FisheriesVol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015

Pallid and the Challenge of Managing Climate Change Effects Commercial Monitoring Guidance

Fisheries Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015

JOURNAL SUMMARIES 3 Stocked Piscivores May Be Tougher ­ Than We Thought Jeff Schaeffer

3 Increasing Survival Rates of Discarded Red Snapper: Best Release Strategies Sarah Harrison

3 Red Snapper with stomach protruding through mouth. COLUMN Photo credit: Greg Stunz. POLICY 5 Culverts as Culprit and Conservation Choice Thomas E. Bigford

ESSAYS AND FEATURES 6 Broadening the Regulated- Management Paradigm: A Case Study of the Forgotten Dead Zone Hindering Pallid Sturgeon Recovery Christopher S. Guy, Hilary B. Treanor, Kevin M. Kappenman, Eric A. Scholl, Jason E. Ilgen, and Molly A. H. Webb

15 Climate Change Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems and the Challenge for Fishery Management: Pink Shrimp of the Southern Gulf of Mexico Francisco Arreguín-Sánchez, Pablo del Monte-Luna, and Manuel J. Zetina-Rejón An IMTA site in the Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick, Canada. 28 Photo credit: Thierry Chopin. 20 Guiding Principles for Development of Effective Commercial Fishery Monitoring Programs Erika A. Zollett, Robert J. Trumble, Jill H. Swasey, and Shawn B. Stebbins

26 An Introduction to Free Geographic Information Systems in Science Ben C. Neely and Brandon L. Eder

28 Marine Aquaculture in Canada: Well-Established Monocultures of Finfish and Shellfish and an Emerging Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) Approach Including Seaweeds, Other Invertebrates, and Microbial Communities Thierry Chopin

32 Notothenioid . Photo credit: Paul Cziko.

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 1 RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS 32 Fishes on the Move as Oceans Heat Up Fisheries Natalie Sopinka American Fisheries Society • www.fisheries.org SAMPLINGS

EDITORIAL / SUBSCRIPTION / CIRCULATION OFFICES 33 On Twitter 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 110•Bethesda, MD 20814-2199 33 In the Blogs (301) 897-8616 • fax (301) 897-8096 • [email protected] 33 In the Books The American Fisheries Society (AFS), founded in 1870, is the oldest and largest professional society representing fisheries 34 Look and Listen scientists. The AFS promotes scientific research and enlight- 34 Quotes ened management of aquatic resources for optimum use and enjoyment by the public. It also encourages comprehensive 35 Snapshots education of fisheries scientists and continuing on-the-job training. AFS NEWS AFS OFFICERS EDITORS 36 Fishery Analysis and Modeling Simulator PRESIDENT CHIEF SCIENCE EDITORS (FAMS) Now Available for Windows 7 and 8 Donna L. Parrish Jeff Schaeffer Andrew Loftus Olaf P. Jensen PRESIDENT ELECT Ron Essig SCIENCE EDITORS INTERVIEW Kristen Anstead FIRST VICE PRESIDENT Marilyn “Guppy” Blair 37 Q&A: The Present and the Future of World Joe Margraf Jim Bowker and U.S. Fisheries: Interview with Daniel Mason Bryant Pauly SECOND VICE PRESIDENT Steven R. Chipps Steve L. McMullin Ken Currens Arnaud Grüss Andy Danylchuk PAST PRESIDENT Michael R. Donaldson Bob Hughes Andrew H. Fayram JOURNAL HIGHLIGHTS Stephen Fried 42 North American Journal of Fisheries EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR Larry M. Gigliotti Doug Austen Madeleine Hall-Arbor Management, Volume 34, Number 6, Alf Haukenes December 2014 Jeffrey E. Hill FISHERIES STAFF Deirdre M. Kimball Jeff Koch SENIOR EDITOR 36 AFS NEW MEMBERS Jim Long Doug Austen Daniel McGarvey Jeremy Pritt DIRECTOR OF Roar Sandodden 42 CORRECTION PUBLICATIONS Jesse Trushenski Aaron Lerner Usha Varanasi Jeffrey Williams 43 CALENDAR MANAGING EDITOR Sarah Fox BOOK REVIEW EDITOR Francis Juanes CONTRIBUTING EDITORS ABSTRACT TRANSLATION COVER Beth Beard Pablo del Monte-Luna Sarah Harrison Endangered Pallid Sturgeon ( albus) at Gavin’s Point National Hatchery, Yankton, South DUES AND FEES FOR 2015 ARE: Dakota. Photo by Joel Sartore. $80 in North America ($95 elsewhere) for regular members, $20 in North America ($30 elsewhere) for student members, and $40 ($50 elsewhere) for retired members. Fisheries (ISSN 0363-2415) is published monthly by the American ­Fisheries Society; 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 110; Bethesda, MD 20814-2199 Fees include $19 for Fisheries subscription. © copyright 2015. Periodicals postage paid at Bethesda, Maryland, and at an additional mailing office. A copy of Fisheries Guide for Authors is Nonmember and library subscription rates are $182. available from the editor or the AFS website, www.fisheries.org. If request- ing from the managing editor, please enclose a stamped, self-addressed envelope with your request. Republication or systematic or multiple repro- duction of material in this publication is permitted only under consent or license from the American Fisheries Society. Postmaster: Send address changes to Fisheries, American Fisheries ­Society; 5410 Grosvenor Lane, Suite 110; Bethesda, MD 20814-2199.

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2 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 JOURNAL SUMMARY Stocked Piscivores May Be Tougher Than We Thought Jeff Schaeffer U.S. Geological Survey, USGS Great Lakes Science Center, ­ 1451 Green Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48105. E-mail: [email protected]

Many sport fish populations are maintained by stocking age-0 piscivores, and success depends on survival of the stocked fish. Managers have often encountered short-term mortality via predation, but are also concerned with overwinter mortality during the first year after stocking. Many species exhibit shifts toward larger body sizes over winter; this has often been attributed to size-selective mortality with smaller individuals dying at higher rates than large ones. A common belief is that small individuals lack energy reserves to make it through the cold temperatures. However, recent findings by Jahn Kallis and Elizabeth Marschall at The Ohio State University suggest that this view may be oversimplified (Kallis and Marschall 2014). Using both tagging and pool experiments, they found that overwinter shifts in size distributions in saugeye (female Walleye Sander vitreus x male Sauger S. Canadensis) stocked in Ohio reservoirs were driven by growth, and not mortality. Tagged saugeye of all sizes grew during winter; there was no evidence of size dependent overwinter mortality or evidence of energy depletion. However, pool experiments revealed their true overwinter resilience. Saugeye residing in outdoor pools survived 200 days in the complete absence of food. They lost weight, and their energy density declined, but all survived and were able to resume feeding in the spring when presented with fathead minnows. Although this experiment was conducted on a single species, it suggests that temperate piscivores may be more durable than thought previously, and that overwinter conditions may not be as universally stressful as we think. The approach used by Kallis and Marschall (2014) not only explained that shifts in size distribution were due to growth rather than mortality, but their methods also provide researchers with a way to examine overwinter effects in other species as well.

REFERENCE Kallis, J. L., and E. A. Marschall. 2014. How body size and food availability Influence first-winter growth and survival of a stocked piscivore. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 143:1434-1444.

JOURNAL SUMMARY Increasing Survival Rates of Discarded­ Red Snapper: Best Release Strategies Sarah Harrison AFS Contributing Editor. E-mail: [email protected]

Red Snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) is one of the most highly sought-after fish in the Gulf of Mexico and also one of the most intensively managed. Considered overfished since the 1980s, anglers have had to endure shortened fishing seasons in an fortef to rebuild the stock. Last year, the Red Snapper recreational season was reduced to just nine days in federal waters; this year’s 2015 season is likely to be even shorter. Combine this with bag limits of just two fish in addition to strict size requirements (16-inch minimum total length limit), and many captured Red Snapper have to be released or discarded. The impact of these “regulatory ” to the fishery remains controversial as well as the most effective release strategy (i.e., venting, non-venting, and rapid recompression) at increasing the chances of survival for discarded Red Snapper (Stunz and Curtis 2012). So what happens to released/discarded Red Snapper? According to scientists at the Harte Research Institute for Gulf of Mexico Studies at Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi, Red Snapper, a deep-dwelling physoclist (i.e., the swim bladder is completely closed, separated from the gut through loss of the pneumatic gland), can suffer pressure-related injuries (i.e., barotrauma) when brought to the surface during capture. Fish suffer from barotrauma, when gas in the swim bladder expands because pressure decreases during ascent, and they may exhibit symptoms such as an expanded abdomen, the stomach protruding through the mouth, or bulging eyes (i.e., exopthalmia). In addition to inflicting direct injuries, barotrauma can also make it difficult for fish to return to deeper waters due to increased buoyancy, and as a result, these fish can become an easy meal for predators when floating at the surface. In an effort to improve Red Snapper survival rates, Greg Stunz, Karen Drumhiller, Matthew Johnson, Sandra Diamond, and Megan Reese Robillard conducted a study on ways to relieve barotrauma-related injuries and evaluated two releasing strategies as reported

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 3 in the current issue of the American Fisheries Society’s journal of Marine and Coastal Fisheries: Dynamics, Management, and Ecosystem Science (Drumhiller et al. 2014). One method they tested was venting, also known historically as the “pop-and-drop” method. Traditionally seen as the accepted method of getting fish back down to the bottom, a hollow instrument is inserted into a fish’s body cavity to release built-up gases so the fish can easily re-submerge. However, according to Stunz, “a major issue with venting is that many anglers do not know the proper technique and often try and vent the fish’s stomach that is protruding from the mouth,” causing more harm than good. The other method they tested was rapid recompression, a relatively newer and non-invasive method, where the fish is returned to a specified depth. A wide variety of recompression devices exist, including weighted hooks and drop cages, as well as the latest developments: specialized release hooks and pressure- activated lip-grips (SeaQualizer). Returning a fish to depth using a Red Snapper with stomach protruding through mouth. Photo credit: Greg Stunz. recompression device may take several minutes as well as require dedicated gear and personnel. In comparison, venting takes a relatively short amount of time (typically ≤ 1 minute). One impediment in understanding the effects of barotrauma- related injuries is the inability of scientists to observe the fate of released fish. To solve this problem, Stunz and his team conducted laboratory experiments using aquatic hyperbaric chambers to simulate fishing events and test the two release strategies. Fish were placed in chambers, acclimated to depth, and then rapidly decompressed to stimulate a catch-and-release event. After decompression, fish were examined for barotrauma-related injuries and then assigned to one of four treatment groups: (1) vented surface release = vented with a hollow metal venting tool and then released at the surface into an aquaculture tank; (2) non- vented surface release = released at the surface into a tank without venting; (3) vented and rapidly recompressed = vented as above but returned to the hyperbaric chambers and repressurized to a Red Snapper being placed inside an aquatic hyperbaric depth group (0, 30, or 60 m) within 1–2 minutes; and (4) non- ­chamber. Photo credit: Greg Stunz. vented and rapidly recompressed = returned to the hyperbaric chambers without venting and repressurized to a depth group (0, 30, or 60 m) within 1–2 minutes. Experimental results indicated that Red Snapper that were vented or rapidly recompressed had higher survival rates than non- vented or non-recompressed fish. Vented fish in the simulated surface release group (1) had 100% overall survival, while non-vented surface release fish (2) had 58% overall survival. For non-vented surface release fish (2), a depth fectef was also present with 67% and 17% survival in fish decompressed from 30 m and 60 m, respectively. Fish that were vented and rapidly recompressed (3) had 100% overall survival, while non-vented and rapidly recompressed (4) fish had a 92% overall survival. A depth effect was also present with the non-vented and rapidly recompressed group (4): 100% survival from 30 m and 83% survival from 60 m. These results show clear benefits of venting or rapid recompression as effective tools for alleviating barotrauma symptoms, improving predator evasion, and increasing overall survival of regulatory discarded Red Snapper. Their study also illustrates that venting alone is a beneficial technique when performed properly. As of September 2013, anglers are no longer required to have and use a venting tool when fishing for reef fish, such as Red Snapper, in federal waters of the Gulf of Mexico (U.S. Office of the Federal Register 2013). This change now gives anglers the freedom to choose the best release strategy. According to Stunz, this is a positive step, because “the rule prevented the ‘legal’ use of recompression devices that are very effective.” “Furthermore, some fish do not need to be vented; however, it takes some experience to know when this is the case.” Overall, Stunz and his research team recommend, “venting when a lot of fish are hitting the deck, because it is faster.” However, they suggest that “recompression is actually better than venting-only, because it returns fish back to the depth (and temperature) they were captured and you avoid the surface predation.” For a video of a Red Snapper being recompressed using the SeaQualizer descending device: www.youtube.com/watch?v=hvdBhhEQCSc

REFERENCES Drumhiller, K. L., M. W. Johnson, S. L. Diamond, M. M. Reese Robillard, and G. W. Stunz. 2014. Venting or rapid recompression increase survival and improve recovery of Red Snapper with barotrauma. Marine and Coastal Fisheries: Dynamics, Management, and Ecosystem Science 6:190-199. Stunz, G. W., and J. Curtis. 2012. Examining delayed mortality in barotrauma afflicted red snapper using acoustic telemetry and hyperbaric experimentation. SEDAR31-DW21. SEDAR, North Charleston, South Carolina. U.S. Office of the Federal Register. 2013. Fisheries of the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and South Atlantic; reef fish fishery of the Gulf of Mexico; reef fish management measures, final rule. Federal Register 78:149(2 August 2013):46820– 46822.

4 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 COLUMN POLICY

Culverts as Culprit and AFS Policy Director Thomas E. Bigford Conservation Choice [email protected] Thomas E. Bigford, AFS Policy Director

We hear often about climate change, the perils of -level now, with confidence, at the waterway level. One jarring lesson rise and acidification, and other ominous threats. While lingering was offered by Tropical Storm Irene (2011), where a “500-year uncertainty and burgeoning costs are slowing our response to storm” filled Northeastern watersheds, blasted culverts, scoured those global issues, we can make significant progress against roadbeds, re-arranged sediments, and either removed woody more local challenges by applying sound logic and available material or clogged miles of productive habitat. Super Storm technology. One of these “low-hanging” opportunities offers Sandy, a mud slide in the Northwest, spring snow melts, and other benefits to all, including fish. I’m thinking specifically about events throughout the country delivered comparable disasters to culverts. It’s rather simple: Tweak some outdated policies and nearly everyone’s doorsteps. The threats are complicated further priorities, share basic facts about how reduced flood threats and in areas suffering from unusual fires, which often increase erosion improved road-stream crossings will benefit vehicles and fish, and add even more sediments and wood to our waterways. and then let the fish do what once came naturally. Sometimes aquatic habitats are reset and even improved by these The focus on culverts is based on recent experience with massive events, but the unpredictable and dangerous nature of severe weather events. While sea levels may rise appreciably these events is where we can do better. We don’t need to suffer over the course of decades, the climate-driven fight to defend through such expense and inconvenience. Smarter governance freshwater fish populations and their habitats can be engaged and more resilient infrastructure offer benefits to all. Continued on page 44

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 5 Broadening the Regulated-River Management A Case Study of the ­Forgotten Dead Zone ­Hindering Pallid Paradigm: ­Sturgeon Recovery

6 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 FEATURE

The global proliferation of dams within the last half century has prompted ecologists to understand the effects of regulated on large-river fishes. Currently, much of the effort to mitigate the influence of dams on large-river fishes has been focused on downriver effects, and little attention has been given to upriver effects. Through a combination of field observations and laboratory experiments, we tested the hypothesis that abiotic conditions upriver of the dam are the mechanism for the lack of recruitment in Pallid Sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus albus), an iconic large-river . Here we show for the first time that anoxic upriver habitat in reservoirs (i.e., the transition zone between the river and reservoir) is responsible for the lack of recruitment in Pallid Sturgeon. The anoxic condition in the transition zone is a function of reduced river velocities and the concentration of fine particulate organic material with high microbial respiration. As predicted, the river upstream of the transition zone was oxic at all sampling locations. Our results indicate that transition zones are an ecological sink for Pallid Sturgeon. We argue that ecologists, engineers, and policy makers need to broaden the regulated-river paradigm to consider upriver and downriver effects of dams equally to comprehensively mitigate altered ecosystems for the benefit of large-river fishes, especially for the Pallid Sturgeon.

Ampliando el paradigma de manejo de la regulación de ríos: la olvidada zona muerta como obstáculo para la recuperación del esturión pálido La proliferación de presas a nivel global durante el último medio siglo, ha llevado a los ecólogos a tratar de comprender los efectos que tiene la regulación de ríos sobre los grandes peces de agua dulce. Actualmente, gran parte de los esfuerzos dirigidos a mitigar la influencia de las presas en los grandes peces de agua dulce se han enfocado en los efectos observados en la porción inferior de las cuencas y poca atención se le ha dado a los efectos río-arriba. A través de una combinación de Christopher S. Guy observaciones de campo y experimentos de laboratorio, se probó la U.S. Geological Survey, Cooperative hipótesis de que las condiciones abióticas río-arriba en las presas son el Fishery Research Unit, Department of Ecology, Fish and Wildlife Ecology and Management mecanismo que explica las fallas del reclutamiento del esturión pálido Program, Montana State University, P.O. Box (Scaphirhynchus albus), una icónica especie de agua dulce, de gran 173460, Bozeman, MT 59717. E-mail: cguy@ tamaño, catalogada como amenazada. Se muestra por vez primera que montana.edu la anoxia en hábitats río-arriba en los reservorios (i.e., zonas de transición entre ríos y reservorios) es probablemente responsable de las fallas en el Hilary B. Treanor reclutamiento del esturión pálido. Las condiciones de anoxia en la zona Montana State University, Department of de transición es función de la reducción de la velocidad de flujo del río ­Ecology, Bozeman, MT y la concentración de material orgánico fino particulado, con un alto Kevin M. Kappenman contenido de respiración microbiana. Como se predijo, las condiciones U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bozeman Fish del río por encima de la zona de transición fueron óxicas en todos los Technology Center, Bozeman, MT sitios de muestreo. Los resultados indican que las zonas de transición representan un sumidero para el esturión pálido, Se argumenta que los Eric A. Scholl Montana State University, Department of ecólogos, ingenieros y tomadores de decisiones requieren de ampliar el ­Ecology, Bozeman, MT paradigma de la regulación de ríos, con el objeto de incluir los efectos que tienen las presas tanto río-arriba como río-abajo y, así mismo, mitigar Jason E. Ilgen and Molly A. H. Webb sistemáticamente los ecosistemas afectados en beneficio de los grandes U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bozeman Fish peces de agua dulce, especialmente el esturión pálido. Technology Center, Bozeman, MT

