United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project Environmental Assessment
Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest, Modoc County, CA April 2018
For More Information Contact:
Chris Christofferson, District Ranger Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest 505 South Main Street PO Box 159 Adin, CCA 96006 Phone: 530-299-3215 Email: [email protected] Fax: 530-299-8409
Cover photo: Area of high-intensity fire and 100% mortality within the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project Area. (photo taken by Garrett Costello, December 19, 2017)
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability, and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status, parental status, religion, sexual orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because all or part of an individual’s income is derived from any public assistance program. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication for program information (e.g. Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) please contact USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, SW., Washington, DC 20250-9410, or call (800) 795-3272 (voice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
Contents Contents ...... i Introduction ...... 1 Proposed Project Location ...... 1 Background ...... 1 Purpose and Need for the Proposal ...... 4 Public Involvement and Tribal Consultation ...... 7 Issues Analysis and Alternative Development ...... 7 Decision to be Made ...... 8 Alternative 1: Proposed Action ...... 9 Area Salvage Harvest ...... 9 Roadside Hazard Tree Removal ...... 10 Fuel Treatments ...... 12 Reforestation ...... 12 Transportation Management ...... 13 Integrated Design Features ...... 15 Alternative 2: No Action ...... 21 Environmental Impacts of the Proposed Action and Alternatives...... 22 Air Quality ...... 23 Alternative 1 ...... 23 Alternative 2 ...... 23 Botanical Resources ...... 23 Noxious Weeds ...... 23 Region 5 Sensitive Plant Species ...... 24 Threatened and Endangered Plant Species ...... 25 Cultural Resources ...... 25 Alternative 1 ...... 25 Alternative 2 ...... 26 Fire and Fuels ...... 26 Alternative 1 ...... 26 Alternative 2 ...... 27 Hydrology ...... 28 Alternative 1 ...... 28 Alternative 2 ...... 31 Range ...... 32 Alternative 1 ...... 32 Alternative 2 ...... 33 Recreation and Visual Resources ...... 35 Alternative 1 ...... 35 Alternative 2 ...... 35 Silviculture ...... 36 Alternative 1 ...... 36 Alternative 2 ...... 37 Socioeconomics ...... 38 Alternative 1 ...... 38 Alternative 2 ...... 39 Soils ...... 40 Alternative 1 ...... 40 Alternative 2 ...... 41
i
Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Resources ...... 42 Migratory Landbirds ...... 42 Management Indicator Species (MIS) ...... 43 Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive (TES) Wildlife Species ...... 51 Transportation ...... 67 Alternative 1 ...... 67 Alternative 2 ...... 68 References ...... 69 Appendix A: Past, Ongoing and Reasonably Foreseeable Future Actions Summary Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project Analysis Area ...... 72 Appendix B: Supplemental Black-backed Woodpecker Information ...... 75
List of Tables
Table 1. Number of acres and percent area burned by basal area mortality class within the Cove Fire perimeter...... 3 Table 2. Acreage by proposed treatment type for the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project...... 10 Table 3: Summary of proposed transportation actions ...... 13 Table 4. Streamside Management Zone and Riparian Conservation Area (RCA) widths and identified streams and water features located within the Cove Project ...... 17 Table 5. Summary of ERA values for Alternatives 1 and 2...... 31 Table 6. MIS for Project-Level Habitat Analysis for the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project ...... 43 Table 7. Acres of late seral closed canopy coniferous forest and burn severity on USFS lands only within the Cove Fire perimeter...... 44 Table 8. Acres of roadside hazard treatment by CWHR type and burn severity; habitat types burned at less than 50% basal area mortality represent snags in green forest habitat, for hairy woodpecker...... 46 Table 9. Acres of area salvage treatment by CWHR type and burn severity; habitat types burned at less than 50% basal area mortality represent snags in green forest habitat, for hairy woodpecker ...... 46 Table 10. . Acres of roadside hazard treatment by CWHR type and burn severity; habitat types burned at greater than 50% basal area mortality represent snags in burned forest habitat, for black-backed woodpecker ...... 48 Table 11. . Acres of area salvage treatment by CWHR type and burn severity; habitat types burned at greater than 50% basal area mortality represent snags in burned forest habitat, for black-backed woodpecker...... 49 Table 12. Acres of black-backed woodpecker habitat within the pre-fire Cove Fire perimeter (non-USFS lands). Habitat types burned at greater than 50% basal area mortality represent snags in burned forest habitat, for black-backed woodpecker ...... 50
List of Figures Figure 1. Vicinity of the Cove Fire and Restoration Project...... 2 Figure 2. Map of the Rapid Assessment of Vegetation Change (RAVG) showing the vegetation burn severity in the Cove Fire perimeter...... 3 Figure 3: Forest salvage treatments proposed under Alternative 1 of the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project...... 11
ii
Figure 4. National Forest Transportation System (NFTS) roads within the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project...... 14
iii
Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Introduction Big Valley Ranger District of the Modoc National Forest is proposing to implement fire salvage and restoration activities on 1,380 acres within the boundary of the Cove Fire. The 30,774-acre Cove Fire burned approximately 23,956 acres of National Forest Service (NFS) lands on the Big Valley Ranger District of the Modoc National Forest from July 2017 to September 2017. The proposed actions are to be implemented on the Big Valley Ranger District of the Modoc National Forest. This environmental assessment (EA) will determine whether implementation of the activities proposed may significantly affect the quality of the human environment. This EA is part of the Forest Service’s compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). Proposed Project Location The project area is located approximately 3 miles northwest of Adin, California in the following sections, townships and ranges of Mount Diablo Base Meridian in Modoc County, California (Figure 1). It includes Township (T) 39 North (N), Range (R) 8 East (E), Section 1; T39N, R9E, Sections 6 and 7; T40N, R8E, Sections 15, 22-23, 25-27, and 34-36; and T40N, R9E, Section 30.
The project area is within the North Adin Management Area (MA44), as identified in the Modoc National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan (Modoc LRMP), and encompasses 1,380 acres of NFS land. MA 44 provides most of the timber for the Big Valley Federal Sustained-Yield Unit. Pertinent Forest Plan land allocations within the Cove Fire perimeter include: Riparian Conservation Areas (RCAs) and three goshawk protected activity centers (PACs) that exist in the project area but which burned at high severity during the Cove Fire. Future analysis will determine if the PACs have been rendered unsuitable as goshawk nesting habitat.
Topography varies from flat to sloping terrain with an elevational range of approximately 4,200 feet to 6,378 feet. Most slopes within the proposed treatment areas are less than 35 percent, with some short pitches that exceed 35 percent.
Species composition and structure of forest stands are influenced by elevation, landscape position, aspect, and stand history. Forest stands are comprised primary of eastside pine forest and oak-pine woodlands, along with shrub and riparian communities. Predominant tree species within the project area include ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Jeffery pine (Pinus jeffreyi), white fir (Abies concolor), incense cedar (Calocedrus decurrens), and California black oak (Quercus kelloggii). Common shrub species include sagebrush (Artemesia tridentata), tobaccobrush (Ceanothus velutinus), manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula), and rabbitbrush (Ericameria nauseosa). Plantations of various sizes and classes occur in the Cove Fire area. Background The Cove Fire started on July 24, 2017 and was part of the Modoc July Complex, which includes numerous wildfires started by lightening that burned 83,120 acres of grass, brush and timberlands of which approximately 30,774 acres comprised the Cove Fire. The fire resulted in a mosaic of vegetation burn severity effects (based on basal area tree mortality) (Figure 2). There are areas where tree mortality is 100 percent while other areas still support a green tree component.
1 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Overall, approximately 7 percent of the NFS land acreage did not burn in the Cove Fire, 19 percent experienced low burn severity effects, 22 percent burned at moderate burn severity and, 52 percent experienced high burn to very high burn severity effects (greater than 75 percent basal area tree mortality) (Table 1).
Figure 1. Vicinity of the Cove Fire and Restoration Project.
An interdisciplinary team assessed the effects of the fire and worked with the Responsible Official to develop a proposal for post-fire treatment activities based on management objectives, science, and experience. The area was evaluated for opportunities and need to reduce safety hazards along roads as well as in treatment areas, recover the value of fire-killed trees, reduce the danger and difficulty of managing future wildfires, and accelerate forested conditions and habitats in burned forest. Proposed activities include salvaging fire killed trees, treatment of activity slash and non-merchantable trees; falling and/or removal of hazard trees along roads; broadcast and pile burning for site preparation and fuels reduction, planting burned areas, and maintaining and repairing existing roads.
Post-fire management opportunities were generally focused in areas that experienced moderately high to very high vegetation burn severity effects (recognizing the mosaic pattern of vegetation burn severities). In addition, road accessibility and economic consideration associated with removing fire-killed trees shaped the design of the project. The majority of trees proposed for removal occur in high severity burned areas; however, hazard trees within mixed severity burned areas would also be included within units adjacent to public access roadways where burned trees pose a risk of falling into the roadway.
2 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
The project was designed to avoid sensitive and protected areas including archaeological sites, riparian habitat, and steep slopes. Ninety-three percent of moderate to high severity burned areas within the Cove Fire perimeter have been excluded from the treatment areas. These areas provide habitat to fire-obligate wildlife species like the black-backed woodpecker.
Figure 2. Map of the Rapid Assessment of Vegetation Change (RAVG) showing the vegetation burn severity in the Cove Fire perimeter1.
Table 1. Number of acres and percent area burned by basal area mortality class within the Cove Fire perimeter. Basal Area Acres Percentage Mortality
0% 2,190 7
1-<25% 6,000 19
25 - <75% 6,700 22
>75% 16,000 52
TOTAL 30,890 100%
1 Source: 2017 Cove Fire RAVG
3 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Purpose and Need for the Proposal The purpose of the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration project (Cove Fire project) is to achieve the following goals of the Sierra Nevada Forest Plan Amendment (SNFPA, USDA 2004) and the Modoc LRMP (USDA 1991). Standards and Guidelines for Salvage (Sierra Nevada Forest Plan Amendment-Final Supplemental EIS Record of Decision, 2004, pp. 52-53) were used to balance short and long-term risk to achieve the following social, economic, and ecological restoration goals of the project.
1. Recover economic value of fire-killed and damaged trees as a result of the Cove Fire to offset the cost of restoration activities and contribute to societal needs for wood products before natural deterioration occurs in the treatment areas (SNFPA 2004).
2. Reduce safety hazards caused by the Cove Fire along high use roads (e.g. maintenance level 3 (ML) of 3 or higher2) and provide a stable and cost-efficient road system through appropriate re-construction and/or maintenance (Modoc LRMP 1991).
3. Reduce small fire-killed trees to reduce future fuel loads, adequately prepare sites for regeneration, and improve the ability of stands and the landscape to withstand the adverse effects of future fires.
4. Accelerate development of forest habitat in suitable portions of the landscape deforested by the Cove Fire before these sites become fully occupied by competing vegetation (SNFPA 2004).
Goal 1: Recover economic value of fire-killed and damaged trees as a result of the Cove Fire to offset the cost of restoration activities and contribute to societal needs for wood products before natural deterioration occurs in the treatment areas.
Existing Condition: The combination of fuel and vegetation within the Cove Fire perimeter resulted in areas with high density standing snags. Fifty-two percent of the forest burned at high severity in large patches across the landscape exceeding the natural range of variability. In addition to tree mortality, severely burned areas experienced adverse effects to other forest resources such as soils, riparian areas, and wildlife habitat. Thousands of trees were killed contributing to hazardous conditions for people in the area and extremely high surface fuel loading over time.
Desired Condition: Support local forest management infrastructure by recovering forest products in a timely manner that generates economic value to offset the cost of restoration activities and contributes to societal needs for wood products.
Need for Action: Merchantability of burned trees is short lived and will decline quickly. Timber salvage harvest needs to be implemented in a timely manner to minimize value loss from fire-killed and damaged trees. Recovered timber value would offset costs associated with
2 Road maintenance level 3 is defined in the FSH 7709.58,10,12.3 as: Assigned to roads open and maintained for travel by prudent drivers in standard passenger cars. User comfort and convenience are low priorities. Roads in this maintenance level are typically low speed, single lane with turnouts, and spot surfacing. Some roads may be fully surfaced with either native or processed material. Appropriate traffic management strategies are either “encourage” or “accept.” “Discourage” or “prohibit” strategies may be employed for certain classes of vehicles or users (USDA 2012).
4 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest attaining safety, fuels, and reforestation across a larger area and provide a wood supply for local manufacturers and sustain a part of the employment base in rural communities.
Goal 2: Reduce safety hazards caused by the Cove Fire along high use roads (e.g. maintenance level 3 (ML) of 3 or higher) and provide a stable and cost-efficient road system through appropriate re-construction and/or maintenance.
