Hamilcar had left his corps of mercenaries under the general Gisgo, commandant of the garrison at the Have you ever wondered how it was that Hannibal led an port of Lilybaeum. The mercenary army of mercenaries for two decades and never faced a force was composed of assorted serious rebellion or major desertion? His army was often soldiers of fortune, including Liby- ans, Iberians, Celts, Ligurians, hungry, always pushed hard by the Romans and usually Balearics, Greeks, and Roman and faced appalling conditions. Yet his soldiers of fortune Italian deserters, as well as smaller invariably remained loyal. Many historians credit this bands from all around the Mediterra- nean world. These hardened profes- phenomena to Hannibal's charismatic leadership and his sionals had defeated Rome's legions concern for the welfare of his men. But there was a darker time and again, and were returning side. Hannibal's army had been created and trained by his not as a defeated army, but as a victorious corps forced to withdraw father, Hamilcar Barca. And every mercenary in that army only because of a naval defeat. soon learned the tales of the Truceless War. The long shadow of Hamilcar's ruthless suppression of that rebellion Gisgo wisely dispatched the merce- naries back to Carthage in small lingered in the collective memory of Hannibal's army. groups, so that each mercenary band These hard bitten soldiers of fortune had learned and could be paid off and sent back to accepted this fact - you just don't cross a Barca. their homeland before the next arrived. This procedure would have But the Romans still did not give up. prevented the massing of a danger- Historical Background Instead they raised another fleet, ous number of idle soldiers of fortune In the later years of the First Punic even after so many had been de- in the capitol. But the home authori- War (from 249 BC) the Carthaginian stroyed by storms and the Punic ties did just the opposite. Reluctant General Hamilcar (father of the great navy. The Roman navy won a to part with any money, they balked and delayed payment until the entire Hannibal) waged a masterful decisive victory off the Aegates mercenary army was concentrated in guerrilla war with a polyglot merce- Islands in 242 BC. It was now Carthage. The mercenaries began to nary corps against the Romans in Carthage that was exhausted, and get rowdy and brawls and distur- Western Sicily. His campaign was forced to sue for peace to end the bances became common. Only then the linchpin of a strategy that had First Punic War. Hamilcar Barca was did the government authorities successfully maintained a forced to accept the humiliating peace awaken to the danger of the situation. Carthaginian presence in Sicily for and withdraw his troops from the centuries. When confronted with a island. Barca, who thought that The senate decided to send all the powerful enemy, such as the things couldn't get any worse, mercenaries out of the city to the Syracusan tyrants Dionysius or resigned his command in disgust. nearby village of Sicca. But they still Agathocles, or the Epirote King But Hamilcar was wrong - things didn't pay them. The mercenaries' Pyrrhus, the Carthaginians would could get a lot worse. prolonged waiting allowed the withdraw to their western fortresses smoldering embers of discontent to and maintain only a toehold in Sicily. The Origin of the Truceless War burst into the flames of insurrection Their opponent would eventually The Carthaginians were looking and mutiny. Gisgo had been negoti- exhaust himself, and then the forward to a quiet period in order to ating with the mercenaries, and he Carthaginians would sweep back in. recoup their losses after 24 years of and his party were seized and held But the Roman legions had far greater combat (264-241 BC). Although a hostage. Two mercenary captains staying power than the mercenary heavy indemnity had been imposed emerged as generals of the rebel armies of the Greek warlords. Only by the victorious Romans, Carthage army. Mathos, a Libyan soldier, was Hamilcar's brilliant generalship would be easily able to pay this off joined by Spendius, a runaway allowed the Carthaginians to hang on once peace allowed her commerce to Campanian slave. for seven years. Hamilcar's hit-and- again prosper. One final detail run campaigns of raid and ambush remained to be taken care of — the Mathos invited the local Libyan earned him the name Barca or demobilization of the 20,000 merce- "Lightning". naries that had to be evacuated from Sicily.

