species, some of which have a powerful poison. There are many species of poisonous Cone shell in Thailand. Common species include Textile cone (Conus textile), Geography cone (Conus geographus), Marbled cone (Conus marmoreus), Imperial cone (Conus imperialis). In their natural environment, these Cone shells only use their poison to hunt, so the likelihood of a cone shell harming a human is very low. It might happen because a person holds the shell with bare hands, so the snail might protect itself by using its harpoon to sting. Signs and symptoms include swelling, reddening, blurred vision, difficulty breathing and death. Protection and treatment Avoid all contact with these snails, including collecting sea shells and putting them in pockets. Treatment is the same as for victims of Sea snake bites. Take the victim to hospital and try to bring the snail as well. Although the hospital won’t have an antivenin specific to that snail, they can use snake antivenin which will have a similar effect.

2.7.4. Marine organisms that cut Rock barnacles Rock barnacles are crustaceans just like shrimps and crabs. They have evolved away from other crustaceans by forming a calcium carbonate carapace that attaches firmly to the substrate and allows them to remain exposed to the air for a long time. They inhabit coastal 28

rock, pier columns, shellfish nursery structures, and sometimes even the shells of mollusks such as Horseshoe crabs, real crabs etc. They are commonly found in coastal areas. Protection and treatment Risk from barnacles includes sharp cutting edges. When walking on rocky coastlines or diving to collect shellfish, barnacles might cause cuts and abrasions. Wounds should be thoroughly cleaned and an antibiotic ointment applied. If significant blood loss occurs, contact emergency services immediately.

2.7.5. Marine animals that shock Electric rays Electric rays have an organ that produces electricity, composed of hexagonal cells arranged near the eyes and down to the pectoral fins. Inside there is a jelly-like material that produces electricity and is controlled by the ray’s brain in order to emit an electric shock when the ray is stimulated or disturbed. Normally this is used when hunting or defending itself. If the ray is stepped on when hidden under the substrate, the electricity emitted has a power of 40- 100 volts, which can cause paralysis and possible drowning. Protection and treatment Avoid swimming in areas where these rays are common. If loss of consciousness occurs, the victim should be removed from the water. Begin CPR if the victim isn’t breathing normally and alert emergency services immediately.

2.7.6. Marine Animals that are Poisonous to Eat Horseshoe crab Horseshoe crabs are relatively ancient animals, there are only four species worldwide, of which two species are found in Thailand: Square-tailed horseshoe crabs Tachypleus gigas and Round-tailed horseshoe crabs Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda. Both species inhabit different environments. Square-tailed horseshoe crabs live on the seabed, laying eggs near sandy coastlines, while Round-tailed horseshoe crabs inhabit muddy seabeds or mangrove creeks. Only Round-tailed horseshoe crabs might be toxic, they are usually known as Fire horseshoe crabs in Thai. The toxicity of these Horseshoe crabs potentially occurs during the period from February to September. It is possibly due to plankton blooms, especially dinoflagellates which produce toxins. When these plankton are consumed by mollusks or benthic worms, the toxin accumulates in their tissues which, when they are then consumed by Horseshoe crabs, transmit the toxin to the Horseshoe crabs’ flesh or eggs. When humans in turn consume Horseshoe crabs which have accumulated these toxins, they can be poisoned even if the eggs or flesh have already been cooked. 29

Signs and symptoms include dizziness, headache, vomiting, accelerated heart-rate, mouth paralysis, weakened limbs, muscular paralysis, unconsciousness, and may be fatal depending on how much is consumed. Protection and treatment Avoid eating Round-tailed horseshoe crabs. Victims should be encouraged to vomit and undergo stomach pumping to remove all toxins, and emergency services should be alerted immediately.

Crabs Crabs have evolved from shrimps. They have five pairs of legs. The first pair has evolved to become claws, for catching prey or protection. Most of them have strong claws used to pinch their enemies and cause injuries, especially Mud crabs, Swimming crabs and large Rock crab. However, the danger from pinching is not as serious as eating toxic crab meat, in the same way as with Horseshoe crabs, which might cause fatality. Examples of potentially toxic crabs include Red egg crab (Artergatis intergerrimus) and Mosaic crab (Lophozozymus pictor). The toxicity that occurs from crab meat consumption can also be caused by Swimming crabs or Mud crabs when these crabs aren’t fresh, or when there is contaminated sand or sediment, especially in their gills. When cooking them, bacteria from contaminated crabs can cause diarrhea. Some people are allergic to shellfish and that includes crab meat. When eaten, allergic reactions include reddening, face and neck swelling, and anaphylactic shock. Eating toxic crab can, within a few hours, cause swollen lips, tongue, mouth, neck, face, and diarrhea, stomach-ache and shock. Protection and treatment Avoid eating unfamiliar crabs. If toxic crab has been consumed, alert emergency services immediately, and take the crab carcass to hospital with the patient.

Pufferfish It is well known that these fish have toxins (known as Tetrodotoxin), especially in their eggs, liver, intestines, and skin, while the flesh contains significantly less. If Pufferfish aren’t cooked correctly, the toxin in the organs contaminates the flesh and poisons the victim. Signs and symptoms include lip numbness, hot and itchy skin and eyes, nausea, stomach-ache, diarrhea, weakened limbs, paralysis, difficulty swallowing, rapid heart-rate, chest pain, hypertension and potentially, respiratory paralysis and death. Examples of toxic Pufferfish include Porcupinefish. Protection and treatment Avoid eating unfamiliar fish. If not sure of the species, ask fishermen or local people. If the toxin is ingested, the victim should self-induce vomiting, or take activated charcoal mixed 30

with water (10 g of activated charcoal per 100 ml of water). This is in order to absorb the toxins in the stomach. Alert emergency services immediately.

2.8 Coral reef structure and environment Andaman Sea Coral reefs are distributed in every province of the Andaman sea coastline, covering an area of 117 km2. Most of the reefs have developed on the east coasts of islands, due to there being shelter from the Southwestern monsoon wind. The west coasts are usually steep and rocky, with small coral communities growing on them. Exceptions occur in coves where there is shelter from the waves so that coral can grow densely. There are hundreds of islands in the Andaman Sea, distributed from near shore to the continental shelf. Islands near the continental shelf, such as the Similan Islands and Surin Islands are located in a deep sea environment, so suspended sediment in the water column resulting from storms is less dense than in shallower coastal areas. Therefore the deep sea islands have clearer water more suitable for coral reef development, because light can penetrate to the sea floor. Coral reefs in these areas can develop to a depth of 20-30m, while in shallower areas which have more turbid waters, reefs can only develop from 3 to 10m depth. However, reef development to a particular depth depends on the topography of the coastline as well. Islands located in deep sea areas have a deep topography, therefore reefs in those areas are able to extend deeper than those on islands located in shallower seas. The sloping feature of a coastline is an important factor in determining the zonation of coral reefs. In general, coral reefs are divided into three zones: reef flat, reef edge and reef slope

Sea level

Reef flat Reef edge

Reef slope

Reef flat This is a section of the reef that connects to the shore. It is usually wider than the other zones (20-300m width) and it slopes only mildly. Striking features that show the difference in reef development between shallow and deep seas, include the fact that coral reefs in shallow seas mostly have exposed reef flats during low spring tides, while reef flats on islands in deep seas aren’t usually exposed during these low spring tides. In general, coral which is aerially exposed isn’t fully fertile because it receives an environmental impact which changes so drastically. Especially Reef flat during lowest tide at Tungkhen Bay, Phuket Island during the springtime, when tides (Jan 2017) are very low, coral can be aerially exposed as long as two to four hours. However, some parts of the reef flat are tide pools in which coral is still partly submerged. Coral colonies on the reef flat have to adjust to the changing environmental conditions for example, tolerating high temperatures when exposed to the sun during low tides time, or decreasing temperatures at night. They also have to tolerate lower salinity when it rains, or increased salinity when seawater evaporates from hot sunshine. Finally they have to tolerate suspended sediment falling onto them. There are not many coral species that can adjust to these conditions. Most of the species found in these zones include staghorn coral (Acropora aspera) hump coral (Porites lutea) honey comb coral (Goniastrea pectinata, G. retiformis, G. aspera and Coeloseris mayeri) square-pored coral (Favites spp.) small brain coral (Platygyra sinensis และ P. pini) ring coral (Favia speciosa) branching small-pored coral (Montipora digitata) and cauliflower coral (Pocillopora damicornis). Massive corals usually have flattened and hemispherical shapes, and the top part usually dies due to sediment covering it and receiving direct sunlight, while the sides of the colony survive and raise slightly (this is known as a micro-atoll) Reef edge (or reef crest) This is the zone that connects to the Reef edge zone on the east coast of Similan Island reef flat. It is usually a narrower zone (2 to 10 (Feb 2007) m wide). At low tide, this zone is shallow or only just submerged, and is an area which is pounded by stronger waves than the other parts. Most corals found are large boulders of Hump coral (Porites lutea) which can tolerate 32

wave action. In addition, foliose and encrusting forms such as Montipora crassituberculata, short branching forms and table forms such as Acropora hyacinthus and A. digitifera, or short and thick branching forms such as Acropora humilis can be found. Reef slope This is the outer zone that slopes to the sea bed. It ends on the sand floor at different depths depending on location. The steepness and width of the slope are different in each place. In shallow areas, for example near the mainland, including the East coast of Phuket island and islands in Phang Nga bay, the sloping zone is narrow (1 to 3 m width) and suddenly drops off to the sea floor. Normally, the slope zone has more species Middle part of the slope zone at Ao than the other zones because it has an environment Mae Yai. Surin Island (April 2010). that better supports growth and survival. That is, the

temperature and salinity are quite constant and it receives less impact from waves than the shallow zone. Most of the species found consist of long, branching forms such as Staghorn coral (Acropora Formosa and A. florida) on the lower part of the slope zone, and massive coral such as Double star coral (Diploastrea heliopora). In the deepest part, foliose forms which can absorb more light can usually be found, such as Montipora aequituberculata and Pachyseris speciosa etc. However, in some places, the zonation isn’t as clear especially in areas adjacent to mangrove forests in which only reef flats appear distinctly. While on smaller islands where shelter is limited, the appearance of the reef is gently sloping from shore to the end of the reef or only appears as a steep wall. In some areas where current is strong, such as around the island’s headland or the channel between islands, coral reefs usually appear as patch reef. Common corals include fire coral (Millepora sp.), disc coral (Turbinaria sp.) and sea whips (Junceella sp.). In these areas, blue coral (Heliopora coerulea) usually grows densely if the current is not too strong. The west coast of the island usually features a rocky coastline steeply descending to the bottom. Coral cannot grow densely where it is exposed to strong waves. Coral may grow sparsely to form coral communities on rock. Common species include square pored coral (Favites spp.), fire coral (Millepora spp.), or small boulder-shaped coral (Porites lutea). 33

The thick-branched coral that can tolerate wave action such as cauliflower coral (Pocillopora eydouxi), short staghorn coral (Acropora humilis), thick branched staghorn coral (Acropora danai and A. robusta), and leather soft coral (Sinularia and Lobophytum) can also be found. In addition, on the deeper part of the slope which receives less wave action intensity or at submerged rocks such Richelieu rock, dominated by colourful soft coral as at Hin Muang, Hin Daeng, (Krabi province), Shark point, Richelieu rock, as well as many other submerged rocks in the Similan island group (Phang Nga province), colourful soft corals such as jelly trunked soft coral (Dendronepthya spp.) and varieties of sea fan can be found. The coastline which receives strong monsoon wave action many places have steep walls usually find small clumps of ahermatypic coral such as orange cup coral (Tubastraea spp.) and dark green tree coral (Dendrophyllia spp.). The coral community in each area might be different depending on the environmental conditions. The islands which are in deep sea areas have suitable environmental conditions for coral growth. These conditions usually provide the opportunity for a some particular species to dominate the area, especially branching types of coral such as staghorn coral (Acropora vaughani, A. grandis, A. formosa, A. On the west and south coasts of islands in the nobilis and A. echinata- group), finger Andaman Sea exposed to strong waves caused coral (Porites nigrescens and P. by Southwestern monsoon winds, hard coral barely grows. It is usually rocky coast with sparse cylindrica), and jackfruit-spined coral coral growth. (Hydnophora rigida). Such species grow much faster than the others therefore we usually find that deep-sea islands usually have such species covering wide areas on a reef resulting in other species having less chance to compete (called “monospecific zone”). In contrast, in areas where conditions are less suitable such as the shallow turbid areas, there are poorer conditions to support growth. Because the above mentioned corals have less chance to survive and cover the whole reef this allows other species to compete for space so that in these areas, 34

a mix of species is usually found. And for the worst condition, such as water is very turbid, coral diversity is extremely low. Few species can tolerate and grow. In the same way as coral, other marine life communities on the reef in each location might be different as determined by biological and physical factors. For example, in areas where there are high nutrients, especially at the outer part of Phang Nga Bay, where there are significant amounts of plankton, filter feeders can be found densely, especially sponges (Xestospongia sp.), tree oyster (Isognomon spp.), and giant rock oysters (Hyotissa hyotis). Moreover, in such areas, turf algae and organic matter are deposited on the sea floor, so usually many sea urchins can be found which feed on algae and such organic matter. In general after corals die, they are covered by filamentous algae within a few days, followed by other fouling organisms which could be macroalgae, for example (Padina sp.) which is commonly found at Surin Island, Halimeda sp. which is commonly found at Ta Chai and Hu Yong Island, or invertebrates such as zoanthids at Similan Islands, or corallimorphs which are found on many reefs. If such organisms grow densely on dead coral, this will result in a slower recovery because of the lack of free space for coral larvae to settle. The fish community might be different in each location depending on their food and habitat selection behavior. Coral reefs at Surin and Similan islands are habitats that consist of the most diversified reef fish in Thailand. Because the reef has developed well, there are a variety of habitats either true reef, rocky Tachai pinnacle abounds with fish. reef or submerged pinnacles.

Gulf of Thailand There are coral reefs distributed throughout the Gulf of Thailand covering an area of 12 km2. In the upper Gulf and the eastern part of the Gulf, coral reefs are distributed on the islands from Si Chang, Chonburi province until Koh Chang, Trat province. It is noticeable that coral reefs in these areas develop on the Eastern and Northern sides of islands, which are sheltered from the South-south-west monsoon winds. Such features are similar to the Andaman side. 35

In the Western Gulf, coral reefs are usually found far from river mouths, starting from the islands in Prachuap Khiri Khan down to Koh Samui, Surat Thani province. In Songkhla province, there are fewer coral reefs. In Nakorn Sri Thammarat and Pattani provinces there are very fertile coral reefs around the islands that exist very far from shore, Koh Kra and Losin pinnacle respectively. In general, coral reefs in the Western Gulf mostly fringe the Western and Southern sides of islands, while the Eastern and Northern sides feature rocky coastlines because they receive the influence of the North-eastern rather than South-western monsoon winds. As the sea bed in the Gulf of Thailand is relatively shallow, the sea bed topography is less sloping and the water clarity is relatively low, so coral reefs don’t develop to such great depths. The Eastern Gulf, from Chonburi to Trat province, coral reefs are distributed on about 100 islands and coral reefs mostly don’t grow deeper than 8m. Most of them are only about 2-5m deep. On the Western side of the Gulf, in Prachuap Khiri Khan and Surat Thani, coral reefs are distributed on about 150 islands. Most of the reefs are in shallow water and aren’t generally deeper than 8m. The far islands are located at medium depths, such as Koh Tao (Surat Thani). As it is so far from the mainland, it receives less impact from sediment and coastal rivers, so the water is clear and corals can develop to depths of 8-15m. For Koh Kra and Losin pinnacle, the reef can develop to a depth of 30-40m. The significant factors, especially tidal character and sea bottom topography determine the reef structure. Reefs are divided into three zones: reef flat, reef edge and reef slope. Reef flat: reef flats in the Gulf aren’t as frequently exposed as in the Andaman. Because the Gulf features diurnal tides or mixed tides. The sea level is extremely low from July to August. Many coral reefs are exposed during that period. Coral species which are dominant on the reef flat usually consist of small boulders of Porites lutea mixed with favid group corals. Reef edge: As a matter of fact, most coral reefs in the Gulf are in shallow water, and slopes aren’t very steep, therefore the reef edge isn’t very obvious. It is hard to see the boundary between reef flat and reef slope. Reef slope: It is the zone that slopes down to the sea floor at the outer part of the reef. The reef could slope steeply or mildly depending on the geography. Species of coral are mostly massive forms such as hump coral (Porites lutea), foliose forms such as flower coral (Pavona decussata, P. cactus), bracket coral (Podabacia crustacea), or branching types such as staghorn coral (Acropora robusta, A. nobilis). The environment in this zone is fairly stable so that the coral and other marine life is quite dense. In some locations, where there is a sparse coral community, there aren’t high levels of calcium carbonate deposit due to the limitations of the environment, so that corals cannot 36

develop into reefs. The patch reef is formed on a sandy floor in some areas where the windward side features a reef. Coral grow sparsely on rocky coasts or walls. Corals which dominate a rocky coast include tabulate staghorn coral (Acropora millepora) and vase coral (Turbinaria spp.).