Existing Condition: The Cove Fire damaged many trees (both live and dead) along National Forest Transportation System (NFTS) roads. These standing trees present a hazard and could fall into the roadways posing a safety and access hazard to area residents and landowners, Forest Service personnel and contractors, special use permit holders, and the visiting public. As these hazardous trees3 deteriorate, they become structurally weak and are prone to falling limbs, breaking apart, and toppling over completely. Gusty winds are common in the area of the Cove Fire and could suddenly blow down many hazardous trees at one time, posing an unacceptable risk to area residents, forest workers, and visitors.
Desired Condition: Improved safety along roads of relatively high pubic use or concentrated administrative use by Forest Service employees. A timely reduction in hazardous trees along NFTS roads and Modoc County roads that provide safe access for residents, forest workers, and visitors in the fire-affected perimeter. Safety is improved for fire management and prescribed fire resources due to the reduction of snags and overhead hazards.
Need for Action: To reduce safety hazards in high use areas, fire-killed and damaged trees need to be removed in a timely, efficient, and cost-effective manner so that access to affected areas can be restored and normal National Forest operations can be resumed. Safety hazards along roads with relatively high public use or concentrated administrative use by Forest Service employees were considered the highest priority areas for treatments to occur. Portions of the road system need to be repaired and maintained for project implementation. Temporary roads need to be constructed and existing roads need to be repaired and maintained to provide access to meet objectives.
Goal 3: Reduce small fire-killed trees to reduce future fuel loads, adequately prepare sites for regeneration, and improve the ability of stands and the landscape to withstand the adverse effects of future fires.
Existing Condition: The current surface fuel loading is very low in areas where the fire burned at moderate to high severity within the Cove Fire perimeter. This change in fuel loading, continuity, and composition is expected to reduce future wildfire intensities and rates of spread for several years. Through time, surface fuels will increase as dead trees fall, creating a complex arrangement of fallen trees, broken tops and branches intermixed within an increasingly heavy shrub component. Fire behavior will change in high severity burned forests where excessive wood fuel accumulates, which increases flame lengths, fire burn intensity, and fire severity. The combination of snags and surface fuels would also limit the ability of firefighters to safely and effectively manage future wildfires, particularly in strategic locations that could be used for future
3 A hazard tree (referred to as a danger tree in Forest Service Handbook 6709.11, Glossary) is defined as, “a standing tree that presents a hazard to people due to conditions such as, but not limited to, deterioration or physical damage to the root system, trunk, stem, or limbs, and the direction and lean of the tree.”
5 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project fire management actions. These conditions are commonly referred to as “resistance to control” and can lead to larger fires.
Desired Condition: Forest stand conditions that enhance fire management capability, mitigate negative wildfire effects, and increase ecosystem resilience in treated stands and the surrounding landscape. Hazards to firefighters and the public are reduced by managing snag levels and downed woody debris in locations likely to be used as the primary ingress and egress routes, and as control lines during prescribed fire and other fire management activities. Surface fuel density reduced to less than 15 tons per acre with disruptive continuity in all fuel types (surface, ladder, and canopy) fostering future fires to burn in patchy, mostly low, and some moderate vegetative burn severities.
Need for Action: Based on the fire-severity burn pattern, there is a need to disrupt and reduce fuel conditions by removing fire-killed and injured trees which in turn would reduce the risk of these areas burning at high severity in the future. There is a need to create areas along roads that benefit and enhance fire management activities and improve safety for firefighters and the public traveling along roads used as ingress and egress routes.
Goal 4: Accelerate development of forest habitat in suitable portions of the landscape deforested by the Cove Fire before these sites become fully occupied by competing vegetation.
Existing Condition: Approximately 70 percent of the timbered acres on NFS lands burned under moderate to high severity, leaving uncharacteristically large patches deforested. Conifer seed sources are absent in these large high severity patches and natural regeneration is highly dependent on distance to seed sources. Shrubs are expected to quickly capture high severity burned sites delaying reforested conditions.
Desired Condition: Restored forest landscape capable of producing a variety of wood products, wildlife habitat, and ecological services. Establish forest species diversity with site- appropriate trees with variable densities that are resilient to inherent disturbances at multiple scales (wildfire, drought, and insect/disease) and changing climate.
Need for Action: Planting is needed to accelerate reforestation in large high severity burned areas. Snags must be removed to safely operate in the area. Long-term fuel profiles need to be managed and competing vegetation reduced prior to planting to increase resiliency in young seral forests.
6 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Public Involvement and Tribal Consultation Representatives from the Pit Resource Conservation District (RCD) expressed interest in harvesting salvageable timber presenting an opportunity to work together to achieve a collaborative and financially supported project with the Forest Service and additional partners, including the Lassen County Fire Safe Council Inc. (LCFSC). This partnership has the potential to improve natural resources, ecological benefits, and community benefits by reducing long-term forest fuel loads, increasing safety, supplying biomass to local facilities, and sustaining a part of the employment base in rural communities.
The Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project has been listed in the Modoc National Forest Schedule of Proposed Actions (SOPA) since January 27, 2017. Scoping for the Cove Project Proposed Action Purpose and Need was initiated on February 8, 2018. The scoping document was mailed to individuals, groups, and other agencies that responded to the SOPA or would otherwise be potentially affected. The scoping document was also made available on the Modoc National Forest website. On February 21st District Ranger, Christofferson, met with the Pit River Tribal Administrator and Cultural representatives of the Atwamsini Band to discuss the project. On March 22nd, 2018 the Cove Fire Salvage project was discussed with the Pit River Tribe Tribal Council at a quarterly consultation meeting. Modoc County was briefed on the status of the project on March 20th during the Modoc County/ Modoc Forest Coordination meeting.
All suggested changes to elements of the Proposed Action received from the public were considered. More than ten individuals and/or organizations provided comments during the designated comment period. Public comments received during scoping were considered carefully and are documented in the Review of References Received during the Scoping Period which is included in the Project Record. Issues Analysis and Alternative Development The primary constraints on choosing the size of the project area were the project budget and time needed to complete surveys so that the project could proceed on an expedited schedule. These constraints allowed for a project in the range of 1,000 to 2,000 acres. An additional constraint on the selection of the project area was habitat for Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive species. The project was designed to avoid Dutch Flat Creek and its floodplain to avoid potential impacts to Modoc sucker4. The project also considered habitat needs of Management Indicator Species such as the black-backed woodpecker, bats such as fringed myotis and pallid bat, and other species that use moderately- to severely-burned post-fire habitat
4 The Modoc sucker was known to occupy Dutch Flat Creek, located adjacent to the proposed project. The species distribution was very limited and occurred within the Dutch Flat Creek Wildlife Area. The habitat occupied was within a very entrenched section of stream which retained water in a few isolated pools when the creek became dry. The recent drought (i.e. 2014-2016) may have resulted in these pools becoming dry and the loss of the species from this stream. Future surveys by CDFW will document whether this is the case. The majority of treatment acreage is in another subwatershed (Barber Canyon) that is not hydrologically connected to Dutch Flat Creek. Ephemeral tributaries located near the Dutch Flat Creek Wildlife Area within treatment areas are essentially disconnected relative to bedload sediment transport from the existing channel because they lose slope at distances greater than 100 meters before the channel joins the creek. This results in sediment deposition on the historic floodplain at locations far away from the existing channel, as the entrenched channel is currently on the east side of the floodplain. Based on the above factors, Modoc sucker would not be effected by the proposed project.
7 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Decision to be Made The Modoc National Forest Supervisor is the Responsible Official for this project proposal. The Forest Supervisor will decide whether to approve the Proposed Action, approve a modification to the Proposed Action, or take no action related to this proposal.
8 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Proposed Action and Alternatives Alternative 1: Proposed Action The Forest Service proposes to implement salvage harvest, roadside hazard tree removal, fuels treatments, and transportation actions to address Goals 1-3 related to reducing safety hazards along roads as well as in treatment areas, recovering the value of fire-killed trees, reducing future fuel loads, and providing an efficient road system. Actions to address Goal 4 include site preparation and reforestation to re-establish forested conditions and habitats in burned forest. The Proposed Action was developed by evaluating existing vegetation conditions, burn patterns and intensities, and land allocations within Cove Fire perimeter. Priority for post-fire management actions was given to large high severity burn patches and maintenance level 3 (ML3) roads. These conditions occur primarily along Barber Ridge and Dutch Flat.
Area Salvage Harvest The Forest Service is proposing to salvage harvest fire-killed and fire-injured trees on approximately 982 acres within the perimeter of the Cove Fire in the Big Valley Ranger District (Table 2). Figure 3 shows the locations of the treatment areas proposed for salvage harvest of dead and dying trees. Fire killed and fire injured trees are defined as trees that either (1) have no green needles or (2) meet the criteria of a 0.7 or greater probability of mortality (Pm) in the Marking Guidelines for Fire Injured Trees in California (Report #RO-11-01, Smith and Cluck, May 2011) developed by Region 5 Forest Health Protection5.
The salvage harvest operations would use ground-based, mechanical harvesting to remove fire- killed and fire-injured trees from treatment areas, totaling approximately 832 acres, on slopes less than 35 percent. Merchantable trees would be removed as sawlogs if operations occur in a timely manner before the wood deteriorates. Non-merchantable trees of smaller diameters would be: removed as biomass; masticated; felled and lopped; machine- or hand-piled and burned; and/or broadcast burned to meet desired fuels conditions. On slopes greater than 35 percent (approximately 123 acres), trees that can be reached with a boom arm would be removed and the remaining trees would be hand felled.
Remaining biomass trees and activity-generated fuels would either be masticated, chipped, ground, broadcast burned, or piled (mechanically or by hand), and piles burned. Only broadcast burning, hand piling, and pile burning would be used on slopes greater than 35%. The number of acres treated by broadcast burning or pile burning would be dependent on the amount of biomass removed from within the mechanical or hand treatment units. If more biomass is removed, the number of broadcast or pile burning acres would most likely decrease.
Within the proposed area salvage activities, approximately 123 acres would be treated within RCAs adjacent to intermittent streams. Approximately 96 acres of these would be treated using ground-based mechanical equipment. In the remaining 27 acres within RCAs proposed for area salvage, harvest activities would consist of hand felling. Snag retention would differ in the RCA land allocation to provide for future woody debris recruitment that would provide habitat structure and hydrologic function such as sediment trapping. The amount and distribution of
5 The guideline criteria for delayed conifer tree mortality are based on percent crown length killed. The objectives of these guidelines are to: (1) remove those trees that are dead or have a high probability of mortality due to fire-injury; and (2) retain those trees that would likely survive to maintain wildlife habitat and desired forest cover.
9 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project standing trees retained would represent the range of natural variability of pre-fire suppression conditions.
Within treatment units, a minimum of 3 snags per acre in the largest representative diameter size class would be retained, averaged across the unit. Large snags retained within RCAs and inoperable areas would be incorporated into the average. Where necessary to meet the average, snag retention clumps generally ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 acres in size to include snags representative of the largest diameter snag classes in the unit would be selected. These snag retention clumps would be preferentially located adjacent to northern goshawk PACs and around suspected or known wildlife-inhabited trees (e.g. cavities, defects, etc.), and around existing green forest patches.
Table 2. Acreage by proposed treatment type for the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project.
Proposed Treatment Acres1.2
Area Salvage 982
Mechanical 832
Hand 150
Roadside Hazard Tree Removal 398
Fuel Treatments3 1,380
Mechanical 832
Hand 150
Reforestation4 1,380
Slash Treatment5 1,380
Mastication, chipping, or grinding 1,230
Broadcast burn, hand pile and pile burn 1,380
1 Represents the maximum acreage that would be treated under each treatment type. Treated area would not exceed the 1,380-acre project area. 2 Acreages are subject to adjustment during analysis and implementation due to reductions for wildlife habitat, RCAs, archeological sites, stand deterioration, etc. 3 Same area as covered by area salvage treatments; additional treatments would be implemented, as necessary to meet surface-fuel-loading objectives. 4 Up to 1,380 acres would be considered for reforestation. 5 Maximum acres that could be treated with each method are shown.
Roadside Hazard Tree Removal Approximately 10.5 miles (up to 398 acres) (Table 2, Figure 3) of hazard tree removal would occur along two ML 3 roads used for the fire, 41N11 and 39N17, and which provide access from State Route 139 to the Fox Mountain Lookout and Howell Canyon to the west and Dutch Flat Canyon. The majority of roadside hazard trees proposed for removal occur in high
10 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Figure 3: Forest salvage treatments proposed under Alternative 1 of the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project.
11 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project severity burned areas; however, hazard trees within mixed severity burned areas would also be included to ensure the safety of road users in all areas where burned trees pose a genuine risk of falling into the roadway.
Trees that have potential to reach the road and are dead and dying or live trees that are sufficiently damaged or defective to pose a risk of falling within the next 5 years would be removed. In roadside treatment areas, dying trees would be identified using the publication Marking Guidelines for Fire-Injured Trees in California (Smith and Cluck 2011) at a 0.5 (Pm) probability of mortality to reduce the number of treatment entries needed to achieve safety conditions6. Hazard Tree Guidelines for Forest Service Facilities and Roads in Pacific Southwest Region (Angwin et al. 2012) would also be used to identify live damaged and defective tress for removal. Harvest techniques would be the same as those within the designated area salvage areas. Hazard trees with commercial value (generally greater than 15 inches dbh depending on timing of removal) would be commercially harvested. Non-merchantable trees would also be felled; these would be left on site or removed for fuel treatments. No snag retention is planned in these areas.