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 7 INTRODUCTION this understanding has contributed to the implementation of environmental flow management on thousands of river The proliferation of dams within the last century has been kilometres worldwide. …” (p.149). Given that much of the focus a response to human population growth in order to provide has been on downriver responses to flow management, less is services such as flood control, hydropower, irrigation, water understood regarding the upriver effects of dams on aquatic supply, navigation, and recreation. For example, dams account biota, especially on recruitment of large-river fishes such as the for 12–16% of the world’s food production and generate 19% Pallid Sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus albus). of the world’s electricity—approximately one third of the The Pallid Sturgeon is endemic to the Missouri and countries in the world obtain 50% of their electricity from Mississippi rivers and fossilized ancestors of the contemporary hydropower (World Commission on Dams [WCD] 2000). An Scaphirhynchus spp. date 75–80 million years before the present estimated 60% of the world’s rivers have been affected by dams (Grande and Hilton 2006, 2009; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and diversions (WCD 2000) with the contemporary number of 2014); however, within approximately two human generations, reservoirs estimated at 16.7 million greater than 0.01 km2 (2,249 Pallid Sturgeon distribution and abundance has been reduced km3) and 2,094 greater than 10 km2 (5,820 km3; Lehner et al. such that it was listed as endangered in the United States in 2011). Dams influence more than 40% of the global discharge 1990 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2014). It is estimated that (Vörösmarty et al. 2003) and fragment the ecological integrity of fewer than 175 naturally produced adult Pallid Sturgeon (i.e., river ecosystems (Nilsson et al. 2005). Given human population heritage fish) live in the free-flowing above Lake growth projections and global climate change, dam construction Sakakawea (hereafter termed upper Missouri River, which also will continue, especially in developing countries because the includes the Missouri River above Fort Peck Reservoir; U.S. most appropriate dam sites have already been exploited in Fish and Wildlife Service 2014). An important causal factor developed countries (WCD 2000). Undoubtedly, dams provide for the population reduction in the upper Missouri River is the benefits to human development, but these benefits come at a cost lack of survival in naturally produced Pallid Sturgeon (hereafter to the natural environment. termed recruitment). After spawning, hatch and the free embryo Pallid Sturgeon drift for long distances (approximately 200 to 500 km depending on water temperature and velocity), Within approximately two human near the substrate, and in the river thalweg (Braaten et al. 2010, 2012). The transformation of the upper and middle Missouri River from a free-flowing river to one fragmented by six large generations, Pallid Sturgeon mainstem dams is likely the cause for the lack of recruitment because there is not enough available drift distance for free distribution and abundance embryos to mature and settle out of the ichythoplankton before entering reservoirs (Braaten et al. 2012). For example, the has been reduced such that it distance from the known spawning locations to the river– reservoir transition zone (hereafter termed transition zone, an was listed as endangered in the area where the lotic ecosystem transforms to a lentic ecosystem) of at full pool was approximately 37 km (Braaten et al. 2012); similarly, the majority of adult Pallid United States in 1990. Sturgeon telemetry locations were within 75 km of the transition zone above Fort Peck Reservoir (Richards 2011). Despite this knowledge, how the transition zone influences recruitment Unfortunately, large-river fishes, such as species in the failure of Pallid Sturgeon was not understood. Order (sturgeon and ), live in Millions of U.S. dollars are spent annually on research, regions of the world where rivers are highly regulated (Billard ­conservation propagation, and habitat alterations (i.e., modifi- and Lecointre 2001; Nilsson et al. 2005; Lehner et al. 2011). cation of discharge from the dams and creation of habitat) for Because of dams and overharvest (the primary mechanisms), the recovery of Pallid Sturgeon; furthermore, it is estimated to 26 of the 27 species in the Order Acipenseriformes are listed as cost approximately $239,000,000 to implement all recovery vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered (Billard and tasks (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2014). The vast major- Lecointre 2001; Lorke and Yew 2005; also see International ity of funding is related to understanding the downriver effects Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened of dams on Pallid Sturgeon; we argue that fisheries biologists, Species at www.iucnredlist.org). Contemporary conservation of river managers, and policy makers must consider the upriver Acipenseriformes has focused on conservation propagation and effects of dams to ensure successful recovery. We hypothesized altering dam discharge to simulate natural flow and temperature that the upriver effects of dams (i.e., reservoirs and the associ- regimes (Billard and Lecointre 2001). ated transition zone) are as equally detrimental to the continued Elucidating the effects of dams on downriver habitat and existence of many large-river species as the downriver effects. aquatic biota has been an area of active science (e.g., Poff Thus, we focused our research efforts on the transition zone as et al. 1997, 2010; Bunn and Arthington 2002) because it has an ecological sink for pallid sturgeon. Here we present the first been suggested that flow is the key variable that influences evidence, via field measurements and laboratory experiments, the patterns and processes observed in rivers (e.g., Power et that environmental conditions in the transition zone are the al. 1995; Bunn and Arthington 2002). Furthermore, Poff et mechanism for the lack of Pallid Sturgeon recruitment, which al. (2010) stated, “It is now widely accepted that a naturally underscores the importance of considering upriver effects on variable regime of flow, rather than just a minimum low large-river fishes. flow, is required to sustain freshwater ecosystems … and

8 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 METHODS Measurements at 50, 75, and 100% of the maximum depth were collected in the thalweg and immediately outside the In 2012, a pilot study was initiated and water samples were thalweg on river left and right along each transect. In addition, collected at three depths (surface, 50% maximum depth, and vertical profile measurements were collected in the thalweg, and 100% maximum depth) using a Van Dorn sampler (Alpha water DO, water temperature, and velocity were measured at 0.25- sampler 2.2 L, Wildco, Yulee, FL) in the river and transition m increments. All DO and water temperature measurements zone above Fort Peck Reservoir, Montana. Samples were were measured using a YSI ProODO meter, and velocity was collected on 19 and 20 June 2012 when water temperatures in measured using a Marsh McBirney Flo-Mate 2000 (Hach, the river were optimal for Pallid Sturgeon spawning and embryo Loveland, CO). Unlike 2012, we collected all measurements in survival (Kappenman et al. 2013). Samples were emptied 2013 in situ because meter sensors were attached to a sounding into an 18.9-L plastic container and dissolved oxygen (DO), weight attached to the boat via cable. Measurements at the temperature, pH, and unionized ammonia were measured using maximum depth were 14 cm above the substrate because meter a YSI (Yellow Springs Instrument, Inc., Yellow Springs, OH) sensors were attached to the hanger bar for the sounding weight. Professional Plus meter. We were concerned about the dissolved Kruskal-Wallis test was used to compare dissolved oxygen oxygen measurements in 2012 because the meter would not concentration between habitat types and among depths because stabilize for samples near the substrate (i.e., at low dissolved these data were not normally distributed. oxygen). Thus, in 2013, we used the YSI ProODO, which uses Sediment samples were collected from the surface of the an optical sensor to measure dissolved oxygen and reduced benthos in the thalweg on 18 June 2013 by scraping the benthos uncertainty in our measurements. using a 250-mL plastic bottle attached to a metal rod. Sediment In 2013, DO, water temperature, and velocity were was collected in the river (i.e., sand; N = 5) and transition systematically measured along transects in the river and zone (i.e., silt; N = 8) at the same locations as the DO, water transition zone above Fort Peck Reservoir, Montana (Figure temperature, and velocity measurements. Approximately 10 1). Water velocity, substrate, and channel characteristics mL of sediment (only fine-grained) was placed in separate were used to delineate the river and transition zone. River 50-mL screw-top centrifuge tubes and stored on ice in the was defined as having surface water velocity ≥ 0.5 m/s, sand dark until samples were analyzed in the lab for sediment substrate, and a river channel within the riverbanks. The respiration rates. Additionally, river water was collected in the transition zone was defined as having a surface water velocity same area and stored on ice in dark conditions until analysis. ≥ 0.1 m/s and < 0.5 m/s, silt substrate, river channel not well Laboratory analysis followed methods outlined by Hill et al. confined, and the reach resembled a lentic environment. The (2000). Sediment samples were transferred from ice to ambient transition zone habitat has been previously described by Thorton conditions, set upright for the sediment to settle, and the water (1990). As in 2012, measurements were collected on 18 June was decanted. Each tube was filled to the top (being careful when water temperatures in the river were optimal for Pallid to leave room for air bubbles) with filtered (0.7 μm pore size) Sturgeon spawning (Kappenman et al. 2013). Transects within river water, sealed, and incubated for at least 2 h in ambient each habitat type were spaced approximately 1 km apart. temperatures (mean 23.8°C) in the dark. ­

Figure 1. Sampling locations in the Missouri River and river–reservoir transition zone in Fort Peck Reservoir, Montana.

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 9 Table 1 . Results of dissolved oxygen (mg/L), temperature (°C), and velocity (m/s) field measurements by depth (values in parentheses are 95% confidence intervals).

Year Locationa Variable Percentage of maximum depth

50 75a 100b

2012 Transition zone thalweg Dissolved oxygen 8.55 (0.17) 1.32 (1.49)

Temperature 18.30 (0.00) 17.83 (0.32)

River thalweg Dissolved oxygen 8.25 (0.37) 7.61 (1.02)

Temperature 18.15 (0.08) 18.03 (0.11)

2013 Transition zone thalweg Dissolved oxygen 7.95 (0.07) 7.93 (0.07) 0.00 (0.00)

Temperature 20.6 (0.3) 20.6 (0.2) 19.9 (0.2)

Velocity 0.34 (0.04) 0.30 (0.05) 0.08 (0.06)

Outside thalweg Dissolved oxygen 8.02 (0.06) 7.94 (0.12) 0.00 (0.00)

Temperature 20.9 (0.6) 20.6 (0.7) 20.5 (0.7)

Velocity 0.25 (0.12) 0.19 (0.08) 0.04 (0.07)

River thalweg Dissolved oxygen 7.94 (0.01) 7.91 (0.05) 7.92 (0.01)

Temperature 21.9 (0.3) 21.9 (0.3) 21.9 (0.3)

Velocity 0.68 (0.09) 0.59 (0.07) 0.38 (0.14)

Outside thalweg Dissolved oxygen 7.96 (0.02) 7.96 (0.02) 7.96 (0.02)

Temperature 22.0 (0.2) 22.0 (0.2) 22.0 (0.2)

Velocity 0.57 (0.10) 0.52 (0.10) 0.27 (0.15)

a No measurements were made outside the thalweg and at 75% of maximum depth in 2012. bIn 2013, measurements were 14 cm above the substrate given where the meter sensors were attached to the sounding weight.

The dissolved oxygen concentration and temperature of the All laboratory experiments were conducted at the U.S. filtered water were recorded before filling the samples to get Fish and Wildlife Service, Bozeman Fish Technology Center, an estimate of beginning water properties. Dissolved oxygen Bozeman, Montana. Desired DO concentrations were achieved concentrations were measured using a YSI ProODO after using a gas-stripping column (Mount 1964). Oxygen was at least 2 h of incubation to estimate the changes of oxygen removed from water in the column with a vacuum pump to concentrations attributed to sediment respiration. Additionally, achieve a minimum DO level of 1.5 mg/L. The deoxygenated eight blanks consisting only of filtered river water with known water was then distributed to McDonald-type hatching jars DO and temperature were incubated and analyzed to account for (tanks) at a rate of 1 L/min, and complete tank turnover changes in DO concentrations not associated with the sediment occurred in 3 min. Based on the assigned treatment level, the (i.e., those changes due to respiration by organisms in the deoxygenated water was mixed with untreated (i.e., oxygen rich; filtered water). Following incubation, samples were corrected 7 mg/L) water from the Bozeman Fish Technology Center to for changes unattributed to sediment respiration (by using the maintain the needed DO level in each tank. We monitored DO DO measurements in the blank samples), divided by sample levels each day of an experiment with a YSI model 55/12 FT volume, and divided by total time incubated to obtain estimates handheld DO meter (Yellow Springs, Yellow Springs, OH). in oxygen consumption per hour (mg O2/h). Exposure experiments were designed as a 2 × 3 factorial Following respiration measurements, sediment was saved in which larvae at each of two ages, free embryo and 40- for analysis of ash-free dry mass (AFDM). Sediments were day posthatch (40 DPH), were exposed to three treatments. transferred to aluminum drying pans and oven dried (60°C, Treatments were 1.5, 2.5, and 7.0 mg/L (control) and fish 5 days), weighed, and combusted (600°C, 4 h) in a muffle were exposed for a period of 6 (free embryo) or 5 (40 DPH) furnace. Following combustion, samples were rewetted with days. At the start of each experiment, experimental tanks were distilled water to rehydrate clays, dried (60°C, 5 days), and randomly assigned to one of the three treatments, with each reweighed to estimate AFDM. The percentage of organic matter treatment replicated three times. Larvae were collected in a 1-L in the samples was estimated by dividing AFDM by dry mass. glass beaker from 1.83-m (diameter) round holding tanks and Ash-free dry mass and dry mass estimates were then used to randomly assigned to experimental tanks. One hundred free estimate sediment respiration rates (mg O2/g AFDM h), allowing embryos and twenty 40 DPH were distributed to each tank. In us to correct for differences in the volume of sediment among the case of the 40-DPH Pallid Sturgeon, there were 10 per tank. samples. Kruskal-Wallis test was used to compare sediment Water temperature in the tanks varied between 18°C and 20°C. respiration between substrate types because these data were not Mortality was determined by recording the number of living normally distributed. Correlation analysis was used to evaluate fish in each tank at the end of the experiment and calculating the relationship between percentage organic matter and oxygen the difference from the initial number introduced into the consumption. tank. A two-way analysis of variance was used to evaluate the

10 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 greater than 7 mg/L at all depths and lateral locations (Table 1). Dissolved oxygen differed significantly near the substrate (i.e., 100% of maximum depth) between the river and transition zone (2013; Kruskal-Wallis χ2 = 24.9, P < 0.0001, df = 1), but DO did not differ between the river and transition zone at shallower depths (2013; Kruskal-Wallis χ2 = 0.33, P = 0.56, df = 1 for 75% of maximum depth; Kruskal-Wallis χ2 = 1.93, P = 0.16, df = 1 for 50% of maximum depth). A clinograde DO distribution occurred in the transition zone, whereas DO was homogenous among depth in the river (Figure 2). Similar to the transect data, DO profiles only differed between the transition zone and river near the substrate (Figure 2). As expected, velocity was lower in the transition zone compared to the river (Table 1, Figure 2). Mass-normalized microbial respiration rates were approximately four times higher in the transition zone (i.e., silt substrate) than in the river (i.e., sand substrate; Figure 3a), and respiration rates differed significantly between substrate type (Kruskal-Wallis χ2 = 7.7, P = 0.005, df = 1).The transition zone substrate had a higher proportion of organic matter than the river substrate (Figure 3b). Furthermore, percent organic matter was significantly correlated with oxygen consumption (P = 0.0005, r = 0.82, df = 12). In our laboratory experiments, Pallid Sturgeon experience 100% mortality at dissolved oxygen concentrations of 1.5 mg/L at the free embryo and 40-DPH life stages (Figure 4). Mortality differed significantly among DO treatments P( ≤ 0.0001, F = 110.2, df = 2) and there was no influence of age (P = 0.23, F = 1.52, df = 1), but there was a significant treatment by age interaction P( ≤ 0.0001, F = 16.9, df = 2). The interaction was a function of higher mortality in the control than the 2.5 mg/L dissolved oxygen treatment for the free embryo Pallid Sturgeon. Nevertheless, mean mortality at the 2.5 mg/L treatment and control were half the mortality at the 1.5 mg/L treatment. Pallid Sturgeon typically died within 1 h after exposure to the 1.5 mg/L DO treatment, which can be considered a maximum duration for DO Figure 2. Dissolved oxygen and velocity profiles for the (a) transition zone and (b) river. Shaded symbols delineate dissolved oxygen measurements and open sym- levels below 1.5 mg/L. bols delineate velocity measurements. Symbol shapes correspond to dissolved oxygen and velocity measurements collected in the same profile. The variation DISCUSSION in where conditions become anoxic in the transition zone is a function of varying maximum depth (see main text). Symbols for dissolved oxygen are overlaid in the Given that free embryo Pallid Sturgeon drift river because of similarities in the measurements. into transition zones (see Braaten et al. 2012), we have provided data necessary to explain the influence of age and DO treatment on mortality. All analyses mechanism for Pallid Sturgeon recruitment failure in the upper were evaluated for normality and homogeneity of variances. All Missouri River. Prior to the fragmentation of the Missouri River statistical analyses were performed using R (R Development by dams, Pallid Sturgeon free embryos would drift for hundreds Core Team 2012) and α = 0.05. of kilometers near the thalweg and settle out of the drift as they aged and could negotiate the flow (Figure 5a). Patches RESULTS of suitable habitat (low velocity with high DO) existed within The transition zone was hypoxic or anoxic near the substrate the thalweg, most likely behind velocity breaks such as woody in and outside the thalweg (Table 1). Conversely, in the river debris or underwater sand dunes (Figure 5a). Under natural (i.e., representing natural conditions), DO concentrations were conditions, it is believed that drifting near the thalweg substrate

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 11 was a mechanism to avoid predation, which evolved over millions of years (Braaten et al. 2012). In the current human-altered ecosystem, the river enters the transition zone, velocity significantly decreases, and fine particulate organic matter settles to form a flocculent that is anoxic (i.e., dead zone) because of high microbial respiration (Figure 5b). This is also the area where free embryo Pallid Sturgeon prematurely settle (Figure 5b) because the needed drift distance is hindered by river fragmentation from dams (Braaten et al. 2012). For the upper Missouri River, the fine particulate organic matter that concentrates in the transition zone is naturally occurring and likely lower than historical conditions given the dominate land use and occurrence of reservoirs on several tributaries in the upper Missouri River basin. The size of the transition zone is currently unknown because we did not measure the most downriver extent because of monetary and logistic constraints. Is it possible for free embryos to drift through the transition zone? We argue that this is highly unlikely. For example, our study reach was approximately 3 km long and it would take approximately 2.5 h for a Pallid Sturgeon free embryo to drift between the first and last transects—using the mean drift velocity for Pallid Sturgeon free embryos calculated as 95% of mean column velocity in the thalweg from our study (see Braaten et al. [2012] for using values slightly less than full velocity). This estimate is the best-case scenario because free embryos drift near the bottom and it would take approximately 10 h using the 95% mean bottom velocity. Both drift velocity estimates would be lethal for Pallid Sturgeon free embryos given that we discovered Figure 3. (a) Mean (standard error) sediment microbial respiration estimates per dry 100% mortality within 1 h of being exposed to mass (DM) (mg O2/g DM/h) for sand and silt. (b) Relationship between natural log DO concentrations at 1.5 mg/L. of oxygen consumption and percentage of organic matter for all empirical samples. Others have suggested that reservoirs can influence fish assemblages (e.g., Martinez et al. 1994; Matthews et al. 1994; Falke and Gido 2006). Furthermore, Winston et al. (1991) hypothesized that recruitment failure in Speckled Chub (Macrhybopsis aestivalis) and Plains Minnow (Hybognathus placitus) may be a function of free embryos drifting into reservoirs, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers generally described the transition zone in the Missouri River mainstem water quality report but provided no empirical measurements (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 2006b), and Cole and Hannan (1990) describe the likelihood of low DO in the transition zones—hence, the “forgotten dead zone” in our title. We believe that our study is unique from those listed above because we make direct links between human-induced changes in sediment transport and the subsequent effects on DO and the survival of an endangered species. This underscores the need for a better understanding of upriver effects of dams on Figure 4. Mortality of free embryo and 40-day-old Pallid Sturgeon by dissolved aquatic biota. oxygen treatment.

12 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 Figure 5. Schematic of historical river conditions and the contemporary ecological sink as a function of reservoirs. Historically, river habitat was dynamic with dissolved oxygen, temperature, and fine particulate organic matter mixed throughout the as a function of complex velocity currents. Velocity is lowest near the substrate as a function of sheer stress and drag forces. Free embryos drift along the thalweg for hundreds of kilometers prior to settling at the substrate. (a) Pockets of low-velocity microhabitat with high dissolved oxygen exist in the river thalweg, and these are likely the locations that Pallid Sturgeon select once they reach an age and size where they can negotiate flow. In the current conditions, the transition zone habitat is a human-made habitat that differs from the river by having stratified dissolved oxygen concentrations and fine particulate organic matter. (b) Free embryo Pallid Sturgeon drift into these habitats because drift distance is limited and they are involuntarily exposed to habi- tat that is anoxic.