2.9 Coral reef status in Thailand The Institute of Research and Development of Marine and Coastal Resources has a long- term monitoring programme of coral reefs’ status throughout the country. The data from mandatory surveys reveal a general picture of coral reef status at the island, provincial and national levels. However, there is a limitation of the surveys, which is that the surveys were carried out on the reef edge-slope zone in particular and didn’t include reef flats. Data about the percentage live coral cover and dead coral cover from each location were used to analyze and interpret reef fertility or degradation. By using the ratio between live and dead percentage cover, if the percentage cover of live coral to dead is ≥3:1 this means that coral is very healthy. If 2:1 it is healthy, 1:1 fairly healthy, 1:2 poor and 1:≥3 very poor. In overall throughout the country, a long-term study found that reef status in the first period of survey 1995-1998 and second period 2006- 2008 was fairly stable. Changes were not so significant but the third survey period 2011-2015 there has been a very obvious negative change as shown in the graph.

1st 2nd 3rd

Graph showing fraction of reef status; very healthy (dark

green), healthy (light green), fairly healthy (blue), poor

(orange) and very poor (red), with comparison among 3 phases of survey (1st = 1995-1998, 2nd = 2006-2008, 3rd = 2011- 2015)

2.10 Coral reef status in Thailand Coral reefs have always changed naturally. Indeed, the reef has developed as a result of change, there is a growth of reef and at the same time there is a destruction of the reef in such a way that the ecosystem remains in balance, so that there is an accumulation of calcium carbonate.

Brown algae - Padina sp. – the reef invader? Surin Islands as part of the Thailand National Park system are protected and remain in the most pristine condition in Thailand. The reefs had experienced repeated mass bleaching since 1991. It was found that after the early bleaching events, the reefs particularly at Mayai Bay and the bay in front of the channel between N-Surin and S-Surin were densely covered with Padina, the fan-shaped brown algae. Padina is common in shallow waters throughout the tropics and subtropics. It grows intertidally and subtidally to about 10 m depth. Usually, the populations are patchy and ephemeral and periodic However, on the bleached coral substrate at Surin, Padina grows superabundantly as an invasive seaweed. It is clearly in a favorable growth environment and grazing has no significant impact upon its abundance. Fish populations are reported to be rich and balanced. But there seems to be a relatively small number of sea urchins which typically graze on such seaweeds. Since it shows an obligate alternation of isomorphic generations type of life history, male and female gametophytes and the tetrasporophyte have the same morphology except for the appearance of the reproductive cells. Also some populations can reproduce vegetatively from rhizoids. With the reasons of its various successful reproductive strategies, the small number of algae grazers (especially sea urchin), sheltered bay with adequate nutrient from natural sieved water from high island, these could make Padina grow and invade the dead reef rapidly.

Photos of Padina algae smothering densely on corals at Surin Island during 1997 - 2002

Coral reefs have been degraded due to several causes, either natural, for example bleaching due to the abnormal rise of sea temperatures, storms, crown-of-thorns starfish infestations, or caused by human disturbances. At present there is coastal development for multiple uses, directly taking benefit from reef fisheries and tourism, and leading to reef 38

degradation. Coral reefs in each location may be degraded at different levels, depending on type and intensity of the disturbing factors, as well as depending on the coral species combinations in the areas, their tolerance or resistance to the impacts of human activity. Coral reefs have always changed, some places may experience negative changes that mean that coral reefs become poorer, while in some places coral reefs are recovering, which may be due to effective management or due to natural recovery. In some places, recovery takes place slowly because there are factors that inhibit the growth of coral, such as at the large bay on the East coast of Surin islands. There was mass coral die-off after bleaching in 1995 and later macroalgae (Padina sp.) densely overgrew the dead coral substrate. Consequently, the recovery of coral had hardly occurred as algae competed for space with coral planulae, and algae shaded coral from the light it needs. In the same way, on the East coast of Similan islands which had been impacted by coral bleaching, the dead coral substrate was densely smothered by zoanthids, so that competition with the coral planulae prevented recovery. The factors that cause obvious impacts to coral reefs in Thailand as shown in the following cases. 1) Problems arising from human causes 1.1) Land development For example coastal development which opens the land for construction, road-building, dredging. In several places there is a problem of sedimentation that washes into the sea during rainy season. The prevention of sedimentation is not very effective such as on the coastlines of Phuket and Samui islands. In some locations there has been significant conflict around resource use. For example in the past, at Baan Hin Krud, Prachuap Khiri Khan, there was a plan for building a power plant that had to release water from the production of electricity into the sea. Or, at present there is a plan to construct a deep-sea port at Baan Pakbara and the case for building the deep-sea port at Haad Nai Yang which might cause massive sedimentation in the sea. So there are great objections from the public as they are concerned about the environmental impact on the sea, including to coral reefs in those areas. In addition, in some areas such as Koh Tao, Koh Samui, Koh Phi Phi, construction is encroaching on the beaches, which might change the direction of the current and cause coastal erosion, and sediment or sand accumulation on the coral reefs. 1.2) Releasing waste water into the sea. This happens in large communities that are popular for tourism such as Ao Patong (Phuket province), Ao Tonsai on Phi Phi Don Island (Krabi province), several beaches on Koh Samui and Koh Tao (Surat Thani province), Haad Kao Lak (Phang Nga province), and Pattaya (Chonburi). In these locations there are large communities and they grow fast. Most of them have no wastewater treatment, some have water treatment facilities for the community, such as Ao Patong, but still cannot accommodate the waste water completely. The coral reef that is obviously impacted is in 39

the inner part of Patong Bay. It has been found that at that spot, the coral reef is hardly recovering, but the outer part of Patong Bay has had no impact because the waste water is diluted and washes into the open sea. It is already known that wastewater that flushes into the sea has a high load of organic matter that may cause plankton blooms that change the water’s colour (red tide). Dissolved oxygen levels are very low, and cause the death of marine organisms. This is the state we call eutrophication. In addition, if the plankton is toxic, it causes even more death.

The red tide phenomenon Red tides are caused by plankton receiving unusually high amounts of nutrients essential for their growth. In combination with suitable environmental conditions, such as light concentration, temperature, tides. The source of nutrients on the coat line mostly comes from the runoff from the community as well as the result of industry which fails to treat water. Red tides might be more severe if there is a combination with an upwelling which bring nutrients from the deep sea to the surface. An example of location where red tides happen frequently is Kata Noi beach, Phuket island. In the evidence taken from 20 January to 12 February 2016 at the south end of Kata Noi, sea water changed to a yellow-green colour, resulting from the rapid growth of dinoflagellates, as can be seen in the graph. This was potentially caused by the longshore current and current from the open sea bringing nutrients which accumulated at the southern end of the beach, causing the rapid growth of dinoflagellates. The density of dinoflagellates which causes risk is over 500 cells per liter.

Graph showing type and density of phytoplankton which bloom at Kata-noi Beach, Phuket Island, early 2016 40

1.3) Offshore mining Phuket and Phang Nga provinces are important sources of tin mining for the country. There has been tin mining either on shore or in the sea for a long time. But there is a question about how offshore mining can cause destruction to the reef. Indeed, mining in the sea doesn’t mean directly dredging on the coral reef, but on the seabed outside the reef. So the problem is that nearby reefs could be impacted by sediment that is dredged from the seabed and from washing sediment from tin ore. Other than the sediment problem, offshore mining might change the topography of the sea bed. So if dredging occurs near the beach, it might cause it to collapse, as happened at Bang Tao beach (Phuket province). At present, the offshore tin mining industry has ceased. There has been no offshore mining since 1985 as the price of tin dropped. Coral reefs at Phuket

How much sediment can coral tolerate? From a study in a laboratory about the impact of sediment on coral, the results coincide with what happens in nature. That is to say that coral dies more frequently when the sediment level is high. Sediment which smothers coral directly impacts the respiration of coral and causes its death. This is a direct physical impact. It is found that each species of coral responds to sediment differently. The hump coral (Porites lutea) when covered by sediment survives for a certain amount of time depending on the amount of sediment. But finally, coral may die because of lack of food and oxygen. Consequently, if the sediment is removed before coral tissue dies, coral continues to grow. The amount of sediment that smothers coral varies according to its location on the coral head. The thickness of sediment that covers individual corals isn’t uniform. There is less sediment accumulation on the sides of the colony heads while on the top part there is more accumulation. The surface that is covered by sediment usually dies. But eventually, if the current removes enough sediment, the living part on the sides grows upward to cover the dead part. And such coral recovers, as is the case at Kamala beach (Phuket province) where it has been found that some coral can recover after sediment has been removed by waves during the monsoon season. In the laboratory, with coral reared in a tank with sediment suspension of 10 – 36 mg/l and with sediment precipitation of 8 – 33 mg/cm2/day, it was found that the respiration of hump coral (Porites lutea) decreases. Half of all samples were covered completely in two days, and it was found that staghorn coral (Acropora formosa) and cauliflower coral (Pocillopora damicornis) can tolerate higher levels of sediment than the hump coral and the finger coral (Montipora digitata) is toughest among these four species.

The figure shows hump coral in nature covered by sediment. The coral produces mucus to trap sediment and the mucus is washed away by waves and current.

(Source: Chansang H. et al., 1987) 41

that used to be impacted by the sediment from offshore mining gradually recovered over time. 1.4) Littering at sea One type of garbage which causes significant problems to coral reefs is trash nets. These are found covering reefs almost everywhere. There are many types and sizes of trash net, all of them cause problems. The nets which cover coral can kill it because coral cannot receive light and turf algae grows on the net. The algae traps sediment in the water column and that might kill the coral as well. There are many sources of trash net. For example: 1) from fishermen mending their nets, cutting pieces off and throwing them into the sea. 2) fishermen set the net on the reef and when the net breaks or entangles the coral, they abandon it. Trash nets entangling a coral 3) trawler nets or floating seine nets are reef at Phang Nga bay. accidentally broken and float away to entangle the coral reef. 4) when trawling near islands, the net accidentally gets entangled in rocks on coral reefs. From the study of 23 provinces along the coastline, we found 10.8 million tons of garbage per year. And plastic falling into the sea 33,900-51,000 tons per year. At present the government sector and public are more aware of marine litter. The government is taking the garbage issue as national agenda that has to be managed more intensively and there is the ministerial approval “Do good things by heart, decrease environmental problems.” There is a promotion to decrease giving, receiving and using Styrofoam and plastic, promoting garbage sorting and banning single- use plastics in National Parks throughout the country. There are governmental organizations involved of which the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources has implemented five important measures. 1) Remove the marine garbage present in important marine ecosytems (coral reefs, mangroves and beaches). 2) Campaign for the three ‘R’s principle (reduce, reuse and recycle) and smoke-free beaches at 24 locations. 3) Use fixed floating nets to trap garbage at river mouths. 4) Survey and assess the amount of marine debris and the impact to marine ecosystems and marine endangered species. 5) Create a marine litter database. 1.5) Dynamite fishing Coral usually grows patchily on pinnacles, and fish are found from the middle to the surface such as fusiliers, snappers, trevallies, etc. Such fish attract illegal fishing especially dynamite blast fishing. It is well known that dynamite fishing is a method that can seriously destroy coral reefs because the power of blasting despite targeting fish, still 42

breaks the coral and the reef finds it hard to recover. In the past, dynamite fishing used to happen at many remote islands such as at Adang-Rawi islands (Satun province), Kradan and Ngai islands (Trang/Krabi provinces), etc. Dynamite fishing is very rare at present in Thailand because tourism has increased so blasting is more difficult because tourists and local people might keep a lookout together. 1.6) Cyanide fishing The primary objective in using cyanide is for catching some kind of marine life such as ornamental fish and spiny lobster which have hidden in coral crevices. The concentration of chemicals might not kill the animal but just cause dizziness, after which the animal is scooped up with a hand net. But the toxin still accumulates in the organism, making such organisms weaken and shortening their lives. Coral itself also receives an impact from these chemicals. At present it has been found that fishermen in some locations still secretly use cyanide to catch fish and lobsters. 1.7) Smuggling coral Live coral is colourful so it is popular to use as an ornament in aquariums. Even coral skeleton is used for ornamental purposes. However, at present, coral is a protected form of wildlife according to the Wildlife Reservation and Protection Act 1992, which forbids any person from possessing coral. However, illegal cases still happen. 1.8) Coral reef dredging Coral dredging usually happens in front of the reef where it used for recreation because of the desire to remove dead coral to create a sandy floor for tourists to swim over. In other cases to make a channel for boats to approach the shore during low tide. These activities seriously change the environment in the coral reef. As coral that is removed will finally die. This is even more the case when coral is removed for building breakwaters because it blocks or changes the longshore current, which can cause coastal changes such as coastal erosion at one spot followed by sand accumulation at another. And that changes the original ecosystem completely. Such cases are found at locations such at Koh Samui and Pha Ngan (Surat Thani province). 1.9) Tourism on coral reefs The impact might come from skindiving, as tourists stand or step on coral and break it, or from scuba diving, when divers dive carelessly so that their fins break coral. Recently there has been a diversification of activities on coral reefs such as “sea walking” and “try diving”, which is a type of diving where tourists don’t receive certification-level training. Such activities can cause significant impacts to coral reefs. With regards to anchoring on the reef, at present the problem of dropping anchors on coral reefs is lesser, because in many places mooring buoys are available. However, in some areas, the buoys are lost 43

or not numerous enough. Maintenance might not be efficient, re-installation of mooring buoys isn’t done immediately after their loss, and this can cause impacts on the coral reef.

How much the impact from diving tourism to coral reefs? Observations were made on the behavior of SCUBA divers visiting Surin Islands National Park (Worachananant, 2007). It was found that on average, each diver damaged around 3.1 (+SE0.4) corals per ten minutes. Visible damage caused by the divers normally consisted of breaking off branches of branching corals. The damage to massive and encrusting corals was not clearly seen, but generation of mucus by affected corals was evident, and used as the indicator of damage. Kicks by divers’ fins were the major cause of coral damage. This study also found that divers who attended a pre-briefing damaged corals less than the non-briefed divers (see top left graph). Female divers are more likely to make contact with coral and cause more damage than males (top right graph). The number of times divers damage corals decreases with increasing level of diving experience (lower graph).