Fuel Treatments In areas identified above to be treated (Area Salvage and Roadside Hazard Tree Removal), the maximum desired surface fuel loading is generally 15 tons per acre of material. It is expected that this level would be achieved from the area salvage and roadside hazard tree removal treatments using the logging methods described above. However, if a surface fuel loading of 15 tons or less per acre is not achieved, additional mechanical- or hand-thinning treatments would be used to meet fuel objectives. As above, the number of acres treated by prescribed burning would be dependent on the amount of biomass removed from within the mechanical or hand-treatment units.
Mechanical Ground-based, mechanical equipment would be used to remove or arrange fire-killed and fire- injured trees from treatment areas on slopes 35 percent or less. Mechanical area fuels treatments would occur on up to 832 acres. Activity-generated fuels would be masticated, chipped, or piled mechanically using brush rakes or grapples, and piles later burned.
Hand Hand felling would be used on slopes greater than 35 percent, in areas inaccessible to mechanical equipment, and/or in areas where the biomass is not removed. Hand fuels treatments would occur on up to 150 acres. Natural and activity-generated fuels would be broadcast burned or piled by hand, and piles burned.
Reforestation Up to 1,380 acres within the project area that experienced moderate to high vegetation burn severity effects would be hand planted with a mix of 1- or 2-year-old ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine, and incense cedar seedlings, emphasizing fire-resistant and shade-intolerant pines, where appropriate. Planting strategies (including conventional, variable spacing, cluster planting, and founder stand planting techniques) would be designed to balance economics, long-term
6 The objectives of these guidelines are to: (1) remove those trees that are dead, or have a high probability of mortality due to fire-injury or have structural defects that indicate high failure potential, to abate potential hazards to visitors and improve safety and access within the Cove Fire area; and (2) retain those trees that would likely survive to maintain visual quality, wildlife habitat, and recreational values.
12 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest management feasibility, and desired future condition. These techniques would increase landscape heterogeneity and provide for forest resiliency and wildlife habitat diversity within burned forest stands. Planting would be prioritized in areas furthest from live-tree sources and on productive sites with potential lower fire intensities (i.e., moist, flatter, and cool-air microsites).
Salvage logging would be completed before planting takes place unless site preparation (e.g., mastication, piling) is not needed to treat residual fuels prior to planting. Preparing the sites for planting and future release of competing vegetation would either be done by hand or with mechanized equipment. Site-preparation would not occur within snag retention clumps (if present) and would retain all snags identified in the area salvage treatments. However, where necessary, retained standing snags that pose a safety hazard to planting crews and other workers in the area would be felled to provide a safe working environment.
Manual Release Manual release of competing vegetation would occur on all planted areas as needed within the first five years of planting. Manual release involves hand cutting (grubbing) competing vegetation within a five-foot radius of planted seedlings. Hand-cut vegetation would either be lopped and scattered or piled for burning.
Mechanical Release If it is deemed more efficient and cost-effective based on-site conditions, mechanical release (generally masticating or pulling re-sprouted vegetation with an excavator that has a thumb bucket) may be used in all planted areas less than 35% slope.
Transportation Management Proposed changes to the National Forest Transportation System (NFTS) are summarized in Table 3 and are shown in Figure 4. If adopted, any proposed modifications to the NFTS that would result in changes to public access would amend the Modoc National Forest Motorized Travel Management Plan (year 2010).
Table 3: Summary of proposed transportation actions
Action Miles of Road
Temporary (existing unauthorized road) 0.3
Maintenance up to 24.0
Maintenance Road maintenance would occur on up to 24 miles of NFTS roads. Many of the roads being used for the project are in fairly good condition and would be maintained during the project. Maintenance preserves the function of the road, but generally does not include improvements. Maintenance activities generally include blading, brushing, removal of roadside danger trees, repair and/or replacement of road surfaces, cleaning and repair of drainage structures such as culverts, ditches, and dips, and removal and installation of closure barriers. Maintenance activities generally do not disturb ground outside the existing roadway (toe of fill to top of cut) other than the removal of material around the culvert inlets.
13 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
A dust abatement plan would be included to control wind-caused erosion from road use. National Forest System roads and non-paved County roads used for haul would receive pre-, during-, and post-haul maintenance. All water sources proposed for use in this project for dust abatement would be brought up to best management practice (BMP) standards, if they currently do not meet those standards. Water sources proposed for use in implementing this project include: Ash Creek in the town of Adin
Temporary Roads Under the Proposed Action, 0.3 mile of existing unauthorized roads would be needed to access timber units within the project area. The 0.3 miles of existing unauthorized roads would be closed and decommissioned after use.
Figure 4. National Forest Transportation System (NFTS) roads within the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project. .
14 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Integrated Design Features The following Integrated Design Features (IDFs) are resource protection measures that are developed by specialists and incorporated as part of the Proposed Action for this project. They are in addition to Best Management Practices (BMPs) and Standards and Guidelines from the Modoc LRMP, as amended. These IDFs are also included for implementation parameters that would be incorporated into treatments and contracts and/or used to guide Forest Service personnel in conducting implementation.
Air Quality 1. A dust abatement plan would be developed and implemented. Logging and vegetation management activities would be dust abated where rubber-tired vehicles are operating on haul routes. Water for dust abatement would be trucked in, or a dust palliative may be approved which may include magnesium chloride, calcium chloride, lignin sulfate, or an approved equal. Dust palliatives would not be used within 25 feet of live stream courses and seasonal wetlands. Dust palliatives would be stored and mixed outside of RCAs.
Heritage Resources 2. Heritage resource properties would have their limits flagged for management by “flag & avoid” methods.
3. The sites would be monitored after the harvest treatments have been completed to evaluate the success of this treatment method.
4. Inform the contractor and/or Forest personnel working within the undertaking area of the protected status afforded any and all archaeological sites (prehistoric and historic) and their artifacts through the 1906 Antiquities act, the 1979 Archaeological Resources Protection Act, and the Forest Service’s “Prohibited Acts” (36 CFR Part 261 and 261.9 [g] [h]). Any evidence of recent or on-going vandalism or looting (illegal digging and/or artifact collection) must be reported to the Forest Archaeologist and Law Enforcement immediately for investigation.
5. Should the discovery of previously unknown heritage resources occur during the course of project implementation, then work must be halted in that area and the Forest Archaeologist contacted immediately to assess the nature of the discovery and make appropriate protection and management recommendations in consultation with the SHPO.
Noxious weeds 6. Maps of all landings used for this project would be provided to the Forest Botanist by the Forest Service personnel administering the implementation of this project. All landings would be surveyed for noxious weeds when safety permits.
7. Vehicles and other equipment operating in the project areas would be cleaned before entering the project according to standard vehicle washing guidelines.
8. Any noxious weed occurrences (location and size) found during project layout or implementation would be reported to the Forest botanist.
15 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Range 9. To ensure management direction as outlined in the Annual Operating Instructions (AOI, annual management instructions to the permittee) is followed, range management staff would conduct allotment inspections throughout the grazing season. Allotment resource condition monitoring takes place throughout the grazing season. This frequent monitoring allows for adjustments to the instructions, if necessary, as a response to a change in resource conditions. End-of-season monitoring is conducted across the district as a measure of compliance with the allowable forage use standards and is also an indicator of successful management. Allotment inspections, resource condition and end of season monitoring would be conducted on the allotments/pastures included in the analysis area at the end of the 2019 grazing season.
Riparian Conservation Areas and Water Quality Protection Measures Integrated Design Features (IDF) and Best Management Practices would be implemented to prevent adverse effects to water resources and riparian areas. Riparian Conservation Area (RCA) and Streamside Management Zones (SMZs) widths would be allocated along all ephemeral, intermittent, and perennial streams, as well as special aquatic features within the SNFPA ROD (2004). Both mechanical and non-mechanical treatments would be allowed within portions of the RCAs as described in Table 4, designed to protect water quality and aquatic habitat within stream environments.
To protect streams and wetlands, the following IDFS are being implemented within RCAs in the Cove Project:
10. Retain 10 to 15 tons of large woody debris per acre where present.
11. To the fullest extent possible, and with due consideration given for topography, lean of trees, landings, utility lines, local obstructions, and safety factors, trees would be felled to lead in a direction away from water courses and special aquatic features.
12. Locate burn piles at least 100 feet from perennial, intermittent, special aquatic features, and/or meadows. Burn piles would not be placed up against large woody debris or large live trees.
13. A minimum 20-foot “no mechanical equipment” buffer would be designated along seasonal streams.
14. In RCAs of streams and special aquatic features the following IDFs would be implemented in order to meet Riparian Conservation Objectives (RCO):
Soils must be dry at the 10-inch depth before heavy equipment could be operated in these areas.
New landings would be located outside of RCAs. Existing landings within RCAs would not be used with the exception of the 50-foot outer zone of RCAs, where existing landings may be used as agreed upon prior to implementation.
Conifers would be harvested with feller-bunchers that have 24-inch or greater track widths.
Turning of equipment would be minimized.
16 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Ground-based equipment would be kept off areas with slopes greater than 20 percent within RCAs.
Skid trails would be kept to a minimum and no waterbars would be installed after treatment. Stream and meadow crossing locations would be agreed to and designated on the ground prior to use.
Ground-based equipment would be used to remove timber using one-end suspension.
Skid trails within RCAs would require 90 percent of existing ground cover on bare soil on the trails. Insuring placement of this cover after treatment would require spreading slash over these open areas.
Conifers necessary for stream bank stability would be retained.
Table 4. Streamside Management Zone and Riparian Conservation Area (RCA) widths and identified streams and water features located within the Cove Project Habitat Type Zone Width Equipment Operating Requirements Requirements Perennial1/ Exclusion 0-75 feet; Prohibited: Equipment may reach in and Intermittent2 (SMZ) or 0 to 20 feet Mechanical remove trees by full suspension and Special beyond riparian equipment used for only. Aquatic vegetation, harvesting or Features3 whichever is mastication (SAFs) greater Outer 100 to 300 feet; Allowed: Mechanical Ground based equipment Perennial or 20 feet equipment used for operations prohibited on slope and SAFs beyond riparian harvesting or greater than 20%. Use existing (RCA) vegetation to mastication skid trails except where 300 feet unacceptable impact would Outer 100 to 150 feet; result. New primary skid trails or Intermittent or 20 feet landing within RCAs may be (RCA) beyond riparian constructed with consultation vegetation to with FS ID Team. 150 feet Ephemeral4 Exclusion 0 -20 feet Prohibited: Equipment may reach in and (SMZ) Mechanical remove trees by full suspension equipment used for only. harvesting or mastication Outer (RCA) 20 - 150 Allowed: Mechanical Ground based equipment equipment used for operations prohibited on slope harvesting or greater than 25%. Use existing mastication skid trails except where unacceptable impact would result. Skid perpendicular to features in designated crossings; new landings within RCAs may be constructed with consultation with FS ID Team. 1 Perennial streams flow year long.2 Intermittent streams flow during the wet season but dry by summer or fall.3 Special aquatic features (SAFs) include lakes, ponds, meadows, bogs, fens, wetlands, vernal pools and springs. 4 Ephemeral streams flow only during or shortly after rainfall or snowmelt. Special aquatic features (SAFs) include lakes, ponds, meadows, bogs, fens, wetlands, vernal pools and springs. Source: SNFPA ROD (2004), USGS National Hydrography Dataset (2012), USFWS NWI (2014), Modoc National Forest GIS
17 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
15. Machine piling would not occur in RCAs.
16. Erosion hazard mitigations, such as mulch, rice straw, and straw waddles may be used if needed to meet RCOs.
17. In RCAs, hand-felled trees would be limbed and tops left to provide surface roughness and ground cover.
18. For ephemeral streams in hazard tree units, ground based mechanical equipment would be restricted to the road prism.
19. Hand-felling within the RCA (and mechanical restriction zone) would be permitted.
20. Riparian species (aspen, cottonwood, alder, willow, dogwood, etc.) would not be removed.
21. There would be no perennial stream crossings by mechanical equipment. If deemed necessary, seasonal stream crossings may be designated prior to implementation.
22. In RCAs, site preparation may be completed by hand within equipment exclusion zones. No site preparation or planting would occur within an aquatic feature.
23. Fire lines would be constructed for prescribed fire operations, except where existing roads, skid trails, or natural barriers would serve as control lines. Hand lines would not be constructed within Riparian Conservation Areas (RCAs) and wet meadow areas where graminoid and forb indicator species of a wet site are present.
24. Pile burning and ignition for underburning would not occur within wet or dry meadow areas or where graminoid and forb indicator species of a wet site are present; however, low intensity fire would be allowed to back into portions of these meadows.
25. Where riparian communities are established, minimize disturbance to riparian vegetation and retain sufficient ground cover by conducting prescribed fire in a manner which limits the intensity of fire.