peasants to join his rebellion, and routed the militia army and seized all encouraging. Outside the city, received an enthusiastic response. of Hanno's artillery and siege train. Mathos' mercenaries continued to The rural populace had been harshly Hanno withdrew with the shattered besiege Utica and Hippacritae, and oppressed and heavily taxed by remnants of his army. his forces blocked all exits from Carthage during the long war with Carthage. The mutineers' victory Rome, and now leapt at the chance to Enter Hamilcar Barca over Hanno at Utica had encouraged overthrow their masters. Word was The senate now turned to Hamilcar thousands more Libyan and sent to outlying Libyan and Barca and pleaded with him to accept Numidian tribesmen to rebel. Things Numidian tribes, and volunteers a command. Barca agreed, but the were not much more encouraging in flocked into the rebel camps by the situation he found was hardly the city. Hamilcar managed to scrape thousands. So began the Truceless War, also known as the Mercenary War, the Libyan War or the Servile War, in late 241 BC.

Opening Moves Their was no Carthaginian army on hand to oppose the rebels. Mathos set up his main base at Tunis, and dispatched divisions to besiege the cities of Utica and Hippacritae. A guard force occupied the main bridge over the Bagradas river, while other detachments covered all the fords. Carthage was completely sur- rounded, and shut off from contact with still friendly tribes and cities to the West and South. The senate appointed Hanno the Great to raise and field an army. Hanno had earned his title by ruthlessly sup- pressing the Libyan revolts that had followed the Roman invasion of Regulus (256-55 BC). Hanno had crushed the Libyans by routing their army and assaulting and sacking their main base at Hecatompylus. Hanno called out the civic militia and the citizen cavalry, organized an extensive siege train and added 100 elephants. Hanno did an excellent job of equipping, organizing and drilling his units into shape.

But when Hanno took the field, his weaknesses as a commander were revealed. Hanno advanced on the rebel army at Utica, and overran the mercenary camp with an elephant charge supported by ballistae fire. Hanno, accustomed to fighting Libyan tribesman who fled for days once defeated, thought he had already won the war. But these mercenaries had been trained by Hamilcar Barca. They withdrew before the elephant charge only to regroup and counterattack later. The rebels stormed back into their camp, together about 8,000 second-string hardened mercenary veterans in a elephants and his superior militia infantry. But he couldn't straight fight. Barca pinned his hopes generalship. expect these raw levies to take on on his 2,000 heavy cavalry, his 70 Hamilcar seized the initiative. He discovered that it was possible to bypass the rebel blocking forces by fording the Bagradas River at its mouth under a favorable wind. Barca made his surprise crossing at night, and emerged in full battle array on the far side by morning. Hamilcar headed for the rebel guard force at the bridge, which probably numbered 5,000 men. Spendius, in command of the division besieging Utica, marched out to join with the force at the bridge, bringing another 10,000 troops. Once they sighted the enemy, the two rebel forces advanced to converge on the Carthaginian army.

The Battle of Utica, Summer 240 BC Hamilcar's army was in three columns - nearest the enemy were his elephants, next the light infantry and cavalry, with the militia furthest over. Hamilcar ordered his elephants, light infantry and cavalry to conduct a feigned flight. The over anxious rebels were lured into a disorderly pursuit. But the Carthaginian mounted and light forces wheeled to the flanks of the militia line, and faced about. The elephants broke the rebel charge, and then the heavy cavalry hammered the open flanks of the rebel line. The militia in the center held just long enough, and the rebel army broke and fled. The rebels lost 6,000 men slain and 2,000 taken prisoner.

(See Battle of Utica sidebar on previous page for Scenario.)