1.10) Walking on the reef and flipping coral Fishermen in many places still harvest marine lifeforms that are hidden in shallow water coral reefs exposed during low tide. They target such creatures as octopus, sea cucumbers, ornamental shells, etc. Their method for harvesting them by flipping coral can cause the destruction of coral and tiny marine life encrusting the base of the colonies, such as sponge, tunicates, bryozoans, etc. Such small creatures are important for the food web in coral reef ecosystems.

After work, construction workers are searching for marine life on the reef at Tungkhen Bay, Phuket Island

1.11) Marine oil spills Ship wreck accidents and oil transfer at sea may cause oil leaks into the sea. This can cause significant impacts to the marine ecosystem. Since 1973 there are statistics that show oil leaks occurring almost 300 times. On 9 of these events, over 20,000 l of oil leaked into the sea. (www.thairath.co.th/content/439975). One example of mass leak in Thailand occurred when 50,000 l of oil spilled during transfer from a tanker to a refinery, the oil pipe broke at sea, near Ao Prao, Koh Samet in 2013. It caused a massive impact to the coral reef ecosystem as well as the sandy and rocky ecosystems covering wide area. Other than that, there are regularly minor cases caused by cleaning oil from fishing boats, tour boats, long-tail boats, and this happens in many areas, especially at ports. An oil leak in the sea near Koh Samet For example, at Tonsai Koh Phi Phi (Krabi province). (Rayong province) in 2013 (credit: www.thairath.co.th/content/439975

2) Naturally occurring problems Many natural impacts are have an impact on coral in a wide area, but coral reefs can usually recover by themselves naturally. Obvious impacts are as follows. 2.1) Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) outbreak COTS are coral predators, they eat coral polyps as their main food source, leaving only calcium carbonate behind. COTS are a kind of creature that controls the balance of the coral reef ecosystem. They usually select fast-growing coral species which mostly have mildly stinging nematocysts compared to the more powerful stings of slow-growth corals. The result is that the fast-growing species don’t cover too wide an area, opening space for slow-growing species to grow, leading to higher diversity in the reef. However, if there is a COTS outbreak, a wide area of reef might be destroyed and the balance of the coral reef ecosystem might be upset. In Thai waters, there was a COTS outbreak in the Andaman Sea in 1984-1986 in many areas such as Adang-Rawi islands (Satun province), Koh Rok (Krabi province) etc. that caused destruction in a wide area. Scientists are interested in COTS and the main question for which answers are still being sought it: What causes outbreaks? Is it a natural phenomenon? If it is, it needs to happen due to an important process in reef development. Or is it the result of human activity? For example, coastal agriculture nutrients are washed into the sea and cause increases of plankton which COTS larvae feed on. Or maybe due to collecting or hunting COTS predators such as Triton Conch, Triggerfish, Pufferfish, etc. So the COTS in some cases may not be a natural occurrence but a result of human pressure. Answers to many basic questions concerning the biology and ecology of the COTS must still be found. .

Large number of crown-of-thorns starfish at Payan Island (Similan Island group) in 1985. 46

Crown of Thorns Starfish The adult COTS usually has a diameter of about 25 to 30 cm. It has about 8 to 21 arms, Under the arms there are tube feet, and in the centre of the underside, is the mouth. The organ that functions as its stomach extrudes onto the coral and digestive enzyme is produced to consume the coral tissue. The coral dies leaving only calcium carbonate behind. COTS have sharp spines on the upper surface, these spines are covered with saponin which is toxic. COTS have separate genders. The females release eggs and males release sperm. Each female releases about 12-24 million eggs. The spawning season is not clearly known. There is a report from the Great Barrier Reef that spawning occurs in December and January. A study by Phuket Marine Biology Centre found that COTS that were reared in tanks spawn in late September. It is hypothesized that COTS in the Andaman Sea can spawn many times a years because their fully developed eggs have been found at different times of the year. Scientists use chemicals to stimulate COTS to spawn in the aquarium and found that after fertilization in the tank the planktonic phase lasts for about 1 month. During the planktonic stage, they feed on phytoplankton they can be distributed over long distances by the current before settling on the sea floor, and then gradually change morphology into starfish with five arms about 0.5 mm in size. They start to eat calcareous algae, and size gradually increases to 10mm in 6 months when they start to eat coral. At two years of age, they reach a size of 20 cm and begin to reproduce. Reproduction gradually stops when they reach the age of 3 years and they usually die at 5 years of age. However, in nature, they might develop somewhat differently, because the laboratory cannot reflect the environment that matches the COTS natural life cycle. The survival rate of fertilized COTS eggs s is not clearly known. Many creatures avoid eating COTS eggs because they contain toxic saponin. Only a few creatures can eat COTS larvae, such as the Indo-Pacific Sergeant. Creatures that eat juvenile or adult COTS consists Triton Conch, Triggerfish, and Pufferfish. To be clear, Triton Conchs eat adults whereas Triggerfish and Pufferfish eat juveniles. How many COTS does it take to be defined as an outbreak? This is still difficult to answer, but some scientists have estimated that at the outbreak, there should be more than 14 individuals per 1,000 m2, or when swimming, encounter more than 40 individuals in 20 minutes. However, the latest study has concluded that if the number of COTS in one hectare (10,000 m2) is over 10 individuals, this is considered an outbreak. If the number is 30 in one hectare, then this is considered a serious outbreak. During outbreaks, a wider area is destroyed because COTS can consume coral in all parts of the reef. It is still difficult to control the number of COTS. Many countries such as Japan have invested 600 million Yen to get rid of 13 million COTS at the Ryukyu islands from 1970 to 1983 but this hasn’t been a great success. There are several methods for getting rid of COTS, for example, removing them and discarding them on land, injecting them with chemicals such as formaline, ascetic acid, ammonium hydroxide, copper sulphate, etc. and the latter is the most effective. However, using these chemicals might have an impact on other wildlife in the coral reef when large.amounts are used. Biological control such as using Triton conch to eat COTS is interesting but it is not obviously known whether this might cause other problems or not, because these conchs do not only eat COTS, and there is no data about the rate at which COTS might be consumed by Triton. Therefore the situation in the distant future cannot be foreseen. As a matter of fact, this Conch has a beautiful and expensive shell, so the chance that its numbers will increase in nature is highly unlikely. So all that can be done for the moment is to decrease the number of COTS in the reef where possible, such as in areas used for tourism. 47

2.2) Storm damage Storm damage events have occurred in Thailand many times. In the Andaman Sea in 1986, there was a very strong Southwest monsoon and in the Gulf of Thailand, typhoons Gay and Linda in 1989 and 1997 respectively. In general storms impact wide areas. Locations may be more fragile and or resistant. For example, reefs that are dominated by staghorn coral may be more impacted by waves therefore the destruction is more obvious compared to reefs that are dominated by massive corals. However, in areas where massive corals dominate, if there are significant number os boring organisms, these coral are more easily broken due to having become more porous. Such locations are usually found in places where there is more waste water runoff flowing into the sea, so boring organisms receive nutrients either from an increase in plankton or from the organic material which comes with the wastewater. 2.3 Earthquakes A strong eathquake with its epicenter in the ocean North-west of Sumatra Indonesia caused a tsunami wave that had an impact on marine and coastal resources in many countries in Asia and Africa, especially in Indonesia, coral reefs in some islands in Aceh province had been lifted from the sea bed and the damage differed from place to place depending on geographic and environmental features, and the physical and biological character of coral reefs, which have different tolerances to waves

Tsunami impact on coral The Department of Marine and Coastal Resources in association with nine marine science institutional partners conducted a survey of coral reefs in the Andaman Sea at 174 sites. They found that the level of impact and damage varies depending on the geographical coordinates of individual areas, islands or reef, and on the depth and morphology of the reef in each area, which may increase or reduce the impact of the tsunami tidal wave. The most severely damaged coral reefs were found in: 1) Shallow–water coral reefs along coastlines and islands, such as seen in the coral reefs of Ranong Province, the west coast of Phang–nga Province, and Phai island, Krabi Province;. 2) Shallow–water and deep–water coral reefs in water channels between islands, for example, in water channels between Northern Surin and Southern Surin Islands, in water channels between Similan Island and Ba-ngu Islands, in water channels between Dam Hok Island and Dam Khwan Island, and in water channels between Rok Nai Island and Rok Nok Island. The most common damage patterns included flipping, inclination, overturning, breaking and fragmentation of coral parts or branches resulting from being hit by the waves, and from crashing and collision with various types of vessels and waste, and debris from damaged/collapsed natural materials and man–made items that were carried along the water. Coral reefs that suffered these types of damage included those that were near crowded local community settlements at Phi Phi Don Island, Krabi Province and in the southern part of Patong Bay, Phuket Province. As there were reef landslides in sloping areas, the corals slide too. Another common pattern is erosion of the seabed, covering the corals with sediment. Quantitative statistics on coral reef damage in the Andaman Sea, compiled from the survey, indicated that at about 60% of the stations (105 stations), the coral reefs were unaffected or least affected, at about 27% of the stations (46 stations), they were moderately damaged, and at about 13% of the stations (23 stations), they were severely damaged. An overview of the impact in the affected areas or in provincial areas of the Andaman Sea showed that coral reefs in Phuket, Satun, Phang–nga Bay, and Krabi–Trang shorelines (excluding Phi Phi Islands) were less affected, compared with those in Ranong Province, the west coast of Phang–nga Province, including Surin Islands and Similan Islands, and Phi Phi Islands in Krabi Province, which were severely damaged.

Coral reefs damaged in different ways from the Tsunami such as overturned (top left), broken (top right), sand-smothered (bottom left), reef landslide (bottom right)

2.4) Coral bleaching Coral bleaching is a process during which coral is deprived of pigmentation within its tissue. This condition puts coral reefs in an unhealthy state due to insufficient nutrient uptake which may ultimately lead to the death of corals unless they are able to tolerate the crisis. The causes of coral bleaching include abnormal sea surface temperature rise, pollution in sea water, decreased salinity, etc. In these conditions, corals become stressed and the symbiotic zooxanthellae are expelled from coral tissue, otherwise the oxygen free radicals produced by zooxanthellae would destroy coral tissue. In recent years, coral bleaching has emerged at larger scales covering national and regional territorial waters as a result of unusually high temperatures in the sea. From the record, there have been 3 global coral bleaching events, the first in 1998, the second in 2010 and the third in 2016. Research in the Andaman Sea reveals that normal sea surface temperature is about 27-29 degrees Celsius and the threshold for bleaching is 30.4 degrees Celsius for nearshore corals or 30.1 degree Celsius for offshore corals.

Euphyllia glabrescens coral bleaching. The original brown colour has completely disappeared.

In 1991 and 1995, the coral reefs in the Andaman Sea were extensively impacted, resulting in the death of 10-20% of corals. In 1998, the reefs in the Gulf of Thailand were more severely damaged than in the Andaman Sea. The bleaching events in 2003, 2005 and 2007 occurred in the Andaman Sea in particular, but the reefs rapidly recovered to their previous state because the Southwestern monsoon waves helped to reduce regional water temperatures. In 2010, coral reefs both in the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand were more severely damaged than previously, as the sea temperature increased from 29 degrees Celsius (normal stage) to 30 degrees Celsius in March and reached 31-33 degrees Celsius through April- June. The impact varied widely from place to place depending on biological factors, physical factors as well as anthropogenic influences. The distinct biological factor is coral community. It is obvious that areas dominated by sensitive species, especially staghorn and table corals (Acropora spp.), were most damaged. Reefs dominated by blue coral (Heliopora coerulea), flower coral (Pavona decussata) or large star coral (Diploastrea heliopora) experienced less bleaching as these species were more resistant. The distinct physical factor is shown by the case of the west sides of islands in the Andaman Sea where the reefs were more exposed to internal waves that brought cold water-mass and thus did not have consistently high temperatures. The reefs with this aspect were less impacted by bleaching. This phenomenon is obvious at the Similan Islands and Racha Islands. Overall survey results throughout the country showed that the reefs bleached between 30 and 95%. Mortality of corals ranged from about 10 to over 70%. The most extensive dead corals were those in the north Andaman Sea areas. Coral bleaching in 2016 occurred throughout Thai waters as in 2010. Fortunately, due to the early SW monsoon onset in late April, the sea temperature dropped quickly in early May, cloudiness increased, so most bleached corals started to recover in late May or early June. The survey found that most bleached coral had recovered. It was estimated that coral mortality was less than 5%. The situation in Thailand differs significantly from other regions, such as the Great Barrier Reef, Maldives, the Philippines, Indonesia and the Caribbean, where serious impacts were reported.

2.5) Oceanographic anomaly Natural phenomena such as upwelling, internal waves, etc. might have positive or negative impacts on coral reefs depending on their intensity, for example, the strong upwelling at Koh Hin Muang, Hin Daeng in 2007 caused the death of coral reef fauna as well as the soft coral. 50

Coral reef fauna die-off event at Hin Muang Hin Daeng in early 2007 The soft coral and reef fauna died off in early 2007 on many coral reefs in Krabi, Trang and Satun provinces, which was major news for diving tourism. Many divers reported that during that time, the seawater was abnormally cold, that is about 23-24 degrees Celsius (normally the sea temperature during dry season is about 28-29 degrees Celsius). The cold brownish water mass flowed in and marine fauna and soft coral at the islands from Krabi to Satun died off. Hin Muang Hin Daeng, Mu Koh Ha Yai especially received more impact than the other places. Phuket Marine Biological Centre has sampled the water on 6 April 2007 ove r 24 hours and found that the water temperature was as cold as 23 to 24 degrees Celsius at 30m depth. Moreover, researchers found that dissolved oxygen (DO) was only 1.5-2 mg/l, which is deemed very low. It is therefore possible that marine fauna died-off due to lack of oxygen. Why did the offshore islands have such low oxygen in the water column? Possibly the cold water mass welled up from very deep areas, (cool upwelling) normally, water mass on the deep sea bed has low temperature and low oxygen and when it well ups, It brings high amounts of nutrients from the sea bed. Such nutrients are good food supplies for phytoplankton so they increase rapidly causing plankton blooms on offshore islands. What caused the cool upwelling? Researchers at Phuket Marine Biological Centre found that cool upwelling is influenced by internal waves which move towards the coastlines of the Andaman Sea off Thailand’s coast. Internal waves hit the continental shelf at a depth of 90-100m. And that resulted in the whole water mass from the bottom to spread out towards the islands’ coasts. Such events were more intensive in early 2007 especially, they were potentially involved in oceanographic variations and scientists have found that in late 2006 there was an event known as the “Indian Ocean Dipole” that is to say the sea level in the Western Indian Ocean was higher than normal while in the Eastern Indian Ocean (e.g. Thailand), it was lower than normal. So that situation coincided with the El Nino.

Such events also used to be intensive from late 1994 to early 1995, and late 1997 to early 1998. Especially in early 1998, it is obvious that seawater was abnormally low for an unusually long time i.e. from noon until 4pm, so that coral on the reef flat were burned and died in a wide area on the Andaman Sea coast. Abnormally low sea levels create a thermocline that moves towards the surface. Consequently the cold water is potentially more likely to enter coral reefs. If the cold water oxygen levels aren’t too low, some reef fauna survives, but if oxygen is overly depleted, reef fauna cannot survive. There was another noticeable and very powerful event in 1998 when the sea temperature in many parts of the world was too high and caused coral bleaching and serious reef damage. However, in the Andaman Sea, the abnormally cold water (related to the Indian Ocean Dipole) resulted in bleaching that wasn’t as serious in other locations. So it appears that the Indian Ocean Dipole had a positive effect when it decreased sea temperature so that coral reefs bleached less, but conversely, it caused a negative impact when the cool upwelling brought very low oxygen and caused the deaths of many reef organisms.