Silviculture 26. Annual insect and disease mortality surveys would be accomplished by Forest Health Protection.
27. First, third, and fifth-year survival examinations would occur within all tree seedling planted units. Planted units would be assessed for competing vegetation and the need for follow-up treatment to ensure stocking requirements are met.
28. Trash and other materials generated through project activity would be cleaned up at the end of each workday. Hazardous materials and/or waste would be properly disposed of. Any spills or leaks of hazardous materials shall be contained through the use of spill kit and reported to the Forest Safety Officer.
29. Refueling, or addition or changing of oil and other fluids for equipment and heavy machinery shall be performed only at approved staging areas.
18 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Soil Quality Standards and Best Management Practices Soil quality standards and appropriate Best Management Practices (BMP) that protect forest soils would be implemented for the entire project. BMPs are described in Water Quality Management for Forest System Lands in California, Best Management Practices (2011), Modoc National Forest LRMP (1991), and the 2004 SNFPA ROD.
30. Maximize ground cover by lopping and scattering logging slash on site.
31. Minimize the compacted area and the potential to compact soils. Operations would be conducted when the soils are as dry as possible to minimize the potential for compaction, and the machines would disperse their weight over as large an area as possible (e.g., use tracks or wide, low pressure tires).
32. Log landings would be treated by ripping and mulching to prevent them from generating overland flow and surface erosion and maximize their infiltration rate. Since the ripping would increase the soil erodibility and susceptibility to soil sealing, this must be immediately followed by mulching with straw or other materials to provide at least 65% soil cover.
33. Mechanical equipment would not operate on slopes greater than 35 percent.
34. Any linear feature created by logging operations, such as skid trails and cable rows, would be oriented across slope to the maximum extent possible, and laid out to prevent any convergence in the downslope direction. Waterbars may be installed to minimize the accumulation of overland flow and disperse the water onto downslope areas.
35. Where available 5 logs per acre would be left on the ground representing the range of decay classes. A log is at least 20” diameter and 10 feet long.
36. Existing skid trails, landings, and decommissioned roads would be used to the extent practicable when implementing heavy machinery on the landscape.
37. Following implementation, the treatment units would be evaluated by a qualified specialist to determine if detrimentally compacted ground exceeds the LRMP standard of 15 percent areal extent. Areas not meeting guidelines would be rehabilitated.
Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive (TES) Plant Species 38. The three known occurrences of long-haired star-tulip located within and/or near the proposed treatment area would be flagged along their peripheries prior to project implementation and avoided by all project activities in order to mitigate the impacts of any potential project-related disturbance.
Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive (TES) Wildlife Species 39. Any special status wildlife species encountered during project activities would be avoided and reported to the Zone Biologist.
Integrated design features (IDFs) have been incorporated into the proposed action consistent with Standard and Guidelines identified in the SNFPA ROD (2004). These objectives include:
40. Designation of Northern Goshawk Protected Activity Centers (PACs): When activities are planned within or adjacent to a PAC, conduct surveys to establish or confirm the location of the nest or activity center, if uncertain.
19 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
41. Designation of Northern Goshawk Protected Activity Centers (PACs): Review boundaries of PACs and make adjustments as necessary to better meet these criteria as additional nest location and habitat data become available. PACs are maintained regardless of goshawk occupancy status unless surveys conducted to protocol in remaining suitable habitat following stand-replacing events confirm non-occupancy.
42. Avoid Northern Goshawk Breeding Disturbance: Maintain a limited operating period (LOP), prohibiting vegetation treatments within approximately ¼ mile of the nest site during the breeding season (February 15 through September 15) unless surveys confirm that northern goshawks are not nesting. If the nest stand within a protected activity center (PAC) is unknown, either apply the LOP to a ¼-mile area surrounding the PAC, or survey to determine the nest stand location.
The LOP may be waived for vegetation treatments of limited scope and duration, when a biological evaluation determines that such projects are unlikely to result in breeding disturbance considering their intensity, duration, timing and specific location. Where a biological evaluation concludes that a nest site would be shielded from planned activities by topographic features that would minimize disturbance, the LOP buffer distance may be reduced.
43. Northern Goshawk Survey Requirements: Conduct surveys in compliance with the Pacific Southwest Region’s survey protocols during the planning process when management activities are likely to reduce habitat quality but are proposed within suitable northern goshawk nesting habitat that is not within an existing California spotted owl or northern goshawk PAC. Suitable habitat is defined based on the survey protocol.
20 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Alternative 2: No Action Under Alternative 2, no treatment activities would be implemented to accomplish project objectives. Hazard tree felling could occur along roads currently open to the public, trails, and developed recreation sites. These hazard trees could be felled and left in place as part of road maintenance as per LRMP direction. Alternative 2 would not preclude activities already approved in this area or activities planned as separate projects. Although there would be no action to salvage, treat hazard trees, reduce fuel loads, or reforest the area, other activities in the Cove Fire project area such as grazing, road maintenance, firewood cutting, hunting, and OHV riding would continue. Alternative 2 provides a baseline for comparative analysis of the action alternative.
21 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Environmental Impacts of the Proposed Action and Alternatives This section describes the environmental impacts of the alternatives in relation to whether there may be significant environmental effects as described in 40 CFR 1508.27. The impacts summarized in this Environmental Assessment (EA) are taken from the following documents which are available upon request and are hereby incorporated by reference into this EA. Further analysis and conclusions about the potential impacts of the proposed project are available in these reports and other supporting documentation located in the project record.
Biological Evaluation and Assessment for R5 Sensitive and Federally Listed Plant Species, Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project, Annie Overlin (Botany BE/BA)
Biological Evaluation and Assessment for R5 Sensitive and Federally Listed Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Species, Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project, Todd Sloat (BE)
Cultural Resources Survey Report for the Cove Fire Salvage Project, Jason Coleman (Cultural Report)
Cove Fire Salvage Fuels Report, Sarah Oldson (Fire and Fuels Report)
Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project, Hydrology Report, Todd Sloat (Hydrology Report)
Cove Fire Salvage Project, Recreation Report, Garrett Costello (Recreation Report)
Cove Fire Salvage Project Range Specialist Report, Bobette Jones (Range Report)
Cove Fire Salvage Silviculture Report, Sarah Oldson, (Silviculture Report)
Cove Fire Salvage Project Soils Report, Garrett Costello, (Soils Report)
Cove Fire Salvage Project Transportation Specialist Report, Randen Nagel (Transportation Report)
Cove Fire Salvage Project Management Indicator Species Report, Todd Sloat, (MIS Report)
Noxious weed risk assessment for Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project, Annie Overlin (Noxious Weed Risk Assessment)
Migratory Bird Treaty Act Report, Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project, Todd Sloat (MBTA Report)
Past, Ongoing, and Reasonably Foreseeable Future Actions Report for the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project (PORFFA Summary, Appendix A)
22 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Air Quality
Alternative 1 The project area lies within the Modoc County Air Pollution Control District (MCAPCD). In accordance with Title 17 of the California Code of Regulations, a smoke management plan would be submitted to and approved by the MCAPCD prior to any prescribed fire ignitions that are part of Alternative 1. Adherence to the smoke management plan (SMP) for pile burning would decrease the chance of negative impacts to communities and other smoke sensitive areas. It would also help to ensure that emissions from pile or understory burning would not violate the National Ambient Air Quality (NAAQ) emission standards. Prescribed burning would only occur on ‘permissive’ burn days as defined by the California Air Quality Board (CARB)7.
The direct effects of the prescribed fire treatments would be smoke and a release of particulate matter into the environment. Short-term impacts from smoke and associated particulate matter from the proposed prescribed fire treatments, combined with emissions from other vegetation burning on public and private land, is possible. However, as discussed earlier, these possible impacts would be mitigated by adherence to the SMP and CARB.
The indirect effects of prescribed fire treatments could be an increase in the number of smoke related nuisance phone calls from the public during pile burning operations. Within the project and surrounding area, there could be short term impacts to visibility along roads. In the event of a wildland fire, treatments would result in decreased smoke production and associated emissions. This decrease in emissions would help to reduce smoke related impacts to nearby communities.
Fugitive dust could result from logging operations such as skidding and hauling during dry seasons. It would be mitigated by standard contract requirements for road watering or other dust abatement techniques.
Alternative 2 There would be no quantifiable direct effects to air quality from Alternative 2 since no prescribed burning would occur. However; if a wildfire should burn the site in the future, air quality impacts from smoke would be greater than under Alternative 1 and could affect the area for several days or weeks, depending on the size and intensity of the fire. Wildfire would most likely occur during the summer months when visitor and recreation use in the area is highest.
Botanical Resources
Noxious Weeds Floristic botanical surveys for the Cove Project, including surveying for noxious weed infestations, were conducted in the fall of 2017. No weeds or remnants of weeds were identified during surveys, but these may have burned without leaving visible traces of their presence.
7 CARB makes daily determinations of smoke transport conditions and grants permission to burn only on days with adequate smoke transport and dispersal conditions.
23 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Alternative 1 Project activities could increase the risk of weed introduction or spread. Mechanical harvesting and mastication would cause soil disturbance, although given that the soil is already highly disturbed due to the wildfire. Piling and burning of forest fuels would result in scatterings of small, intensely disturbed spots of denuded and sterilized soil. These spots are favorable habitat for nonnative species such as noxious weeds. Equipment coming from elsewhere may introduce noxious weeds. However, IDFs for mitigating weed risk include an IDF requiring that equipment be cleaned before entering the project area, which should greatly reduce the risk of new weed vectors. The removal of some trees may reduce fire intensity if the area burns again within the next few decades, thereby lowering weed risk in the medium term. Under Alternative 1, the overall risk of noxious weed introduction and spread may increase to a small degree over current conditions but would be moderate.
Alternative 2 The large-scale disturbance of the wildfire, much of which burned at high intensity, puts the area at risk for weeds to invade or spread from existing sites, because weeds are adapted to quickly colonize disturbed areas where soil nutrients are high and competition for resources has been reduced. In the absence of treatment, the primary vectors for weed introduction and spread would be forest visitors, livestock, and wildlife. Overall, the existing risk of noxious weed invasion or spread under Alternative 2 would be low to moderate.
Region 5 Sensitive Plant Species One Region 5 Sensitive plant species is known to occur in the vicinity of the Cove Fire project area. CNDDB records indicate Calochortus longebarbatus ssp. longebarbatus (long-haired star- tulip) may exist within and/or near the treatment area as three disjunct occurrences.
Alternative 1
Direct and Indirect Effects Direct impacts to Sensitive plants could occur if project activities overlap with Sensitive plant occurrences and/or habitats. For instance, if heavy equipment were deployed within the habitat of known long-haired star-tulip occurrences, the plants could be damaged or destroyed by the crushing of their flowers, leaves, and/or bulbs. Additionally, equipment could compact soils, which could inhibit the emergence of leaves from subterranean bulbs, thus preventing exposure to sunlight and limiting the growth and potential for reproduction. Such disturbance, however, would be mitigated by integrated design features proposed to protect hydrologic features within the project area. Since long-haired star-tulip inhabits riparian landscapes, and the three known occurrences of long-haired star-tulip located within the treatment area occur along the banks of Dutch Flat Creek, the integrated design features proposed for mitigating disturbance to hydrologic features will also mitigate the proposed project’s impacts on long-haired star-tulip and its suitable habitat within the project area. To further protect the three known occurrences of long- haired star-tulip within the treatment area, the boundaries of these occurrences would be flagged and avoided by all proposed project activities. Therefore,, the project would have no direct effects on long-haired star-tulip or its habitat. No indirect effects to long-haired star-tulip or its potential habitat can be foreseen to result from project activities such as the removal of burned trees, broadcast or pile burning, and reforestation.
24 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Cumulative Effects Given that the project would cause neither direct nor indirect effects to long-haired star-tulip, it would not contribute to any cumulative effect on this Sensitive species.
Alternative 2
Direct and Indirect Effects There would be no direct impacts to C.longebarbatus under Alternative 2. Indirect impacts under Alternative 2 would primarily result from greater fuel loading over time within habitat for this species. This could result in potential adverse indirect impacts to C. longebarbatus as future wildfires would burn at higher intensities than if these fuels were not present. Indirect effects due to selecting Alternative 2 would not be likely to affect suitable habitat and known populations of long-haired star-tulip.
Cumulative Effects Given that Alternative 2 would cause neither direct nor indirect effects to long-haired star-tulip, it would also not contribute to any cumulative effect upon this Sensitive species.
Determination It is the determination of the Biological Evaluation and Assessment for R5 Sensitive and Federally Listed Plant Species, Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project that with the incorporation of project Integrated Design Features, implementation of Alternative 1 of the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project may affect individuals of or habitat for Calochortus longebarbatus ssp. longebarbatus (long-haired star-tulip) but is not likely to result in a trend toward federal listing or loss of viability for this species.