The upriver effects of dams likely influence other equally to comprehensively mitigate altered ecosystems for the large-river species; for example, other species in the Order benefit of large-river fishes. Acipenseriformes exhibit high mortality when exposed to Specifically for the Pallid Sturgeon, it is unlikely that it hypoxic conditions (Dettlaffet al. 1993; Cambell and Goodman can be recovered in all management units as outlined in the 2004; Niklitschek and Secor 2009). Historically, most of the Recovery Plan for the Pallid Sturgeon (U.S. Fish and Wildlife species in the Order Acipenseriformes migrated long distances Service 2014) without sizable modifications to how mainstem in rivers to complete their life history requirements (Bemis reservoir water levels are managed by the U.S. Army Corps of and Kynard 1997). However, given the globalization of dam Engineers. Is manipulating reservoir water levels to increase construction, many species are isolated from historical spawning the drift distance available for Pallid Sturgeon free embryos a areas or occur in fragmented river ecosystems (Billard and viable management action? To achieve the needed drift distance Lecointre 2001). Furthermore, dams have reduced the global for Pallid Sturgeon free embryos, reservoirs would need to flux of sediment reaching the oceans by over 100 billon metric be operated at a much-reduced capacity and this would likely tons (Syvitski et al. 2005). We contend that sediment and anoxic influence the current benefits to society that dams provide as conditions in transition zones are global threats to many species outlined in the Missouri River Mainstem Reservoir System that evolved in large, turbid, free-flowing rivers. Ecologists, Master Control Manual (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 2006a). engineers, and policy makers need to broaden the regulated-river If natural resource agencies are serious about recovering paradigm to consider upriver and downriver effects of dams the Pallid Sturgeon as outlined in the recovery plan, then all

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 13 stakeholders need to begin thoughtful discussions and take Kappenman, K. M., M. A. H. Webb, and M. Greenwood. 2013. The action regarding innovate approaches to managing Missouri effect of temperature on embryo survival and development in Pallid Sturgeon Scaphirhynchus albus (Forbes and Richardson River reservoirs. We argue that creative approaches are needed 1995) and S. platorynchus (Rafinesque, to conserve Pallid Sturgeon in the upper Missouri River and 1820). Journal of Applied Ichthyology 29:1193–1203. could be used as a model to benefit other large-river fishes Lehner, B., C. Reidy Liermann, C. Revenga, C. Vorosmarty, B. Fekete, P. Crouzet, R. Doll, M. Endejan, K. Frenken, J. Magome, C. Nils- worldwide. Change is required given our results, because son, J. Robertson, R. Rodel, N. Sindorf, and D. Wisser.2011. High- simply modifying discharge from dams to reflect a more natural resolution mapping of the world’s reservoirs and dams for sus- hydrograph is presently shortsighted in terms of large-river fish tainable river-flow management. Frontiers in Ecology and the conservation. Environment 9:494–502. Lorke, D. E., and D. T. Yew. 2005. Worldwide decline of . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Science 310:1427–1428. Martinez, P. J., T. E. Chart, M. A. Trammell, J. G. Wullschleger, and E. P. We thank A. Tews and M. Stein for their assistance in Bergersen. 1994. Fish species composition before and after con- collection of Shovelnose Sturgeon broodstock. We also thank struction of a main stem reservoir on the White River, Colorado. Environmental Biology of Fishes 40:227–239. M. Jackson and C. Bockholt for allowing us to assist in Pallid Matthews, W. J., B. C. Harvey, and M. E. Power. 1994. Spatial and Sturgeon spawning at the Gavins Point National Fish Hatchery temporal patterns in fish assemblages of individual pools in a in 2011 and 2012. R. Richards and R. Rodencal helped collect Midwestern stream (USA). Environmental Biology of Fishes water quality data. Finally, we thank L. Holmquist, J. Bischoff, 29:381–397. Mount, D. I. 1964. Development of a system for controlling dissolved- M. Toner, M. Talbott, T. Wilcox, B. Buchholz, S. Alexander, and oxygen content of water. Transactions of the American Fisheries C. Fraser for their efforts in helping to complete the laboratory Society 93:100–103. experiments. The findings and conclusions in the article are Niklitschek, E. J., and D. H. Secor. 2009. Dissolved oxygen, tem- perature, and salinity effects on the ecophysiology and survival those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of juvenile Atlantic Sturgeon in estuarine waters: I. laboratory of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The use of trade names results. Journal of Experimental and Ecology or products does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. 381:S150–S160. Government. This study was performed under the auspices of Nilsson, C., C. A. Reidy, M. Dynesius M, and C. Revenga. 2005. Frag- mentation and flow regulation of the world’s large river systems. Montana State University care and use protocol 36-07. Science 308:405–408. Poff, N. L., J. D. Allan, M. B. Bain, J. R. Karr, K. L. Prestegaard, B. D. REFERENCES Richter, R. E. Sparks, and J. C. Stromberg. 1997. The natural flow regime. BioScience 47:769–784. Bemis, W. E., and B. Kynard. 1997. Sturgeon rivers: an introduction Poff, N. L., B. D. Richter, A. H. Arthington, S. E. Bunn, R. J. Naiman, to acipenseriform biogeography and life history. Environmental E. Kendy, M. Acreman, C. Apse, B. P. Bledsoe, M. C. Freeman, Biology of Fishes 48:167–183. J. Henriksen, R. B. Jacobson, J. G. Kennen, D. M. Merritt, J. H. Billard, R., and G. Lecointre. 2001. 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14 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 FEATURE

Climate Change Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems and the Challenge for Fishery Management: Pink Shrimp of the Southern Gulf of Mexico Ecosystems that change through time impose new scientific challenges for advice. We present a case study to illustrate our view on how to face such challenges. The Pink in the Southern Gulf of Mexico has collapsed. Annual yields were about 24,000 metric tons during the mid-1950s to early 1970s; currently, they are about 1,200 metric tons. was assumed as the main cause, but single-species models failed to provide the advice necessary for recovery. An inverse relationship between stock abundance and temperature was demonstrated, and a decline in recruitment and primary production (since 1970s) was observed. We constructed a trophic model for the ecosystem using with Ecosim, incorporating the annual mean anomaly of the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation as a climate change index to force primary production. Signals were propagated throughout the food web, and biomasses were simulated for the period of 1956 to 2011. Ecosystem changes were estimated with the highest carrying capacity by the mid-1970s then declining with time; Pink Shrimp follows such a decline. Balanced harvesting was simulated and the “ecosystem reference level” was identified as a maximum harvesting of 40% (catch/ ratio) for all resources for a sustainable ecosystem. Conventional single-species management resulted in population crashes. Efectos del cambio climático en ecosistemas acuáticos y el reto para el manejo de pesquerías:­ el camarón rosado del sur del Golfo de México Los ecosistemas que cambian en el tiempo, imponen nuevos retos científicos en cuanto a las recomendaciones para el manejo de pesquerías. Se presenta un caso de estudio para ilustrar nuestra visión acerca de cómo enfrentar dichos retos. La pesquería del camarón rosado en el sur del Golfo de México está colapsada. Desde mediados de la década de 1950 hasta inicios de la de 1970, los rendimientos anuales de esta pesquería fueron de cerca de 24,000 toneladas métricas; actualmente se pescan aproximadamente 1,200 toneladas métricas. En un inicio, se asumió que la sobrepesca era la causa principal, sin embargo las recomendaciones derivadas de los modelos poblacionales no fueron útiles para la recuperación de la pesquería. Se encontró que existe una relación inversa entre la temperatura del mar y la abundancia del stock, y un decremento del reclutamiento y de la productividad primaria (desde la década de 1970). Se construyó un modelo trófico de ecosistemas, Francisco Arreguín-Sánchez mediante Ecopath con Ecosim, forzando la producción primaria del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro Interdis- sistema con la anomalía anual promedio de la Oscilación Multidecadal ciplinario de Ciencias Marinas, Apartado Postal del Atlántico, asumiendo ésta como índice de cambio climático. Las 592, La Paz, 23090, Baja California Sur, México. señales del índice se propagaron a través de la red trófica y se simularon E-mail: [email protected] las biomasas para el periodo 1956-2011. Se estimaron los cambios en el ecosistema, encontrando los niveles más altos de la capacidad de carga a Pablo del Monte-Luna and Manuel J. Zetina- Rejón mediados de la década de 1970 y declinando después de eso; el camarón Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro Inter- rosado siguió la misma trayectoria. Se simuló una condición de captura disciplinario de Ciencias Marinas, La Paz, Baja balanceada y se identificó un “nivel de referencia del ecosistema” como California Sur, México la máxima captura del 40% (cociente captura/biomasa) para todos los recursos en un ecosistema sustentable. El manejo basado en enfoques The authors dedicate this contribution to the monoespecíficos, resultó en el colapso de la población. memory of Dr. Daniel Lluch-Belda (1942–2014).

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 15 Currently, scientific advice for fisheries management is regulation not only of the shrimp fleet but also of the artisanal based on population models, which implicitly or explicitly fleet that targeted finfish species and other invertebrates. assume a stable carrying capacity, with fishing being the major When overfishing became the leading hypothesis for driver of variation in stock abundance. Under climate change explaining the collapse in the shrimp fishery, the fishing sector conditions, the scientific challenge is to change the assumption quickly reacted by investing in the construction of postlarvae of a constant carrying capacity, which was reasonably adopted production labs to increase recruitment in the wild. Empowered for several decades but is not applicable for the present time, by the overfishing hypothesis, fishery managers implemented a where biotic and abiotic variables also contribute significantly ban meant to protect growth and reproduction processes; on this to stock variation. In this essay, we present our view on how to basis, they determined the start and end of the fishing season change scientific advice. each year (Arreguín-Sánchez 2001). In 2012, as stated in the The Pink Shrimp (Farfantepenaeus duorarum) in Campeche National Fisheries Chart (DOF 2012), the official management Sound has historically been the most important fishery off goal was to recover the Pink Shrimp stocks to the size they had the Mexican coast in the Gulf of Mexico. From 1950 through been in mid-1990s, and eventually the early 1970s, when the the early 1970s, the North American (U.S.) and Cuban fleets fishery reached its maximum yields. participated in this fishery, and annual catches approached Interestingly, the Pink Shrimp fishery in the Tortugas fishing 30,000 metric tons, 80% of which were Pink Shrimp. ground showed similar symptoms, landings decreased during During the 1980s, shrimp catches began to decline (Figure the 1980s. Hart et al. (2012), after considering environmental 1), with significant changes occurring in the fishery: foreign variables (freshwater inflows, higher temperatures and salinities, fishing fleets terminated their operations in Mexican waters; hurricanes, and oil spills) and decreasing fishing effort stemming the ownership of the Mexican fleet was transferred from the from the market behavior, concluded that landings decreased private sector to fishermen’s unions; the Mexican oil industry due to reduced fishing effort, because there was strong evidence (PEMEX) began extracting oil and natural gas in the Campeche that decreasing fishing effort resulted in higher catch per unit of Sound; and, finally, the section of the distributional range of the effort, suggesting a higher stock biomass. Pink Shrimp that coincided with drilling grounds was closed to In the early 2000s, catch levels were close to 5% of the shrimp trawlers. The cumulative effects of these events were an historical maximum, with no prospect of recovery, despite the approximately 50% reduction in the fishing mortality of the Pink overall reduction in fishing mortality (Arreguín-Sánchez 2010), Shrimp stocks and overfishing was disregarded as the primary and alternative hypotheses for explaining the collapse of the driver of the decline of abundance (Arreguín-Sánchez 2010). shrimp fishery in the Campeche Sound began to be explored. By the mid-1990s, the reduction in fishing mortality was no In particular, an increasing trend in the regional sea surface longer a valid explanation for the fishery collapse and research temperature has been related to a persistent impoverishment efforts focused on other possibilities, such as growth overfishing of the overall primary production of the Campeche Sound and the degradation of critical habitats due to oil industry and to a reduction in the recruitment rate (Ramírez-Rodríguez activities impacting shrimp physiology (Arreguín-Sánchez et al. 2003; Arreguín-Sánchez 2010). Furthermore, seasonal 2010). Under the coordination of the National Fisheries Institute, recruitment patterns before the 1980s showed two peaks, one fishery scientists designed different strategies to recover the in spring and fall; however, after the 1980s, these peaks were depleted shrimp stocks. The “optimal” scenario, based on single- barely distinguishable from the rest of the year (Ramírez- species models, was a total closure of the fishery for a 10-year Rodríguez et al. 2002). Other perturbations such as hurricanes, period, at the end of which, the expected recovery of shrimp volcanic ash deposition on coastal areas, and the “Ixtoc I” oil would have been 18% of the stock size that existed in the 1960s. spill also caused recruitment failures. Although recruitment Other results produced by an ecosystem trophic model built levels tended to increase once the perturbations disappeared, with the suite of programs “Ecopath with Ecosim” (henceforth the recovery was superimposed on a long-term downward EwE; Pauly et al. 2000)) indicated a prospect of recovery of trend (Arreguín-Sánchez et al. 2008). Additionally, Ramírez- approximately 25%. This latter estimate, however, implied the Rodríguez et al. (2002) reported that fishing mortality for Pink Shrimp increased by an average of 20% after the mid-1980s and stock abundance and annual yields decreased by about 60% and 20%, respectively, between the mid-1980s and mid-1990s. The evidence clearly indicated different causes for decreasing yields than those for the Tortugas fishing grounds. These findings offered alternative explanations to the fishing sector regarding the current status of the shrimp fishery. Two aspects were identified: (1) a long-term environmental trend acting as the major driver of the progressive reduction in fishery productivity since the early 1970s and (2) a consistent long-term decline in the carrying capacity of the Campeche Sound ecosystem. The latter hypothesis was supported by the decrease in overall primary production (Arreguín-Sánchez 2010), a downward trend in the yields of some of the most important fish resources Figure 1. Annual tendencies of Pink Shrimp yields and the anomaly of in the region (Figure 2), and the absence or weakening the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscilation (AMO) for the Campeche Sound, southern Gulf of Mexico. The AMO essentially represents changes in sea of external nutrient sources that enhance coastal primary surface temperature (SST). Note the regime shift in 1976 and the inverse production, such as river discharges and turbulent mixing relationship between the two variables. processes (Arreguín-Sánchez et al. 2008).

16 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 Research efforts were then redirected to substantiate long-term environmental effects (i.e., climate change on the ecosystem and exploited stocks and the idea that overfishing was precipitated by a lack of knowledge regarding the changing environmental baseline). Because environmental effects were not accounted for, the harvest rate could not be properly adjusted to the year-to-year status of the shrimp stock. Among the most serious and immediate consequences of being unaware of the change in productivity, though beyond the scope of this essay, were overcapitalization (new investments and an excess of installed capacity), the loss of direct and indirect jobs (on trawlers and for land-based services associated with the shrimp fishery), and a reduction of the net rent. The changing environmental baseline opened newlines of investigation, specifically examining the effects of climate change on shrimp and other and the development of ecosystem-based management strategies. Consequently, we used EwE suite of programs to develop a model of the Terminos Lagoon and the Campeche Sound ecosystems. The model consisted of 82 functional groups including 33 for the Terminos Lagoon, 46 for the Campeche Sound, and 3 (marine mammals, seabirds, and sea turtles) for the whole ecosystem. Ten of the lagoon groups were considered exploited as well as 14 groups of the Campeche Sound. The type and number of functional groups used to construct the ecosystem model for Terminos Lagoon–Campeche Sound are shown in Table 1. For calibration of the dynamic model (Ecosim, Figure 3), we used catch and effort data as a measure of relative abundance. Fishing effort (or fishing mortality) was available for artisanal fleets for the periods 1998–2002 and 2006–2011, for Red Snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) 1983–2010, and for Pink Shrimp 1976–2010. To Figure 2. Time series of the catch for the primary commercial fish resources in the Campeche Sound. Most fish resources reached their simulate the effects of climate change from 1956 to 2011 (length higher yields during the period of the mid-1980s to mid-1990s and of the catch series), we added the basin-wide climate index decreased, with the exceptions of jacks (family Carangidae) and (the annual mean anomaly of NOAA’s Atlantic Multidecadal octopus. All series were rescaled between 0 and 1 to facilitate com- parisons. Point indicates highest yields for the time period. Oscillation index [AMO], AMO-unsmoothed, short, 1948 to present; Enfield et al. 2001) into the model. We considered the AMO as an indicator of the environmental conditions of the Gulf of Mexico instead of using local or regional sea surface Table 1. Type and number of functional groups (fishes temperature (SST) patterns for three reasons: (1) there is a and invertebrates) considered for the construction of the higher correlation between the relative abundance of hawksbill trophic model of the ecosystem of Terminos Lagoon – turtle (Eretmochelys imbrincata), a highly migratory species Campeche Sound, southern Gulf of Mexico. occurring in the Gulf of Mexico, and the AMO than with local Functional Terminos Campeche SST (Del Monte-Luna et al. 2012), whereas for Pink Shrimp, group Lagoon Sound the AMO explains about 50% of recruitment variation (based on phytoplankton 1 1 Ramírez-Rodríguez et al. 2003); (2) we have found that although local oceanographic and atmospheric processes might affect zooplankton 1 1 high frequency SST variations in the Gulf of Mexico (El Niño seagrasses 1 1 and other interannual sources of variability), low frequency polychaetes 1 1 signals, which are addressed in the present study, are clearly microcrustaceans 1 1 dominated by large-scale climate fluctuations during the last 50 meiobenthos 1 1 years (e.g., the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation); and (3) our echinoderms 1 1 assumption coincides with several studies showing a dominance detritus 1 1 of low frequency signals, highly correlated to the AMO, in elasmobranchs 1 2 temperature proxies and tree rings within the Gulf of Mexico mollusks 1 3 spanning hundreds of years (Gray et al. 2004; Kilbourne et al. macrocrustaceans 4 2 2008; Poore et al. 2009). fishes 19 29 Following the inverse pattern observed between primary microalgae 1 production and temperature (Ramírez-Rodríguez et al. 2003; Arreguín-Sánchez 2010), we forced the primary production discards 1 rate with the AMO index allowed exploring the propagation of environmental signals across the food web. The simulated biomasses of all of the functional groups in the model were rescaled to vary between 0 and 1 (for time series of each

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 17 functional group, (Bi-Bmin)/(Bi-Bmin)max, where B is biomass, i end of a warming period leads to a different ecosystem state refers to year, and min–max to minimum and maximum values) after a cooling period). to observe changes in ecosystem structure, which were denoted The notion of ecosystem change due to climate change is in turn by changes in the overall biomass and in the biomass relevant for managers because it highlights the impossibility at each over time (Figure 4). The ecosystem of returning the state of an ecosystem at any given time to a changes clearly showed the effects of climate change (AMO). previous condition. Translating this to the Pink Shrimp fishery, The highest relative production was observed in the mid-1970s, the official management goal of recovering shrimp stocks to coinciding with the regime shift; since then, the peaks associated the size they had been in the mid-1990s in the short term and with decadal variations have decreased in magnitude, reaching eventually to the 1960s by means of controlling the fishing effort only approximately 25% of the maximum production values in becomes highly unlikely. 2010 (Figure 4). Recent studies (Arreguín-Sánchez and Ruiz-Barreiro, Another important aspect to consider is that the ecosystem unpublished data; Garcia et al. 2012) have suggested that to structure (biomass proportion among trophic levels) was achieve balanced harvesting (concept refers to balance the considerably different before and after the regime shift of mid- fishery with production of biomass; Bundy et al. 2005; García 1970s; it was also different after the mid-1990s, which suggests et al. 2012) across the entire ecosystem while preserving the another productivity level (Figure 4). The predicted changes ecosystem structure and function, the harvesting rate exerted on were the result of both the environmental effect and the previous the different target species should not exceed an average of 40% ecosystem conditions (e.g., the change in an ecosystem at the of the existing biomass (Figure 5). Fishing beyond these limits may lead to a deteriorated ecosystem state. A balanced harvest strategy thus implies a “coordinated management strategy” over time and space that simultaneously involves all of the different fisheries acting within the ecosystem. Modern fishery management in the Campeche Sound should be focused on the following aspects:

1. The acknowledgement that the ecosystem is continuously changing in response to climate change, which implies that the ecosystem carrying capacity is also changing, contrary to the assumption in single- species models. 2. The carrying capacity of the Campeche Sound ecosystem has been decreasing since the early 1970s, and the single-species models have not been providing adequate advice for fishery managers. Currently, the management actions derived from these single-species models have shown more uncertainty than typically expected and, therefore, a lower probability of success. Figure 3. Time series of observed catch per unit of effort (dots) vs. simulated biomass (line) as output of Ecosim model (based on minimum sum of squares as fitting criteria). The anomaly of the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) was used to force the model’s primary production to propagate over the entire food web, with the exception of octopus where the inverse of the AMO anomaly was used as forcing.

Figure 4. The trends of the carrying capacity (grey area) and the anomalies in the AMO index (thin line with white dots, upper panel) Figure 5. Changes in gained entropy for the Campeche Sound and the ecosystem changes, showing the effect of climate change ecosystem after simulated perturbations (harvesting). Ordinates in the relative production of the ecosystem of the Campeche Sound, represent all the species/functional groups through their trophic southern Gulf of Mexico (higher production levels are in red and level. Red areas represent increase in entropy (degradation) and lower levels in yellow), and Pink Shrimp (Farfantepenaeus duorarum) blue areas increase in order (sustainability). Black line on the right catches (white dots) in relation to changes in the ecosystem structure represents the maximum limit of harvesting rate for a sustainable (lower panel). The carrying capacity (the annual biomass summed ecosystem, called here the “ecosystem reference level.” Picture over all trophic levels) declined following rises in temperature (AMO). represents the balanced harvesting (entropy is computed as 1 − The reduction in the Pink Shrimp stock appears to follow the progres- A/C, where A is ascendency, C is capacity of development, and A/C sive ecosystem changes, represented by the changes in production. represents the degree of order for the ecosystem).