2.6) Coral disease Throughout the past 30-40 years, coral disease has become an increasingly important issue concerning researchers around the world. The majority of field observations have 51

occurred in the Caribbean and on the Great Barrier Reef, while the Indo-Pacific seems to be less affected. Marking the first observation of coral disease in Thailand, in October 2005, an outbreak of an aspergillosis variant was identified in the Similan Islands particularly at the “Fantasea Reef” one of the most popular diving sites. This disease caused an extensive seafan die- off, leading to the long-term closure of that diving site. Later on there were more observations that found that the other 3 common types of disease which infect hard coral directly are White syndrome (WS), Pink-line syndrome (PLS), and Black-band disease (BBD). There are many factors thought to contribute to coral disease, e.g. elevated water temperatures, increased nutrients (from terrestrial run-off, untreated sewage, etc.), sedimentation (from developmental run-off), and general physical stress. Disease is not a major factor affecting Thai reefs at present

2.11 How do coral reefs recover naturally? Coral reef recovery may occur by the process of regeneration of the still living parts of a coral colony, or from the coral larvae recruit to the substrate. These coral larvae might float in on the current from distant reefs that haven’t been damaged. The important factor in this issue is the duration of the planktonic stage. In principle, if coral spends a short time in the planktonic stage, it settles near the mother colony, so when wide areas of reef are destroyed, it takes a much longer time for these larvae to reach outlying areas thereby slowing reef recovery. There have been studies of coral larvae behavior, for example coral larvae settlement on the sea bed, and choice of the type of substrate to attach to, as well as studies on the survival rate of young colonies. It has been found that before coral larvae settle on new substrate, they have to spend at least one year changing this new surface to be suitable for coral larvae to grow on. Coral larvae like to settle on calcareous substrate, for example on dead coral, shells, calcareous algae. In the first stage, the substrate needs to have algae (e.g. blue- green algae) to cover it in suitable amounts. Coral planulae choose this kind of substrate to settle on, but if algae hasn’t been grazed by grazing organisms, the algae is too thick for coral to settle on, leading to climax communities of algae on substrate which coral larvae are likely not to choose to settle on. Or, settled larvae are overgrown and cannot survive because algae normally traps sediment so this accumulates and smothers the coral. However, in a normal situation, creatures that forage such as grazers, especially sea urchins, certain kinds of fish use this algae as a food source, so that the growth of the algae is inhibited, and there is enough suitable free space for the settlement of coral larvae. There has been an experiment using a plastic plate set on the coral reef to study the settlement of coral larvae, and it has been found that coral larvae usually choose to settle on a plexiglass plate that is set vertically or select the underside. This is because these surfaces have less filamentous algae and sediment 52

and larvae experience less disturbance from grazers. We can therefore see that the ability of the coral reef to recover depends on the surface for settlement and growth. The surface should be of varied dimensions such as horizontal, vertical, concave, and convex. These surfaces are more important for settlement than flat surfaces. Besides those factors, there are others in involved. We know that light and food are important for the growth of coral larvae. But these factors are also suitable for increasing the amount of phytoplankton, which is fed on by suspension feeders (e.g. Bryozoans, Tunicates, Barnacles) because coral is long lived, the growth is slower than suspension feeders, so they tend to compete for space with the coral larvae. In general, the upper reef slope is the coral reef section where the recovery rate is fastest, while a section that recovers slowly is the reef flat, where environmental conditions change extremely, as well as on the deeper part of the slope, where light intensity is lower, and the water ﬂow is weak, sediment accumulates, therefore young corals are smothered or cannot settle.

Coral community change after new recovery? Since the coral reefs were massively impacted from the bleaching event in 2010, the status of coral reefs on the Andaman Coast of Thailand has changed enormously. Many of these coral reefs have transformed from being in a healthy state to a very poor condition. The recovery of coral happens by natural processes when the remaining coral colonies continue growing and there is coral larvae settlement. The coral larvae can stem from coral breeders on the reef, other neighboring reefs, or distant areas. Widely dispersed coral reefs are thus interconnected since they rely on coral larvae spreading naturally through oceanic currents. The damage that occurred to coral reefs during the 2010 bleaching event will definitely require different lengths time for recovery in each location. The bleaching event in 1991 was fairly disastrous but not nearly as severe as the event in 1995. The coral reefs took a minimum of 15 years to recover to a similar condition without any disturbance from humans. In some areas there was some improvement over pre-bleaching conditions, but the structure of the coral community was different from that prior to the event. For example, a study at Surin Island National Park showed that the reef in front of the Head Quarters used to be dominated by staghorn corals (Acropora spp.) on the upper slope zone (at a depth of 8-15 meters). Staghorn corals suffered from bleaching events in 1991 and 1995, resulting in massive mortality. Continued monitoring at the same spot showed that the coral reef took about 15 - 20 years to grow back as dense as the pre-bleaching period in 1991. The primary difference that was noted was that another type of coral, the “wrinkle coral” (Porites rus), has replaced the Acropora spp. Furthermore, Acropora spp is unable to grow as densely at that zone on the slope (Top graph). Similarly, monitoring results in Phuket area show that Acropora have been replaced by Porites lutea (Bottom graph). (source: Phongsuwan N. unpublished, Putchim L. unpublished)

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Changing of coral species structure overtime at a study site, Surin Island. Note that staghorn corals (Acropora spp.) have been gradually replaced by wrinkle coral (Porites rus) (source: Phongsuwan N. unpublished)

Changing of coral species structure overtime at various study sites in Phuket province.

Note that staghorn corals (Acropora spp.) have been gradually replaced by hump coral

(Porites spp.) 54

Section 3 The benefit of coral reefs

3.1 Importance of reefs tying in with human lifestyles Coral reefs as food sources. It is known that coral reef ecosystems are as complex as rainforests. The diversity of marine organisms is very high. Marine life either plant or animal are related through the complex food web in balanced conditions. Marine life uses coral reefs as a reproduction and nurseries, for hiding, and foraging. Biological production is high. There is a production of a variety of economically valuable fish in coral reefs, however, the fraction of species that are used for food is only about 20% relative to the total number of species of reef fish. Economically valuable fish include grouper, snapper, emperor, sweetlips, fusilier, trevally, sand whiting, goat fish, etc.. Some of these fish inhabit coral reefs, but others only visit occasionally to feed. But it is deemed that they are part of the coral reef ecosystem. Besides fish, there is other marine life used for consumption, such as spiny lobster, abalone, conch, sea urchins, etc. Previously, fishermen consumed giant clams but at present because collection methods cause reef degradation, they are protected by law. Besides giant clams which hide in coral crevices, there are other bivalves in coral heads such as the mytylid group and Barbatira helbingi. These clams embed themselves in dead or living coral. Local people at Koh Yao (phang Nga province) and Koh Siboya (Krabi) collect these clams for consumption at low tide when the reef is exposed, using axes to break coral, which can cause serious damage to coral reefs. Local fishermen harvest the benefits of coral reefs using many kinds of tools such as fish traps, bottom gill nets, hook and line, spear, etc. Species collected depend on the type of tool, e.g. traps are used to harvest trevally, snapper whereas spear and hooks are used for groupers. In the past, fishermen used muro ami to trap fish and this method is still used in many places in South East Asia, and it can cause great damage to coral reefs, because using this method, divers will move along the reef in a line banging on the coral to chase the fish into the net. This method has been prohibited by Thai law since 1991.

Medicinal use Coral reefs are a source of natural products used in medicine. Scientists are always seeking new medicine to cure cancer, especially. There is a trend that such agents are found in many marine species, such as sponge, soft coral, tunicates, sea cucumbers etc. For example, the chemical extracted from tunicates to fight cancer, discovered and extracted by Chulalongkorn university Pharmaceutical department. 55

Local fishermen grind mushroom coral skeleton to mix with chicken feed, as a treatment for weak leg bones. Some local fishermen use sea cucumbers either as food or medicine, e.g. to cure scalding injuries from hot water and internal bleeding.

Coral used for construction. Some countries such as the Philippines, Maldives and Indonesia, it is still normal for people to use coral mixed with lime to make concrete. Some places use coral to make roads, house walls, church walls, or landfill. But in Thailand, either in the past or present, people haven’t used coral in this way. Using coral for construction causes massive damage to coral reefs.

Coral used for ornamental purposes Coral and sea fans are used for ornamentation such as bracelets, necklaces, earrings and sold as souvenirs. At present this kind of use is banned in Thailand.

Coral reef as a tourism destination The beauty of coral reefs attracts tourists to Thailand. There are a variety of activities in coral reefs such as skin diving, scuba diving, etc. There are tourism destinations distributed throughout the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand. The beautiful and popular ASEAN Heritage Parks include Mu Koh Surin, Mu Koh Similan, Mu Koh Ao Phang Nga, and Mu Koh Tarutao.

3.2 Types of marine tourism in Thailand Marine tourism in Thailand can be classified into four areas. 1) Nature-based tourism. This type of tourism uses fertility of nature as its main selling point. For example, diving on coral reefs, whale watching, but when nature is degraded, this impacts the tourism industry. This kind of tourism has a potential impact to the environment by e.g. touching or stepping on coral, ships colliding with whales etc. 2) Activity-based tourism. This kind of tourism requires activities as its main selling point. It doesn’t require the beauty of nature or the fertility of ecosystems, for example, parasailing, kayaking, skiing, windsurfing, banana boating, swimming near the beach, etc. The environmental impact is relatively low. 3) Social or cultural attractions. This kind of tourism is specific a particular place for example visiting fishermen or sea gypsies’ villages. This kind of tourism likely causes no impact to nature. It may however cause an impact to the culture or lifestyle of the local community. 56

4) Special events. This kind of tourism depends on activities which are specially held at certain times, such as the Pattaya Music festival, Pattaya Dive festival, Phuket King’s Cup Regatta. Such tourism likely has little impact on the environment, but due to rapid increase in tourist numbers during these events, pollution and waste water levels might overload treatment facilities.

3.3 Impacts on coral reefs from tourism At present marine tourism has increased rapidly. In water activities are more popular, especially snorkeling and scuba diving. Such activities may impact coral reefs in different ways. The environmental impact from tourism variety includes; 1) Coastal development to serve tourism growth. The construction of infrastructure and the expansion of community in touristic area create pollution which directly impact to environment and coral reefs (see detail in session 2, page 38) 2) Touching or stepping on coral or other species in the coral reef. Touching or stepping on coral creates a direct impact because it damages coral tissue. Coral is very fragile, so touching it intentionally out of curiosity, or due to the current being too strong and the diver lacking skills and experience, or standing on coral without knowing what it is all cause significant damage. The impact of touching coral may be seen obviously from the branching and foliose types as these coral are easily broken compared to massive corals. Although massive coral are less easily broken, this doesn’t mean that they are not damaged, because the impact accumulates gradually and finally coral dies or is eroded. The best way to decrease impact is to forbid touching coral. Dive leaders should provide information to tourists and train their skills before touring coral reefs. For example diving equipment skills, buoyancy skills, and fin-kicking skills, in order to adjust to the environment where they dive, and also avoid skindiving on reefs that are shallower than 2.5 meters. 3) Boat anchoring. This can have a direct impact on coral, especially on branching or foliose coral which are more fragile than massive colonies. Although massive colonies have more solid structures, being repeatedly hit by anchors can cause massive damage to them. Using large boulder corals as the bases of mooring buoys also causes an impact on coral reefs in Thailand because the buoy rope often rubs against the coral’s surface, killing it in that area. 4) Inappropriate use of mooring buoys. Wrongful use of mooring buoys is another cause of impacts on coral reefs. At present some tourism business operators don’t see the importance of using mooring buoys appropriately. The right way to use them 57

is to tie the boat’s mooring line to the buoy’s trail line, not tie the buoy’s mooring line to the boat’s bow, and also never tie the trail line onto the stern, which causes more traction on the mooring line, creating a higher probability that the mooring base will shift, causing massive damage to the reef. In addition, tying many boats together and using a single buoy can also cause significant damage. 5) Sending tourists to shore. Many tour operators normally receive and send tourists to the beach using small boats that risk damaging the reef. Since coral reefs in Thailand fringe the beaches and the reef flat is very shallow or exposed at low tide, boats that come in and out to send and receive tourists to the beach, risk their propellers cutting or damaging the coral. Sometimes even though propellers don’t hit coral, they might stir up the sediment which then smothers and kills coral. 6) Fish feeding. This is an activity which attracts tourists to the reef, but has an impact on coral reef fish and the reef ecosystem as a whole, because fish-feeding breaks the environmental balance through the relationship among lifeforms in the ecosystem. The impact on the coral reef ecosystem can be shown as follows. 6.1) Impact on fish health. The food that tourists feed fish with is appropriate for humans but not for fish. For example, bread, rice, or other human food. So when fish eat food that isn’t right for them, they consume chemicals that are not appropriate such as preservatives etc. that can cause malnutrition leading to immune system deficiency. 6.2) Disturbing marine ecosystem balance. Fish feeding disturbs relationships in the ecosystem, or can disturb the function of marine life inside that ecosystem. For example, some fish species eat algae, others eat COTS eggs, so when there is fish feeding, they might not eat (or eat less) their normal food in nature, therefore algae smothers coral faster, decreasing light penetration to the coral, photosynthesis in coral decreases, meaning less energy, and recruitment of coral larvae decreases due to the lack of free space to settle on. In the other case, fish might not eat COTS eggs, leading to increased population and causing outbreaks. 6.3) Decreasing biological diversity The population of fish that can adjust to the food that is fed to them by tourists might increase rapidly and they chase other species which cannot compete away from the reef.

6.4) Increasing fish aggressiveness. Because populations of fish that feed on tourists’ food increase, these fish become more likely to attack swimmers due to competition for food from tourists’ hands, causing accidents. 6.5) Overfeeding in the marine ecosystem. During fish feeding activities, the amount of food can increase beyond the fishes’ needs, therefore the leftover food remains on the reef leading to increased nutrients, which results in algae overgrowth on coral reefs. 7. Ornamental fish collection. Besides disturbing the balance of reef ecosystem, collecting ornamental fish from the reefs also decreases the attractiveness of the reef for tourism as number of beautiful fish decreases. Because most tourists that come to dive on a coral reef pay more attention to the colours and beauty of the mobile marine life, rather than paying attention to coral. Other than collecting ornamental fish for aquariums, at present tourists are more likely to consume coral reef fish, especially parrotfish. It is known that parrotfish are important grazers that decrease the amount of algae that would otherwise smother coral reefs, so when the parrotfish population decreases, there is an impact on coral reefs. 8. Coral smuggling Coral is protected by law according to the Wildlife Preservation and Protection Act 1992 that prevents hunting, harming, possessing, trading, and culturing such wildlife without permission. However, at present there are still cases of people smuggling live and dead coral to ornament aquariums. 9. Using toxic sunscreen It is known that significant amounts of sunscreen wash off into the sea and, in controlled experiments, some sunscreen chemical UV filters are toxic and have negative effects on corals and other marine life even at concentrations as low as 62 parts per trillion. Oxybenzone has been identified as the main substance of concern. Organic UV filters have been reported to induce acute toxicities, developmental toxicities and reproductive toxicities to different organisms. Some studies have shown that sunscreen ingredients promote viral infections in bacteria and zooxanthellae, causing coral bleaching. (https://www.icriforum.org/sites/default/files/ICRI_Sunscreen_0.pdf)

.Section 4 Coral reef vulnerability

4.1 Factors related to the vulnerability of coral and risk of damage from diving activities In each location, coral reefs have different ecological susceptibilities which depend on the risk factors that would impact the reef. And the risks are dependent on the capability to resist or the resilience of the ecosystem. And the vulnerability of the ecosystem can be analyzed from the related factors, i.e. internal and external factors. 4.1.1. Internal factors 1) Coral community structure. Each type of coral growth form tolerates impacts in different ways depending on the type of impact. Most of the diving activities cause an impact by physically breaking coral. In general massive, encrusting and submassive corals can tolerate physical impacts much better than fragile growth forms such as branching, foliose and table corals. So coral reefs which consist of massive coral, encrusting coral and submassive coral as dominant species have less risk of being broken than reefs dominated by branching, foliose and table corals.