Threatened and Endangered Plant Species Two federally listed plant species’ ranges include the Modoc National Forest: the endangered species Tuctoria greenei (Greene’s tuctoria), and the threatened species Orcuttia tenuis (slender Orcutt grass). Neither habitats or known occurrences of Tuctoria greenei or Orcuttia tenuis have been discovered within perimeter of the Cove Fire. Because of this, neither listed plant is believed to occur within the proposed Cove Fire Salvage project area, and therefore, the proposed project would not affect these species.
Cultural Resources The entire Area of Potential Effects (APE) for the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project has been inventoried for cultural resources. All document survey coverage for the area is adequate for the purpose of identifying historic properties that could be affected by the undertaking; several cultural site areas have been identified within the project area.
Alternative 1 Alternative 1 would have no direct effect on cultural resources. Standard Resource Protection Measures (SRPM) would be employed as integrated design features and applied to all cultural resources within the project area for all the action alternatives. Application of SRPMs would eliminate any potential adverse effects to cultural resources. This undertaking would be consistent with stipulations in the First Amended Regional Programmatic Agreement among the U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Region, California State Historic Preservation Officer, and
25 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Advisory Council on Historic Preservation Regarding the Process for Compliance with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act for Undertakings on the National Forests of the Pacific Southwest Region.
Alternative 2 There would be no effects to cultural resources resulting from Alternative 2, since no project activities would be implemented.
Fire and Fuels
Alternative 1
Direct and Indirect Effects The direct effect of salvage harvest and area fuel treatments would be a reduction of snags and surface fuels and a disruption to vertical and horizontal fuel continuity. Treatments in Alternative 1 would remove future surface fuels, which would reduce the horizontal continuity of these fuels (Peterson et al. 2005, Graham et al. 2004). Post-fire logging would remove a substantial portion of the large woody fuels that would contribute to a future complex arrangement of surface fuels. Salvage operations would use whole-tree yarding, where feasible, to reduce the amount of slash generated by harvest activity. Removal of limbs and tops by such methods would greatly reduce activity-generated surface fuels (Agee and Skinner 2005).
In the long term within the proposed treatment areas, fire behavior and fire severity would be expected to be lower due to the decrease in coarse woody debris compared to the no treatment alternative. Salvage harvest would remove the larger diameter merchantable material from the site. If market conditions allow, the smaller diameter material may be chipped and removed for biomass energy. If a market does not exist mastication, machine or hand piling and pile burning would treat the smaller diameter material. During the felling and removal process, it is anticipated that there would be higher than normal breakage typically associated with timber felling since the trees have been degraded by fire. The material created from falling breakage, would be small in diameter and scatter among the forest floor, thus it would have minimal effect on fire behavior and resistance-to-control.
Reducing the surface fuel loading would decrease the potential for reburn and fire severity would be decreased; this effect would diminish over time. As the vegetation matures, live fuel loadings would eventually increase until maintenance, such as precommercial thinning, occurs.
Within the treated units, the reduction of course woody debris (CWD) through salvage harvest and treatment of non-merchantable fire killed material would lower fire intensities, fire effects (Peterson et al. 2009), and provide advantageous areas for fire management actions (Fites et al. 2007). The reduction in snags would result in reduced spotting that is associated with snags when they burn. Resistance-to-control would be reduced and fire management forces would not be hindered by the high density of snags or CWD. Worker safety would be increased within the treatment areas, due to the reduction of standing snags and overhead hazards. If the hazard trees and snags are not removed, safety standards require firefighters to work 2.5 tree lengths from any burning snag. This would lead to an increase in fire size and the number of resources needed to manage the fire.
26 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Alternative 1 would result in lower surface fuel loads, lower potential flame lengths, fireline intensities, resistance-to-control, and potential mortality within the timbered areas than under Alternative 2.
Cumulative Effects Alternative 1 would contribute to the beneficial effects of other fire salvage projects on private and public lands within the perimeter of the Cove Fire; these benefits include reducing forest fuels and reducing severity of future fires. Additional benefits of Alternative 1, and similar projects, would be the accelerated development of forest stand conditions that enhance successful fire-management activities, mitigate negative wildfire effects, and increase ecosystem resilience in treated stands and the surrounding landscape. Hazards to firefighters and the public would also be reduced by managing snag levels and downed woody debris in locations likely to be used as the primary ingress and egress routes, and also as control lines during prescribed fire and fire- management activities.
Alternative 2
Direct and Indirect Effects In the short term, the area is expected to have low fire behavior due to the lack of available surface fuels to support fire. As the fire-killed vegetation decays and falls, surface fuels would start accumulating. This decayed vegetation, along with the live vegetation, brush and hardwoods growing back on site, would create a fuel bed that will support fire. This fuel bed is primarily coarse woody debris. Fires in this type of fuel bed are primarily supported by the dead fuel component; however, the live fuel component would add to the intensity of fire behavior as it becomes available fuel.
Alternative 2 would limit fire-management capability in this area in several ways. Travel would be increasingly hazardous due to the standing dead material along the roadways which would affect firefighter production rates. Fire behavior adjacent to these roads would be in excess of firefighter management capabilities. High intensities would make travel impassible until the fire behavior subsides.
Even though fires would be small and fire behavior low in the short-term, access to the area and managing these fires would be very hazardous, reducing firefighter production rates. Fire management crews would need to remove snag hazards to safely engage and manage a fire. There is no known published production rate for working in these conditions, however it is common belief that these conditions drastically reduce line production rates. In most cases, fire- management crews would be prevented from engaging a fire until the hazards (i.e. snags) are removed.
As surface fuel loading continues to accumulate, the impact on fire management forces also increases, primarily due to the increased fire behavior. By the end of a decade, direct attack would likely not be an option for fire management forces working in untreated areas. Without direct attack tactics, fire management forces would have to use indirect tactics which require moving away from the fire’s edge far enough to allow sufficient time for fire lines to be constructed which leads to increased fire size.
Trees that were killed by the Cove Fire pose a hazard to the public and forest workers who are traveling, recreating, and working in these areas. As snags age over time, they become less stable and increase the safety risk to all forest users. In the event of a wildfire limited access to areas,
27 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project caused by snags and hazard trees, would slow firefighter access for both direct and indirect attack management methods.
If the hazard trees/snags are not removed firefighters would have to work 2.5 tree lengths from any burning snag. This could lead to an increase in fire size and the numbers of resources needed to manage the fire. Firefighter safety would not be improved due to the number of standing snags still remaining throughout the project area.
Cumulative Effects The majority of trees proposed for removal by the Cove Fire project occur in high-severity burned areas. The resulting high snag densities and large numbers of downed logs across the Cove Project area under Alternative 2 would impede future fire line construction, increase safety hazards, and increase spotting potential in the event of another wildfire. Resistance-to-control would be high within the first 10 years and extreme after 20 years. Increased flame lengths, fireline intensities, and resistance-to-control would be a direct result of fire burning in dead and down logs, branches, and shrubs. Fires burning in stands under Alternative 2 are expected to result in serious control problems. This would allow fires to become larger, more expensive, and potentially more hazardous for firefighters and the public.
Hydrology Barber Canyon Creek and several other smaller unnamed headwater intermittent streams occur in the treatment areas. Barber Canyon Creek supports occasional herbaceous wetland vegetation that would be categorized as Facultative Wetland.
There are no perennial streams nor 303(d) waterbodies or streams within the project area. Wetlands on Forest Service lands within the analysis area total approximately 245 acres according to the US Fish and Wildlife Service’s National Wetlands Inventory (USFWS NWI, 2014); none are present within the proposed treatment area.
Alternative 1
Direct and Indirect Effects Activities under Alternative 1 with potential to affect water resources include mechanical harvest, prescribed burning, reforestation, and road-related activities. Water Quality Management Handbook (WQMH) Best Management Practices (USDA FS 2011) and Integrated Design Features (IDFs) would be implemented to avoid potential impacts associated with these activities.
Stream Flow While vegetation management activities can increase base flow and peak runoff in streams, changes in flows would be the same as seen under the post-fire existing conditions due to the high degree of vegetation mortality from the fire. As only vegetation that is dead or dying would be removed in salvage and fuels treatments, the actions proposed under Alternative 1 would not directly affect flows as evapotranspiration for the project area would not change.
Increased compaction and road-stream connectivity can increase runoff and raise peak flows. The 0.3 mile of existing unauthorized road that would be used temporarily then decommissioned would be located near the border of an RCA but outside of it, and therefore, would have
28 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest negligible effects to flows. Implementation of BMPs and adherence to wet weather soil moisture requirements would minimize project-related compaction.
Hydrologically connected roads expand the drainage network, increasing peak flows, bank instability, and sediment delivery (MacDonald and Coe 2008). Maintenance and repair on system roads to be used for the project would help disconnect stream and road connectivity, thereby lowering peak flows in the project area. No measurable change to peak flows would be expected from road-related work.
Water Quality Alternative 1 would not result in a measurable change to chemical constituents of streams that would affect water quality or beneficial uses, particularly as there are no proposed salvage activities or mechanical treatments within the RCAs of any perennial streams. The main concern for chemical changes of water quality from the Cove Project would be from machinery related fuel spills or fire related material (ash from piles or burning). IDFs and BMPs are in place that would reduce risks of any of these concerns measurably affecting water quality. For example, project IDFs and BMPs require that servicing and refueling activities that may be needed by mechanical equipment during project implementation would be located away from RCAs. Suitable locations for such activities would be designated prior to project implementation.
Piling and burning of material near stream courses could contribute ash to streams. Ash can change the chemical properties of water if contributed in sufficient quantity. RCA treatments are expected to result in a large amount of slash and an increase in groundcover. The limited treatments in RCAs, combined with IDFs, specific to RCAs and the lack of mechanical fuels treatments adjacent to either perennial streams or seasonal streams with connectivity to downstream perennial waters, greatly reduces the risk of ash from pile burning eroding into streams. The implementation of IDFs for fuels activities within RCAs, such as no pile burning within wet sites, and no hand line construction within RCAs, also minimize the risk of negative effects to water quality due to fuels treatments. The increased groundcover produced by the project activities would aid in filtering out potential sediment from pile burning and mechanical salvage treatments before it reaches stream courses. Additionally, the seasonal nature of streams within proposed mechanical salvage units and lack of surficial connectivity to downstream perennial waters also make the risk of sedimentation very low.
All channels within salvage and fuels treatment units are seasonal in nature. Stream channel shading in seasonal channels has little influence on water temperature further downstream in late summer and fall, when elevated water temperatures are most likely to occur. By the time water temperature is of greater importance, such as late summer, seasonal streams are no longer carrying water. Alternative 1 would have a negligible risk of negatively affecting stream channel shade and water temperature in all project area streams. This assessment is based on the ephemeral nature of the streams within proposed treatment areas, lack of shading due to post-fire conditions, types of treatment proposed in RCAs, and number of RCA acres proposed for treatment along each stream. Tree removal is limited to dead or dying trees that would provide little to no shade in the future.
Channel Morphology There are no perennial streams within the project area, and therefore no direct effects are expected from the proposed project.
29 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
The only streams within the Cove Project area are ephemeral channels, including Barber Canyon Gulch. While some of these channels have surface connectivity to Dutch Flat Creek, any sediment supply from them would not result in channel morphology changes as BMP’s and IDFs would minimize effects. In addition, Dutch Flat Creek is highly entrenched and extremely degraded from historic land use practices. Excessive bank sloughing occurs each water year as a result of channel entrenchment; this amount of existing sediment from unstable channels far exceeds the limited amount that is naturally provided by ephemeral channels. A 20-foot minimum no mechanical equipment buffer would protect all ephemeral channel banks. Additionally, retention of bank stability trees, per IDF, would help maintain channel stability. BMPs would be used to design and locate skid trails and designated crossings to minimize erosion and sedimentation in these areas. No measurable effects to bank stability are expected with the implementation of Alternative 1 due to the implementation of IDFs and BMPs, as well as the ephemeral, disconnected nature of channels within the proposed mechanical treatment areas.
Riparian Areas, Wetlands, and Water Bodies The selection of treatment areas avoided all riparian areas, wetlands, and water bodies. Therefore, there would be no direct effects on these features.
Cumulative Effects The equivalent roaded area (ERA) and ERA percent values for the subwatersheds were calculated for the activities proposed activities under Alternatives 1 and 2 (Table 5). The ERA model is a tool for assessing Cumulative Watershed Effects (CWE) developed for National Forests in Region 5 (USDA FS 1988). The ERA model of analyzing CWEs operates under several assumptions. These include that different types of management activities have different impact levels, watershed conditions recover from logging activities after 30 years, and fire activities recover after 10-to-15 years. Limitations of the ERA model include the following: that it does not distinguish the intensity of thinning, that it does not differentiate the spatial location of activities within a watershed (e.g., on hillslopes versus within/near riparian areas), that it typically assumes all proposed actions would occur in the same year, and it does not take into account other actions that may be beneficial, such as riparian restoration or transportation actions that are not decommissioning (e.g. stormproofing). While the contribution to ERA from the proposed actions is shown in 2018, in reality, some harvest, as well as fuels and planting treatments would likely occur in subsequent years, postponing some effects.