18 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 3. The reference points for fishery management do not Enfield, D.B., A.M. Mestas-Nunez, and P.J. Trimble, 2001: The Atlantic consider ecosystem changes, which increases their Multidecadal Oscillation and its relationship to rainfall and river flows in the continental U.S., Geophys. Res. Lett., 28: 2077-2080 uncertainty and has the potential for creating false or (www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/data/timeseries/AMO/). biased reference points for management decisions. Garcia, S. M., J. Kolding, J. Rice, M. J. Rochet, S. Zhou, T. Arimoto, J. 4. It must be acknowledged that the ecosystem has E. Beyer, L. Borges, A. Bundy, D. Dunn, E. A. Fulton, M. Hall, M. Heino, R. Law, M. Makino, A. D. Rijnsdorp, F. Simard, and A. D. M. different structural configurations with time; therefore, Smith. 2012. Reconsidering the consequences of selective fish- the reference points for fishery management must eries. Science 335(6072):1045–1047. be estimated ad hoc for each ecosystem state so that Gray, S. T., L. J. Graumlich, J. L. Betancourt, and G. T. Pederson. specific management actions can be coupled to the 2004. A tree-ring based reconstruction of the Atlantic Multidec- adal Oscillation since 1567 A.D. Geophysical Research Letters stock dynamics and the ecosystem states. 31(12):L12205. 1-4. 5. To reach a balanced harvest, without the potential Hart, R. A., J. M. Nance, and J. A. Primrose. 2012. The U.S. Gulf of negative effects on the ecosystem caused by fishing, Mexico Pink Shrimp, Farfantepenaeus duorarum, fishery: 50 years of commercial catch statistics. Marine Fisheries Review a holistic strategy is required. Such a strategy would 74(1):1–6. imply the establishment of harvesting limits for an Kilbourne, K. H., T. M. Quinn, R. S. Webb, T. P. Guilderson, J. Nyberg, “ecosystem reference level.” These limits must be and A. Winter. 2008. Paleoclimate proxy perspective on Carib- adjusted periodically according to the ecosystem state bean climate since the year 1751: evidence of cooler temperatures and multidecadal variability. Paleoceanography 23(3):PA3220. and the level of the carrying capacity with an initial Pauly D., V, Christensen, C. Walters. 2000. Ecopath, Ecosim, and average harvest of no more than 40% of the existing Ecospace as tools for evaluating ecosystem impact of fisheries. biomass. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 57(3):697-706. www.ecopath. org This strategy clashes with the current official management Poore, R. Z., K. L. DeLong, J. N. Richey, and T. M. Quinn. 2009. Evi- based on the single-species approach. In practice, achieving dence of multidecadal climate variability and the Atlantic Multi- a balanced harvest implies a frontal challenge against the decadal Oscillation from a Gulf of Mexico sea-surface tempera- conventional management, whose decisions are generally ture-proxy record. Geo-Marine Letters 29:477–484. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. M., F. Arreguín-Sánchez, and E. A. Chávez- made on a single-species basis, independent of other fisheries. Ortíz. 2002. Population dynamics of the Pink Shrimp Farfan- Management advice based on the balanced harvest concept tepenaeus duorarum of the Campeche Sound, Gulf of Mexico. requires a synchronized decision process, involving all of Pages 63–69 in A. Wakida Kusunoki, R. Solana-Sansores, and J. Uribe Martínez, editors. Memory of the III Forum of Shrimp in the fisheries simultaneously, to construct a proper framework the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. National Institute of Fisher- for sustainable ecosystems. In the face of an ever changing ies, México. environment, committing to a set of unwavering management Ramirez-Rodriguez, E. M., F. Arreguìn-Sanchez, and D. Lluch-Belda. strategies would be the fastest way to move ourselves toward a 2003. Recruitment patterns of the Pink Shrimp Farfantepenaeus duorarum in the southern Gulf of Mexico. Fisheries Research paradigm of sustainable fisheries and healthy ecosystems. 65:81–88. FUNDING The authors appreciate support received through projects Gulf of Mexico LME (GEFMEX-09001), SEP-CONACYT (104974, 155900), ANR-CONACYT (111465), and SIP-IPN (20144037) and thank the National Polytechnic Institute for its support through the EDI and COFAA programs.

REFERENCES Arreguin-Sanchez, F. 2001. Towards the management of fisheries in the ecosystem context: the case of Mexico. European Commis- sion Fisheries Cooperation Bulletin 14(1–4):4–12. —­——. 2010. Climate change and the colapse of the pink shrimp fish- ery (Farfantepenaeus duorarum) of the Campeche Sound.Pages 399–410 in E. Rivera-Arriaga, I. Azuz-Adeath, G. J. Villalobos-Za- pata, and L. Alpuche-Gual, editors. Climate Change in Mexico: a coastal-marine approach. Universidad Autonoma de Campeche, México. Arreguin-Sanchez, F., M. Ramirez-Rodriguez, M. J. Zetina-Rejon, and V. H. Cruz-Escalona. 2008. Natural hazards, stock depletion, and stock management in the southern Gulf of Mexico Pink Shrimp fishery. Pages 419–428 in K. Mclaughlin, editor. Mitigating im- pacts of natural hazards on fishery ecosystems. American Fish- eries Society, Symposium 64, Bethesda, Maryland. Bundy, A., P. Fanning, and K. C. T. Zwanenburg. 2005. Balancing exploitation and conservation of the eastern Scotian Shelf eco- system: application of a 4D ecosystem exploitation index. ICES Journal of Marine Science 62:503–510. Del Monte-Luna P., V. Guzmán-Hernández, E. Cuevas, F. Arreguín- Sánchez, and D. Lluch-Belda. 2012. Effect of North Atlantic climate variability on hawksbill turtles in the southern Gulf of Mexico. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 412:103–109. DOF. 2012. National Fishing Act. Official Journal of the Federation, Mexico. 24 August 2012 (www.conapesca.sagarpa.gob.mx).

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 19 FEATURE Guiding Principles for Development of Effective Commercial Fishery Monitoring Programs

Monitoring of fishing activities is an essential component of successful fisheries management that can provide verifiable fishery-dependent data on fishing activities and help assess performance and success of fisheries management plans. Fishery managers and stakeholders have often struggled in developing and implementing effective monitoring programs due to lack of information, funding, and peer-to-peer learning from existing monitoring programs. This article draws on the experience of over 25 national and international monitoring experts and reflects the most important lessons learned from commercial fisheries regarding the development and implementation of effective monitoring programs. The article discusses a set of “guiding principles,” developed in consultation with the monitoring experts, which provide fishery managers and stakeholders with cumulative knowledge and references to more easily develop comprehensive, appropriate, and effective monitoring approaches.

Principios para desarrollar programas efectivos de monitoreo de pesquerías comerciales El monitoreo de actividades pesqueras es un componente esencial en las pesquerías manejadas adecuadamente y puede ofrecer datos verificables, dependientes de la pesquería, acerca de las actividades de pesca y ayuda a evaluar el desempeño y éxito de los planes de manejo. Manejadores Erika A. Zollett e involucrados en las pesquerías suelen batallar con el desarrollo e MRAG Americas, 65 Eastern Avenue, Unit B2C, Essex, MA 01929. E-mail: erika.zollett@mrag- implementación de programas efectivos de monitoreo debido a la falta americas.com de información, fondos y aprendizaje por parte de otros pares que participan en programas ya existentes de monitoreo. Este artículo muestra Robert J. Trumble la experiencia de 25 expertos nacionales e internacionales y refleja las MRAG Americas, St. Petersburg, FL lecciones aprendidas más relevantes en lo concerniente al desarrollo Jill H. Swasey e implementación de programas efectivos de monitoreo. También se MRAG Americas, Essex, MA discute una serie de “directrices” derivadas de la consulta con expertos en monitoreo, que brindan a manejadores e involucrados el conocimiento Shawn B. Stebbins acumulado y las referencias que permiten más fácilmente desarrollar Archipelago Marine Research Ltd., Victoria, BC, enfoques de monitoreo sistemáticos, adecuados y efectivos. Canada

20 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 INTRODUCTION guiding principles focus primarily on the monitoring of catch and landings to support fisheries management efforts, although Monitoring of fishing activities is an essential component monitoring programs can achieve other objectives, such as of successful fisheries management. Reliable monitoring and collection of biological information, encounters with endangered reporting can support and improve the management of a fishery species, and more. by providing verifiable fishery-dependent information on fishing The guiding principles are designed based on lessons learned activities and by assessing performance and success of fisheries from existing monitoring programs. This article focuses heavily management plans (Bergh and Davies 2002). Well-designed on three categories of the guiding principles—monitoring monitoring programs can also play a key role in strategies, coverage levels, and cost considerations—because (Crowder and Murawski 1998; Stobutzki et al. 2001; Read et al. these three categories contribute to over half of the guiding 2006) and ecosystem-based management (Marasco et al. 2007; principles. A full technical paper provides more detailed Ruckelshaus et al. 2008). Despite the importance of monitoring, information about all of the guiding principles and incorporates fishery managers and stakeholders have often struggled to four case studies and additional examples to demonstrate develop and implement effective monitoring programs. Many monitoring programs in action (Zollett et al. 2011). The full monitoring programs in place today have evolved over time technical report also provides participant information. to meet the needs of a fishery (Knuckey et al. 1999). The The guiding principles are intended to assist fishery challenge to developing effective programs is, in part, due to managers in designing effective monitoring programs for all lack of information and peer-to-peer learning about successful fisheries. Though the most appropriate tools and techniques fisheries monitoring programs. High costs also restrict the will vary on a case-by-case basis depending on the needs and development of comprehensive monitoring programs, and a characteristics of a fishery, the guiding principles provide lack of stakeholder participation often leads to poorly accepted recommendations based on significant experience across programs that do not provide an adequate quantity or reliable fisheries of all types. The workshop discussions largely focused quality of data. on fisheries managed by catch shares because the workshop Much of the knowledge and experience of those involved participants had significant experience with monitoring in catch in monitoring program development, implementation, and share fisheries. enforcement have never been published and are only available The guiding principles are interrelated, meaning that they through discussions and gray literature. As such, we hosted two should be considered simultaneously (Figure 1). For instance, workshops in an effort to gather this knowledge and inform fishery managers determine the appropriate monitoring the development of comprehensive, appropriate, and effective techniques and coverage levels, but these choices are dependent fishery monitoring programs through the identification of a set on stakeholder input, fishery attributes, program goals, and of “guiding principles.” This article focuses on data and lessons fund availability. Because monitoring programs are not static learned from commercial fisheries; however, this information and need to evolve or adapt as needs or circumstances change, can also be applied to recreational fisheries. workshop participants recommended a feedback system be used METHODS to evaluate programs in order to ensure that they are achieving their goals and to identify needed changes. MRAG Americas, Inc. and the Environmental Defense Fund convened two workshops in 2010, consisting of over 25 U.S. DISCUSSION national and international monitoring experts, including govern- The appropriate design of a monitoring program will depend ment employees, fishing industry representatives, enforcement on a number of factors, including the goals of the program; agents, academics, and third-party monitoring company employ- input from stakeholders; the scale, seasonality, and value of ees. The first workshop included experts from eastern Canada, the fishery; the vulnerability or health of stocks; the type of the North Pacific (U.S. and Canada), Alaska, New England, the management and monitoring program (already in place and U.S. Southeast, Hawaii, Iceland, and New Zealand who were proposed); penalties in the fishery; and informational needs of involved in various aspects of developing and implementing fishermen and managers. A range of monitoring approaches can monitoring programs. The second workshop consisted primar- be used to collect data on catch, landings, or measures of fishing ily of National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) staff from the effort; species identification, composition, or health; bycatch; various regions and national headquarters to share the results discards; and fishing areas. The most appropriate monitoring from the first workshop and solicit feedback on their applicabil- strategies will vary by fishery yet cannot be chosen in isolation ity in U.S. fisheries under current and foreseeable management from a careful consideration of costs and coverage levels that and concerns. may limit the availability of monitoring options (Figure 1). Workshop participants were asked to reflect on the most The information that is gleaned from collected data may be important lessons learned from the development and implemen- used in management decisions, stock assessments, enforcement tation of existing monitoring programs. Participants recognized operations, and/or economic valuations. In many U.S. regions, the importance of summarizing lessons learned as well as the the majority of stocks currently lack sufficient data for even individuality of each fishery and its goals. Workshop partici- basic assumptions regarding stock health. Minimum data pants developed a set of guiding principles to serve as a point of collection levels and consistent standards are needed for both departure for fishery managers and stakeholders in developing, commercial and recreational fisheries. reviewing, and improving fishery monitoring programs. Data can be collected by using a variety of techniques (e.g., RESULTS at-sea and dockside strategies) and may be self-reported or independently collected (Figure 2). There are advantages and The monitoring program experts identified 25 guiding disadvantages to employing at-sea and dockside monitors and principles in eight categories that serve as a template for differing uses of the type of information each collects. In some developing effective monitoring programs (Table 1). The

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 21 fisheries, the use of both types of monitors is appropriate Table 1. Monitoring program experts identified 25 guiding for adequate coverage, whereas in other fisheries, one principles in eight categories. method satisfactorily achieves the monitoring needs. Involve stakeholders in the design process. Both at-sea and dockside monitors provide critical Stakeholder engagement Consult with appropriate stakeholders to ensure that information that can inform fisheries management and/ the program is enforceable. or stock assessments, and these systems should be Consider the spatial and temporal scale and character- Fishery designed effectively and with input from all involved istics of each fishery before developing a monitoring characteristics parties. At-sea monitoring should be used in situations program. where self-reporting of data cannot be considered to be Identify goals of monitoring programs for science, management, industry, and enforcement. reliable (e.g., where bycatch of protected species occurs, Goal setting where tracking quantities of discards is a significant Review the monitoring program to assess whether it is meeting the goals and adjust as needed. management requirement, or where regulations Develop strong enforcement in support of the require 100% retention of catch). Dockside monitors monitoring program by identifying enforcement Enforcement can be utilized when fishery managers are interested standards at the outset of the program in a clear in accurately reported landings data. Though 100% considerations and transparent manner and by ensuring adequate coverage ensures that landings data are accurate, this coordination among enforcement agencies. may not always be feasible; in those cases, appropriate Identify goals for data collection programs that will penalties and audits should be developed and inform the appropriate data collection techniques. implemented to encourage accurate self-reporting. For Effectively plan for complexity, cost, and time requirements of the supporting data infrastructure. instance, the eastern Canada mobile groundfish fishery in the Maritimes region and the British Columbia (BC) Identify which aspects, if any, of a monitoring plan should be conducted by the government, industry, or a groundfish fishery employ 100% dockside monitoring certified third party. When using third parties, develop coverage in order to gather complete records of landings consistent performance standards and consider and 100% at-sea monitoring, either through an at-sea whether single or multiple providers are preferable. Monitoring monitor or an electronic monitoring (EM) system, to Develop consistent, standardized formats for collecting strategies document catch and discards (O’Boyle et al. 1994; data. Fisheries and Oceans Canada 2010a, 2011). The EM Eliminate redundancies in data entry and reporting system is used as a less costly alternative to at-sea systems. monitors to independently audit fishery logbook data. Consider at-sea monitoring for fisheries where A number of factors, including stratification of protected species bycatch or discards at-sea are significant management concerns or where they occur the fleet, biases in observer coverage, minimum in a large portion of the fishery. requirements for data, level of desired precision, degree Consider dockside monitors in circumstances when the of acceptable uncertainty, vulnerability of stocks, and landings information is of interest. needs of industry, should be considered when setting Consider monitoring coverage levels for fisheries on a monitoring coverage levels or a level to serve as a case-by-case basis. reference point. Coverage levels will differ depending Consider a formal threat assessment and/or a cost– on what needs estimating (e.g., landings, discards, and Coverage benefit analysis to determine the levels of monitoring endangered species interactions), the resolution of the levels that are needed to achieve the goals and objectives. estimates (e.g., individual vessel, fleet, or sector; season Consider the needs of industry when setting coverage or area), and required statistical robustness. levels and develop incentives for fishermen to adopt High levels of at-sea coverage are warranted in higher levels of observer coverage. fisheries that have at-sea processing, utilize high-impact Determine who will have the financial responsibility for various aspects of a monitoring program. Consider gear types, have interactions with endangered species, a program that requires fishermen to fund at least a have significant discards, have vulnerable stocks, or portion of the management and monitoring costs. are data poor. Babcock et al. (2003) demonstrated Develop a process and a timeline at the outset of that for fisheries where there are no rare species (i.e., a monitoring program for shifting the burden of endangered or threatened species), coverage of at responsibility to industry, both for cost and for data Cost reporting. least 20% is required to generate reasonably good considerations bycatch estimates of common species. For fisheries that Consider a program that allows for the resource to fund its own management by scaling the monitoring involve endangered or threatened species, the study approach to the value of the fishery. recommends at least 50% observer coverage. The NMFS Develop an efficient method for collecting money to has determined that 8% coverage level in the Northeast cover costs of the monitoring program. Fishery Observer Program will result in ≤30%CV Evaluate actual funding against the proposed design. for key managed species, including threatened sea Review existing programs to learn from their turtles (NMFS 2004; Garrison and Stokes 2010, 2012). advantages and disadvantages. Coverage in these fisheries should support efforts to Develop a comprehensive, flexible monitoring plan at maintain catch and mortality within defined limits. Comprehensive the outset of the program. In the United States, monitoring coverage varies and adaptive approach Consider a dynamic system that provides stability between regions and fisheries, ranging from coverage while also adapting as circumstances change. levels of less than 1% to full coverage, which makes Allow sufficient time for management and program for considerable inconsistencies in monitoring across implementation. regions.