Coral growth forms. Massive coral Least vulnerable

Encrusting coral

Submassive coral

Branching coral

Foliose coral

Table coral

Most vulnerable

Growth forms are ordered from low vulnerability to high vulnerability. (Adapted from English et al. (1997))

2) Coral weaknesses Coral which is being impacted from natural disturbances is more vulnerable than coral in normal condition. So impacts from using coral reefs must be controlled more strictly in naturally impacted areas. For example, on a bleaching reef, or one that has been hit by a storm or disease outbreak. 2.1) Coral reefs being bleached. These reefs are weak and risk dying if there is more disturbance such as touching, stepping on, sediment being stirred up, waste from the dive boat, etc. To decrease the impact on bleaching coral, the responsible authorities should be informed, for example if it is in a National Park, a National Park official should be informed, or if outside a National Park, the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources to monitor the impact and change of the bleaching on the reef. Reef users can decrease impact to bleached coral by, for example, stopping the use of the area for diving, snorkeling and transport over the reef temporarily, until the reef can return to a normal state of health. 2.2 Coral reefs being damaged by storm. Storm damage to reefs usually occurs during the monsoon season. If coral is broken into small pieces, these pieces might be spread over the reef floor and might regenerate and grow further if they are able to stay still rather than being rolled around by the current or being smothered by sand. Careless diving might worsen this situation, for example finning might wash away the fragments or stir up the sediment which might then smother the fragments. Activities that may enhance the management in such impacted areas and relieve the impact include if divers encounter living broken pieces of coral lying on sand which risks being smothered, they should pick it up and place it back on a colony of the same species so that the living tissues can fuse together. In case a boulder colony has flipped over, it should be lifted to see if the underside is still alive, then flipped back into an upright position. 2.3 Coral reefs being infected by diseased. There are four types of disease that occur to coral and seafans (see section 2 page 50). Diving tourism may spread disease if, for example, divers touch infected coral or sea fans either directly or indirectly (fins touching diseased coral unintentionally and then touching healthy coral) in this manner, disease can spread. Therefore divers should avoid touch anything underwater. 4.1.2. External factors. 1) Characteristics of the area and environment. The reef flat zones or shallow zones have more risk of receiving physical impacts than the reef slope or deeper zones.

2) Waves and current. Wave and current strength result in divers becoming destabilized. If divers cannot deal with the waves or current, they will have difficulty controlling the dive conditions, resulting in increased physical impacts on the coral.

4.2 Choosing suitable areas for diving activities The matter that should be considered includes; 4.2.1 Considering ecological vulnerability. For example, in the case that the area has mild current, and has highly tolerant species such (massive corals) this area would be suitable for all levels, while areas where current is strong and there are fragile coral species (branching forms) as the dominant species, the area is not suitable for inexperienced divers. 4.2.2. Considering characteristic of diving activities When considering the purpose of using a location, (e.g. for teaching, for recreation) divers and instructors can choose areas according to many factors, of which the first priority is usually the strength of the current. Beginners that come to take lessons, who need specific areas where they can get to the sea bed and/or kneel on sand to practice skills, should be taken to areas where current is mild and there is flat topography. But when the diving purposes are more complex (recreational diving to enjoy the beauty of the reef), divers can extend their diving to areas where coral is more diversified and consists of corals which are more tolerant to diver impacts. Areas where current is strong should be avoided for the safety and vulnerability of the area. In locations where strong occurs, divers have more trouble controlling their balance and therefore the chance of being swept by current against coral or other creatures is higher. These areas are only suited to experienced divers. 4.2.3. Considering diver capability in photography At present, underwater cameras are becoming cheaper, so beginner and medium- experience divers can afford them. However, underwater photography requires good buoyancy control, which requires experience. Divers often grasp or touch coral to stabilize themselves, which causes a significant impact to coral. Doing underwater photography that doesn’t cause an impact on the environment requires time and skill to learn, and should be practiced in areas where current is mild for buoyancy control.

Section 5 Diving destination in Thailand

5.1 The east coast of the Gulf of Thailand The east coast of the Gulf of Thailand consists of three provinces including Rayong, Chantaburi and Trat. According to the geography, diving activities can be done only at island groups. The most popular diving spots are in Trat province, followed by Rayong. In Chantaburi there is no SCUBA diving at present. Diving on the East coast should occur during calm periods i.e January to April. Diving can occur during other times but weather forecasts should be checked beforehand. Trat province contains over fifty islands divided into four island groups: Mu Kho Chang, South of Mu Koh Chang, Mu Koh Mak, and Mu Koh Kud. The first three of these are more popular. Popular sites include pinnacles such as Hin Sam Sao, Hin Luk Baat, as well as the Ruea Luang Chang wreck which was sunk to create a dive site to decrease the impact of using natural reefs. Diving in Rayong is not as popular because dive sites are limited. Popular sites include Hin Pueng, Mu Koh Samet and Koh Man Nok-Nai.

5.2 Inner part of the Gulf of Thailand In the inner Gulf of Thailand, coral reefs are only found in Chonburi province, diving is only found near Pattaya. The major diving destination is Mu Koh Laan. Mu Koh Laan is one of the major dive education areas of Thailand. Because transportation from Bangkok and Pattaya is convenient, diving in the Pattaya area is mostly day trip as Mu Koh Laan is near shore, diving in this area can be done in every season but the best season is from January to April. Mu Koh Laan is an intensive diving destination where dive sites include Koh Laan, Koh Sak Koh Phai and Mu Koh Samaesan.

5.3 West coast of the Gulf of Thailand In the upper west coast there are two major locations, in Chumporn Province and Surat Thani provinces. Diving can occur throughout the year, but the best times are February to May and August to September. Chumporn province consists of over 40 islands. Divers like to visit Mu Koh Ngam, Mu Koh Ranped-Rangkai and submerged pinnacles. Diving is mostly a day trip, but sometimes there are liveaboards. 63

Surat Thani province contains many islands, which can be divided into five major locations, including Mu Koh Angthong, Mu Koh Samui, Mu Koh Talae Tai, Mu Koh Pha Ngan and Mu Koh Tao. Scuba diving is popular at Mu Koh Pha Ngan and Mu Koh Tao. At Mu Koh Pha Ngan there is Hin Bai pinnacle which is popular with foreign divers, other than that, there are some other pinnacles and islands nearby such as Koh Wow and Kong Hin Tungku. Mu Koh Tao is the most popular dive destination in the Gulf of Thailand. It has the busiest diving industry in the world. Divers stay on the island and take long tailed boats or small dive boats to the dive sites around the island. The water at Koh Tao is much clearer than other locations in the Gulf of Thailand, it is therefore popular with divers, especially because there are many pinnacles which can be explored to admire sea fans and black coral. For the southern part of the Gulf of Thailand, dive sites are far from the mainland, so liveaboards must be used to accommodate divers. They include two famous sites i.e, Mu Koh Kra (Nakorn Sri Thammarat province) and Koh Losin (Pattani province).

5.4 Andaman Sea In the Andaman Sea there are hundreds of islands distributed from the near shore to offshore areas close to the continental shelf. In the Northern Andaman region, there are islands offshore close to the edge of the shelf such as Mu Kho Similan and Mu Koh Surin (Phang Nga province), in which water visibility is very good, so deep scuba diving is popular there. In this region there are also near shore islands such at Mu Koh Gum (Ranong province) which are suitable for snorkeling. In between the Northern and Southern Andaman regions is Phuket province. There are several dive sites on the west coast of Koh Phuket, for example Patong and Ao Kata, as well as small islands surrounding Phuket such as Koh Naka Yai-Noi and Koh Hae. Koh Racha Yai-Noi is quite close to the continental shelf, with clear water, and so is popular either for snorkeling or scuba diving. There are also many small islands in Phang Nga which are fringed by shallow reefs and are suitable for snorkeling such as Koh Hong. From Krabi province down to Satun province is the Southern Andaman region. The striking feature of this region is submerged pinnacles and walls at many popular islands such as Koh Phi Phi, Koh Dam Hok, Koh Dam Kwan, Koh Pu, Koh Ngai, Koh Ha Yai and Mu Koh Rok in Krabi province. In Trang province, there are coral reefs in shallow near shore areas around islands distributed to a distance of about three to ten km from shore. The important islands include Koh Talibong, Koh Muk, Mu Koh Petra, and Mu Koh Liang. In Satun province, snorkeling areas are found on shallow reefs near the shore of islands such as Mu Koh Bulone, Koh Khao Yai, and Mu Koh Tarutao. Mu Koh Adang-Rawi is located in a 64

medium to deep area, and water is clear all year round. It is a popular snorkeling and scuba diving destination. The tourist season for National Parks in the Andaman Sea is within the calm season from November to May. The most suitable time is from the end of December to mid-April. And the best weather for diving in very clear and calm water is in March.

5.5 Artificial reef and shipwreck dive sites Artificial reefs are constructed as new dive sites. They are a kind of coral reef management which is important for tourists, dive operators and involves authorities that manage coral reefs to help decrease the impact from reef diving. At present there are artificial reefs built for tourism in many places. The purpose is to create new dive sites and to decrease the number of divers on natural reefs. This decreases the impact and lowers the density of divers on real reefs which maintains those reefs’ fertility. In Thailand the construction of artificial reefs for tourism purposes first occurred in 2006 under a Project knows as “An artificial reef designed to increase diving sites for tourism in the Andaman Sea, by the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources”. That leads to a new tourism site bringing high revenue to the country. Artificial reefs can be constructed using hollow cubic structures, but there are other long-lasting structures that can be used such as train cars and decommissioned ships. Each location where such artificial reefs are built has unique features. For shipwrecks, the DMCR, Royal Thai Navy, local organizations, the private sector and the local public cooperate to sink the warships at sea. They are known as undersea parks and serve as sources of learning, to increase the number of dive sites, and to decrease the use of real reefs. These kinds of projects have been continuously implemented since 2012.

Popular dive sites on artificial reefs are shown in the following tables. 1) Concrete cube artificial reefs in 14 locations in 7 provinces province location Rayong South of Koh Samed Chonburi South of Koh Lan Surat Thani North of Koh Tao Surat Thani South of Koh Tao Surat Thani East of Koh Tao Surat Thani East of the cape of Koh Pha Ngan Ranong North west of Koh Khai Yai Phuket East of Koh Racha Yai Phuket East of Koh Maiton Phyket Outside Patong Bay Krabi South of Koh Poda Nok Krabi North of Koh Phiphi Lae Trang West of Koh Petra Trang West of Koh Waen

2) Shipwreck artificial reefs in 14 locations in 7 provinces Wreck’s name Latitude, Longitude Location HTMS Chang wreck 11 56.7’ N, 102 15.3’ E Hin Luk Baat, Koh Chang, Trat T11 wreck 11 54.34’ N, 102 19.29 E Koh Klum, Trat HTMS Petra wreck 12 30.33’ N, 101 42.43’ E Koh Mun Nai, Rayong HTMS Khram wreck 12 55.94’ N, 100 41.53’E Koh Pai, Pattaya, Chon Buri HTMS Kut wreck 12 57.07’ N, 100 47.55’ E Koh Sak, Pattaya, Chonburi HTMS Mattapone wreck 12 53.79’ N, 100 46 99’ E Koh Lan, Pattaya, Chon Buri HTMS Prab wreck 10 29.01’ N, 99 25.16’ E Koh Ngam Noi, Chumporn HTMS Sattakut wreck 10 18.70’ N, 99 49.97’ E Koh Tao, Surat Thani HTMS Prathong wreck 9 52.1’ N, 98 23.3’ E Koh Prathong, Phang Nga T13 wreck 8 32.8’ N, 98 58.0’ E Khao Lak, Phang Nga HTMS Kled Kaew wreck 7 40.0’ N, 98 38.1’ E Koh Phiphi Lae, Krabi HTMS Kolum wreck 7 56.79’ N, 98 46.99’ E Koh Yawasum, Krabi HTMS Rawi wreck 7 56.79’ N, 98 46.99’ E Koh Yawasum, Krabi HTMS Talibong wreck 7 56.79’ N, 98 46.99’ E Koh Yawasum, Krabi

Section 6 Laws and regulations involved with diving tourism

6.1 Laws which protect resources in relation to diving activities Laws, regulation and rules in relation to diving activities are legal matters which are used to protect marine resources or creatures, with the objective of controlling tourism and related stakeholder activities which might cause impacts to coral reefs. In Thailand there are many laws that may be used to regulate diving activities, dive leaders, tourist divers and tourism operators as follow.

6.1.1 Act on the Promotion of Marine and Coastal Resources Management, B.E. 2558 (2015) Section 3. In this Act: “marine and coastal resources” refers to things that exist or occur by nature in sea or coastal areas including coastal swamps, coastal wetlands, canals, runnels, lagoons and estuarine lands with a connection to the sea or the influence of sea water, for example mangrove forests, beach forests, beaches, seaside, islands, sea grasses, reefs, oyster bars, marine plants and animals, or structures created by human beings for the benefit of marine and coastal ecological systems - for example artificial reefs, breakwaters and infrastructure for the prevention of coastal erosion.

Section 20. In the interest of the preservation, conservation and revival of marine and coastal resources, which are not mangrove forest areas under section 18, to remain in natural condition and have surrounding conditions and ecosystems in a pristine condition, the Minister by and with the approval of the Committee shall have the power to issue Ministerial Regulations to designate areas with the following characteristics to become Marine and Coastal Resources Protected Areas: 1) Areas with marine and coastal resources in pristine condition which merit preservation to be in their original natural condition; 2) Areas that are habitat for animals and plants in their pristine natural condition; 3) Areas with significance for marine ecosystems which merit conservation. Areas designated as Marine and Coastal Resources Protected Areas under paragraph one shall not be areas in a conservation area or areas allowed to practice aquaculture under fisheries law. In issuing Ministerial Regulations under paragraph one, measures for protection under section 23 shall be specified and a map showing the boundary line of Marine and Coastal Resources Protected Areas shall also be attached.

Section 22. In the event that it appears that marine and coastal resources may be destroyed or severely damaged to a critical level, or if it is the case that the Committee deems that there is an utmost necessity to preserve, protect or conserve them for the benefit of or for the creation of an abundance of marine and coastal ecosystems, the Minister shall propose to the Council of Ministers, without undue delay for approval, the use of measures to protect marine and coastal resources under section 23 and the specification of state agencies that will implement such measures as necessary and appropriate for the control and resolution of problems that have occurred or may occur in future. Upon receiving approval from the Council of Ministers under paragraph one, the Minister shall, by announcement in the Governmental Gazette, specify types of marine and coastal resources, details of protection measures, and period of time that such protection measures shall be used. In case of necessity, a map showing the boundary line of an area that the protection measures may be used within may also be specified. The extension of the period of time in the announcement in paragraph two shall be made upon receiving approval from the Council of Ministers by announcement in the Governmental Gazette. Section 23. In specifying protection measures under section 18, section 20 and section 22, one of the following matters shall be specified:  The prohibition of any activity or action which may cause danger or impact on marine and coastal resources;  The specification of measures to preserve, conserve, revive and exploit marine and coastal resources as appropriate to the condition of such areas;  The specification of the use of land to maintain its natural condition or not to affect its natural ecosystems;  The specification of beach protection measures for public benefits;  The specification of other protection measures as appropriate and suitable to the condition of such areas.