The ERA model assigns a risk using cumulative effects from activities that may occur. A low risk of cumulative watershed effects is defined as an ERA of less than 50 percent of the threshold of concern (TOC); moderate risk is between 50 and 80 percent of TOC; and high risk of cumulative watershed effects is between 80 and 100 percent. A TOC is determined for each watershed based on a combination of management direction, physiography, watershed sensitivity, land use history, and professional judgment. It does not represent the point at which watershed degradation would occur. It instead serves as an indicator of increasing risk for significant adverse cumulative effects to occur (USDA FS 1988). Higher TOCs are suitable for watersheds with low sensitivity. The threshold of concern for all subwatersheds in the analysis area is 15 percent ERA.
Cumulative effects of Alternative 1 for one, five, and 10 years post-treatment from Alternative 1 can be found in Table 5. All subwatersheds would remain at low risk of cumulative watershed effects (<50% of the TOC).
30 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Table 5. Summary of ERA values for Alternatives 1 and 2.
1 Year (2018) 5 Years (2023) 10 Years (2028) 6th Level Subwatershed (HUC- % of % of % of ERA ERA% ERA ERA% ERA ERA% 12) TOC TOC TOC
Alternative 1 – Proposed Action Barber Canyon-Ash 327 1.64 10.94 297 1.49 9.96 261 1.31 8.73 Creek Dutch Flat Creek 210 1.65 11.00 193 1.52 10.12 152 1.35 9.02
Alternative 2 – No Action Barber Canyon-Ash 115 0.58 3.84 115 0.58 3.84 115 0.58 3.84 Creek Dutch Flat Creek 89 0.7 4.64 89 0.7 4.64 89 0.7 4.64
Source: Modoc NF GIS. All acres are approximate.
Of the more than 30,000 acres that burned within the Cove Fire, over 70 percent burned at moderate-to-high severity (Table 1). Due to the large patch size of moderate-to-high burn severity within the Cove Fire, small amount of proposed treatment acres, and salvage harvesting activities on private land, existing conditions are well below the TOC. The ERA for Upper Pit River would increase from existing conditions by 7.5 percent in Barber Canyon and 7% in Dutch Flat Creek. Increasing groundcover within treatment units would help prevent erosion in these areas when it is most likely to occur, which is within the first few years following a fire. Implementing reforestation actions prior to brush establishment would prevent increased ground and soil disturbance that may result from postponing site preparation. Once brush is established, removal through site preparation for planting may result in more soil disturbance than treating the units prior to brush establishment. Maintaining and improving existing roads needed for project implementation would also improve watershed health and lower the risk of adverse impacts.
Alternative 2
Direct Effect and Indirect Effects There would be no direct effects under Alternative 2. Only previously identified past, ongoing, and future projects would take place within the sub-watersheds (see Past, Ongoing, and Reasonably Foreseeable Future Actions (PORFFA), project record).
Cumulative Effects ERA values within the subwatersheds are currently below thresholds and further recovery from past actions is anticipated to continue (Table 5). No cumulative effects would be expected from the no-action alternative.
Summary of Effects The project is not expected to adversely affect hydrologic resources because: (1) of the absence of perennial streams within the project area; (2) ephemeral channels within the project area lack downstream connectivity to perennial streams; and (3) BMPs and IDFs to minimize impacts would be implemented.
31 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Range The Cove Fire encompasses 70% of the 40.750 Barber Canyon allotment. The 1,380-acre project area is within the South Unit Pasture of the Barber Canyon Allotment; this is 3.4% of the total area of the affected allotment. Forage response, permittee access, and livestock distribution are used as the general categories to describe the direct, indirect and cumulative effects of the proposed project.
Alternative 1
Direct and Indirect Effects
Forage Response Alternative 1 proposes various amounts of mechanical and hand removal of forested overstory in areas that sustained high levels of tree mortality (generally greater than 75 percent mortality). The direct effects of removing the fire-impacted overstory would be: 1) a further decrease in shade and a corresponding increase in the intensity of direct sunlight reaching the forest understory compared to pre-fire conditions, 2) reduction in the amount of debris that would ultimately accumulate on the forest floor, and 3) in areas of mechanical treatment, damage to regenerating plants and creating additional soil disturbance with the potential of soil erosion and soil compaction, contributing to an increase in vegetation recovery time and a delay in forage production.
The proposed fuel treatments include broadcast and pile burning. Burning would remove excess dead surface fuels allowing more light to reach the ground, warm the soil, and improve conditions for seeds to germinate and herbaceous vegetation to reestablish. Broadcast burning usually results in a mosaic burn pattern, which leaves some material for soil protection, helps stabilize the soil, and provides protection for young plants. Pile burning results in more localized and intense burn footprint and may delay establishment of herbaceous vegetation.
With the proposed actions, the forest canopy would be open and there would be an increase in light that reaches the ground. Green tree research indicates that the removal of the forest component of dry forest ecosystems results in the stimulation of the associated understory component (Naumburg and DeWald 1999). In general, the research indicates that productivity of understory vegetation is inversely related to tree density and directly proportional to the amount of solar radiation that reaches the understory vegetation. The indirect effect of increased plant productivity is an increase in forage and browse that is available for grazing by livestock. Within the salvage harvested areas with the absence of large woody debris, forage would be more readily available over a longer time period compared to the non-salvage harvested areas that would limit livestock access and forage availability as the snags fall and accumulate on the ground. Conversely, in non-salvage harvested post-fire forest environments, down snags and coarse wood provide protection for establishing seedlings by providing shade, trapping water, and protecting seedlings from wind and cold.
Reforestation and planting activities would have no direct effects to forage in the short-term. Indirectly, these activities would eventually create new overstory cover, which through time would begin to shade out the understory herbaceous vegetation.
The effect of Alternative 1 on forage vegetation recovery would be negligible compared to Alternative 2. However, Alternative 1 would create corridors for better access to and distribution
32 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest through the transitory range within the burned area (further discussed under Permittee Access and Livestock Distribution below). There would be a net long-term improvement to the range forage resource with the implementation of Alternative 1.
The direct effect of salvage and fuel treatments to regenerating plants and soil and the indirect effect on vegetation recovery and forage production would be very small in relation to the total amount of forage base currently available within the allotment.
Permittee Access and Livestock Distribution Salvage harvest activities would likely have very limited direct effect on livestock distribution as the timing of the salvage harvest would likely start before vegetation recovery on the burned portion of the allotment has occurred. If any of the project activity coincides with scheduled grazing periods, between June and the end of September, activity noise or vehicle haul traffic may temporarily require cattle to avoid the immediate area. The accumulation of down woody material would be minimized within stock trails, and within areas of traditional cattle movement. Coordination between the Range Specialist, Sale Administrator, and grazing permittee would occur to help prevent any conflicts.
Many roads currently existing within the allotment (including some closed roads) provide permittee access. Safety is a concern for any type of livestock management activities that might occur prior to salvage and fuel treatments. Treatments would remove hazards from falling trees or limbs that could be dangerous to workers conducting repairs, monitoring, or gathering in the burned areas and would provide the permittees safer access to the affected grazing allotment.
An increase in transitory range would result in increased livestock distribution through natural movement of the animals. With salvage harvest, a more open structure in forested vegetation communities would develop and improve livestock distribution. The relative increase in transitory range would be small but would have the potential to relieve livestock grazing pressure from historical pre-fire use areas, mainly non-forested plant communities.
The effects of proposed reforestation on the grazing allotments would have a minimal effect on livestock distribution for the allotment. The permittee would be made aware of current reforestation efforts through the annual operating instructions and an added protection would be to use water sources away from reforestation areas.
Summary of Direct and Indirect Effects The Cove Fire burned approximately 70 percent of the total area of the Barber Canyon Allotment. The total area of the salvage units under Alternative 1 would make up only 3.4 percent of the total allotment acreage. Relative to the effect of the Cove Fire on the affected allotment, the effects of the Cove Fire Salvage Project would be minimal.
Alternative 2
Direct and Indirect Effects
Forage Response Alternative 2 would result in an increase of grass, forb and shrub production and a subsequent increase in available forage in areas directly affected by the fire. The severity of the burn would largely affect the degree to which individual species respond. It is anticipated that the Cove Fire would function to enhance the understory vegetation relative to plant vigor, productivity, and
33 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project diversity and consequently result in an increase in forage and browse available. There would also be a slight increase in production in non-forested plant communities post fire. This increase would be due to an opening in canopy cover where tree mortality has occurred, in areas where conifers were encroaching into non-forested plant communities, or where shrub cover and decadent plant material has been removed.
Over time (5 -15 years), the forest understory and non-forest vegetation would develop towards a mature condition. Continued reduction in the intensity and spectral quality of the light below the canopy would suppress understory growth and survival of intolerant species (Freyman 1968). Shade tolerant species would out-compete less shade tolerant forest community species. Over time, trees would dominate, resulting in the associated shrubs, herbs and grasses becoming less abundant due to the corresponding increase in canopy cover and associated increased shading (Naumburg and DeWald 1999). Downed fire-impacted material (snags and debris) would contribute further to an increase in cover and associated shading. Correspondingly, understory productivity (forage production) and diversity would also decline (Moir 1966).
There would be no reduction in post-fire forage vegetation recovery under Alternative 2 as there would be no soil disturbance or mechanical damage to regenerating plants. However, this alternative would make the least amount of transitory range available primarily because livestock distribution would be limited by the accumulation of dead down trees associated with no commercial salvage.
Permittee Access and Livestock Distribution Alternative 2 would have no initial effect on permittee access and would provide current road access to the allotment. Over time (3-15 years), as snags fall and material accumulates on the ground, implementation of Alternative 2 would result in disruption of livestock distribution and grazing patterns. Areas that are currently open due to the Cove Fire burning natural barriers would, as a result of no salvage harvest, begin to exhibit accumulations of down dead trees which could restrict access to watering locations or grazing areas. An increase in effort on the part of the permittee could be required to manage the allotment with the accumulation of down trees. As danger trees begin to fall and make roads unsafe, roads would be closed, which would force the permittee to move cattle for longer distances to access different pastures, water and gathering locations. Cumulative Effects
The following activities were considered in the cumulative effects analysis: timber harvest, road construction and maintenance, prescribed burning, BAER (burned area emergency response) activities, range recovery measures, invasive plant treatments, and dispersed recreation. The effect of the Cove Fire and associated suppression activities will temporally reduce the availably of forage due to the loss of vegetation and fire suppression activities. However, the burned area, under normal climatic conditions and with the proposed revegetation plan, will be re-vegetated and the fire damaged vegetation will recover, resulting in a long-term increase in forage production within the transitory range. Implementing Alternative 1 will insure the most rapid recovery of burned area vegetation. The cumulative effect of timber sales, grazing and revegetation treatments will maintain or improve the range forage resource by reducing invasive plant competitions and maintaining a more open forest canopy.
In summary, the effects of past, present and reasonably foreseeable future actions would contribute to a short-term decrease in the production and availability of the range forage resource.
34 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
However, tree removal proposed in the Cove Fire Salvage project would further open the canopy and increase forage production, providing for better livestock distribution with a net benefit to the range forage resource.
Recreation and Visual Resources The Cove Fire Salvage project area includes no developed recreation sites. Recreation uses include OHV riding on forest service roads and hunting. The amount of recreation activity is relatively low in the project area except during the big game hunting season.
The Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) designations for the project area are:
Roaded Natural (RN) – a predominantly natural environment where resource modifications and use are evident. The sights and sounds of people are moderate and in harmony with the natural environment. Vehicle use includes passenger cars, SUVs 4x4s, motorcycles, and ATVs.
Semi-primitive Motorized (SPM) – in this setting there are moderate opportunities for isolation from the sights and sounds of humans with a natural-appearing environment. There is a low probability of interaction with other people. Vehicles range from high-clearance 4x4s to dirtbikes. Typically trails within SPM are more remote and narrow and offer a range of opportunities and challenges to users.
Alternative 1 Area salvage and roadside hazard tree removal would result in improved and safer access to the project area. Reforestation efforts would increase the site’s aesthetic value. Logging activities would be evident in the treatment areas which are visible from access routes and would result in areas free of hazardous trees, making it safer for hunting enthusiasts. The operational impacts of the projects such as traffic, noise and dust would be temporary.
Alternative 2 Alternative 2 would leave hazardous trees along roads and trails posing a risk to recreation users until they eventually fall. Hazardous trees would also cause access problems as they fall across roads used for hunting and general OHV use. Outcompeted conifer species would take longer to recover, diminishing the areas aesthetic value for years to come. Cumulative Effects
Cumulative effects consider the combined effects of past, present, reasonably foreseeable future, proposed management actions, and actions taken on adjacent lands. Using the FACTS Federal database to identify past management actions, past management actions, including harvests in 2007, 1998, 1992, and 1990 would not significantly affect recreation today. Existing roads and trails help OHV users and hunters access areas without venturing off road or through sensitive meadow environments. Within the fire perimeter, the primary actions that could add to cumulative effects are fire salvage and reforestation actions on non-USFS lands (mostly private lands) that were burned, and fuelwood harvest on USFS lands. Reforestation efforts on private land would support efforts by the Forest Service to restore forest continuity, aesthetics, and wildlife habitat. Some private roads allow access for hunting and OHV use and can be accessed from Forest Service roads. Efforts on private land to remove hazard trees would protect recreation users as they travel from federal to private land.