22 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 restructured and coverage levels are no longer based on vessel length and processing volume. Instead, NMFS will decide when and where to place observers based on a scientific deployment plan and available funding. In the third year of sector management in the Northeast multispecies groundfish fishery, the observer coverage rate was approximately 25% (NMFS 2013). In the U.S. Caribbean, fishing trips are only covered by fishery observers through limited projects. It should be noted that these coverage levels include observers from biological data collection and sampling programs in addition to those that monitor catch and landings. Eco-labeling or certification programs have been a driver for increased observer coverage in several fisheries. In the Southeast U.S. Atlantic swordfish fishery, demand for certified Figure 1. The guiding principles are interrelated and should be considered simultaneously. sustainable products motivated The monitoring strategies that are deemed most appropriate for a given fishery are informed fishermen to adopt higher levels of by stakeholders, fishery goals and characteristics, and enforcement considerations; the most monitoring coverage to achieve higher appropriate strategy may be limited by available costs and coverage levels. The monitoring program should be continually reviewed to ensure that it is achieving the goals of management certification scores (MRAG Americas and of the monitoring program itself. 2013). Fishery managers also need to assess costs when considering monitoring strategies and coverage levels. Costs of employing dockside and at-sea monitors vary considerably due to the level of education and training required for each method and vessel expenses for at-sea monitors. EM or other technologies may be considered as alternatives to at-sea monitors. Trade-offs inevitably occur when weighing the costs and benefits of various monitoring strategies. In U.S. fisheries management, NMFS often incurs the costs for data collection programs, including at-sea observer programs, though these funds are limited typically by time, value, or both (NOAA 2007). In many cases, these funds help initiate but not sustain a program. In the first year (2011) of the West Coast Trawl Rationalization Program, NMFS reimbursed observer providers for approximately 90% of Figure 2. Data collection strategies vary from at-sea to dockside and include those that gather the cost of observers to assist industry self-reported and independently collected data. with the initial costs of the program The California pelagic longline fishery,­West Coast groundfish (Northern Economics 2011; NMFS 2013). The industry portion trawl fishery, West Coast at-sea hake fisheries, Hawaii shallow- of the costs was scheduled to increase after the initial year set (Swordfish) fishery, and Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands Pollock (NMFS 2013). Groundfish fishermen in Alaska were willing fleets require observers on all vessels. Until 2013, the Alaska to accept self-funding of observers as a necessary means of groundfish fishery required large vessels (>125 ft) to have 100% obtaining data to refute erroneous claims of ecosystem damage. or 200% observer coverage and smaller vessels to have 30% Several fisheries in the United States also collect fees from coverage requirements (National Oceanic and Atmospheric industry to fund management and monitoring programs. In the Administration [NOAA] 2007); however, the program was Alaska Halibut and Sablefish programs

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 23 in the North Pacific, a fee is collected to recover the costs of for a high level of accuracy in catch (or landings) accountability management, data collection, and enforcement (Department against quota shares has led to enhanced monitoring. of Commerce 2000). The fee structures must be in place and The guiding principles describe guidelines to assist in the funding generated before government funding is eliminated for design and development of programs to successfully monitor these programs. catch and landings in all fisheries. Given the numerous In the BC groundfish fishery with a 100% at-sea monitoring monitoring programs, with different goals, objectives, requirement, EM coupled with an audit system is used to cost considerations, and designs, an ongoing discussion defray costs and to eliminate the need for an at-sea monitor on and consultation among administrators, managers, fishery every vessel. On hook-and-line and trap vessels, an EM system stakeholders, and experts will provide an opportunity to develop audits fishermen’s self-reported data on effort, catch, and catch and implement best practices across the U.S. system and in disposition in fishing logbooks (Stebbins et al. 2009). Because fisheries abroad. the data that are collected and self-reported in fishing logs are REFERENCES utilized for science and management, a high level of confidence Babcock, E. A., E. K. Pikitch, and C. G. Hudson. 2003. How much ob- is needed in these data. As a result, 10% of the fishing events server coverage is enough to adequately estimate bycatch? Pew on these vessels are independently monitored on a random Institute for Ocean Science and Oceana, Miami FL. ­Available: basis. This level of audit was chosen because higher frequency oceana.org/sites/default/files/reports/BabcockPikitch­ would have been cost prohibitive to industry. Yet, a low level of Gray2003FinalReport1.pdf. (December 2014). Bergh, P. E., and S. Davies. 2002. Fishing monitoring, control and agreement between the self-reported data and the audit can lead surveillance. Pages 373–403 in K. L. Cochrane and S. M. Garcia, to additional audits (up to 100% of each set) that are directly editors. A fishery manager’s guidebook: management measures funded by the responsible fishermen. The cross-reference of and their application. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Crowder, L., and S. Murawski. 1998. Fisheries bycatch: implications data between hails, self-reporting, and EM provides a high level for management. Fisheries 23(6):8–17. of confidence in the information, and the high costs of funding Department of Commerce. 2000. Fisheries of the exclusive econom- additional audits encourage honest reporting. ic zone off Alaska; a cost recovery program for the individual New Zealand has tried several methods for paying for fishing quota program. Federal Register 65(54):14919–14926. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 2011. Pacific region integrated fisher- fisheries management and monitoring programs, including ies management plan: groundfish, February 21, 2011 to February resource rental fees and transaction fees. Current regulations 20, 2013. Available: www.iphc.int/documents/commercial/bc/ require individuals to pay for services such as research, ifmp2011.pdf (December 2014). —­——. 2010b. Pacific region integrated fisheries management plan: management, and enforcement operations. The cost recovery groundfish, February 21, 2010 to February 20, 2011. system has successfully provided high-quality research, funded Garrison, L. P., and L. Stokes. 2010. Estimated bycatch of marine largely by those who benefit from it; however, progress has been mammals and sea turtles in the U.S. Atlantic pelagic longline limited in increasing efficiency and accountability and devolving fleet during 2009. NOAA Technical Memorandum, NOAA NMFS- SEFSC-607. responsibility to stakeholders (Stokes et al. 2006). —­——. 2012. Estimated bycatch of marine mammals and sea turtles in These case studies provide lessons learned from existing the U.S. Atlantic pelagic longline fleet during 2011. NOAA Tech- monitoring programs and should be used by fishery managers nical Memorandum, NMFS-SEFSC-632. NOAA, Southeast Fish- eries Science Center. Available: www.sefsc.noaa.gov/turtles/ to develop comprehensive, flexible monitoring programs that TM_NMFS_SEFSC_632_Garrison_Stokes.pdf. (December 2014). can adapt to the changing needs of a fishery and/or resource. Knuckey, I. A., C. Grieve, and D. C. Smith. 1999. Evolution of the in- Learning across regions can also provide fishery managers tegrated scientific monitoring programme in Australia’s South with a comprehensive overview of the types of approaches and East Fishery. Pages 231–378 in C. P. Nolan, editor. Proceedings of the International Conference on Integrated Fisheries Monitoring. technologies that are available. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Marasco, R. J., D. Goodman, C. B. Grimes, P. W. Lawson, A. E. Punt, CONCLUSION and T. J. Quinn II. 2007. Ecosystem-based fisheries manage- ment: some practical suggestions. Canadian Journal of Fisheries Reliable monitoring of catch and landings is necessary to and Aquatic Sciences 64:928–939. support fishery management efforts. When planning, developing, MRAG Americas, Inc. 2013. MSC Public Certification Report for US or implementing a monitoring program, a number of decisions North Atlantic Swordfish Pelagic Longline and Handgear Buoy Line Fishery. MRAG Americas, Essex, Massachusetts. Available: must be made to create a comprehensive and effective system http://www.msc.org/track-a-fishery/fisheries-in-the-program/ for tracking fish catch and landings. Many fisheries have certified/north-west-atlantic/us-north-atlantic-swordfish/as- struggled to achieve effective monitoring, and monitoring sessment-downloads-folder/20130328_PCR_revised_SWO350. pdf (December 2014). programs have often evolved ad hoc to meet the needs of a National Marine Fisheries Service. 2004. Endangered Species Act fishery and its management framework, without an up-front, - Section 7 Consultation Biological Opinion, Reinitiation of dedicated program design. Though all fisheries have (or need) consultation on the Atlantic pelagic longline fishery for highly monitoring programs, fisheries with in-season management migratory species. National Marine Fisheries Service, St. Pe- tersburg, Florida. Available: /sero.nmfs.noaa.gov/protected_re- (and especially management) often have the best sources/section_7/freq_biop/documents/fisheries_bo/hms_ and most robust monitoring and therefore the lowest level of bo_6_01_04.pdf (December 2014). management uncertainty. In the current era of annual catch —­——. 2013. National Observer Program annual report—FY 2012. NOAA Technical Memorandum, NMFS F/SPO-127. limits and accountability measures in U.S. fisheries, decreasing National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2007. National management uncertainty will become increasingly important, as Observer Program FY 2006 Annual Report. Available: www. will the need to apply lessons from well-monitored fisheries to st.nmfs.noaa.gov/st4/nop/Outreach/FY2006_NOP_Annual_ those with less effective monitoring programs. Report_FINAL.pdf. (December 2007). Northern Economics, Inc. 2011. A review of observer and monitoring In general, the monitoring programs employed by the programs in the Northeast, the West Coast, and Alaska. North- fisheries highlighted here evolved as the management changed west Economics, Anchorage, Alaska. Available: www.gmri.org/ and needs were identified. For catch share fisheries, the need upload/files/NEI%20Monitoring%20Report%20Final.pdf. (Sep- tember 2011). O’Boyle, R., C. Annand, and L. Brander. 1994. Individual quotas in

24 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 the Scotian shelf ground fishery off Nova Scotia, Canada. Pages 152–168 in K. Gimbel, editor. Limited access to marine fisheries: keeping the focus on conservation. Center for Marine Conserva- tion and World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC. Read, A. J., P. Drinker, and S. Northridge. 2006. Bycatch of marine mammals in U.S. and global fisheries. Conservation Biology 20(1):163–169. Ruckelshaus, M., T. Klinger, N. Knowlton, and D. P. DeMaster. 2008. Marine ecosystem-based management in practice: scientific and governance. BioScience 58(1):53–63. Stebbins, S., R. J. Trumble, and B. Turris. 2009. Monitoring the Gulf of Mexico commercial reef fish fishery, a review and discussion. Archipelago Marine Research, Victoria, BC, Columbia. Available: www.archipelago.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Monitoring- GulfofMexicoFishery.pdf (December 2014). Stobutzki, I. C., M. J. Miller, P. Jones, and J. P. Salini. 2001. Bycatch di- versity and variation in a tropical Australian penaeid fishery; the implications for monitoring. Fisheries Research 53(3):283–301. Stokes, K., N. Gibbs, and D. Holland. 2006. New Zealand’s cost re- covery regime for fisheries research services: an industry per- spective. Bulletin of Marine Science 78(3):467–485. Zollett, E., R. Trumble, J. Swasey, and S. Stebbins. 2011. Guiding prin- ciples for development of effective monitoring programs. MRAG Americas, Essex, Massachusetts. Available: www.mragamericas. com/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/MRAG-EDF-Guiding-Princi- ples-for-Monitoring-Programs-FINAL.pdf.

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 25 FEATURE An Introduction to Free Geographic Information Systems in

Geographic information systems (GIS) are powerful tools for analysis and interpretation of spatial data commonly encountered in fisheries science. We presented details of GIS use in fisheries management in a prior study and found cost to be a factor limiting GIS use. This article introduces fisheries managers to free or open-source GIS. Free or open-source GIS are readily available, powerful tools capable of performing a variety of spatial analyses. We strongly encourage managers wishing to perform spatial analyses, but who are unable to purchase software, to consider free GIS.

Introducción al Sistema Gratuito de Información Geográfica en ciencias pesqueras Los Sistemas de Información Geográfica (GIS) son una herramienta poderosa para el análisis e interpretación de datos espaciales comúnmente encontrados en la ciencia pesquera. Se presentan los detalles del uso del GIS en el manejo de pesquerías aplicado en un estudio previo, encontrando que el costo era un factor que limitaba el uso del GIS. En este artículo se introduce a los manejadores de pesquerías un GIS gratuito o de acceso abierto. Este GIS gratuito ya está disponible y contiene herramientas poderosas, capaces de realizar una variedad de análisis espaciales. Se recomienda ampliamente a los manejadores que deseen realizar análisis espaciales, pero no puedan comprar el software, a que consideren el GIS gratuito.

Numerous free geographic systems are available for download on the Internet (www.freegis.org and www. opensourcegis.org). The list below provides six of the most commonly used free GIS programs. Ben C. Neely Google Earth: earth.google.com Kansas Department of Wildlife, Parks, and Tourism, 5089 County Road 2925, GRASS: grass.osgeo.org Independence, KS 67301. ­ gvSIG: gvsig.org E-mail: [email protected] QGIS: www.qgis.org R: www.r-project.org Brandon L. Eder SAGA: www.saga-gis.org Missouri River Program, Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, Lincoln, NE

26 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 Geographic information systems (GIS) are a powerful programs is built-in user support funded by software license tool for analysis and interpretation of spatial data commonly sales. Without license sales, free GIS programs often rely on the encountered in ecological studies. Like many specialized com- user community for support. Prevalence of community-driven puter programs, acquisition of GIS software typically involves websites, such as gis.stackexchange.com and www.cartotalk. a substantial monetary cost. These expenses can typically be com, provide a venue for individuals to ask questions or provide absorbed by agency operating budgets in periods of financial answers. Many common scenarios encountered with spatial prosperity. However, many agencies do not have funds avail- analyses have also been addressed by numerous GIS blog- able to purchase new software in the current financial climate. gers. However, availability of online help is dependent on user Fortunately, prevalence and usefulness of free GIS software has knowledge of terminology. We recommend that users spend increased in recent years. Many free GIS programs are available time studying terms common to GIS programs to improve their for download on the Internet. They range from simple applica- ability to obtain help via Internet searches. Two excellent books tions designed for visual representation of data to complex pro- for learning terminology are Geographic Information Systems in grams designed for robust data analyses. A good starting point Fisheries (Fisher and Rahel 2004) and A–Z GIS: An Illustrated for understanding the diversity and the availability of free GIS Dictionary of Geographic Information Systems (Wade and Som- programs is opensourcegis.org (Lewis 2014), which lists over mer 2006). Users can also reference GIS dictionaries online. 350 examples (accessed November 2014). One of the more helpful dictionaries available online is provided The most important factor when considering free GIS pro- by ESRI (2014) (esri.com/en/knowledgebase/Gisdictionary/ grams is determination of what is expected from the program. As browse). with many niches of computer programs, different GIS programs Several steps must be taken before trying free GIS programs. excel in different scenarios. Most fisheries scientists are interest- First, users should identify what types of analyses they will ed in reading and writing raster (e.g., aerial imagery) and vector be conducting. Different programs will likely be selected by a (e.g., polygons, lines, and points) data. These two types of data researcher hoping to model influence of climate change on fish are typically combined to display locations of features (e.g., boat communities versus a manager who wishes to visually display ramps, fish sample locations, and habitat structures) relative to location of fish attractors or fish sample data. For example, a landmarks visible in aerial imagery. As such, programs capable scientist hoping to model broad community interactions would of processing both types of data should be given consideration be best suited by using an analytically robust GIS such as R when selecting a GIS platform. There are numerous programs or QGIS, whereas a manager hoping to relay locations of fish capable of these tasks, and several have been reviewed in recent attractors to anglers might choose to use a less robust program literature (Steiniger and Bocher 2009; Steiniger and Hay 2009; such as Google Earth (earth.google.com). Second, users should Steiniger and Hunter 2013). The overriding conclusion from think about whether they already have knowledge of any free these reviews is that there is no one best free GIS program. programs. Time spent learning new programs can be greatly Different programs will appeal to different users based on study reduced if a user has elementary knowledge of a program. Third, objectives and user preference. users should consider user support. Several free programs are Two hurdles that likely limit use of free GIS programs in more widely referenced on Internet help sites than others. As fisheries science are familiarity with software options and the such, it is intuitive that more community help is available for learning curve associated with operating new programs. The pri- these programs. Perhaps the most valuable component of free mary purpose of this article is to inform fisheries professionals GIS programs is that many can be tried without purchasing cost- that free GIS options exist. A recent survey of fisheries manage- ly licenses. This allows users to find the best available program ment agency administrators revealed that 98% of agencies using for their needs without creating financial burden. Ultimately, GIS use programs that cost money and 38% identified product increased prevalence of free GIS in fisheries science should lead cost as a factor limiting more widespread use (Eder and Neely to increased use of this powerful tool and allow scientists to look 2013). These findings suggest that many in the fisheries profes- at spatial data in new ways. sion are simply unaware that free options exist. In the same survey, 77% of respondents indicated lack of knowledge about REFERENCES GIS programs’ limited use (Eder and Neely 2013). This might Bivand, R. 2014. CRAN Task View: Analysis of Spatial Data. cran.r- be attributed to difficulty learning new programs. However, project.org/web/views/Spatial.html many professionals might know more than they think. A survey Eder, B. E., and B. C. Neely. 2013. Use of geographic information sys- by Fisher and Toepfer (1998) indicated that nearly all fisher- tems by fisheries management agencies. Fisheries 38:491–496. ESRI. 2014. GIS Dictionary. support.esri.com/en/knowledgebase/ ies curricula include at least an introductory GIS course. Basic Gisdictionary/browse knowledge acquired in these courses about GIS programs can Fisher, W. L., and F. J. Rahel, editors. 2004. Geographic informa- likely be translated into reduced time learning how to become tion systems in fisheries. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, proficient with a free GIS program. One example involves the Maryland. Fisher, W. L., and C. S. Toepfer. 1998. Recent trends in geographic in- program QGIS (www.qgis.org). This program incorporates formation systems education and fisheries research applications several powerful GIS tools into a relatively intuitive graphical at U.S. universities. Fisheries 23:10–13. user interface that appears visually similar to ArcGIS (www. Lewis, B. 2014. Open Source GIS. opensourcegis.org/ esri.com), a cost program. These similarities might reduce the Steiniger, S., and E. Bocher. 2009. An overview on current free and open source GIS desktop developments. International Journal of amount of time spent learning how to conduct analyses in QGIS Geographical Information Science 23:1345–1370. by users with experience in ArcGIS. A similar situation exists Steiniger, S., and G. J. Hay. 2009. Free and open source geographic with the program R (www.r-project.org). Numerous spatial information tools for landscape ecology. Ecological Informatics analyses packages have been developed, and continue to be de- 4:183–195. veloped for use within R (cran.r-project.org/web/views/Spatial. Steiniger, S., and A. J. S. Hunter. 2013. The 2012 free and open source GIS software map—a guide to facilitate research, development, html; Bivand 2014). As such, users familiar with R can use their and adoption. Computers, Environment, and Urban Systems knowledge of coding syntax to decrease time spent learning how 39:136–150. to use different GIS packages within R. Wade, T., and S. Sommer, editors. 2006. A–Z GIS: an illustrated dic- User support is another factor that must be considered when tionary of geographic information systems. ESRI Press, Red- choosing free GIS programs. A major benefit of purchased GIS lands, California.

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 27 Salmon aquaculture in the Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick, Canada. Photo credit: Thierry Chopin.

ESSAY Marine Aquaculture in Canada: Well-Established Monocultures of Finfish and Shellfish and­ an Emerging Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) Approach Including Seaweeds, Other Invertebrates, and Microbial Communities Thierry Chopin Canadian Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture Network, University of New Brunswick, P.O. Box 5050, Saint John, NB, E2L 4L5, Canada. E-mail: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION Worldwide aquaculture is among the fastest growing food sectors, accounting for nearly 50% of the total finfish and invertebrate production and 96% of the total seaweed production (Chopin 2014). Few jurisdictions can match Canada’s natural advantages—enormous coastal geography; abundance of cold and clean water; favorable climate; rich marine and fishery tradition; established trade relationships with the United States, Asia, and Europe; and a commitment to sustainable and responsible best practices. However, during the past decade, production has more or less stagnated (12% increase in volume and 4% in value since 2008; AquaStats 2012) and Canada has remained a middleweight contributor, ranking only 21st among aquaculture producing countries (Canadian Aquaculture Industry Alliance [CAIA] 2014). This overview of the marine aquaculture industry in Canada is based on statistics for the years 2012 and 2013, the most recent years for which complete statistics are available. There is also a developing freshwater aquaculture sector, but it will not be part of this article. In 2012, Canada produced 173,252 tonnes of farmed seafood valued at CAD$826 million. In 2013, 16% of Canada’s total fish production was in aquaculture products and accounted for 35% of its total value. Canada exported more than 65% of its aquaculture production to over 22 countries around the world (more than 90,000 tonnes valued at more than CAD$601 million; CAIA 2014; Fisheries and Oceans Canada [DFO] 2014). Canada’s primary farmed seafood export markets include the United States (more than 88,000 tonnes valued at more than CAD$576 million), Japan (CAD$11.3 million), Taiwan (CAD$3.6 million), Singapore (CAD$1.5 million), China (CAD$1.2 million), and Hong Kong (CAD$0.5 million; DFO 2014). Canada is the main seafood supplier to the United States. Other suppliers include China, Thailand, Indonesia, Chile, and Vietnam (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada 2010). Approximately 50% of these imports come from aquaculture (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2013, 2014). Marine aquaculture operations in Canada are established in British Columbia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Québec. The industry can be divided into three sectors: the dominant finfish sector, a strong shellfish sector, and the often ignored, but emerging, seaweed sector, mostly associated with the development of integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA; a combination of finfish, invertebrates, and seaweeds for environmental sustainability, economic diversification, and societal acceptability of aquaculture practices; Chopin et al. 2012).

THE FINFISH SECTOR Farmed salmon, by far the most important finfish species grown by Canadian aquaculturists, with a production volume of 123,949 tonnes valued at CAD$599 million, accounted for over 80% of volume and value of finfish produced in 2012 (AquaStats 2012; Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture [NLDFA] 2014). British Columbia accounted for 58% (71,998 tonnes), New Brunswick accounted for 24% (30,217 tonnes), Newfoundland for 13% (15,831 tonnes), and Nova Scotia for 5% (5,903 tonnes; AquaStats 2012; NLDFA 2014). Of Canada’s total farmed salmon production, 26% (31,779 tonnes) was consumed domestically (AquaStats 2012; NLDFA 2014). An additional 3,263 tonnes were imported. With a population estimated at approximately 35 million, Canada’s per capita consumption

28 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 of farmed salmon is around 1.0 kg/person. This is very similar to the U.S. consumption. The United States is the destination for 97% of Canadian salmon exports. Other finfish species currently undergoing aquaculture development, or being cultivated on a smaller scale, include Sablefish, sturgeon, Rainbow Trout, steelhead trout, halibut, and Arctic Char.