Section 29. Any person who violates or fails to comply with marine and coastal resources protection measures as specified in section 22 shall be liable to imprisonment for a term of not exceeding two years or to a fine not exceeding two hundred thousand baht or to both.

6.1.2 Announcement of the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment “Measures to Protect Coral Resources from Diving Tourism Activities, Year...” (draft)

It is apparent that coral reefs which are marine and coastal resources in Thailand may be destroyed or receive severe impacts to a critical level as a result of coral reef diving tourism. It is essential to reserve, protect and conserve coral reefs for sustainable use. 68

Pursuant to sections 22 and 23 of the Marine and Coastal Resources Management Promotion Act 2015, the Minister of Natural Resources and Environment, with the agreement of the National Board of Policy and Planning on Management of Marine and Coastal Resources, and approved by the Council of Ministers, has therefore announced measures to protect coral resources from diving tourism activities, year …, as follow

Item 1 This announcement is the “Announcement by the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment titled 'Measures for Coral Resources Protection from Diving-Tourism Activities, Year...'” Item 2 in this announcement, “Coral Reef Area” refers to an area where there is live and dead coral, including sand beds and rock beds which are interspersed in coral reefs. Artificial reefs are included as well. “Diving Tourism Activity” refers to shallow water diving tourism activities, deep water diving tourism activities, try diving learning activities and certification diving learning activities. “Shallow Water Diving Tourism Activity” refers to floating on the surface or diving under water using mask and snorkel with the purpose of viewing the coral or marine life “Deep Diving Tourism Activity” refers to diving by using underwater breathing apparatus with the purpose of viewing the coral or marine life. “Try Diving Learning activity” refers to uncertified scuba diving according to the standards of diving teaching agencies, e.g. PADI's DSD Course or NAUI 's Try Dive Course or other equivalent courses. “Diving Tourism Activities Operator” refers to entrepreneurs in relation to taking tourists sightseeing or operating a trip with the purpose of viewing coral or marine life. “Controller” refers to persons whose duty is to control diving tours. Such persons have qualities and training certification as prescribed by the Department. “Controller’s Assistant” refers to persons whose duty is to assist in controlling diving tours. Such persons have qualities and training certification as prescribed by the Department. “Department” refers to the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources.

Item 3 To operate diving activities, there must be a controller in charge to supervise the tourists in order to avoid impacts on the coral reef ecosystem by abiding by the rules that follow: (1) For shallow diving activities, there must be a ratio of controllers to tourists of one to no more than 20. In cases where there are more than twenty tourists, there must be additional controller's assistants at a ratio of one additional assistant to twenty tourists. 69

(2) For deep diving tourism activities in which the tourists are certified, there must be a controller to tourist ratio of one to no more than four. (3) For try diving learning activities, there must be a ratio of one controller to no more than two learners. (4) For certification scuba diving courses, there must be a ratio of one controller to no more than four students. In cases of diving tourism activities as per item (2) and diving courses as per items (3) and (4) if there is a dive instructor available, this instructor can take on the duty of controller. Item 4. Controllers and controller’s assistants must pass the training course of the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, and must show their certification card upon request by an official at any time. Item 5 The Department has to hold the training course for the dive controllers and the controllers’ assistants as well as issue the certification cards to the participants who passed the training course. Item 6 To be implemented according to this announcement, this excludes activities which are under the control of responsible local authorities and are not related to diving tourism, for example diving for scientific purposes, conserving or restoring marine and coastal resources, etc. Item 7. In cases where there are laws prescribing the specific measures for protection of marine and coastal resources, and such measures are not weaker than or are better than the measures in this Announcement, these laws will take precedence. Item 8. This Announcement will come into force 1 year after its publication in the gazette. The law has a term of 5 years.

6.1.3. National Park Act, B.E. 2562 (2019) Key issue: This Act’s objective is to protect existing natural resources, such as plants, forest products, wild animals as well as natural landscapes and mountains in their original state, so that they incur no damage or change. This is to either directly or indirectly benefit the state and public. It aims to conserve and protect natural resources existing in the national parks, which include marine national parks. There is a provision in the sections which are related to the draft Announcement of the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment “Measures to Protect Coral Resources from Diving Tourism Activities Year...” There are measures which tourists should follow for diving appropriately in National Parks as follow: Section 4 “wild animal” means animals according to the law - Wild Animal Reservation and Protection – which exist in national parks, forestry parks, botanical gardens or arboretums. 70

Section 19. Within a National Park, no person shall: (2) collect, remove, or do anything by any means whatsoever that might endanger or deteriorate woody plants, soil, rocks, minerals, petroleum, or other natural resources; or by any other means cause impact to the ecosystems, biodiversity and natural resources and environment. (3) lure or remove animals or by any means whatsoever endanger animals. (4) change water ways or cause flooding, dryness, pollution or toxicity of creeks, canals, swamps, or the sea. (6) carry out any activities for financial benefit. (7) introduce any gears for the purpose of hunting or catching animals, or any weapon. Section 20. Any person entering a national park must comply with the orders of competent officials given in compliance with the rules prescribed by the Director General. Section 42 Whoever violates Section 19 (2) shall be punished with imprisonment not exceeding five years or a fine not exceeding five hundred thousand baht, or both. Section 43. Whoever violates Section 19 (3) or (4) shall be punished with imprisonment not exceeding five years or a fine not exceeding five hundred thousand baht, or both. Section 44. Whoever violates Section 19 (6) shall be punished with imprisonment not exceeding two years or a fine not exceeding two hundred thousand baht, or both. Section 45. Whoever violates Section 19 (7) shall be punished with a fine not exceeding ten thousand baht. From the context of this act it can be seen that tourists must not cause any destruction to animals and plants in National Parks. They must dive with care and avoid removing or collecting animals or carcasses and removing them from National Parks, according to 19 (3). The punishment could be a fine of not more than five hundred thousand baht or imprisonment of not more than five years, or both, depending on the severity of the crime. Tourists must know that access to National Park for diving requires permission by law and operators which service diving activity must already have received permission for operations in the Natural Park (according to section 16 (6), otherwise tourists may be ordered to cease diving and leave. Furthermore, when diving in National Parks, the orders of officials must be strictly obeyed. Violation of officials’ orders is an offence according to section 20, which is punishable by imprisonment and fine.

6.1.4 Announcements and other regulations concerning the National Park Act, B.E. 2504

6.1.4.1. Regulations of the Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plants on permission to access National Parks for tourism operations and accommodation, B.E. 2547 These regulations prescribe the rules that tourism operators, including diving activity operators, must follow and abide by for access to National Parks as follow: 1.1 When accessing National Parks for diving purposes, a fee must be paid at the rate prescribed. 1.2 It is forbidden to bring tools to hunt or collect animals, or any weapons into National Parks, unless one has received permission from officials; for example bringing fishing hooks into National Parks is deemed to violate this regulation. 1.3 It is forbidden to feed any kind of animal. Therefore fish-feeding violates this regulation. 1.4 It is forbidden to dispose of garbage from diving boats’ toilets or kitchens into the sea. 1.5 It is forbidden to bring containers made of foam into national parks. 1.6 In cases where tourists fail to remove their garbage from a National Park, or don’t dispose of it in the areas provided, they are deemed to have violated the law. Punishment is a fine of no more than 500 baht. 1.7 Tourism operators must cease their operations in the National Park during closure periods. 1.8 National Park officials may order them to cease diving activities and leave the National Park if they violate the law.

6.1.4.2 Diving controllers or dive leaders 1. People who have a duty to lead diving or control diving must have the following qualifications. 1.1 They must be certified to the level of dive leader/divemaster, or equal, according to International Standards. 1.2 They must pass the Marine Tourism Operations training course, which is held by the Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plants. 1.3 They must have an officially issued VISA and work permit. 2. Scuba diving controllers must strictly abide by International scuba diving standards, as accepted by the dive industry and must take responsibility in cases where tourists are injured or die. 3. These controllers must display standard dive flags or buoys indicating that diving is occurring in that location. 4. Diving tour operators must control the number of divers so as not to exceed the number that the National Park has determined to be acceptable on each site. 72

6.1.4.3 Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant (D.N.P.) Regulations for Access to National Parks B.E. 2552 1. Boats that service tourism operations must have permission from the D.N.P. 2. Boats in National Parks must strictly abide by regulations. They can anchor in the Park for no more than five days per trip. 3. Boats must have safety equipment and methods that follow international standards and must get permission from the department of transport to operate. 4. Boats must carry communications equipment with which they can communicate with National Parks officials. 5. Boats must travel at a speed no higher than 3 knots when near coral reefs, mangroves, dive sites or other places as prescribed by the National Park. 6. Boats must be moored either at the port or in the area prescribed by the National Park. Boats must not drop anchor in coral reef areas. Boats must only navigate or moor at a distance of no less than 50m from diving flags or dive spots. 7. The diving activities operator must use rubber dinghies to carry divers from dive boats to diving spots. It is forbidden for dive boats to bring the divers directly to the dive spot. 8. Boats that access National Parks must be in good condition i.e. no fuel leaks, no excessive noise or smoke from the engine. 9. Boats that access National Parks must not dispose of garbage from toilets or kitchens in the sea. 10. Overnight stays on anchored boats may occur only in areas prescribed by regulations. 11. When officials observe any people acting in any way that might cause danger to themselves, or others, or might disturb or cause annoyance to other people or animals, or may cause damage to nature, officials may order those people to cease such acts.

6.1.4.4. D.N.P. Announcement: It is Forbidden to Introduce Single-Use Plastics into National Parks, 16 July B.E. 2561 In order to preserve natural resources and the environment, to prevent damage to natural resources and ecosystems in National Parks, using the authority given by Item 5 of the D.N.P. Regulation on the access to national parks, B.E. 2552, it is forbidden to introduce single-use plastics into National Parks, including plastic food containers, plastic plates, plastic bags, and plastic drinking bottles which have capsules, violators are guilty pursuant to Section 18 and are punishable according to Section 25 of the D.N.P. Act 2504.

6.1.4.5 D.N.P. Announcement: Determining the Number of Tourists Allowed to Access National Parks D.N.P. has undertaken studies on the maximum carrying capacity for avoiding impacts to natural resources and the environment caused by tourism, especially during weekends or holiday periods. At several tourism destinations there are many tourists which might lead to degradation of the natural resources and environment and make it difficult to restore and sustainably manage conditions, so the D.N.P. has announced the maximum carrying capacity for some National Parks which have already been studied. Although controlling the number of tourists in National Parks is not fully implementable, it is the direct responsibility of the dive activity operators and tourists to be aware of taking appropriate measures for sustainable tourism in National Parks.

6.1.4.6 D.N.P. Announcement: Forbidden to Introduce or Sell Alcohol In order to maintain a peaceful atmosphere in National Parks and prevent nuisance to tourists and disturbance to wildlife, it is authorized, according to the D.N.P. Regulation on Accessing National Parks B.E. 2552 Item 4 (9) and Item 5, to announce that it is forbidden to introduce or sell any kind of alcoholic drink in National Parks. If this regulation is violated, offenders will be guilty according to the D.N.P. Act 2504 Section 18, and punishable under Section 25 with imprisonment of not more than one month, or a fine of not more than 1,000 baht, or both.

6.1.4.7. D.N.P. Announcement: Closure for Tourism, and Accommodation in National Parks and Forestry Parks In order to manage them effectively and for nature to recover, for tourists to be distributed to other areas, and in order to decrease the risk from the impact of climate variations, the D.M.P. has announced closure periods for tourism in National Parks. Tourists are not allowed to access National Parks during the following closure periods:

Location Closure period Khao Laem Ya – Mu Koh Samed, Koh Kudee, Koh Talu 1 May - 30 Sept. Mu Koh Tarutao, Mu Koh Adang-Rawi 16 May - 31 Oct. Koh Thong Lang, Koh Kra, Koh Thian (in Mu Koh Chang) No fixed opening period Mu Koh Chumporn (islands in Mu Koh Chumporn National Park) 1 Nov. - 15 Dec. Mu Koh Ranong, Ao Khai, Koh Chang 16 May - 31 Oct. Mu Koh Petra, Koh Bulone, Koh Lao Liang 16 May – 31 Oct. Mu Koh Lanta, Koh Rok Nai, Koh Rok Nok, Koh Ngai, Mu Koh Ha, 16 May - 31 Oct. Hin-Daeng-Hin-Muang 74

Location Closure period Mu Koh Similan 16 May - 31 Oct. Mu Koh Surin 16 May - 31 Oct. Mu Koh Ang Thong 1 Nov. - 15 Dec. Haad Khanom-Mu Koh Thalae Tai, Koh Tan, Koh Mud Sum, Koh 1 Nov. - 15 Dec. Rab, Koh Wung nai, Koh Wung Nok, Koh Nui, Koh Tha Rai Koh Chuak (in Haad Chaomai National Park), 16 May - 31 Oct.

Haad Wanakorn Koh Jan, Koh Thai Si 1 Nov. - 15 Dec. Ao Maya, Ao Losama (in Haad Nopparatthara – Mu Koh Phi Phi No fixed opening National Park period

6.1.5. Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act, B.E. 2562 (2019) This Act’s objective is to protect wildlife either in living or carcass form, from hunting, possession, culture and trade. The provisions in the sections involving coral resources and tourism activity operations are as follow: Section 4 In this Act, “Wild Animals” refers to any kind of animal which are born and live freely in the nature. The term also refers to eggs and embryo of those various wild animals, but not draught animals which have been registered and issued identification cards in accordance with the law on draught animals as well as those on the propagation of said draught animals. “Protected Wild Animals” refers to wild animals which are important in the ecosystems or their numbers in the populations tend to decrease which may impact the ecosystems, as specified in this Act. “Carcasses of wild animals” refers to the bodies and body parts of wild dead animals, or meat thereof, whether or not it has been grilled, roasted, dried, fermented, or subjected to any other treatment against decay, whether or not it has been detached from the body; and refers also to horn, hide, bone, teeth, tusks, hairs, scale, shell, blood, lymph, semen or any detached parts whether or not the wild animal is still alive or dead. “Hunting” refers to the act of collecting, trapping, catching, shooting, killing, and any other harming of unwounded wild animals living freely, as well as those of chasing, herding, calling, and enticing them for the earlier mentioned purposes. “Trading” refers to buying, selling, exchanging, giving out or transferring ownership, as for the benefit of a trade. This also includes possession or exhibiting of wild animals, carcasses of wild animals or products of wild animals for trade, as well as advertising through the television-radio-printing-IT or any other media as for trade.