35 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Silviculture
Alternative 1
Direct and Indirect Effects
Site Occupancy and Stand Development Reforestation has a high probability of successfully reestablishing conifers on site within 5 years. Presuming fuels are treated as anticipated in this alternative and release treatments are completed, the plantations would have some likelihood of surviving future fire events. In northern California, plantations established in heavy slash burned severely while those where slash had been treated burned less intensely, or not at all (Weatherspoon and Skinner 1995). Over time, the conifers would shade out the brush species. With active reforestation, the site would likely reach the stage where conifers dominate the site several decades sooner than with no management (Zhang et al. 2008). While natural regeneration can be successful following fires, long regeneration periods and highly variable stocking has characterized unplanted sites (Shatford et al. 2007). Additionally, without treatment of heavy fuels, there is increased risk to natural regeneration over the long term. Mid-seral and late-successional stand conditions would be achieved proportionately sooner when compared to the Alternative 2. This would benefit those species dependent on mid and late-successional habitats.
Carbon Sequestration Zhang et al. (2008) concluded active reforestation sequesters and stores more carbon in forest trees than passive management (Alternative 2). Again, precise numbers are difficult, but Zhang et al. (2008) projected 70.2 metric tons of carbon per acre stored in 50-year-old trees in a plantation in the Fountain Fire reforestation project in northern California. While the Fountain Fire reforestation project used herbicides to concentrate growth on planted conifers, this still points to the potential of active reforestation to sequester carbon.
Visual Effects Planted trees would likely reoccupy the site quicker than reliance on natural generation, possibly by several decades (Zhang et al. 2008) thus achieving the Desired Condition described in the Forest Plan of site occupation by conifers sooner.
Cumulative Effects Other reasonably foreseeable reforestation/silviculture projects within the Cove Fire perimeter include the ongoing salvage harvesting of approximately 260 acres of private land and 72 acres of BLM-managed public land within the Cove Fire perimeter. Harvest intensities and levels vary based on burn severities experienced on these lands. Additionally, 175 acres of private land is scheduled to be reforested in the Spring of 2019 and 5 acres of BLM has been planted in 2017. Both private and public lands salvage harvesting and reforestation acreage make up less than 1% of the total area within the Cove Fire perimeter. The minimal acreage combined the stringent harvest regulation imposed by California’s regulating agencies (i.e., California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, California Department of Fish and Wildlife and Central Valley Regional Water Quality Control Board) it is anticipated that the salvage harvesting and reforestation on land not managed by the Forest Service would have a minimal effect to the Cove Fire Project.
36 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
The planted acres on private and public lands would further reduce the likely extent of brushfields and increase the proportion of forested acres more quickly than natural regeneration within the perimeter of the Cove Fire. This in turn, would increase heterogeneity within the perimeter of the Cove Fire.
Present and ongoing activities include fuel wood cutting and hazard tree felling. Fuel wood cutting could have a beneficial effect on roadside safety if fuel wood cutters removed hazard trees. Additionally, fuel wood cutting would result in a small economic recovery of value of wood that is sold or used for personal use. The effects would be negligible because of the general dispersed nature of the firewood cutting activity, the preference of firewood cutters not to cut pine and true fir species or trees that have blackened bark.
The hazard tree felling that is included in road maintenance activities has a beneficial effect to roadside safety because trees that are dead and/or exhibiting structural defects within falling distance of forest roads are felled to mitigate the safety hazard.
Alternative 2
Direct and Indirect Effects
Site Occupancy and Stand Development Under Alternative 2, no management actions, including tree planting, hazard tree removal, or fuels reduction treatment, would occur in the areas proposed for salvage. The direct effect of the area not being planted with follow-up release treatments, is that sprouting hardwoods and highly competitive brush would quickly occupy most of the ground in areas proposed for treatment under Alternative 1; thick brush combined with an absence of seed sources would result in limited natural regeneration of the forest that was present prior to the fire. Field studies in the Sierra Nevada have found large proportions of plots (>50%) with little or no tree regeneration 5–12 years after wildfire and (Welch et al. 2016).
Reforestation will slowly occur naturally but may take many decades to replace brushfields (Zhang et al. 2008). Given the high residual fuel loading in the proposed treatment areas, probable length of time required for site dominance by conifers and the fire history it is probable the area will reburn before trees with some degree of fire resistance are established, so the area may go through extended cycles of dominance by hardwoods and brush (Skinner et al. 2006). This cycle would delay site occupancy by conifers for decades, subsequently also delaying the development of mid or late seral stand characteristics that benefit species associated with those stages of stand development. Species associated with brushfields and early seral plant communities would benefit from this cycle.
Carbon Sequestration Carbon sequestration takes two forms: Long term storage of existing carbon fiber in wood products and new biotic production in wood or other long-lasting vegetation. Fire-killed trees lose all commercial value within 3 years (California Stewardship Program 2002, in Zhang et al. 2008) whereas commercially processed wood has a decomposition rate of less than 1% per year (Birdsey 1996, in Zhang et al. 2008). Under the Alternative 2 wood not harvested would release its carbon to the atmosphere in the form of CO2 at a higher rate than if in manufactured wood products. Precise numbers are difficult to project, but Zhang et al. (2008) concluded that salvage in the Fountain Fire in northern California delayed release of 16.4 metric tons of carbon per acre by sequestering that material in wood products. By inference, that CO2 would be released to the
37 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project atmosphere much more quickly under Alternative 2 because trees decompose more quickly when not converted to more stable lumber products. Heavy fuels left untreated under Alternative 2 would also likely contribute to future stand replacement fires with attendant release of CO2.
Visual Effects To the degree that natural regeneration successfully occurs, the site would, over time, begin to appear forested.
Cumulative Effects Under Alternative 2 the areas proposed for treatment in the Cove Fire Salvage Project would likely go through a long period of hardwood and brush dominated site occupancy (Zhang et al. 2008). Activities on private and public lands within the Cove Fire are discussed under Alternative 1. The ongoing activities of fuelwood cutting and hazard tree cutting would have the same cumulative effects as described under Alternative 1.
Socioeconomics
Alternative 1 Alternative 1 proposes to harvest fire-killed and damaged trees through salvage efforts on approximately 1,380 acres of the project area. Time is of the essence to recover the economic timber value; harvesting must occur before marketability is drastically reduced as a consequence of insect activity, decay, and staining from fungi. As of the spring of 2018, there is an estimated 6.3 million board feet of burned timber that would be harvested from the area salvage harvest and roadside hazard trees. The action alternative would result in receipts of up to an estimated $630,000. Timber harvest values could pay for associated fuels reduction and reforestation activities.
Colin et. al. (2015) determined the employment impact per unit of timber harvested has been calculated by region to help quantify the economic impact of timber harvesting and forest product manufacturing. Based on the study the 6.3MMBF harvested from the Cove Fire Salvage Project would result in 164 primary forest product industry jobs. The estimate provided is conservative since it is only able to account for the primary forest products, which includes: logging, processing logs into lumber and other wood products and processing wood residue from timber processing plants into outputs such as paper, particle board or electricity. Secondary industries, which includes the further processing and manufacturing of wood products from the primary manufacturers, forestry support services and log hauling/ trucking services, are excluded from the job multiplier factor because it is difficult to identify the components directly associated with timber harvesting and primary wood product manufacturing.
Employment opportunities have direct and indirect effects on the local economy. Direct effects would be associated with the primary producer. The manufacturing of lumber from the Cove Fire project would increase employment opportunities. Indirect effects account for employment in service industries that serve the lumber manufacturer. These industries would include logging, milling, forest management, trucking, fuel supplies, etc. Indirect effects are also determined by wages. Wages paid to workers by the primary and service industries are circulated through the economy for food, housing, transportation, and other living expenses. The sum of direct and indirect effects is the total economic impact in terms of employment opportunities. The effects of this alternative would increase or retain forestry-related employment opportunities.
38 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
The alternative would also provide timber yield tax, administered by the State Board of Equalization. This tax is not paid by the Forest but by private timber operators and is based on the amount of timber harvested in a given year on both private and public lands. The tax is 2.9 percent of the value of the harvested timber. The state collects the tax and approximately 80 percent is returned to the counties in which the timber was harvested.
The Cove Fire Salvage Projects is located within the Big Valley Federal Sustained Yield Unit (BVFSYU). As per 16 U.S. Code § 583 sustained-yield units were established to “promote the stability of forest industries, of employment, of communities, and of taxable forest wealth, through continuous supplies of timber; in order to provide for a continuous and ample supply of forest products; and in order to secure the benefits of forests in maintenance of water supply, regulation of stream flow, prevention of soil erosion, amelioration of climate, and preservation of wildlife.” The BVFSYU was established in 1950. At that time there were two mills within the unit, one in Bieber and one in Adin, that would be eligible to bid on timber sales within the unit. Both of those mills are now gone, however under the BVFSYU guidelines it is possible for new mills to establish themselves within the unit and thus be eligible. Although it is unlikely, the Cove Fire Salvage Alternative 1 provides a timber sale for potential new mills to bid on within the BVFSYU which could greatly contribute to the economic stability of the small communities located within the unit.
The local Alturas Lumber Mill, Warner Mountain Lumber, re-opened in 2014 and began purchasing local timber sales and processing wood products. This is a small family owned business that is reliant on local timber sales in order to maintain operations. The Alturas mill purchased the recent Modoc National Forest Frog Fire Salvage and harvested it in 2017. Monies the mill paid out for the harvesting of the Frog Fire Salvage were over 1.25 million dollars. The mill noted that 50% of the logs were processed into lumber, chips, hog fuels and firewood by Warner Mountain Lumber. The lumber manufactured by the mill was sold though wholesale lumber markets and shipped to Utah, Nevada, Washington, California and Idaho. The chips from the sale have gone to Oregon to particle plant and the sawdust has been sold to electric generating plants. The remaining logs were delivered to four different mills in Northern California and Southern Oregon. As demonstrated by the Frog Fire Salvage, this project would have a significant impact on the ability of this local mill as well as other surrounding mills to sustain operations as well as impact the rest of the communities.
Currently, several logging companies reside within Modoc County and in nearby adjacent towns of the surrounding counties in both California and Oregon. Due to the rural and isolated nature of this area, the economies of the small towns scattered throughout Modoc and adjacent counties are very much interrelated and dependent on one another. Localized economic factors such as general commerce, availability of equipment and business resources, steady proficient workforce and employment opportunities as well as the health and sustainability of the surrounding natural resources play a major role in the upward or downward economic trends of the entire rural community. Conversely, these economic trends have a rippling effect throughout Modoc County as well as surrounding rural counties.
Alternative 2 Harvest of forest products would not occur and fuel reduction treatments would not be implemented. There would be no recovery of the economic value of any of the fire-killed or fire- damaged trees. No additional employment opportunities or wages paid to primary and service industry employees would be circulated through the local economy. Without action it would be more difficult for the local infrastructure to obtain the raw material needed to sustain operations.
39 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Private land is available to partially meet the needs of the mills; however, sustained yield from federal land is still imperative. Without the sustained yield available from federal land the competition for the raw material would be more intense as no action would essentially reduce the local land base for acquiring saw logs. Additionally, the logging operators may need to travel out of the area to operate.
Roadside hazard trees, that would otherwise be removed as a commodity under Alternative 1, would be felled and left in place under Alternative 2. The Forest would need to use a service contract to remove roadside hazards. It is estimated that a service contract for the hazard tree removal alone would cost an estimated $336,000. Delaying or foregoing hazard tree removal would mean that the safety hazards currently threatening the recreating public and forest workers would not be abated in a timely manner.
Soils Although more than half of the project area experienced stand replacing mortality of trees and shrubs (Table 1) there was very little (8%) high soil burn severity. Thirteen percent of soils in the project area were unburned or had very low burn severity, 31% experienced low burn severity, and 48% experienced moderate burn severity. Only a small portion (less than 2%) of the project area is located on soils with a high erosion hazard rating (EHR). Less than 1% of soils have a moderate EHR, 52% an EHR of low-moderate, and 46% a low EHR.
The Alternatives were assessed with respect to meeting Modoc National Forest Soils Standards and Guidelines with maintenance of soil productivity on 85% of the area affected by soil disturbing activities. This includes maintaining mineral organic matter in 85% of its natural condition in the upper 12 inches of the soil profile, porosity at least 90% of its natural condition, a minimum of 30% of the soil surface covered with intact duff, a minimum of five large logs in various stages of decomposition per acre, and remaining within the allowable soil loss.