THE SHELLFISH SECTOR Mussels accounted for 68% of the total Canadian shellfish production and 43% of its value in 2012: 28,124 tonnes valued at CAD$44.5 million (AquaStats 2012). Prince Edward Island remains the dominant Canadian mussel producer with 21,834 tonnes valued at CAD$28 million (78% of total Canadian production). Newfoundland produced 16% (4,400 tonnes valued at CAD$13.5 million), and Nova Scotia produced 5% (1,400 tonnes valued at CAD$1.9 million; AquaStats 2012). The primary markets for mussels from Atlantic Canada are the U.S. and Canadian fresh, live markets. Canada exported 53% of its production in 2012, with almost 100% going to the United States (AquaStats 2012). The remainder of Canada’s mussel exports was shipped, as both fresh and value-added products to markets in Europe, Asia, and the Middle East (Statistics Canada 2014). Canadian consumption of mussels is 0.5 kg/person, which is low when compared to European standards. In 2012, Canada produced 11,191 tonnes of farmed oysters valued at CAD$23.5 million. Oysters accounted for 26% of the total value of shellfish production (AquaStats 2012). Oyster production is distinctly divided between two Canadian regions: 64% of the volume and 43% of the value was accounted for by Pacific oysters produced in British Columbia; the remainder was accounted for by Eastern/Atlantic and European oysters produced in Atlantic Canada (AquaStats 2012). In 2013, 30% (3,304 tonnes) of the Canadian farmed oyster production was exported for a value of CAD$23.4 million; 89% were exported as live, fresh oysters. The United States is the primary export market for Canadian farmed oysters (87%; DFO 2014). The demand is currently expanding very rapidly and exceeds Canada’s current supply. In an effort to meet this demand, growers are planning major production expansions. Other shellfish species under aquaculture development, or cultivated on a smaller scale, include Manila clams, varnish/savory clams, cockles, Japanese scallops, sea scallops, and quahaugs. With the development of the deposit-feeder component of IMTA systems for recapturing the large organic particles from the fed component (fish or shrimp), advances in the aquaculture of other invertebrates such as sea urchins, sea cucumbers, polychaetes, The need for diversification of the and lobsters are anticipated (Chopin et al. 2013). There is also increased recognition that marine microbial Canadian aquaculture industry is communities could play a significant, and presently underestimated, role in the recycling of organic matter. With imperative to maintain its competitiveness. a better understanding of the contributions of the “good microbes,” it is possible to conceive that their activities could be enhanced by appropriately designed structures; that is, developing methods for their cultivation.

THE SEAWEED SECTOR, EMERGING MOSTLY THROUGH THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTEGRATED ­ MULTI-TROPHIC AQUACULTURE (IMTA) The seaweed aquaculture sector is often neglected and ignored in world statistics, despite the fact that it represents 49% of the world mariculture production (23.8 million tonnes in 2012 valued at US$6.4 billion; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2014). As 96% of the seaweed aquaculture is concentrated in six Asian countries (China, Indonesia, the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, Japan, and Malaysia), there is a lack of appreciation for this resource in the Western world (Chopin 2014). Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) offers an opportunity to reposition the value and roles that seaweeds can have in integrated food production systems and in ecosystem health. One often forgotten function of seaweeds is that they are excellent nutrient scrubbers (Chopin et al. 2001). Consequently, seaweeds can be used as the inorganic extractive component of IMTA, recapturing the dissolved nutrients released from the fed component. They can also be used for recapturing the dissolved nutrient effluents of water treatment facilities in coastal communities. Moreover, having organisms able to accumulate phosphorus is becoming increasingly attractive when considering that, in the not too distant future, the next “P peak” will not be that of petroleum but that of phosphorus. Nutrient biomitigation is not the only ecosystem service provided by seaweeds. Seaweeds can be cultivated without the addition of fertilizers and agrochemicals, especially in an IMTA setting, where the fed component provides the nutrients. Seaweed cultivation does not require more arable soil and land transformation (deforestation). If appropriately designed, it can be seen as engineering new habitats, harboring thriving communities, and can be used for habitat restoration. Moreover, it does not need irrigation, on a planet where access to water of appropriate quality is becoming more and more of an issue. As photosynthetic organisms, seaweeds are the only aquaculture component with a net production of oxygen, whereas all other components (fed and organic extractive) are oxygen consumers, hence contributing to avoidance of coastal hypoxia. While performing photosynthesis, seaweeds also absorb carbon dioxide and, hence, participate in carbon sequestration, even if in a transitory manner. Consequently, they could be a significant player in the evolution of climate change, slowing down global warming, especially if their cultivation is increased and spread more evenly throughout the world. By sequestering carbon dioxide and increasing pH in seawater, seaweeds could also play a significant role in reducing ocean acidification and shellfish mortalities recently reported. Seaweeds are prime candidates for the integrated sequential biorefinery (ISBR) approach: on one hand, a wide range of biobased, high-value compounds (edible food, food and feed ingredients, biopolymers, fine and bulk chemicals, agrichemicals, cosmetics, bioactives, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, botanicals, etc.); on the other hand, lower-value commodity bioenergy compounds

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 29 Mussel aquaculture in Prince Edward Island, Canada. Photo credit: Thierry Chopin.

(biofuels, biodiesels, biogases, bioalcohols, biomaterials, etc.). Over the last decade, the Canadian IMTA Network (CIMTAN) at the University of New Brunswick has adopted this ISBR diversification strategy with an industrial partner, Cooke Aquaculture Inc., in Atlantic Canada. IMTA kelps recapture some of the inorganic dissolved nutrients from fish farms, and the partners are developing markets for their uses in human consumption, cosmetics, partial substitution in fish feed and biochar production, along with eco- labeling and organic certification. Before the development of IMTA, two companies were already cultivating seaweeds: • Acadian Seaplants Limited, producing the red alga Chondrus crispus (Irish moss) in land-based seawater tanks in Nova Scotia for the edible Asian sea-vegetable market. • Canadian Kelp Resources Ltd., cultivating the brown algae Alaria marginata, Saccharina latissima, and Macrocystis integrifolia as sea-vegetables for human consumption, pharmaceutical, homeopathic and cosmetic companies, health food stores, and feeds for abalone and sea urchin cultures.

ECONOMIC IMPACTS AND LABOR FORCE OF THE AQUACULTURE INDUSTRY Gardner Pinfold Consultants Inc. (2012) measured the economic impacts of the aquaculture industry in Canada in 2010, considering the value of the output and the gross domestic product (GDP), labor income, and employment (in full-time equivalents) at three levels: direct (impacts of the aquaculture industry itself [hatcheries, grow-out operations and processing]), indirect (impacts in the industries supplying goods and services to aquaculture [feed, equipment, advice]), and induced (impacts arising from spending of income earned by those employed directly and indirectly). The value of the total output was CAD$1,113,561. The aquaculture industry generated a total GDP of $1,064,010 (CAD$354,392 in direct GDP; CAD$463,728 in indirect GDP; CAD$245,890 in induced GDP). The total labor income was estimated at CAD$617,913 (CAD$192,794 directly; CAD$285,661 indirectly; CAD$139,458 being induced). Consequently, the cumulative gross value of output generated was CAD$2,795,484. The aquaculture industry created an estimated 13,070 full-time equivalent jobs (4,812 directly; 5,643 indirectly; 2,615 being induced).

CONCLUSIONS The principal challenge for the Canadian aquaculture industry is an overly complex, uncertain, and confusing regulatory system that restricts growth and limits investment. This industry is regulated by an obsolete, reactive, and inefficient Fisheries Act dating back to the establishment of Confederation (1867), at a time when commercial aquaculture did not exist—a wildlife management act that was never intended for an innovative, food production sector. A new Aquaculture Act would provide the Canadian aquaculture industry with a more modern and effective approach to governance—a piece of framework legislation that, while respecting provincial jurisdictions, would harmonize the application of federal regulations nationwide and enable the development of new practices within an ecosystem/multispecies/multi-activity management approach—to give this industry the definition, the clarity, the recognition, and the vision for growth it requires. In light of this difficult situation, the need for diversification of the Canadian aquaculture industry is imperative to maintain its competitiveness. Moreover, it is clear that in some regions, the scope for expansion of monoculture activities is limited. Developing IMTA systems should not only bring increased profitability per cultivation unit through economic diversification of cocultivating several value-added marine crops but it should also bring environmental sustainability and societal acceptability. Moreover, the IMTA multicrop diversification approach (fish, seaweeds, invertebrates, and microbes) could be an economic risk mitigation option to address pending climate change impacts. The ecosystem services provided by extractive aquaculture should be recognized and valued

30 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 Kelps cultivated at an IMTA site in the Bay of Fundy, New Brunswick, Canada, in proximity to salmon cages provide key services to the ecosystem and represent an additional crop with many product applications. Photo credit: Thierry Chopin. by fed aquaculture and society and lead to the implementation of nutrient trading credits (NTCs), which could be used as financial incentive tools to encourage mono-aquaculturists to contemplate IMTA as a viable aquanomic option to their current practices. Increasing responsible aquaculture production through diversification, regulatory reform, and new legislation would also have a positive impact on jobs and economic opportunities in rural/coastal communities. Canadians consume around 5.2 kg of fish and shellfish per year (CAIA 2014). This level of consumption is 33% below the Health Canada Food Guide recommendations. The seafood consumption of 88% of Canadians does not meet these guidelines and thus greatly increases their risk of coronary heart disease. Given the degree of “health consciousness” among Canadian consumers, a campaign emphasizing the health benefits of eating more farmed seafood could be very effective in increasing its demand. Access to more farmed seafood, including seaweeds, would enable meeting increasing market demands for fresh, local, safe, and sustainably produced seafood. For buyers and consumers, these attributes should be used for differentiation through branding, eco-certification, and organic labeling.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Thierry Chopin would like to thank Ruth Salmon, the Executive Director of the Canadian Aquaculture Industry Alliance (CAIA), for providing aquaculture production data.

REFERENCES Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. 2010. Consumer trends—the American seafood market. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, International Markets Bureau, Ottawa. Available: www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/market-prices-and-statistics/trade-statistics/pubs/us_seafood_consum- er_trends_en.pdf. (November 2014). AquaStats. 2012. Aquaculture statistics 2012. Catalogue 23-233-X. Available: www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/23-222-x/23-222-x2012000-eng.pdf. (November 2014). Canadian Aquaculture Industry Alliance. 2014. Long-term international strategy 2014–2018. Canadian Aquaculture Industry Alliance, Ottawa. Chopin, T. 2014. Seaweeds: top mariculture crop, ecosystem service provider. Global Aquaculture Advocate 17(5):54–56. Chopin, T., A. H. Buschmann, C. Halling, M. Troell, N. Kautsky, A. Neori, G. P. Kraemer, J. A. Zertuche-Gonzalez, C. Yarish, and C. Neefus. 2001. Integrating seaweeds into marine aquaculture systems: a key towards sustainability. Journal of Phycology 37:975–986. Chopin, T., J. A. Cooper, G. Reid, S. Cross, and C. Moore. 2012. Open-water integrated multi-trophic aquaculture: environmental biomitigation and economic diversification of fed aquaculture by extractive aquaculture. Reviews in Aquaculture 4:209–220. Chopin, T., B. MacDonald, S. Robinson, S. Cross, C. Pearce, D. Knowler, A. Noce, G. Reid, A. Cooper, D. Speare, L. Burridge, C. Crawford, M. Sawhney, K. P. Ang, C. Backman, and M. Hutchinson. 2013. The Canadian Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture Network (CIMTAN)—a net- work for a new ERA of ecosystem responsible aquaculture. Fisheries 38(7):297–308. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 2014. Domestic exports of selected commodities: 2012 to 2013 farmed exports by country, species, and HS code. Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Ottawa. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2014. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2014. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Gardner Pinfold Consultants Inc. 2012. Socio-economic impact of aquaculture in Canada—2010. Gardner Pinfold, Halifax, NS, Canada. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2013. Imports and exports of fisheries products. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- ministration, Washington, DC. Available: www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/Assets/commercial/trade/Trade2013.pdf. (November 2014). —­——. 2014. Fishwatch—U.S. seafood facts. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, DC. Available: www.ppi.noaa.gov/ (November 2014). Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture. 2014. Newfoundland and Labrador aquaculture industry highlights 2011 and 2012. Available: www.fishaq.gov.nl.ca/stats/aquaculture_2011-2012%20factsheet.pdf. (November 2014). Statistics Canada, CATSNET Analytics. 2014. Canadian domestic exports of aquaculture products. Available: www.aquaculture.ca/files/docu- ments/AquacultureExportsEnglish.pdf. (November 2014).

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 31 RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS Fishes on the Move as Oceans Heat Up Natalie Sopinka University of British Columbia, PhD student. E-mail: [email protected]

Researchers at the University of British Columbia have modelled where exploited fishes and invertebrates will move with warming oceans: north to the Arctic and south to the Antarctic (Jones and Cheung, in press). Simulating a 1°C increase in ocean temperature by 2100, species were found to move 15 km poleward per decade; bump up ocean temperatures by 3°C and fish could be moving 26 km per decade. The study also predicted the tropics to be hotspots with local ocean temperatures expected to increase at greater rates than more northern and southern latitudes. Fisheries may collapse in tropical areas with new fisheries emerging in the Arctic. For species invading southward, they may encounter resident Antarctic notothenioid fishes or icefishes. Frigid polar waters hardly seem like a habitat you’d find a living fish but head to the frozen coastlines of Antarctica and there you will find notothenioid fishes. Catch one of theseicefish and you will also find ice crystals…inside their bodies! Ice can get into a fish’s circulation when it drinks or eats—luckily these fishes have anti-freeze proteins that bind to the ice, stopping the crystals from growing further. Scientists originally hypothesized that internal ice might melt during the relatively warmer summer water temperatures, preventing lifelong accumulation. Seems like an evolutionary fairy tale, right? That is until Paul Cziko and colleagues recently discovered that these anti-freeze proteins also prevent ice in blood from melting (Cziko et al. 2014). Now an evolutionary paradox, anti-freeze proteins appear to also be “anti-melt” proteins. In the lab, fish blood and whole fishes exposed to Notothenioid fishes. Photo credit: Paul Cziko. temperatures above the expected melting point of the ice still contained ice crystals, or superheated ice. In the field, seawater temperatures generally remain below the ice’s melting point providing little reprieve for ice-laden fishes— notothenioid fishes collected in the summer still had ice in their bodies. For now, the long-term effects of accumulated ice inside these fishes remain unknown. Also unknown: will icy notothenioids give a cold-hearted welcome to those fish displaced poleward as the oceans warm?

REFERENCES Cziko, P. A., A. L. DeVries, C. W. Evans, and C-H. C. Cheung. 2014. Antifreeze protein-induced superheating of ice inside Antarctic notothen- ioid fishes inhibits melting during summer warming. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 40(111):14583-14588. Jones, M. C., and W. W L. Cheung. In press. Multi-model ensemble projections of climate change effects on global marine biodiversity. ICES Journal of Marine Science DOI: 10.1093/icesjms/fsu172.

32 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 SAMPLINGS

Natalie Sopinka University of British Columbia, PhD student. E-mail: [email protected] On Twitter An amusing quiz is circulating the Twitterverse—“What Fish are you?”. Fish personal- ity scientists Mathew Edenbrow and Kate Laskowski collaborated with developers of the mobile app FishBrain (a data logging and social networking platform for anglers) to create the 10 question quiz that reveals whether you are a “Social Butterfly Carp” or “Workaholic Stickleback.” Find out what your inner fish is at www.fishbrain.com/quiz and tweet your results to @AmFisheriesSoc. Salmon embryos are now quietly incubating under gravel, but Twitter didn’t miss a mo- ment of their parent’s spawning spectacle. Cross-border and cross-country tweets featured: British Columbia’s astounding Adam’s River Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) run (follow @PSF), Coho Salmon (O. kisutch) making their way up Oregon’s Willamette Falls (follow @TualatinRiver), the rampant infection of Ich in California’s Chinook Salmon (O. tshawytscha), exacerbated by drought (follow @PacificCouncil), and updates on Adam’s River Sockeye Salmon spawning Lake Ontario’s Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) restoration efforts (follow @ontariosalmon). run. Photo credit: Matthew Casselman. In the Blogs Science Sushi blogs.discovermagazine.com/science-sushi “The Unexceptional Devil’s Hole Pupfish” The perils of the Devil’s Hole Pupfish (Cyprinodon diabolis) were featured on Christine Wilson’s blog—only 35 of these aquatic “icons” of Death Valley were found in 2013. Find out more on how Devil’s Hole Pupfish may have ended up in a hole in the middle of a desert, how old they really are, and what their future holds.

The Fisheries Blog thefisheriesblog.com “River Roaches: The Quest to Better Understand Crayfish” Guest blogger Michael Moore is crazy (or cray cray) for crayfish. Get to know these remarkably diverse (by name and life history) crustaceans that can both support and shatter ecosystem stability.

Not Exactly Rocket Science phenomena.nationalgeographic.com “When Your Prey’s in a Hole and You Don’t Have a Pole, Use a Moray” Science writer Ed Yong covered the collaborative and clever Coral Trout (Plectropomus leopardus) on his blog. Is this fishery favorite of the Great Barrier Reef smart enough to learn that a lazy eel is not a good hunting partner? In the Books Is your copy of The Zoogeography of North American Freshwater Fishes falling apart? The first of 3 volumes ofFreshwater Fishes of North America is published. Volume 1 covers family names from Petromyzontidae to Catostomidae, and was edited by Melvin Warren and Brooks Burr, and illustrated by Joseph Tomelleri.

Cute and cuddly (and often non-aquatic ) adorn the covers of children’s books—but surely “weird” looking animals like the Blobfish Psychrolutes( marcidus) are worthy of being front and center. Kevin Payne, teacher, illustrator, and parent, is on a crusade to share nature’s most unique species with young minds. Following a successful crowdfunding campaign on Kickstarter, publication of Kevin’s book B is for Cover art of B is for Blobfish. Art: Kevin Payne. Blobfish is a go. An A-Z guide of “unusual and unloved” animals, B is for Blobfish will feature odd, yet awesome, critters including the Goblin Shark (Mitsukurina owstoni) and lamprey. Find out more at www.facebook.com/andonart.

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 33 Look and Listen Reaching Blue: Finding Hope Beneath the Surface Encompassing the Strait of Georgia, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and Puget Sound, the Salish Sea waterways nestle along the Pacific Northwest coast and boast stunning landscapes and biota, above and below the water’s surface. Reaching Blue is a 45 minute documentary, with contributions from over 20 cinematographers, that tells the story of how anthropogenic stressors are affecting coastal ecosystems from the perspectives of an oyster farmer, a writer, and marine scientists. Find or host a screening at www.reachingblue.com. The documentary can be streamed on demand in Canada at www.cbc.ca. Follow Reaching Blue filmmakers Ian Hinkle and Andy Robertson. Photo credit: Carol-Lynn­ Michaels. Reaching Blue on Twitter at @ReachingBlue.

Though they may not sound like a ­crying baby, larval Grey Snapper (Lutjanus griseus) do make noise. Erica Statterman and colleagues heard “growls” and “knocks” when listening to audio recordings of fishes in the field and lab.The baby fish were most chatty at night and may use auditory communication to facilitate twilight schooling. Have a listen: Statterman et al. 2014, Biology Letters, 10:20140643. Quotes

“The adult fish is ­grotesque in appearance and is of dirty brown or greenish color.” – Harbans Arora describing the Plainfin Midshipman (Porichthys notatus), Copeia 1948, ­ 2:89-93.

“I think a sturgeon would ­definitely Parental (top) and sneaker (bottom) male Plainfin Midshipman found on ­Vancouver Island. Photo credit: Aneesh Bose. be an IPA drinker, maybe even a stout.” – Rupert from Red Hook whose suggested beer name Lucky Sturgeon was chosen for a new IPA, sales of which will go to Riverkeeper (www.riverkeeper.org).

“So if you’ve got an urgin’ for sturgeon or you’re true to your trout, don’t be shy! Go ahead and request your Actinopterygii!” – Buzz Hoot Roar (www.buzzhootroar.com).

“I became fond of fishing and I fell in love with the river. Nobody can take it away from me, not even if they pay me.” – Cesare Bergamini, subject of the BBC’s article “The Last Eel Catcher of Rome.”

34 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 Snapshots

Just over a year ago Richard Brackett from Charleston, South Carolina, caught a juvenile Blue Marlin (Makaira nigricans). Wonder how big this fish is now? Photo credit: Joey Cagle.