Section 12. No person shall hunt the reserved wild animals or protected wild animals. Section 17. No person shall be in possession of reserved wild animals, protected wild animals, carcasses of reserved or protected wild animals. Section 29. No person shall engage in trading of reserved wild animals, protected wild animals, carcasses of reserved and protected wild animals, and products thereof. Section 89. Whoever violates Section 12.or Section 29 shall be punished with imprisonment not exceeding ten years, or a fine not exceeding one million baht, or both. Section 92. Whoever violates Section 17 shall be punished with imprisonment not exceeding five years, or a fine not exceeding five hundred thousand baht, or both. Therefore, when considering these laws, it is found that touching, stepping on, kicking or any act that might cause damage to corals, soft corals, sea anemones, giant clams, or triton trumpet conch might violate the law under this Act. Tourists should not touch any marine life while they are in the water, they should maintain good buoyancy, not allow any part of their body to touch coral reefs which might cause damage to marine life. Furthermore, it is deemed that holding up marine life to show it to tourists is illegal under this Act. Marine invertebrates in coral reefs are mostly protected species as follow: 1. All species of seafan in the Order Order Gorgonacea 2. All species of black coral in the Order Antipatharia 3. All species of sea anemone in the Order Order Actiniaria 4. All hard coral in the Order Scleractinia 5. All species of fire coral in the Order Milleporina and lace coral in Order Stylasterina 6. All species of blue coral in the Order Helioporacea 7. All species of soft coral in the Order Alcyonacea 8. All giant clams in the Family Tridacnidae 9. Triton shells (Charonia tritonis)

6.1.6. Royal Ordinance on Fisheries B.E. 2558 (2015) The provisions of this Royal Ordinance aim to reorganize fisheries in Thailand and in waters at large with a view to preventing IUU fishing in order to preserve aquatic animal resources as a sustainable source of food for humanity and preserve the environment in an appropriate state along the lines of approaches, criteria and standards recognized internationally. The provisions include sections which involve coral reef resources and tourism operation as follows:

Section 5. In this Royal Ordinance: “Aquatic animals” mean animals normally inhabiting water, amphibians, animals inhabiting inundated areas, animals partially inhabiting water, and animals having one part of their life cycles in water during a specific water-borne part of their life cycles. These also 76 include aquatic animals’ eggs, sperm, marine algae, carcasses or any single part of those aquatic animals, as well as aquatic plants as specified by notification by the Minister, as well as residuals or any single part of such aquatic plants. “Fishing” means to search, attract, catch, take or harvest fish or any activity which can reasonably be expected to result in the attracting, catching, taking or harvesting of fish at a fishing ground. “Fishing ground” means a tract of land with still or running water, and any beach constituting public domain of the State, including a forest and ground which is naturally inundated, notwithstanding that it constitute a public domain of State or a tract of land privately owned, as well as seas. “Seas” mean coastal seas, offshore seas, seas outside Thai waters and seas lying in the jurisdiction of other coastal states. “Fishing gear” means a machine, tool, equipment, component, weapon, pole, or stake used in a fishing operation

Section 56. No person shall catch aquatic animals in an aquatic species sanctuary as prescribed by the Minister or by the Provincial Fisheries Committee subject to the approval of the Minister, except for the purposes of academic advancement or for the purposes of the nurturing of aquatic animal breeds for which permission in writing has been granted by the Director-General or a person assigned by the Director-General. A map delineating the areas prescribed thereby shall be attached to a notification determining any aquatic species sanctuary pursuant to paragraph one.

Section 58. No person shall engage in the following acts: (1) releasing, pouring, disposing of, discharging or causing the passage of hazardous materials as prescribed by the Minister, into a fishing ground; (2) acting in any way to cause the intoxication of aquatic animals in a fishing ground; (3) releasing, pouring, disposing of, discharging or causing the passage of any particular substance into a fishing ground in a manner harmful to aquatic animals; (4) causing a fishing ground to be polluted in such a way that it becomes harmful to aquatic animals.

Section 59. Any person intentionally or through negligence causing a fishing ground to be polluted in a manner that may harm aquatic animals shall bear all the expenses incurred in rescuing or preventing the loss of aquatic animals’ lives, and in restoring the fishing ground to its natural state as prescribed by the Director-General.

Section 60. No person shall use electrical currents for fishing purposes, or explosives in a fishing ground. Exemptions to the prohibition on the use of explosives in fishing grounds may be granted for the benefit of public service for which permission in writing must have been obtained from the Director-General, in which case preventive undertakings must have been implemented to preempt undue damage to the aquatic animals concerned.

Section 61. No person shall have in possession aquatic animals or aquatic animal products for commercial purposes knowing that these aquatic animals or aquatic animal products are acquired through wrongdoing pursuant to section 58 and section 60, or acquired by a serious infringement under section 114, or from a fishing vessel used in IUU fishing as per the list of fishing vessels prohibited from entering the Kingdom pursuant to section 94, or as publicly listed under section 116.

Section 62. No person shall make alterations to a fishing ground that is public domain of State such that it is different from what it originally was, unless permission in writing has been obtained from the competent official.

Section 66. No person shall catch aquatic mammals, rare aquatic animals or aquatic animals near extinction as prescribed by the Minister, or take any such aquatic animal on board a fishing vessel, except where it is necessary to do so in order to save the life thereof.

Section 140. Any person violating section 58 shall be subject to a fine of between three hundred thousand baht and five hundred thousand baht.

Section 142. Any person violating section 61 shall be subject to a fine of two hundred thousand baht to one million baht, or five times the value of the aquatic animals held in possession. In whichever case the higher fine shall apply.

6.1.7 Enhancement and Conservation of the National Environmental Quality Act, B.E. 2535 This Act includes a provision for protecting and preserving the environment as a whole. It intensively controls pollution. There is a provision in the related sections concerning coral resources and diving tourism activities as follow:

Section 43 In cases where it appears that an area has the characteristics of a headwater, or consists of a natural ecosystem which is different from other areas in general, or consists of an ecosystem which may be destroyed or may be easily affected by human activities, or 78 exhibits natural or aesthetic values worthy of conservation, and such area has not been officially declared a Conservation Area, the Minister shall, under a recommendation of the National Environment Board, have the power to issue a ministerial regulation designating such an area as an environmentally protected area.

Section 44 The ministerial regulation pursuant to section 43 shall comprise at least one of the following measures: (1) land use prescriptions for the purposes of the conservation of natural conditions of such areas, or the prevention of adverse impacts on their natural ecosystems or cultural heritage values; (2) prohibition of acts or activities that may be harmful to the ecosystems of such areas, altering such ecosystems from their natural state, or affecting their cultural heritage values; (3) prescription of categories and sizes of projects or activities to be operated or constructed by government agencies, state enterprises or private entities in such areas, which shall have the duty of submitting reports of environmental impact assessment; (4) prescription of the management modus operandi which is specific to the management of such areas, including the scope of duties and responsibilities of relevant government agencies in the interests of co-operation and co-ordination inducing efficiency to the operation of conservation of natural states, natural ecosystems or cultural heritage values in such areas; (5) prescriptions of any other protective measures as deemed appropriate and suitable to the conditions of such areas.

Section 45. In the areas where Conservation Areas already exist, comprehensive planning areas, specific planning areas, building control areas, and industrial estate areas pursuant to the laws related thereto, pollution control areas pursuant to this Act, but in which nevertheless exist severe environmental quality problems, classifiable as crucial and requiring immediate remedy and relevant government agencies do not have legal authority, or are unable to resolve the problems, the Minister shall, with the approval of the National Environment Board, solicit the Council of Ministers for authorisation to take one or several protective measures as provided by section 44 as necessary and appropriate, in order to control and resolve the problems in such areas. When the Council of Ministers’ authorization is obtained pursuant to paragraph one, the Minister shall notify in the Government Gazette prescribing the limits of such area, the details of the protective measures, and the duration for which such measures shall be applied therein. The application duration according to paragraph two can be extended after approval from the National Environmental Board and the Minister, by notification in the Government Gazette. 79

Section 100. Any person who violates or fails to comply with the prescriptions of ministerial regulations issued by virtue of section 44, or by a notification given by the Minister under section 45 shall be punished by a term of imprisonment not exceeding one year or a fine not exceeding one hundred thousand baht, or both.

6.1.8 Announcement by the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment: Determination of the Area and Measures for Environmental Protection There are four Announcements which deal with the measures for coral reef protection from diving tourism activities as follow:

6.1.8.1 Determination of the Area and Measures to Protect the Environment at Tambon Taling Ngam, Tambon Boh Phut, Tambon Maret, Tambon Mae Nam, Tambon Na Mueang, Tambon Ang Thong, Tambon Li Pa Noi, Amphur Koh Samui, Tambon Koh Pa Ngan, Tambon Baan Tai, Tambon Koh Tao, Amphur Pa Ngan, Changwat Surat Thani, B.E. 2557 (Announced on 8 May B.E. 2557, ending on 8 May B.E. 2562) In the coral reef areas of Koh Samui, Koh Pa Ngan, Koh Tao and Koh Nang Yuan, described in this Announcement, any action or operation in the coral reef which might harm or have an impact on sea turtles, ornamental fish, giant clams, sea fans, coral alive or dead, is strictly prohibited, except such activities as governmental public infrastructure projects which are necessary as agreed by National Environmental Boards or are done for governmental research.

6.1.8.2 Determination of the Area and Measures for Environmental Protection in the Area of Amphur Ao Leuk, Amphur Mueang Krabi, Amphur Nuea Klong, Amphur Klong Thom and Amphur Koh Lanta, Krabi province, B.E. 2559 Announced on 16 March B.E. 2559, ending on 16 March B.E. 2564, the issues involved are as follow: Item 5: Activities which impact on the environment in Area 3 are forbidden as follow:  Creating pollution, garbage, suspended particles, suspended sediment and pollutants stemming from contamination during ship transportation, boat parking and goods transfer, which might cause degradation to sea water or degradation to nature which could have an impact on marine biodiversity, such as coral, seagrass and marine creatures.  Collecting, damaging or undertaking any activity which might be harmful to or have an impact on dead or living coral, sea fans, and seagrass except if it is research that has received permission in writing from the Director General of the Department of National Parks, or the Director General of the Department of Fisheries, or other involved authorities relevant to the case. 80

 Dropping anchors or undertaking activities such as sea walking, glass-bottomed boat tours, or submarine tours which impact on the sea bed in seagrass, coral reef and submerged rock areas.

6.1.8.3 Determining the Area and Measures for Environmental Protection in Amphur Kuraburi, Amphur Takuapa, Amphur Tai Mueang, Amphur Tab Pud, Amphur Mueang Phang Nga, Amphur Takua Tung, and Amphur Koh Yao, Phang Nga province, B.E. 2559 Announced on 16 March, B.E. 2559 and ending on 16 March, B.E. 2564. The key points involved are as follow: Item 3. Area 3, the water area for protection marine resources and coastal fisheries Item 4: In Area 3, which is a Marine Resources and Coastal Fisheries Protection Area, it is forbidden to undertake any activities which cause an impact to the environment, such as creating pollutants, garbage, suspended particles, suspended sediment and contaminant pollution, and it is also forbidden to collect, damage, harm by any means, or cause impacts to corals living or dead, sea fans, and seagrass, to anchor or undertake any activity such as sea walking, glass-bottomed boat tours, and submarine tours in areas where there is sea grass, coral or submerged rock.

6.1.8.4 Determination of the Area and Measures for Environmental Protection in the Area of Phuket Province, B.E. 2560. Announced on 23 November B.E. 2560, and ending on 23 November 2565. The key points involved are as follow: Item 4. Area 9 includes sea area surrounding Koh Phuket and islands in vicinity. Item 10: In Area 9, which is the sea area around Phuket and surrounding islands, it is forbidden to undertake any acts as follow:  Creating pollution, garbage, suspended particles, suspended sediment and pollutants stemming from contamination during ship transportation, boat parking and goods transfer, which might cause degradation to sea water or degradation to nature which could have an impact on marine biodiversity, such as coral, seagrass and marine creatures.  Collecting, damaging or undertaking any activity which might be harmful to or have an impact on dead or living coral, sea fans, and seagrass except when there is permission.  Dropping anchors or undertaking any activity such as seawalking, glass- bottomed boat tours, or submarine tours which impact on seagrass beds, living or dead coral, or submerged rock, or a zone of 300m surrounding such areas. 81

 Catching, trapping, luring, killing, lifting from the sea or any action which causes harm to sea turtles, dugongs, dolphins, whales, whale sharks, or other endangered marine species as prescribed by law. Item 11: It is forbidden in area 9 to undertake activities, i.e. catching or having possession of ornamental fish listed in index 3 attached, except: 1. when this has been implemented by government, state enterprise, or other governmental organizations for research, protection, aquaculture, or for zoological gardens, if permitted by the relevant laws. 2. when this has been implemented by the private sector, especially possession for aquaculture or zoological gardens, if permitted by the relevant laws.

6.2 Laws relative to controlling and supervising underwater tour operators and protection of divers

6.2.1 Tourism Business and Guide Act (Second Edition) B.E.2559 The Ministry of Tourism and Sports takes responsibility for tourism and develops standards in servicing tourism and tourism destinations as well as supporting tourism operations and guides so that they meet international standards. The Office of Tourism Development is the branch of government that replaces the Tourism Authority of Thailand in implementing this. There are provisions in the section which involves the measures determined in the draft of the Announcement by the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Environment, titled “Measures to Protect Coral Resources from Diving Tourism”. There are key sections as follow: Section 4. In this Act: “Tourism business” means a business relating to guiding tourists for touring or for other purposes of traveling by providing either one or several services or conveniences such as lodging, food, guidance, or any other services as prescribed in the Ministerial Regulation. “Tourist” means a person travelling from one place to another for the benefit of recreation, learning, entertainment, or any other cause. “Tour guide” means a person who regularly provides services in guiding tourists to various places by providing services in connection with recommendation and various kind of knowledge to the tourists.

Section 15. Any person who intends to operate a tourism business shall apply for a tourism business licence with the registrar. An application of licence, issuance of licence, and issuance of duplicate copy of licence shall be in accordance with the criteria and procedure prescribed in the Ministerial Regulation.

Section 23. A tourism business entrepreneur shall display a tourism business licence in public where it can be easily seen at a premise of tourism business as specified in such licence.

Section 33. By providing a tour guide or tour leader to accompany tourists, a tourism business entrepreneur shall merely engage a licenced tour guide or a registered tour leader under this Act, as the case may be. By travelling to perform a duty of tour guide or tour leader under paragraph one, it shall be deemed that such tour guide or tour leader acts in the course of employment of the tourism business entrepreneur.

Section 64. Any person who intends to be a tour leader shall register this with the Office pursuant to the criteria and procedure prescribed in the Ministerial Regulation.

Section 80. Any person who operates a tourism business without a tourism business operating licence under section 15 shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or to a fine not over five hundred thousand baht, or both.

Section 81. Any tourism business entrepreneur who fails to comply with section 23 shall be liable to a fine of no more than two thousand baht.

Section 85. Any tourism business entrepreneur who fails to comply with section 33 shall be liable to a fine not over five hundred thousand baht.

Section 86. Any person who performs duties as a tour guide without a tour guide licence under section 49 shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or to a fine not over one hundred thousand baht, or to both.

6.2.2 Ministerial Regulations on Tourism and Sports: Permission required for tourism businesses to operate B.E. 2561 The key points relevant to coral resources and diving tourism activity operation are as follow: Item 6: Any person who applies for permission to operate a diving or snorkelling tourism which uses Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus must provide the following documents: 1) A copy of boat registration according to the relevant law. 2) A copy of the permit allowing telecommunications equipment use according to the relevant law. 3) A copy of the permit allowing access and staying in National Parks. 83

4) A copy of the guarantee of the standards of the diving equipment. 5) A copy of the guarantee of the presence of dive controllers and/or dive instructors which has been issued by the organization which the Minister prescribes.

6.3 Measures relative to diving

6.3.1 Use of mooring buoys for various purposes 1) Mooring buoys for parking boats. These are installed for parking boats to prevent dropping anchors onto reefs. In National Parks, there are mooring buoys divided into three sizes with different colours. White buoys are small (40cm diameter), orange are mid-sized (50cm diameter), yellow are large sized (80cm diameter). For DMCR buoys there is only one colour, orange, and they are all the same size. 2) Buoys for the purpose of buoying-off certain conservation areas are a kind of small buoy (about 20cm diameter) tied in long chains and installed around coral reef areas which are forbidden for boats to access, because they risk damaging the coral reef, and to protect it from activities which might have an impact on the ecosystem. These Buoys indicate that such areas are conservation areas. Buoys might completely surround the coral reef, or only surround it in part. The distance between each buoy depends on the area’s situation. There is a main float divided into two types.  Orange circular main buoy, similar to a mooring buoy for boat parking but with no rope for tying the boat onto.  Blue cylindrical main buoy floating vertically. In some areas, because blue isn’t easy to notice, this buoy might be painted red. 3) Buoyed-off swimming areas. The Marine and Coastal Rescue Centre at Pattaya has devised a system of large buoys (120 cm diameter) tied in chains. The buoys are red alternating with white, and there are concrete bases to hold the buoys in place. These are for marine activities and are installed in the sea near sandy beaches, which are popular for tourists to swim on, to prevent swimmers from being harmed by passing ships.