Naravas and the Battle of Hippacritae, Fall 240 BC Hamilcar put his victory at Utica to good use, traversing the countryside and taking towns and villages back into Carthaginian alliance. Mean- while, Mathos continued his siege of Hippacritae. He dispatched Spendius with 6,000 crack mercenaries to observe and harass Hamilcar. Mathos also sent a band of 2,000 Gauls (more on this unit later) under their captain Autaritas to support Spendius, and ordered large Libyan and Numidian forces to join him as well. Hamilcar had received limited Hippacritae defected to the enemy. man garrisons that Carthage had sent reinforcements for his army, but These two key cities had remained to aid in their defense. The rebels, when the rebels massed over 20,000 loyal during the invasions of both strengthened by the financial support troops against him he was hard- Agathocles and Regulus, but now of these two major cities, advanced to pressed. joined the rebels. The citizens of besiege Carthage itself. A Libyan these former allies butchered the 500 chieftain, Zarzas, arrived with his Then, out of the blue, a young Numidian prince named Naravas rode into Hamilcar's camp and pledged his allegiance to the house of Barca. Even better, he had brought 2,000 crack Numidian light horsemen along with him. Now Hamilcar was ready for a set piece battle with Spendius and Autaritas. There is little record of how the Battle of Hippacritae was fought. Polybius says only that Naravas' Numidians and the elephants fought with distinction and the rebels were routed. Some 10,000 mutineers were reported killed, and 4,000 taken prisoner. Hamilcar incorporated those of his prisoners who were willing into his own army. The remainder of the prisoners he pardoned and released.

(See Battle of Hippacritae sidebar, left, for Scenario.)

Atrocity Heaped on Atrocity As the war stretched into 239 BC, Mathos and Spendius quickly realized that Hamilcar's leniency threatened to undermine the whole rebellion. Therefore they whipped their troops into a frenzy and had them torture and execute the captive General Gisgo and 700 other Carthaginian prisoners. The rebels broke the prisoners legs, cut off their hands and other extremities (!) and then tossed them into a trench to slowly die. Hamilcar responded by staking out rebel prisoners to be trampled by his elephants. It was this escalation of atrocity answered by atrocity that gave the name Truceless to this war.

