SPEAKING THROUGH THE PROPHETS: ALJAMIADO LEGENDS AS SPACES OF HISTORICAL NEGOTIATION by DONALD WALTER WOOD (Under the Direction of Noel Fallows) ABSTRACT This dissertation is a critical examination of five Aljamiado legends of biblical and qur‘ānic prophets likely composed in Aragon, Spain in the sixteenth-century. Having left no extant record of the historical and political events that shaped their lives, the Moriscos – those Muslims who converted to Christianity either by force or choice – have remained largely enigmatic figures. The portrait scholars have been able to form of this heterogeneous group is at best a speculative and piece-meal depiction based largely on the writings of Christian apologists, polemicists, and historians who were either themselves contemporaries of the Moriscos or who formulated accounts of these people based on biased perceptions and second-hand knowledge. To this end, I propose a close reading of Morisco writings that blends elements of a number of theoretical approaches from New Historicism and cultural anthropology, with the aim of uncovering glimpses of the Moriscos‘ own accounts of their histories. In order to achieve this goal, one must view each legend as a single contribution to a web of discursive strands that together contributed to a more complete historical representation of the Moriscos. Each chapter of this study is an independent examination of the dominant religious, historical, socio-cultural, and ethical themes contained within each legend. These themes are then situated as closely as possible within the historical milieu of sixteenth-century Spain. After an introductory chapter briefly outlining the history of previous scholarship on Aljamiado literature and my own theoretical approach to these works, Chapter Two considers the themes of geography, memory, and prophecy. The third chapter examines the practice of religious dissimulation and the interactions between public and private spaces. Chapter Four first turns to the role of the alfaquí as Morisco religious and social leader. Then, I examine the two disparate themes of magic and the roles of men and women. Chapter Five begins with an analysis of the psychological and physical negotiations of power, followed by a study of epidemics such as leprosy and plagues in Morisco communities. Chapter Six examines Morisco eschatological theory, burial observances, and understandings of the afterlife. INDEX WORDS: Moriscos, crypto-Muslims, Islam, Aljamiado literature, Aljamía, medieval Spain, early modern Spain, Aragon, sixteenth century, prophets, prophecy, legends, Qur‘ān, Qisas al-anbiyā‘, didactic literature, New Historicism, religious dissimulation, Spanish Inquisition, power relations, magic, epidemics, plagues, eschatology, burial practices SPEAKING THROUGH THE PROPHETS: ALJAMIADO LEGENDS AS SPACES OF HISTORICAL NEGOTIATION by DONALD WALTER WOOD BA, BM, State University of New York College at Potsdam, 2005 MA, University of Georgia, 2007 A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ATHENS, GEORGIA 2012 © 2012 Donald Walter Wood All Rights Reserved SPEAKING THROUGH THE PROPHETS: ALJAMIADO LEGENDS AS SPACES OF HISTORICAL NEGOTIATION by DONALD WALTER WOOD Major Professor: Noel Fallows Committee: Dana Bultman Elizabeth Wright Lesley Feracho Benjamin Ehlers Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia August 2012 DEDICATION To Thomas for your love, inspiration, and continued motivation… iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would first like to thank my major professor, Dr. Noel Fallows, for his endless support, advice, guidance, and positivity during this project. It was Dr. Fallows who first introduced me to Aljamiado literature during my Masters studies by way of the endlessly intriguing Poema de Yúçuf. This work sparked an interest and drive in me that I had not experienced before, and I have since dedicated myself to furthering my understanding and knowledge of this unique niche within Spanish literature. Dr. Fallows continues to offer inspiration, new ideas, and tremendous encouragement. In addition, I offer my heart-felt thanks to my committee members – Dr. Elizabeth Wright, Dr. Dana Bultman, Dr. Leslie Feracho, and Dr. Benjamin Ehlers – each of whom has contributed their time, knowledge, and experience to instill in me a well-rounded arsenal of approaches to literature and criticism. I consider myself particularly fortunate to have been able to work with Dr. Ehlers during both my master‘s and doctoral studies given his expertise in and extensive knowledge of Morisco history. Also, I offer a sincere debt of gratitude to Dr. Vincent Barletta, Associate Professor of Iberian and Latin American Cultures at Stanford University, who early on in my studies of Aljamiado texts fielded my e-mails and clarified many of my initial questions. His monumental work Covert Gestures has been a primary source of inspiration and reference throughout the writing of this dissertation. My own work is largely inspired by Dr. Barletta‘s theoretical approaches to Aljamiado texts and my hope is that it lives up to the standard set forth by this gifted scholar. v Finally, my heart-felt thanks and love are owed to my family, particularly my mother, Connie, who has never faltered in her support and encouragement. I would not have made it this far without her many assurances that I can achieve whatever I set out to do. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................v LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... ix PRELIMINARY NOTES ................................................................................................................x CHAPTER 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................1 Toward a History of Aljamiado Studies ..................................................................1 Approaches to Historical and Cultural Analysis ....................................................10 2 The Hadīth de Ibrahīm: Lands of Punishment, Penitence, and Providence ................18 Establishing a Local Flavor: Pan de ordio .............................................................23 Frozen Moments and Sedentary Beings ................................................................36 Al-Andalus: An Island of Prophecy .......................................................................51 ‗Eīd al-ADhā and the Rewards of Devotion ..........................................................62 Concluding Remarks ..............................................................................................67 3 The Hadith de Mūsā kon Yaku el karnicero: Heterogeneity, Clandestine Lives, and Enduring Hope .............................................................................................................69 Bani Israel and the Effects of Heterogeneity .........................................................70 Taqiyya, Secrecy, and Suspicions ..........................................................................79 Palimsestic Morals: Explicit and Interpreted Teachings .......................................95 4 The Rrekontamiyento de Sulāymān: Honorable Leaders and Magical Lives ............101 vii The Morisco alfaquí .............................................................................................103 Talismans, Amulets, and Other Mysteries ...........................................................117 Domestic Justice ..................................................................................................130 5 The Estoriya i rrekontamiyento de Ayūb: Negotiating Relationships of Power, Limits of Authority, and Roles of Pestilence ........................................................................140 Relationships of Power and Authority .................................................................142 Inquisitorial Denunciations, Monitions, and Punishments ..................................150 Physical and Spiritual Disease .............................................................................172 Restoration: The Fulfillment of Prophecy?..........................................................184 6 The Hadish i rrekontamiyento de „Īsā kon la kalavera: A Morisco Understanding of Death and the Afterlife...............................................................................................188 Preparing for Ritual: The Importance of Water ...................................................190 The Agony of Separation .....................................................................................194 Burial Rites in Christianity and Islam ..................................................................200 Munkar and Nakīr: Inquisitors in Death ..............................................................215 Punishments in the Grave: To Hell and Back ......................................................225 7 Conclusions ................................................................................................................232 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................238 viii LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1: La Rendición de Granada ..............................................................................................44