The nudibranch Janolus fuscus showing off its best impression of a porcupine at Palmer’s Point in Patrick’s Point State Park (Humboldt County, California). Photo credit: Mike Kelly.

The varying hues of European Lobster (Homarus gammarus) haemolymph. Photo credit: Charlotte Davies.

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 35 AFS NEWS Fishery Analysis and Modeling Simulator (FAMS) Now Available for Windows 7 and 8 Andrew Loftus Loftus Consulting, 3116 Munz Drive, Annapolis MD, 21403. E-mail: [email protected]

The popular software Fishery Analysis and Modeling Simulator (FAMS) that American Fisheries Society Fisheries Information & Technology Section offered for Windows XP and earlier machines has been recently upgraded and enhanced to make it operable on Windows 7 and 8. The software, which is designed to simulate and evaluate the dynamics of exploited fish populations, allows for the evaluation of minimum, slot, and inverted length limits and bag limits on exploited fisheries. In addition, it helps to analyze several predicted population parameters, including the number of fish harvested and dying naturally, mean weight and length of harvested fish, number in the population above and below some lengths of interest, total number of fish and biomass in the population, stock density indices, number of age-1 fish, and the spawning potential ratio, and many other parameters. “I look forward to training more students to use FAMS in their fisheries careers and using it in my own future research,” remarked Clay Pierce, assistant leader for fisheries of the Cooperative Fish andWildlife Research Unit at Iowa State University, upon trying out the new version. Pierce has made FAMS a core component of his teaching for over a decade with many of his students going on to utilize the software in their management and research careers. The redeveloped version of FAMS will provide the following enhancements: • Compatibility with Windows Vista, Windows 7, and Windows 8 64-bit operating systems • Improved user interface (less redundancy, easier navigation, improved menu logic, and menu hot-key shortcuts) • Improved graphics module (user has more control over editing chart elements) • Enhanced spreadsheet functionality and compatibility with Microsoft Excel • Increased functionality to estimate natural mortality (11 equations now available) FAMS and an earlier software package, Fishery Analysis and Simulation Tools, have been a key piece of fisheries research and management for 15 years, with a 150 citations (mostly peer reviewed) returned in Google Scholar and more than 1,000 copies being distributed to fisheries professionals. “The release of this upgraded version of FAMS is critical to fisheries professionals,” remarked Thom Litts, president of the AFS Fisheries Information and Technology Section. “With the proliferation of 64-bit computers and Microsoft’s discontinued support for Windows XP in April 2014, earlier versions of FAMS will become obsolete as users and agencies upgrade their computers, leaving a void in fisheries research and management capabilities.” Both the upgraded FAMS version 1.64 and the original FAMS version 1.0 (for Windows XP and earlier) are available in the AFS Bookstore (fisheries.org/shop). American Fisheries Society members receive a 30% discount off of the regular price. Additional information and reviews of FAMS can be found at www.fishdata.org.

AFS NEW MEMBERS Shawn Anderson Riley Gallagher Seth Love Andrew Schmucker Joshua Ashline Marcus Geist Darryl Mclennan Kristen Sellmer Jennifer Aspell JJ Gladden Kevin Mulligan Andrew Shamaskin Steven Barbeaux Zach Goeden Matthew Olson Robert Sheffer Megan Begley Jennifer Griffin Harold Pearson-Nadal Steve Smith Alex Benecke Michael Gullatte Randy Peterson Katie St. Clair Anne Beulke Patricia Harris Sui Chian Phang Marysia Szymkowiak Richard Brocksmith Josue Hernandez Elizabeth Phillips Mariah Tengler Ashley Brown Susan Herz Jonah Powell Elizabeth Thackaberry Amanda Bryson Carrie Johnson Ethen Preston Frank Thrower Kelly Cates Laura Junge David Rainho Elizabeth Tobin Dean Courtney Melanie Kadake Philip Richards David Trimpe Emily Cowles Stephen Katz Endora Roberts Guy Wade Sarah Cvach Rachael Klopfenstein Martha Roege Jennifer Whitt Tom Dodson Amber Kornak Walter Rogers Erin Wilson Kaitlin Doucette Jenell Larsen Serena Rogers Olive Tashana Winnicky Elizabeth Duskey Joanna Lessard Damon Romero Rahim Zettili

36 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 Q&A: INTERVIEW The Present and the Future of World and U.S. Fisheries— Interview with Daniel Pauly Arnaud Grüss Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149; and Southeast Fisheries Science Center, Sustainable Fisheries Division, 75 Virginia Beach Drive, Miami, FL 33149-1099. E-mail: [email protected]

Daniel Pauly, Ph.D. is a French researcher who became a professor at the Fisheries Centre of the University of British Columbia in 1994, of which he was the director for 5 years. He has been the principal investigator of the Sea Around Us project since 1999. He is one of the main contributors of the Ecopath modeling approach and software and of FishBase, the online encyclopedia of fish. He is also the author or coauthor of several famous papers in Science and Nature and the recipient of various awards, including the Award of Excellence of the American Fisheries Society.

In “Toward Sustainability in World Fisheries” (Pauly et al. 2002) and “The Future for Fisheries” (Pauly et al. 2003), you expressed serious concerns about the sustainability of global fisheries and offered recom- mendations for rebuilding marine resources. Do you have the feeling that the situation of world fisheries is better or worse today than a decade ago? A journalist working for the International New York Times asked me the same question a few weeks ago, though with reference to my “Aquacalypse Now” article (Pauly 2009; whose cute title, incidentally, I discovered only when reading the published version). My answer to his question was an op-ed (Pauly 2014) in which I noted the tremendous progress in rebuilding stocks in the United States in the last decade and the hope that the European Union (EU) will follow suit, now that its Parliament has passed enabling legislation. However, I also noted that both the United States and the EU obtain—via direct catches or imports—over 70% of their seafood from outside of their waters, mostly from developing countries where overfishing is accelerating and that much of this seafood in fact originates from “food-deficit” countries. Thus, “we” (in the United States and EU) will have to deal with the huge equity issues that this poses and, at least, export some of the sustainability that we have recently developed.

In “Fishing Down Marine Food Webs” (Pauly et al. 1998a), you showed that the mean trophic level (MTL) of fisheries landings has declined since the 1950s, which reflects the collapse of an increasing number of high-trophic-level fish populations and unsustainable fishing patterns. This idea was confirmed later on (e.g., Pauly and Palomares 2005). By contrast, Branch et al. (2010) found recent increases in catch, sur- vey, and MTL. Why are there discrepancies between your findings and those of Branch et al. (2010)? Is catch MTL increasing or decreasing in the United States, why, and what does this sug- gest? A superficial reading of the question would suggest that I led a paper claiming a widespread occurrence of “fishing down marine food webs” (FD) in 1998, that this claim was reiterated in 2005, that it is these two papers which were contested by Branch et al. (2010), and that then a debate ensued. Actually, the 1998 paper was challenged immediately by Caddy et al. (1998); that is, by Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) staff, who stated that they “do not disagree that a general decline in mean trophic level is likely to have occurred in many regions” but felt that it may not be solely due to FD, before proposing alternative explanations, in part based on what they said was the low quality of the FAO data. We provided what I think were satisfactory answers to this (see Pauly et al. 1998b), and the original FD paper went on to be cited over 3,200 times, as assessed by Google Scholar. The overwhelming majority of these citations, I should add, are positive or neutral; that is, not questioning the occurrence of the FD effect. In addition, Pauly et al.’s (1998a) results were replicated in numerous studies (see Stergiou and Christensen [2011] for a review). Notably, a recent study by Polovina and Woodworth-Jefcoats

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 37 (2013) analyzed the U.S. tuna fishery around Hawaii and documented a strong FD effect, which, however, can be detected only after discards are accounted for. Another recent account for FD is Molfese et al. (2014), who studied a 90-year time series from the English Channel (see www.fishingdown.org for more cases). Thus, there is a huge independent body of work that Branch et al. (2010) did not consider when claiming that the FD phenomenon occurs only in a few cases, if at all. The fact is that Branch et al. (2010), as is often the case in fisheries science, did not account for the spatial expansion of fisheries, as documented worldwide in Swartz et al. (2010). Expansion is not a problem for FD when using local catch data, as most previous authors had done. However, this was not the case for the data that Branch et al. (2010) used. I should know, because what they used were FAO catch data processed by the Sea Around Us project, in which the offshore expansion of fisheries not only is not taken into account when they are “spatialized” (seeWatson et al. [2004] for method) but is completely masked. Collectively, the fisheries of a given country, when the biomass of the coastal resources they exploit declines (along with the mean trophic level of their catch), tend to expand further from the coast. As they do this, they encounter tuna, billfishes, and other large pelagic fishes with high trophic level (TL) and relatively fewer low-TL fishes. Thus, if you fail to account for expansion, you will get the impression that the downward MTL trend that was visible at first has reversed. The error made here is as elementary as that of an agronomist who would report on the growing productivity of a farm without accounting for increase in acreage planted. This is not an idle claim. We have a paper coming out (Kleisner et al., 2014) which not only elaborates on this effect but presents an approach by which the masking effect of an expansion can be quantified, if approximately. This, and other papers to be submitted in 2015, including one with the many authors who have documented FD in their countries (with local catch data not biased by offshore expansion), and another one on worldwide biomass trends by TLs, should be able to put the notion to rest that “fishing down” is not a widespread problem. As for its prevalence in the United States, I presume that the welcome rebuilding of major stocks occurring in the country’s waters will result in an increase of MTL when estimated from biomass, and later in catches, as fishing on rebuilt stocks resumes.

You are the principal investigator of the Sea Around Us project, which studies fisheries impacts on the world’s marine ecosystems. One of the main achievements of this project is the reconstruction of historic fisheries catch time series to improve baselines and support the development of sustainable, ecosystem- based fisheries policies. How many fisheries management bodies have used outcomes of the Sea Around Us project to improve their assessments, in the world and in the United States? Are there some success stories that you would like to share with Fisheries? Fisheries scientists have traditionally worked for the government agencies in charge of managing fisheries, either directly or indirectly via research contracts. However, there is a well-known phenomenon called “industry capture,” where the agencies tasked with regulating an industry becomes too cozy with it. This is well illustrated, for example, by the relationship between the Food and Drug Administration and the agriculture sector in the United States, and it can lead to the interest of the public in, for example, long-term stewardship of their natural endowment being compromised. This is where environmental nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) can make a huge difference. Fifty years ago, when Greenpeace helped “save the whales,” this could be done largely without scientific input—whales have more charisma than scientists. Nowadays, though, environmental NGOs cannot do without science and I see my primary role, along with that of the Sea Around Us, as supplying the NGO community with a sound scientific basis for their conservation-related activities. The Sea Around Us likely had an indirect role—via the NGOs we work with—in pushing the EU toward recently passing a more conservation-oriented fisheries legislation, in helping the environmental NGOs in various countries to focus their campaigns on important and achievable goals, and the World Trade Organization (and the EU) in dealing seriously with the issue of subsidies to fisheries (Sumaila et al. 2013). We are also helping West African countries with understanding the real value of their marine fisheries resources and thus shaping their response to legal and illegal foreign fisheries in their waters (Belhabib et al. 2014).Thus, when Senegal recently arrested a Russian vessel poaching in its , we celebrated, because one month before that we had presented to the Senegalese Minister of Fisheries with an analysis of the loss his country experiences through illegal fishing.This is all very different from doing stock assessments, but the strategic and international dimensions of fisheries policy research are also needed, and they are our niche. Our emphasis on catch reconstruction emerged about a decade ago, when we realized that the national fisherieslandings that the FAO receives annually from its member countries and distribute globally as the only global database of fisheriescatches is not only problematic in a lack of precision kind of way but is also grossly biased against small-scale fisheries (i.e., artisanal, subsistence, and small-scale fisheries), because the overwhelming majority of member countries simply don’t report on them (see Zeller et al. [2007] for a study of the catches from the U.S. flag territories in the Pacific, which we carried out for theWestern Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Council). The resulting zeroes in the FAO database are then interpreted as absence of catch, and the whole focus of the fisheries world is thus shifted to industrial (or “commercial”) fisheries, although these are not necessarily the ones providing most fish to most people in most countries. We are now completing bottom-up reconstructions of total catches from 1950 to 2010 for all maritime countries and island territories of the world (yes, it is lots of work!). I can’t describe the results here, which we will release in late 2014, but I am sure that they will astonish lots of folks.

38 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 In the United States, a public law (the Magnuson–Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act) re- quires fisheries management to be based on the best scientific information available in order, inter alia, to achieve the optimal yield from each fishery and to promote the protection of essential fish habitats. Do you think that U.S. fisheries have been successfully rebuilt thanks to the Magnuson–Stevens Fishery Con- servation and Management Act? Is fisheries management in the United States a model for the rest of the world? Yes, and yes. Every public lecture I do (and I do lots of them, including in the United States) emphasizes the wonders that a reasonable, well-enforced legislation can do. We need this throughout the world, notably to show that fisheries science actually works when its best results are implemented and stocks that previously had been overfished are allowed to rebuild.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are increasingly advocated as a primary means of rebuilding marine re- sources and allowing sustainable fisheries (e.g., Jones et al. 2011; Roberts 2012). Do you think that MPAs will succeed in benefiting world and U.S. fisheries? How should the global network of MPAs be designed to produce significant fisheries benefits? A few decades ago, when global catches were higher (yes, higher!), we were exploiting a smaller fraction of the ocean. However, in most of the world, rather than rebuilding stocks that were overexploited, fisheries expanded, and catch were maintained through expansion (Swartz et al. 2010). MPAs contribute to reversing the trend: rather than obtaining our seafood from far away, we should obtain it from our rebuilt stocks. Otherwise, our footprint (or “seafood print”?) will keep expanding even if catches do not grow, as for the impact of mining which grows even when production does not (Davidson et al. 2014). Here again, the United States took a very positive stance, with the first large no-take in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and the first scientifically designed network of MPAs in California. (I will get into trouble in Australia for having written this…).

Climate change jeopardizes the ability of marine ecosystems to provide goods and services (e.g., Cheung et al. 2009, 2010b; Hollowed et al. 2013; Roberts 2013). You and your colleagues demonstrated that cli- mate change may result in large-scale redistribution of global catch potential (Cheung et al. 2010b; Pauly 2010b). Based on your findings and results from other studies (addressing issues that you and your col- leagues did not address such as ocean acidification), may U.S. fisheries (including fisheries in the U.S. Ca- ribbean, Alaska, and Hawaii) belong to the “winners” or “losers” of climate change? Our first results suggested that, overall, in the next 30–50 years, the United States would not lose, or gain, from a temperature induced redistribution of catches, because losses in the subtropical areas, notably in Florida and the Caribbean, would be compensated for by gains in Alaska (Cheung et al. 2010a). However, these first analyses were rather preliminary and omitted a number of correlates of increased global temperature, notably a reduction of dissolved oxygen (Pauly 2010a), which, when taken into account, had a strong, deleterious effect on fish growth and hence productivity (Cheung et al. 2013a). Also, we once considered the effects of ocean acidification (Cheung et al. 2011) and showed that lowered pH may reduce potential catch. Thus, although the effects of lowered pH across exploited species are admittedly uncertain, we believe that there will be no “winner” from global changes, only victims. Big troubles have already begun for tropical countries, and the other countries will follow suit in a delayed fashion.

You and your colleagues recently developed a novel index to evaluate the impacts of climate change on global fisheries, the “mean temperature of the catch” (Cheung et al. 2013b). What exactly is this index? What did it reveal? What are the implications of your findings? While William Cheung and I and our collaborators at Princeton developed our approach for modeling temperature-induced migration in the future, we really put the cart before the horse as we did not cover the effects that are known to have occurred in the second half of the 20th century and which, for example, were documented at the symposium of the American Fisheries Society in 1989 (Regier et al. 1990). William and I had the idea of a “mean temperature of the catch” (MTC, an obvious analogy to the mean trophic level of the catch), based on the assumption that the temperature preferendum of a fish species, which can be inferred from its average distribution, is largely fixed; that is, cannot evolve rapidly because it involves too many deep features of fish physiologyPauly ( 2010a). Thus, fishes have to move when the temperature they live in is unsuitable, even if the region to which they must move is not as suitable with regards to other features; for example, food availability. Because the Sea Around Us had already plotted the distribution of all marine fish that show up in FAO’s global statistics (seewww.searoundus.org ), we could compute preferenda for all of these species and do a global analysis of how fish have shifted their distribution in the last decades of the 20th century, as reflected in the MTC of the large marine ecosystems (LMEs) of the world. It turned out, for most large marine ecosystems, that the MTC increased (at a rate of 0.2°C/decade) and that it is significantly related to observed temperatures, after changes in fishing fortef and large-scale oceanographic variability are accounted for. When we worked on a revision of the paper (we did five, the reviewers were tough!), we discovered that our results agree with an earlier study by Collie et al. (2008), who did a similar analysis with fishes in New England. Also, we found that ecosystems in the tropics showed a trend that is different from the rest of the ocean. MTC increased initially but then leveled off, although temperature continued to increase. This implies that species remaining in the tropics may have to either find a way to tolerate temperatures that are unprecedented in recent times or die out. This, needless to say, is bad news for tropical fisheries and countries.

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 39 Philippe Cury (Institute of Research for Development, France) and you recently wrote a book in French about reconciling human extractive activities and natural cycles (Cury and Pauly 2013; reviewed in French by Grüss 2013).This book is outstanding and will hopefully be translated into English. In the last part of the book, you emphasize that mankind should change “operating systems.” Could you please expand on this idea for Fisheries? What fishing practices and management measures should primarily be promoted to ensure that world and U.S. fisheries fit a new operating system? This book, which we hope will soon be translated into English, makes three points in three chapters. In Chapter 1, we argue and hopefully demonstrate that, notwithstanding long-term evolutionary processes and the occasional meteors crashing onto Earth, Nature simply tends to reproduce itself, year by year, because the organisms it consists of do the same thing from one year to the next; that is, close the life cycle of which they are parts. This closing of cycles may involve long migrations, as in the case of birds, salmon, and sea turtles, or complex life cycles, as in some parasites, but, at the end, the overwhelming majority of organisms that survive and reproduce do exactly as their parent did; Nature is obstinate and moves in cycles. In Chapter 2, in contrast, we make the point that modern humans, since their very emergence in Eastern Africa, have managed to overcome the control that predators and competitors imposed on them and to expand, through successive waves of invasion, in both population and space, to the extent that they now dominate the Earth. The expansion of industrial fisheries into the world oceans, documented in Swartz et al. (2010), is only the latest of these waves of expansion. Thus, humans, rather than being characterized by the cycles of nature, are characterized by an arrow of time, which historians call “progress,” economists call “growth,” and which definitely must be called “bad news” for the biosphere. In Chapter 3, we thus ask what would make it possible for humans to accept, and adapt to, the cycles of Nature, rather than listing the good-intentioned but largely helpless measures that usually come at the end of books about the oceans, such as forsaking plastic bags when shopping. Thus (because we are two French intellectuals), we develop the theme that we need to graft onto the Enlightenment’s “operating system” (freedom, tolerance, democracy, etc.) a “service patch” that would automatically question the sustainability of any newly proposed enterprises we engage in, just as we now ensure that new ventures do not impinge on human rights. In the marine world, this would mean, for example, that we wouldn’t allow fisheries that modify such as trawling.

Changing operating systems entails major changes in our consumption of seafood. According to you, what national and global measures should be implemented to guarantee seafood security worldwide? It is likely that seafood consumption per capita will need to be reduced in developed and emerging nations. Given the limitations of livestock farming and aquaculture, to obtain and maintain a high animal protein supply per capita worldwide, should countries—including the United States—consider more seriously ­alternative sources of proteins such as insects? Satisfying, in the face of declining worldwide catches, the increasing seafood demand for developed countries while maintaining fish in the diet of millions of people in developing countries is an unsolvable problem.Aquaculture is often mentioned as a solution in this context, but what the aquaculture people in the United States and the EU usually have in mind when they talk about it as a solution is the farming of carnivorous fish, tuna, salmon, sea bass, and the like.At the risk of sounding repetitive, I must insist that this form of aquaculture cannot feed the world. In fact, the more of such aquaculture you do, the less fish you will have for human consumption because these fish are carnivores and they are fed with fish that could (and should) be used to feed people. For aquaculture to perform as a net producer of seafood, it must be based on farming herbivores, ranging from catfish inArkansas, fed with soybeans, to the carp and bivalves that form the bulk of aquaculture production in China. Yes, we can eat insects since we can eat their aquatic cousins; that is, shrimp. But do we really have to? Wouldn’t it be more practical to curb our production of human protoplasm?