Carthage's prospects were quite bright at this point, but a sudden reversal of fortune was in store. The feud between Hanno the Great and Hamilcar Barca intensified, and the rebels took advantage of this dissen- sion to recoup their losses. Sardinia was also lost to a mercenary rebel- lion. Then the cities of Utica and army, swelling the rebel host to over Tunis and laid siege. Hannibal cavalry. At the Battle of Leptis the 50,000 troops. encamped on the side nearest rebels were defeated, and Mathos Carthage, and Hamilcar on the far was captured. Hamilcar and the Battle of the side. Hannibal had Spendius, Saw, Autaritas and Zarzas crucified in (See Battle of Leptis sidebar, right) Fall 239 BC front of his lines, in sight of the To settle the conflict between their enemy. But rebel vengeance came Epilogue two chief commanders, Carthage soon after. Mathos launched a The war, which had lasted for three allowed the army to select which surprise attack that overran years and four months, was finally general they would rather serve. Hannibal's camp and took the over. The final scene, as recorded by Hamilcar won handily over Hanno. general prisoner. Mathos cut Polybius, was of Hamilcar and The civic authorities sent out a new Spendius down and crucified Hanno leading their armies on a general, Hannibal (not Hamilcar's Hannibal on the same cross. Thirty triumphal procession through son), to be Hamilcar's deputy. Carthaginian noble prisoners were Carthage. Mathos, in chains, was led Hamilcar, heavily outnumbered by executed and laid at the feet of the along while the populace vented their the rebels, avoided pitched battle. dead Spendius. hatred upon him. This war had been Instead he used his superior cavalry hard on commanders on both sides: arm and elephants under Naravas (See Battle of Tunis sidebar Spendius, Autaritas, Zarzas and and Hannibal to scour the country- on previous page for Scenario.) Hannibal were crucified, while side and cut off the large rebel army's Mathos and Gisgo were tortured to supplies. The city of Carthage was The Rape of Sardinia and the death. Only Hamilcar, Hanno and able to obtain provisions by sea, with Battle of Leptis, Fall 238 BC Naravas survived. Naravas was assistance coming from both King Rome chose this occasion to reverse rewarded with one of Hamilcar's Hiero of Syracuse and Rome itself. her policy of support for Carthage. daughters for a wife. Hanno the The besieging rebel army of 50,000 The island of Sardinia was seized, in Great settled back in on his African ran out of food first, and had to clear violation of the treaty of 241 BC. estate, and played a leading role in withdraw, harried by Hamilcar's When the Carthaginians complained, the Carthaginian senate for decades horsemen. the Roman senate threatened war, to come. But Hamilcar Barca was not and increased the amount of indem- through fighting. Shortly after this In a brilliant campaign of maneuver, nity Carthage had to pay. With war concluded, he gathered up his Hamilcar Barca constantly out- Carthage exhausted and rebel armies veterans and marched for Spain. The marched and outwitted the rebel still in the field, Hamilcar Barca was conquest of Spain would replace the force. Hamilcar ambushed and forced to swallow his pride and lost revenues of Sicily and Sardinia, harassed the rebel army, eventually accept this humiliation. The "Rape of and provide a suitable base from herding them into a box canyon, Sardinia" turned Hamilcar Barca to a which to attack Rome itself. named the "Saw". Barca entrenched bitter lifelong hatred of Rome, his army on the surrounding high leading eventually to the Second Autaritas' Band of Mercenary ground and slowly starved the rebels Punic War. Gauls out. In desperation the mutineers An interesting side-note to this turned to cannibalism, first eating Carthage rose to the occasion to make narrative of the Truceless War is the their prisoners, then their slaves and a final effort to end the war. Another story of Autaritas' band of mercenary finally each other. Spendius, levy of militia was scraped together, Gauls, as recorded by Polybius. This Autaritas and Zarzas finally sought a and Hanno the Great was recalled to unit had originally been formed truce. (Mathos had escaped earlier duty. The reinforcements were sent when a group of over 3,000 Gaullic with a portion of the rebel army.) to Hamilcar, and Hanno arrived with soldiers were driven out of their Hamilcar granted their terms, but a commission of thirty senators. The homeland due to inter-tribal disputes demanded ten hostages. The rebels senators forced the rival generals to (i.e. their own people couldn't stand agreed, but Hamilcar then chose the agree to cooperate and end the war. them). They then signed on as a body three leaders to be amongst the After some skirmishing produced to serve Carthage as mercenaries in hostages and clapped them in irons. results favorable to Carthage, both Sicily during the First Punic War. The rebel army, rearing betrayal, sides maneuvered for a set piece The band initially served as the made a final effort to escape in late battle at Leptis. Garrisons and garrison of Agrigentum, which they 239 BC. The result was that 40,000 detachments were called in by both sacked over a pay dispute. Later they men were reportedly butchered like the rebels and the Carthaginians for were posted to Hamilcar's base at sheep. what promised to be a decisive battle. Eryx. Here a faction of the mercenary Mathos likely massed over 30,000 band, numbering about 1,000, Mathos Takes a Brutal Revenge troops — fewer mercenaries now but deserted to Rome and unsuccessfully on Hannibal, The Battle of plenty of Libyan and Numidian attempted to betray the base. The Tunis levies. Hamilcar and Hanno prob- 2,000 that remained loyal to Carthage All that remained to finish the war in ably only had some 20,000 men, but under Autaritas finished out the war 238 BC was to destroy Mathos' army this total included nearly 5,000 in Sicily, and then were shipped back which was holed up at Tunis. The Carthaginian army advanced on

to Africa. Autaritas and his men Predictably, when an Illyrian raiding they marched off with the Illyrian became ringleaders of the mercenary army struck Phoenice in 230 BC, they pirates and finally faded from the rebellion at Sicca. This band was conspired with the Illyrians to betray pages of history. finally annihilated at the Battle of the the city rather than attempting to Saw, 239 BC. Autaritas was crucified defend it. After sacking the city, by Hannibal outside Tunis.

Meanwhile, the group that defected to Rome had been posted as a garrison of the Temple of Venus Erycina, which they characteristically sacked instead of defending. The Romans kept them on until the war with Carthage ended, and then banished them from Italy and Sicily and packed them off on ships. They numbered at this point only 800 men. Somehow, they managed to obtain employment in Epirus as the garrison of the port of Phoenice.