6.3.2 Methods for correct mooring buoy use as advised by National Parks 1) When mooring to the buoy, the boat must be in neutral gear and a grappling hook should be used to grasp the mooring line and bring it onto the boat. It must be tied to one of the boat’s mooring lines, so that it is as long as possible. If the mooring buoy’s trail line is tied directly onto the boat, this decreases the buoy’s usable lifespan because the mooring line is continually abraded at the same spot. In addition, the buoy might hit the boat and cause damage. Indeed, when the buoy floats on the sea surface, this helps to absorb the traction force when there are waves, so if the rope is too short, or the buoy is 84 placed on the boat, this will increase this traction force and when there is sudden pressure on the line due to wind or waves, the rope might break. 2) The buoy’s trail line must be tied to a mooring line at the boat’s bow. This causes less traction pressure on the mooring line than tying it to a line at the boat’s stern, especially when the current is strong or waves are high. 3) When the boat’s mooring line has been tied to the buoy’s trail line, the boat’s engine must be turned off, and never left in gear. 4) If waves are high, the boat should not be tied to a mooring buoy. If tying a boat to a mooring buoy is unavoidable, the buoy’s trail line must be tied to a boat mooring line which is as long as possible. 5) Only one boat should be tied to each mooring buoy, several boats tied to each other and using a single mooring buoy might cause too much traction force, which might shorten the usable lifespan of the buoy. 6) Mooring buoys should be used for dive-related tourism activities as necessary, and when such activities are finished, the boat should detach from the buoy for others to use it. 7) When mooring buoy use is finished and the boat leaves the area, the engine should be started before releasing the buoy’s trail line, and reverse gear should be used to back away from the buoy, or the boat should be allowed to drift from the mooring point before moving away carefully. The propeller must not be allowed to cut the mooring line or the buoy.

6.3.3 Special cases for diving site closure Beside the laws involving divers, there are some other measures that have been announced for special cases, to which divers must abide strictly. Most of these are for responding to events which impact coral reef fertility. For example, announcing diving site closure for special cases. The responsible organization may announce dive site closure to decrease disturbance from human activities, for example when there was coral bleaching in 2010, at which time coral reefs in Thailand were impacted in a wide area including the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea. During this event, the Department of Natural Parks, Wildlife and Plants announced the closure for diving tourism activities of 18 sites in eight National Parks.

6.3.4 Limitation of the number of tourists Coral reefs have the capacity to receive a certain number of tourists at a suitable rate which will cause minimal damage to the coral reef ecosystem and will allow it to recover naturally. At the same time, the tourists’ satisfaction with a coral reef depends on 85 the fertility and beauty of that reef. Tourists tend not to enjoy going to sites where there are too many people. Limitating the number of tourists is an effective way of managing National Parks which can be applied for use in coral reefs in general to sustain their fertility and to maintain the tourists’ satisfaction. In general, the number of tourists that a coral reef can receive doesn’t only depend on factors that stem from the coral reef itself, but from the tourists’ skill, experience and awareness of the conservation of natural resources.

6.3.5 Announcement of the Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plants to limit the number of tourists The Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plants has announced carrying capacity (C.C.) as summarized in the study results shown in the tables below.

Table showing the upper limit of tourist numbers (carrying capacity) in Mu Koh Surin National Park, Phang-nga province site Carrying capacity (number of individuals)

Maximum number of Maximum number of individuals at individuals at any one time (day any one time (overnight stay) trip) Terrestrial site Ao Chong Khad 470 220 Haad Mai Ngam 1,073 400 Snorkelling site Ao Mai Ngam - 56 Koh Stok - 45 Ao Jaak - 48 Ao Pak Kaad - 45 Koh Mung Korn 21 Ao Suthep - 57 Ao Hin Kong - 40 Scuba diving site Ao Mayai - 45 Koh Torinla - 47 Ao Tao 28 Richelieu Rock 40

Table showing the upper limit of tourist numbers (carrying capacity) in Mu Koh Similan National Park, Phang-nga province site Carrying capacity (number of individuals)

Maximum number of Maximum number of individuals at individuals at any one time (day any one time (overnight stay) trip) Terrestrial site Similan Outpost 1 (Koh Miang) 250 120 Similan Outpost 2 (Koh Similan) 200 60 Similan Outpost 3 (Koh Tachai) 70 Snorkelling site Koh Miang (2 sites) - 80 Koh Ha-Koh Payu (1 site) 30 Koh number 7 100 Koh Similan (2 sites) 100 Koh Ba-ngu (1 site) 70 Scuba diving site Koh Miang (1 site) 40 Koh Ha-Koh Payu (1 site) 40 Koh number 7 40 Hin Pusar 80 Koh Similan (number 8) (3 sites) 100 Koh Ba-ngu (number 9) Kong Hin 100 Christmas (3 sites) Koh Bon 60 Koh Tachai (2 sites) 50

6.4 Conservation activities and cooperation in conservation activities At present there are governmental or private sector organizations, which take care of marine and coastal resources and are committed to protecting and restoring natural resources in coral reefs, so many activities are being held to raise awareness of the conservation of coral reef resources, e.g. coral reef cleanups, mooring buoy installations, coral reef surveys and reporting, campaigns for diving with care, etc. Such activities accommodate new or experienced divers but what must be considered is that these types of activity require divers with good diving skills and buoyancy control. Many projects require that divers who join the activity must have an advanced diving certificate, because this is not recreational diving. During the activity, if something goes wrong, for example if gear becomes entangled with coral, the diver must apply the right reasoning to solve the problem immediately. Working underwater can cause divers to become exhausted, use more air than normal, suffer decompression illness, or run out of air. Some types of work require high-level skills such as using a lift bag to lift heavy weights, or underwater knot- tying skills. Divers who join such activities must adhere to the rules strictly, must be extremely careful and must not be a burden to other divers. 87

Underwater cleanups are activities that are held quite often. Marine garbage is usually a mix of discarded fishing equipment such as trash nets, monofilament lines and hooks which can cause damage to coral reefs and pose a danger for marine creatures. Ghost fishing gear can also be a danger for divers and ships. Consequently, underwater cleanups are good opportunities for divers, and require the participation of a great number of them, however they also require experienced divers, who have a capability equal to advanced level, or no less than 25 dives. What must be considered every time when working on these activities is: 1) The capability of divers to control their buoyancy. This is because when collecting garbage underwater, when working in a coral reef which has a fragile structure, touching it even slightly can also cause damage to coral. 2) To remove the entangled garbage from coral requires consideration for the damage to the coral that might occur as a result. 3) Appropriate clothing. Submersible pressure gauges, alternate air sources, and other equipment must be firmly attached to the BCD and not allowed to dangle and scrape along the reef. 4) Safety first. Consider the environment every time before working, for example current, turbidity and depth which might affect safe dive times, and always dive with one or more buddies. 5) Be careful with dangerous marine life such as sea urchins, hydroids, barnacles etc.

Section 7 Standards for diving tourism operations

7.1 Scuba diving standards In Thailand diving has been popular for a long time because Thailand has beautiful coral reefs which are popular with either native divers or foreigners. When considering the standards for scuba divers, they can be categorized as follow: 1) Standards for the dive operator 2) Standards for the dive controller All of these standards help create diving safety and help preserve coral reef resources for sustainable use.

7.1.1 Standards for the dive operator From the report about the increase in level of service of tourism activity projects by the Office of Tourism Development, standards for dive operators are recommended as follow: 1) Organization management standards 1.1) Career standards: this refers to the legal registration of the business operator. 1.2) Personnel standards: this refers to boat managers, dive leaders and marketing staff who have language capabilities. 1.3) Equipment standards: all kinds of diving equipment must be checked for accordance with international standards and be ready for use. 1.4) Diving boat standards: boats which are used for diving must meet the following criteria: - Marine department registration - Captains must have a boat driver’s license - There must be a qualified mechanic onboard - Crew must meet marine department standards - Navigation equipment must be complete - There must be enough life jackets for the number of people onboard - There must be enough lifeboats or life rafts onboard - There must be enough emergency oxygen for treatment and transport of patients - There must be first aid available - There must be enough fresh water stored onboard - There must be a clean lavatory - The boat must be cleaned regularly 89

- There must be a rubbish bin - There must be safety and boat rules manuals 1.5) Rubber dinghy standards: a rubber dingy must be used for sending and receiving divers from the boat to the dive site. 1.6) Diving insurance standards These consist of: - The right travel insurance to cover any risks that may occur. - Diving insurance. - Personnel who have passed a first aid training course. - Security for customers’ personal belongings. - Service satisfaction assessment. 1.7) Protection standards. Regulation must be informed to divers for safety. The guideline booklet should be available. 1.8) Diver qualification standards. The dive leader must observe the capability of the diver from diving certification card and log book. The number of divers has to be grouped with the appropriate ratio to the number of dive leaders. 2) Standards for providing knowledge to divers 2.1 Provide knowledge to divers on the following issues:  The dive site character. In order to know the general physical character of the dive site and things to be aware of.  Information concerning marine life that might be encountered including the dangers and what should be done about such creatures. 2.2 There must be a manual on board for divers to learn more about these standards. 2.3) There must be public awareness promotion for conservation and environmental diving practices. 3) Standards for cooperation with locals The dive operator should collaborate with the local community to sustainably manage tourism, such as hiring locals as staff and promoting conservation activities to the local community.

7.1.2 Standards for the dive controller The Ministry of Tourism and Sports has the authority to standardize/formulate the dive leader standards. The quality of dive leaders should be as follow: 1) Able to completely use the knowledge learned. 2) Know the dive sites well and have experience diving in each location. 3) Have a dive plan and assess environmental conditions before each dive. 4) Assess the strengths and weaknesses of the divers they take responsibility for. 5) Strictly observe safety rules. 90

6) Have conservation awareness and be a good role model. 7) Able to use English or other languages to communicate with foreign divers.

7.2 Environmentally friendly scuba diving and snorkelling Diving with awareness of conservation and taking responsibility for natural resources must be considered to avoid impacts to natural resources, there must be collaboration among divers, dive leaders and operators, and personal responsibility must be taken by all.

7.2.1 Best practice for scuba divers and snorkellers Snorkellers and scuba divers must strictly abide by diving rules, pay attention to suggestions from dive leaders and abide by the rules of the location. Therefore best practice includes: 1) For scuba diving: divers must strictly obey diving rules. They must maintain physical and mental health at all times, avoid drinking alcohol and using dangerous drugs on diving trips, prepare themselves in every way, get enough sleep and drink enough water before diving. 2) Listen to the pre-dive briefing about topography and general character of the dive site, the environment and route to be followed, and accept the suggestions of the dive controller. 3) Avoid touching coral or other marine life as well as stepping on, kicking or using any part of the body to touch it, especially when diving on a coral reef which is highly fragile. Divers must control their buoyancy and keep equipment firmly attached. 4) Dive with buddies at all times, especially when scuba diving, agree hand signals for underwater communication and plan what to do in case of buddy separation, as well as steps to take in emergencies. 5) For scuba diving: avoid rapid descents to the bottom if lacking experience, because fast descents might prevent divers from stopping before they hit the coral reef. 6) No finning in such a way as to stir up sediment which could then smother the coral. 7) Some scuba divers are likely to use pointers to find or touch marine life. This must be avoided. 8) Divers should learn about coral and the underwater environment, avoid chasing or catching marine life, because chasing stresses and scares creatures. Touching creatures directly may transmit disease from human to marine life, or the mucous which coats creatures’ skin might be wiped off. 9) Divers must dive near the boat or where the boat crew are able to keep a watch out for their security, and avoid diving on routes where boats travel frequently. 10) Divers should know and abide by the rules of diving sites because this increases 91 diver safety and helps conserve and care for these resources. 11) Avoid collecting creatures or their shells from the sea. 12) Photographic equipment might influence buoyancy and ability to move smoothly in the water, so this equipment should not be placed on coral when taking photos. When taking underwater photos, conditions should be assessed before accessing the target. The photos should be taken with care, flash and lighting should only be used as necessary. 13) No fish-feeding. 14) Garbage must not be disposed of at sea. 15) Divers should behave with respect to each other and avoid endangering others. They should be generous and help others as appropriate. 16) Divers should volunteer and help or promote marine environmental projects. However, they should also consider their skills and diving experience before collaborating in these activities. At the very least, they can help to spread information about correct environmental practices to others.

7.2.2 Best practice for dive leaders and guides Dive leaders and guides have a duty to ensure the safety of their customers when diving. At the same time, they should be able to control their divers so that they abide by the best practices for diving with awareness and safety and to decrease the impact on the marine resources. There are good practices to follow as below: 1) Strictly ensure safety in diving. Avoid compromises in case this causes danger to divers and a negative impact on the resource. 2) Provide tourists with information about boat safety rules. 3) Provide information about dive site rules, such as when diving in National Parks. 4) Give a pre-dive briefing on each dive site with details such as the unique points about the dive site, the depth, current, hazards and dive plan before each dive. 5) Provide correct knowledge about the ecology of the dive site and transmit conservation awareness to the divers. 6) Avoid using tools such as pointers to find, touch or move creatures for customers to see. A finger should be used to point instead. 7) Assess divers’ skills in order to take them to suitable spots. Avoid taking beginners to fragile reefs. 8) Be a good role model to divers. 9) Do not allow boats to drop anchor in the reef area. 10) Use mooring buoys in the correct manner every time. 11) Join environmental projects as a volunteer to assist and promote projects or organizations which protect the environment, and help spread correct knowledge about 92 the environment to others. 12) Support conservation properly, for example, devote time and labour or donate to projects related to environmental conservation as appropriate, and help generate support for conservation in the community.

7.3 Assessment of the activities and skills essential for tourists to access dive sites Coral reefs are all different in terms of coral community and vulnerability of coral species. A consideration by the dive leader of the skills and experience of scuba divers for diving at suitable dive sites is necessary in order to avoid damage to the coral reef. Normally, scuba divers need to prove that they have the ability to dive at a certain depth so before diving, the dive leader should ask to see divers’ certification, logbooks or medical approval forms. Dive leaders should assess divers’ skills especially if divers have not dived for over 3 months, therefore an orientation dive is a practice that should be used to assess divers’ skills before diving on a real reef. Divers should show basic skills including mask clearing, regulator recovery, neutral buoyancy adjustment, correct descent and ascent, and sharing alternate air sources.

7.4 Providing knowledge to tourists Providing knowledge to either scuba divers or snorkellers is an important duty for the dive leader or guide, so that divers behave correctly, dive smoothly and have a good diving experience. By considering the safety of the diver and not creating impacts on coral reefs, the process of transmitting knowledge before diving is a good opportunity to give information about the dive site to divers and can also create conservation awareness in tourists. In general, providing knowledge to scuba divers and snorkellers includes: 1) Boat briefing which refers to giving information about the boat, how to live onboard, facilities onboard and how to keep clean, taking care of the environment and behaviour in case of emergencies. 2) Pre-dive briefing refers to providing information about the dive site, points of interest, potential hazards, and includes the descent and ascent spots, dive time to avoid decompression sickness, all for the safety of divers and to decrease the impact on coral reefs.

References / Read more

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