To guarantee that the fishing practices and management measures described above are effectively imple- mented, how can top-down management be improved and bottom-up pressure on decision makers and politicians applied? Also, should scientists ensure a more comprehensive public awareness of the sustain- ability of marine resources to encourage people to buy or boycott seafood products wisely? The only way we can guarantee that governments implement existing legislation to ensure sustainability of fisheries is to make lots of noise when they don’t do what actually is their job. More people working together can make far more noise than isolated persons, which is why, in my public lectures, when asked “What should we do?” I suggest people should organize—that is, join an environmental NGO—and push for change. This I see as bottom-up activity that can make a difference, and scientists, being citizens as well, have no excuse for not being involved. In contrast, I have serious doubts that “buying and consuming wisely” can make much of a difference, although I think that we should still do it, if only because our actions should be consistent with our beliefs.

40 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 REFERENCES Belhabib, D., V. Koutob, A. Sall, V. W. Lam, and D. Pauly. 2014. Fisheries catch misreporting and its implications: the case of Senegal. Fisheries Research 151:1–11. Branch, T. A., R. Watson, E. A. Fulton, S. Jennings, C. R. McGilliard, G. T. Pablico, D. Ricard, and S. R. Tracey. 2010. The trophic fingerprint of marine fisheries. Nature 468(7322):431–435. Caddy, J. F., J. Csirke, S. M. Garcia, and R. J. R. Grainger. 1998. How pervasive is “fishing down marine food webs”? Science 282(5393):1383. Cheung, W. W., S. Booth, D. Zeller, and D. Pauly. 2010a. Impact of climate change on U.S. marine fisheries with emphasis on the Gulf and South- east Atlantic States. The University of British Columbia, Fisheries Centre Working Paper #2010-12, Vancouver, BC, Canada. Cheung, W. W., J. Dunne, J. L. Sarmiento, and D. Pauly. 2011. Integrating ecophysiology and plankton dynamics into projected maximum fisher- ies catch potential under climate change in the Northeast Atlantic. ICES Journal of Marine Science 68(6):1008–1018. Cheung, W. W., V. W. Lam, J. L. Sarmiento, K. Kearney, R. Watson, and D. Pauly. 2009. Projecting global marine biodiversity impacts under climate change scenarios. Fish and Fisheries 10(3):235–251. Cheung, W. W., V. W. Lam, J. L. Sarmiento, K. Kearney, R. E. G. Watson, D. Zeller, and D. Pauly. 2010b. Large-scale redistribution of maximum fisheries catch potential in the global ocean under climate change. Global Change Biology 16(1):24–35. Cheung, W. W., J. L. Sarmiento, J. Dunne, T. L. Frölicher, V. W. Lam, M. D. Palomares, R. Watson, and D. Pauly. 2013a. Shrinking of fishes exac- erbates impacts of global ocean changes on marine ecosystems. Nature Climate Change 3(3):254–258. Cheung, W. W., R. Watson, and D. Pauly. 2013b. Signature of ocean warming in global fisheries catch. Nature 497(7449):365–368. Collie, J. S., A. D. Wood, and H. P. Jeffries. 2008. Long-term shifts in the species composition of a community. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 65(7):1352–1365. Cury, P., and D. Pauly. 2013. Mange tes méduses!: réconcilier les cycles de la vie et la flèche du temps. Odile Jacob Editions, Paris. Davidson, D. J., J. Andrews, and D. Pauly. 2014. The effort factor: Evaluating the increasing marginal impact of resource extraction over time. Global Environmental Change 25:63–68. Grüss, A. 2013. Mange tes méduses! Réconcilier les cycles de la vie et la flèche du temps—analyse d’ouvrage. Cybium 37(4):280–280. Hollowed, A. B., M. Barange, R. J. Beamish, K. Brander, K. Cochrane, K. Drinkwater, M. G. Foreman, J. A. Hare, J. Holt, and S. Ito. 2013. Projected impacts of climate change on marine fish and fisheries. ICES Journal of Marine Science 70(5):1023–1037. Jones, P. J. S., W. Qiu, and E. M. De Santo. 2011. Governing marine protected areas—getting the balance right. United Nations Environment Programme, Technical Report, Nairobi, Kenya. Kleisner, K., H. Mansour, and D. Pauly. 2014. Region-based MTI: resolving geographic expansion in the Marine Trophic Index. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 512:185–199. Molfese, C., D. Beare, and J. M. Hall-Spencer. 2014. Overfishing and the replacement of demersal finfish by shellfish: an example from the Eng- lish Channel. PloS One 9(7):e101506. Pauly, D. 2009. Aquacalypse now: the end of fish. New Republic 240(18):24–27. —­——. 2010a. Gasping fish and panting squids: oxygen, temperature and the growth of water-breathing animals. Pages in Excellence in ecology (22). International Ecology Institute, Oldendorf/Luhe, Germany, xxviii + 216 pages. —­——. 2010b. If you didn’t like overfishing, you sure won’t like global warming. Pages 1–6in A. Acosta and L. Creswell, editors. Proceedings of the 62nd Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Cumaná, Venezuela, November 2009. GCFI, Volume 62, Fort Pierce, FL. —­——. 2014. Fishing more, catching less. The New York Times (March 26). Available: goo.gl/wc75xE. Pauly, D., J. Alder, E. Bennett, V. Christensen, P. Tyedmers, and R. Watson. 2003. The future for fisheries. Science 302(5649):1359–1361. Pauly, D., V. Christensen, J. Dalsgaard, R. Froese, and F. Torres. 1998a. Fishing down marine food webs. Science 279(5352):860–863. Pauly, D., V. Christensen, and R. Froese. 1998b. How pervasive is “fishing down marine food webs”: response to Caddy et al. Science 282:183. Pauly, D., and M.-L. Palomares. 2005. Fishing down marine food web: it is far more pervasive than we thought. Bulletin of Marine Science 76(2):197–212. Pauly, D. V., V. Christensen, S. Guénette, T. J. Pitcher, U. R. Sumaila, C. J. Walters, R. Watson, and D. Zeller. 2002. Toward sustainability in world fisheries. Nature 418:689–695. Polovina, J. J., and P. A. Woodworth-Jefcoats. 2013. Fishery-induced changes in the subtropical Pacific pelagic ecosystem size structure: ob- servations and theory. PloS One 8(4):e62341. Regier, A. H., J. J. Magnuson, and C. C. Coutant, editors. 1990. Proceedings of the Symposium on Effects of Climate Change on Fish. Transac- tions of the American Fisheries Society 119(2). Roberts, C. 2012. Marine ecology: reserves do have a key role in fisheries. Current Biology 22(11):R444–R446. —­——. 2013. Ocean of life. Penguin Books, Harlow, UK. Stergiou, K. I., and V. Christensen. 2011. Fishing Down Food Webs. Pages 72–88 in V. Christensen and J. Maclean, editors. Ecosystem ap- proaches to fisheries: a global perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Sumaila, U. R., V. Lam, F. Le Manach, W. Swartz, and D. Pauly. 2013. Global fisheries subsidies. European Parliament, Directorate General for Internal Policies. Policy Department B: Structural and Cohesion Policies—Fisheries, Brussels, Belgium. Swartz, W., E. Sala, S. Tracey, R. Watson, and D. Pauly. 2010. The spatial expansion and ecological footprint of fisheries (1950 to Offering more than a Two Fold Approach present). PloS one 5(12):e15143. Providing equipment for Mark and Relocate your Watson, R., A. Kitchingman, A. Gelchu, and D. Pauly. 2004. Map- Active and Passive tracking Underwater Equipment ping global fisheries: sharpening our focus. Fish and Fisheries 5(2):168–177. Zeller, D., S. Booth, G. Davis, and D. Pauly. 2007. Re-estimation of small-scale fishery catches for U.S. flag-associated island ar- eas in the western Pacific: the last 50 years. Fishery Bulletin 105(2):266–277.

“workingSonotronics together to make a difference in the world we share” www.sonotronics.com • (520) 746-3322

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 41 Journal Highlights NORTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF FISHERIES MANAGEMENT Volume 34, Number 6, December 2014

Raft and Floating Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Antenna Genetic Mixed-Stock Analysis of American Shad in Two Atlantic Systems for Detecting and Estimating Abundance Coast Fisheries: Delaware Bay, USA, and Inner Bay of PIT-tagged Fish in Rivers. Eric R. Fetherman, Brian W. Avila, and of Fundy, Canada. John Waldman, Daniel Hasselman, Paul Bentzen, Dana L. Winkelman. 34:1065-1077. Michael Dadswell, Lorraine Maceda, and Isaac Wirgin. 34:1190-1198.

A Market Model of Eastern Bering Sea Alaska Pollock: Sensitivity [Management Brief] Effects of Appendaged Circle Hook Use on to Fluctuations in Catch and Some Consequences Catch Rates and Deep Hooking of Black Sea Bass in a Recreational of the American Fisheries Act. James W. Strong and Keith R. Criddle. Fishery. Charles Bergmann, William B. Driggers III, Eric R. Hoffmayer, 34:1078-1094. Matthew D. Campbell, and Gilmore Pellegrin. 34:1199-1203.

Reducing Bias and Filling in Spatial Gaps in Fishery-Dependent [Comment] Comment: Not all Biases are Created Equal—A Com- Catch-per-Unit-Effort Data by Geostatistical Prediction, I. Meth- ment on the Snorkel Survey Bias Observed by Hessenauer et al. odology and Simulation. John F. Walter, John M. Hoenig, and Mary C. (2014). Jeffrey A. Stein, Julie E. Claussen, David P. Philipp, and Steven Christman. 34:1095-1107. J. Cooke. 34:1204-1206.

Reducing Bias and Filling in Spatial Gaps in Fishery-Dependent [Comment] Using the Right Tool for the Right Job Should Include Catch-per-Unit-Effort Data by Geostatistical Prediction, Validation When Possible: Response to Comment. Jan-Michael Hes- II. Application to a Scallop Fishery. John F. Walter, John M. Hoenig, senauer, Mary Tate Bremigan, and Kim T. Scribner. 34:1207-1210. and Mary C. Christman. 34:1108-1118. Evaluation of Precision and Sample Sizes Using Standardized Sam- Optimizing Fishing Quotas to Meet Target Fishing Fractions of an pling in Kansas Reservoirs. Jeff D. Koch, Ben C. Neely, and Michael E. Internationally Exploited Stock of Pacific Sardine. David A. Demer Colvin. 34:1211-1220. and Juan P. Zwolinski. 34:1119-1130. [Management Brief] Absence of Handling-Induced Saprolegnia Growth and Mortality of Hatchery-Reared Striped Bass Stocked Infection in Juvenile Rainbow Trout with Implications for into Nonnatal Systems. Jody L. Callihan, Charlton H. Godwin, Kevin J. Catch-and-Release Angling. Martin Schwabe, Thomas Meinelt, Thuy Dockendorf, and Jeffrey A. Buckel. 34:1131-1139. M. Phan, Steven J. Cooke, and Robert Arlinghaus. 34:1221-1226.

[Management Brief] Validation of Daily Ring Deposition in the A Simulation-Based Evaluation of In-Season Management Tactics Otoliths of Age-0 Alligator Gar. Peter C. Sakaris, David L. Buckmeier, for Anadromous Fisheries: Accounting for Risk in the Yukon River and Nathan G. Smith. 34:1140-1144. Fall Chum Salmon Fishery. Matthew J. Catalano and Michael L. Jones. 34:1227-1241. Use of a Statewide Angler Tag Reporting System to Estimate Rates of Exploitation and Total Mortality for Idaho Sport Fisheries. Kevin Importance of Ultrasonic Field Direction for Guiding Juvenile A. Meyer and Daniel J. Schill. 34:1145-1158. Blueback Herring Past Hydroelectric Turbines. Christopher W. D. Gurshin, Matthew P. Balge, Michael M. Taylor, and Benjamin E. Lenz. Sampling Characteristics and Calibration of Snorkel Counts to Es- 34:1242-1258. timate Stream Fish Populations. Daniel M. Weaver, Thomas J. Kwak, and Kenneth H. Pollock. 34:1159-1166. [Management Brief] Morphological Discrimination of Genetically Distinct Chinook Salmon Populations: an Example from [Comment] Comment: Population Structure and Run Timing of California’s Central Valley. Joseph E. Merz, Thomas M. Garrison, Paul Sockeye Salmon in the Skeena River, British Columbia. Michael H. S. Bergman, Scott Blankenship, and John Carlos Garza. 34:1259-1269. H. Price, Andrew G. J. Rosenberger, Greg G. Taylor, and Jack A. Stan- ford. 34:1167-1170. Movement and Spatial Distribution of Common Carp in a South Dakota Glacial Lake System: Implications for Management and [Comment] Population Structure and Run Timing of Sockeye Removal. Matthew J. Hennen and Michael L. Brown. 34:1270-1281. Salmon in the Skeena River, British Columbia: Response to Com- ment. Terry D. Beacham, Steven Cox-Rogers, Cathy MacConnachie, CORRECTION Brenda McIntosh, and Colin G. Wallace. 34:1171-1176. A.E. Kohler’s name was misspelled as Koler in three citations [Management Brief] Quantifying the Uncertainty of a Juvenile Chi- within the article “Putting the Red Back in Redfish Lake, nook Salmon Race Identification Method for a Mixed-Race Stock. 20 Years of Progress Toward Saving the Pacific Northwest's Brett N. Harvey, David P. Jacobson, and Michael A. Banks. 34:1177- Most Endangered Salmon Population” (Fisheries, Vol 39 No 1186. 11, November 2014). The typo is found in Box 1 pg. 490, pg. 494, and again on pg. 499. Please note the correct citation is [Management Brief] Timing of First Annulus Formation in White Sucker Otoliths. Daniel W. Beckman and John W. Calfee. 34:1187- Griswold, Kohler, and Taki 2011. 1189.

42 Fisheries | Vol. 40 • No. 1 • January 2015 To submit upcoming events for inclusion on the AFS web site calendar, send event name, dates, city, state/­ province, web address, and contact information to [email protected]. (If space is available, events CALENDAR will also be printed in Fisheries magazine.) More events listed at www.fisheries.org

February 5, 2015 Missouri Chapter AFS Annual Business Meeting | Jefferson City, Missouri | moafs.org

February 16–19, 2015 2015 Annual General Meeting, WA-BC Chapter of AFS | Richmond, British Columbia | wabc-afs.org

February 19–22, 2015 Aquaculture America 2015 | New Orleans, L | www.marevent.com

February 22–27, 2015 Aquatic Sciences Meeting | Granada, Spain | aslo.org/meetings

February 24–26, 2015 2nd International Conference on Fisheries Aquaculture and Environment in the Indian Ocean | Muscat, Oman | fishconference.om

February 24-26, 2015 2015 Montana Chapter Meeting | Great Falls, Montana | www.montanaafs.org

February 24-26 2015 2015 Wisconsin Chapter Meeting | Eau Claire, Wisconsin | wi-afs.org

February 26-28, 2015 2015 Ontario Chapter Meeting | Geneva Park in Orillia | afs-oc.org

March 4–6, 2015 2015 Idaho Chapter Meeting | Boise, Idaho | afs-oc.org

March 5–7, 2015 Tidewater Chapter Annual Meeting | Pine Knoll Shores, North Carolina | sdafs.org/tidewater/AFSTidewater/Annual_Meeting.html

April 28–30, 2015 FLOW 2015: Protecting Rivers and Lakes in the Face of Uncertainty | Portland, Oregon, | www.instreamflowcouncil.org/flow-2015

May 17–19, 2015 NPAFC International Symposium on Pacific Salmon and Steelhead Production in a Changing Climate: Past, Present, and Future | Kobe, Japan | npafc.org

May 18–22, 2015 AFS 2015 Piscicide Class | USU, Logan, Utah | www.fisheries.org

May 26–30, 2015 World Aquaculture 2015 | Jeju Islandm Korea | was.org

June 22–24, 2015 Fish Passage 2015 | Groningen, Netherlands | fishpassageconference.com

July 12–17, 2015 39th Annual Larval Fish Conference | Vienna, Austria | larvalfishcon.org

July 26–31, 2015 World of Trout | Bozeman, MT | Facebook > The World of Trout - 1st International Congress

August 16–20, 2015 145th Annual Meeting of the American Fisheries Society | Portland, Oregon | www.fisheries.org

Fisheries | www.fisheries.org 43 COLUMN POLICY (continued from p. 5) Fortunately, solutions are at hand. Heavy rains or snow This effort could be prompted by the next weather catastrophe, events, often with increasing intensity and frequency, are driving by neighborly partnerships at the local level, or even by state or these flood events. Our opportunity is to improve manmade federal mandate. We may need all of those impetuses before we waterway restrictions that focus nature’s power on the weakest see progress on the scale needed to gain maximum advantage. link in our stormwater control systems – culverts under roadways. I recommend a visit by the above-mentioned experts with Local departments of public works and utility companies might transportation program leaders, with an initial goal of watershed- have the equipment, expertise, or jurisdiction to upgrade culverts level dialog about specific recommendations. Hopefully those to handle higher flood flows but often they need the additional conversations won’t slow progress on projects or overall plans, talents of partners like the U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Fish and but such minor delays will be offset over time by that new Wildlife Service, Bureau of Land Management, state natural variable—resiliency. resource agencies, and the private sector. To succeed, we need a As said, this opportunity hinges on new partnerships. Trout combination of fisheries and aquatic scientists, geomorphologists, Unlimited, The Nature Conservancy, American Rivers, federal hydrologists, and engineers. Transportation experts can also agencies, state resource agencies, and others are already working contribute, as they understand vehicle loads, maintenance with transportation and public works sectors. Often with U.S. schedules, and opportunities associated with supplemental Forest Service leadership, new partnerships have developed money to heal emergencies. Together, these partners can design training modules offered to large audiences. Looking toward and construct fish- and flood-friendly culverts and bridges. Only the policy and regulatory sides, we need national support from one ingredient needs to be added so these catastrophes can the U.S. Department of Transportation’s Federal Highway LAKE CREEK become success stories, and storms will less often destroy our Administration and the Federal Emergency Management Agency, infrastructure and natural resources. and perhaps others if the culverts involve utility crossings. The missing piece is logic, namely understanding longer-term Depending on location, strong supporters of these efforts (which environmental sustainability and a better return on our societal include a growing number of private consulting firms) could offer investment. When all sectors with a stake in our waterways are skills and experience. Overall, those contributions are crucial, compelled to collaborate, we can apply our combined powers as even our fish partners will focus on different aspects of more to re-engineer stormwater culverts to address transportation and complex decisions—hydraulic standards for flow, performance safety priorities while also benefiting fish. Logical adjustments metrics for lakes and streams, historic preservation, and much in public policy will enable undersized culverts to be upgraded more. to larger diameters and profiles, and enable us to upgrade This opportunity is not as daunting as it might seem. We our infrastructure before the next severe weather event. The don’t need new technology; culverts and necessary construction incremental price increase for a more flood resilient crossing equipment are readily available to match any waterway. With will be offset over 50-75 years in terms of durability, reduced or the life histories of resident fishes, we should be able to match eliminated maintenance, and natural resource protection. structural design with ecological needs. We don’t need to bury This win-win-win opportunity is available today in a partners and stakeholders with statistical analyses of complex neighborhood near you. And me. Opportunities abound in waters climate models. Most of us already have witnessed the ravages with existing fish populations or where we’re striving to restore of raging waters, and can envision the benefits before us. The lost resources. Reconnecting fragmented habitat will enable fish challenges could be time and money, both of which will be to reach important habitats and to recolonize waters following offset by increased resiliency. When we get down to basics, natural disasters. That should be our Climate Change Adaptation benefits to fish will bring economic returns to communities and Strategy #1. The concept can easily be combined with national their recreational visitors. In streams that support threatened and and regional efforts such as those under the National Fish Habitat endangered species, our efforts will ease the societal challenge of Partnership or the thousands of watershed groups across the nurturing species away from extinction. Equally appealing is the United States. fact that solutions can be implemented over the course of months or years, not decades. The benefits will be evident swiftly, not in geologic time. All for a minor change in policy and a heavier dose of logic. OCEAN RIVER

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Image Courtesy: Veronica Wunderlich, Enviro. Scientist