Alternative 1
Direct and Indirect Effects Direct effects of vegetation and fuels treatment activities associated with Alternative 1 would result in limited compaction and soil displacement. Alternative 1 would result in detrimental disturbance levels of 15% or less of the project area. BMPs require that actions be taken to prevent or remedy any detrimental impacts that exceed the LRMP Soils Standards and Guidelines. The Project is expected to remain within BMPs and Standards and Guidelines.
The most substantial indirect effect of reduced soil productivity associated with Alternative 1 is the potential reduction in vegetative growth in high traffic areas. Because the structure of the soil and the nutrient and water holding capacity have been altered, vegetation is unlikely to achieve the height or diameter growth that it would on lightly disturbed or undisturbed soil. This could lead to reduction of vegetation production potential for those acres of detrimental disturbance.
Mechanized activities associated with the timber harvest and fuels reduction can disturb soils in the following ways: soil loss due to erosion, displacement, compaction, puddling, removal or disturbance of organic matter, and elimination of woody debris. Displacement can occur when the upper layer of soil is removed or mixed with underlying layers during salvage operations. Compaction occurs when heavy equipment breaks down soil structure, and thereby reduces the pore space within the soil. When heavy machinery makes repeated passes over the same ground
40 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest or during times of high soil moisture, soil is at the highest risk for compaction. Puddling is the horizontal shearing of soil particles that takes place when soils are saturated. Puddling severely limits the infiltration of water. Compaction, puddling, removal or disturbance of organic matter, removal of woody debris, loss of soil due to erosion, and displacement have the potential to lessen site quality and soil productivity.
The project proposes to remove non-merchantable material to reduce long-term fuel loading. Mechanical treatment would occur in areas that maintain high densities of small fire-killed trees. Depending on the condition of the material, some would be masticated or chipped and other material would be broadcast burned or piled and burned under appropriate burning condition. Overall, soil productivity is not expected to be detrimentally affected by the fuels reduction. Heavy equipment will be used to pile slash. Burn piles would have limited impact on soils due to the small, dispersed, areas across the project area. Soil heating would be restricted to an area directly under the pile. Limited change in soil structure or infiltration capacity would result from the proposed pile burning. Equipment used for piling would displace soil and cause limited compaction, but it is not expected to contribute to erosion. Heavy-equipment use associated with reforestation activities (for site preparation and mechanical release from competing vegetation) would also contribute to soil compaction.
The project would use existing roads, landings and skid trails to minimize impacts. Three tenths mile of unauthorized (non-NFTS) road would be used as a temporary road for the project and then decommissioned resulting in a net reduction in roaded area within the project boundary.
Alternative 2 Alternative 2 would affect soils less in the short term but would leave the forest in a condition more susceptible to catastrophic fire in the future. Dead trees would begin to fall and create fuel loads for future fires. Another large stand-replacing fire could threaten organic horizons, destroy soil structure, and further increase the erosive potential of the site. Other potential effects include a decrease of soil invertebrate, microbe, and mycorrhizae populations; a reduction in nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus content; significant pH changes; and reduced cation exchange. All of these could cause long-term reductions in soil productivity. Cumulative Effects
Cumulative effects consider the combined effects of past, present, reasonably foreseeable future, and proposed management actions. Historically, there has been use of heavy equipment on the landscape that would contribute to cumulative effects on soils. Historic compaction and its effects are reduced by the high content of shrink swell clays, rocks, and over ten years of organic additions and turbations; unused roads and skid trails have begun the process of returning to a pre-disturbed state. By using these existing roads, skid trails, and landings, the need to compact new areas for road and skid trail creation would be reduced. In both the Alternatives 1 and 2, other foreseeable actions include road maintenance, administrative road use, public recreational use, and small forest products gathering for personal use. These activities do not involve the use of heavy equipment other than on existing roads. Based on the types and extent of these uses in the project area, minimal detrimental soil disturbance is anticipated. Cumulative effects also take into account actions on other private and public lands within the Cove Burn Area footprint. Within the fire perimeter, the primary actions that could add to cumulative effects are fire salvage and reforestation actions on non-USFS lands (mostly private lands) that were burned, and fuelwood harvest on USFS lands. Private land fire salvage is ongoing at the time of this writing and reforestation will occur on private timberlands within the fire footprint.
41 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Resources
Migratory Landbirds
Alternative 1 Changes to habitat as a result of the Cove Project would primarily affect migratory bird species that use burned forests or snags to meet their habitat needs. Effects to habitat of select migratory species including the black-backed woodpecker and hairy woodpecker which use burned forest habitat or snags as important habitat attributes were assessed in the Management Indicator Species (MIS) report for this project. Effects to select Threatened, Endangered and USFS Sensitive birds and their habitats have been analyzed in the Biological Assessment/Biological Evaluation for the Cove Project.
Impacts to migratory landbirds are expected to vary across the analysis area because the effects of past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions vary spatially. For instance, vegetative response within the Dutch Flat Creek Wildlife Area (State owned and managed) and untreated burned forest would be quite different than within units salvaged and reforested. Future habitat within reforested units would vary depending on the density of planted trees, inclusion of oaks, and other variables. Due to the complexity of these spatial variations and because each species responds differently to its environment, the direction, magnitude, and duration of effects to migratory landbirds are also expected to vary.
The variability of burned forest, reforestation differences, and the project design features (e.g. retained snags) are expected to moderate effects to migratory landbirds. For example, unaltered burned forest habitat would be retained in areas not receiving treatment, such as Dutch Flat Creek Wildlife Area, inoperable areas, and other untreated USFS lands totaling approximately 17,661acres within the Cove Fire area which burned under high severity. Thus, the project would provide ample habitat for migratory landbirds adapted to burned areas.
Alternative 1 also considered the importance of other vegetative communities within the fire perimeter. Planting densities would generally be lower and trees more widely spaced in areas containing black oaks. The strategy to alter planting densities in or near oak as well as the natural understory response in the remaining fire perimeter would serve to retain and promote understory vegetation and other plant types. The acres that are reforested and planted to coniferous trees would serve to hasten the recovery of forested conditions to these areas, representing about 4.5% percent of USFS lands burned in the fire.
The timing of the project is likely to occur after many species have already nested, and therefore, have a limited impact upon nesting birds. The project is expected to be initiated in mid-June and is expected to occur through late August.
All of these design features, plus snag retention, would help insure a diversity of wildlife habitats is retained and created within the Cove Project area.
Alternative 2 Under this alternative none of the actions proposed under Alternative 1 would be implemented. There may be a reduction of hazard trees along approximately 10.8 miles of roadside corridors. Fire-killed or damaged trees considered a public hazard to roadways would be felled and left as logs. Other habitats and vegetative structure would remain in their current condition with future habitat changes resulting from natural forest regeneration.
42 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Management Indicator Species (MIS) The MIS whose habitat would be either directly or indirectly affected by the action alternatives of the Cove Fire project and that were analyzed in the MIS report (project record) were: California spotted owl, Pacific Marten, northern flying squirrel, hairy woodpecker, and black-backed woodpecker (Table 6).
Due to a lack of direct effects to habitat factors of analysis for the MIS habitats and species analyzed for this project, Alternative 2 would serve primarily to continue long-term vegetative trends within the project area and would not alter the existing trend in the analyzed habitats, nor would it lead to a change in the distribution across the Sierra Nevada bioregion for any of the analyzed MIS species.
Summaries of the analyses of potential effects of Alternative 1 on analyzed MIS species and their habitats are provided below.
Table 6. MIS for Project-Level Habitat Analysis for the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project Habitat or Ecosystem CWHR Type(s) defining the habitat or Sierra Nevada Forests Component ecosystem component1 Management Indicator Species Scientific Name ponderosa pine (PPN), Sierran mixed California spotted owl conifer (SMC), white fir (WFR), red fir Strix occidentalis occidentalis Late Seral Closed Canopy (RFR), tree size 5 (canopy closures M Pacific marten Coniferous Forest and D), and tree size 6. Martes caurina3 Northern flying squirrel Glaucomys sabrinus Snags in Green Forest Medium and large snags in green forest Hairy woodpecker Picoides villosus Snags in Burned Forest Medium and large snags in burned forest Black-backed woodpecker (stand-replacing fire) Picoides arcticus 1 All California wildlife habitat relationship size classes and canopy closures are included (Mayer and Laudenslayer, 1988). dbh = diameter at breast height. Tree size classes and canopy closure classifications are: 1 = Seedling less than 1" dbh S = Sparse cover, 10 to 24% canopy closure. 2 = Sapling from 1" to 5.9" dbh P = Open cover, 25 to 39% canopy closure. 3 = Pole from 6" to 10.9" dbh M= Moderate cover, 40 to 59% canopy closure. 4 = Small tree from 11" to 23.9" dbh. D = Dense cover, 60 to 100% canopy closure. 5 = Medium to large tree over 24" dbh 6 = Multi-layered tree in pine and Sierran mixed conifer.
Late Seral Closed Canopy Coniferous Forest Within the project area, late-seral closed canopy habitat consists of the following CWHR tree size classes and canopy closure classifications: 5M and 5D (no size class 6 stands were present).
Effects to Habitat
Alternative 1 Direct and Indirect Effects
Table 7 shows the amount of late seral, closed canopy coniferous forest on USFS lands within the Cove Fire perimeter and the acres per CWHR type that burned at various levels of severity. Of the 207 acres of late seral, closed canopy coniferous forest that burned at mortalities of 50 percent or less within the Cove Fire perimeter, 0.2 acres are included within proposed Area Salvage units and 0 acres in the roadside hazard areas.
43 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Table 7. Acres of late seral closed canopy coniferous forest and burn severity on USFS lands only within the Cove Fire perimeter.
CWHR Acres pre- No 0-25% 25-50% 50-75% 75-100% Type fire mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality EPN5M1 222.9 0.0 12.7 45.0 30.1 135.1 EPN5D 618.7 0.0 36.8 112.2 98.3 371.5 Total 841.6 0.0 49.5 157.2 128.4 506.6 1 EPN – Eastside pine habitat
Of the factors of analysis for this habitat type, these treatments would potentially remove trees that are fire-killed, or sufficiently fire-damaged to meet harvest guidelines. Removal of such trees should not substantively reduce the existing canopy closure, or alter the CWHR density designation for the stand, because dead trees contribute little to existing canopy closure. Thus, proposed treatments would not result in a further loss of acres of this habitat type other than that already caused by the Cove Fire itself. In addition, given the small size of these remnant patches of habitat within treatment units, they no longer represent a forested ‘stand’, but may be more accurately described as a small aggregate of surviving green trees within a burned forest landscape.
Harvest prescriptions are focused on the removal of standing fire-killed trees. Downed logs are not likely to be “included product” within treatment units but may be reduced to meet fuel objectives. While some damage to or removal of downed logs may occur, salvage treatments would not result in a total or substantial loss of downed logs. Some logs could be removed during site preparation prior to reforestation. While downed log retention standards (5 pieces of large woody debris per acre) would insure a minimum would be retained, some existing downed logs, especially in areas of concentrations, could be removed.
Harvest prescriptions within the area salvage treatment area would reduce the number of existing snags. However, given the three largest snags/acre would be left under the proposed treatments, and given there is such a small acreage affected (0.2 acres), very few trees would be affected in this habitat type.
Cumulative Effects
Prior to the Cove Fire, approximately 847 acres of late seral, closed canopy coniferous forest existed within the footprint of the fire across all ownerships. Approximately 209 acres of this total burned at severities of less than 50 percent, representing about 25 percent of the pre-burn total.
As a result of proposed actions on both USFS lands and other ownership, cumulatively there would be a reduction in snags and/or downed logs on approximately 2.9 acres of the combined 209 acres of late seral closed canopy forest that remain after the fire. This represents 1.4 percent of the 209 acres within the analysis area. The majority of the acres that may be affected (2.7 acres) would be on non-USFS lands. Alternative 1 would retain late seral closed canopy coniferous forest habitat but may affect some of the habitat elements, such as snags and downed logs. Past, present, and future actions would not be expected to cause a change in the amount of late seral closed canopy coniferous forest habitat. Alternative 1 is not expected to add cumulatively to the reduction in habitat and therefore the proposed project would not alter the existing trend in the habitat.
44 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Alternative 2 Direct and Indirect Effects
Under Alternative 2, there would be no substantive reductions in burned forest habitat on USFS lands as a result of management activities. Hazard trees along approximately 88.5 miles (3,218 potential acres) of road corridors would be subject to being felled and left in place as downed logs. Such activities would affect relatively few (13%) of the 23,956 burned acres on USFS lands, and over the majority of the burned acres snags would remain until they toppled due to decay. Burned vegetation would go through natural recovery.
No acres of late seral, closed canopy coniferous forest were located in roadside hazard corridors within which hazard trees may be removed. Thus, this alternative would have minimal effect on the remnant patches of this habitat type that survived the Cove Fire.
Cumulative Effects Conclusion
As a result of hazard tree abatement on USFS lands and actions on other ownership, cumulatively there would be a reduction in snags and/or downed logs on approximately 2.9 acres of the combined 209 acres of late seral closed canopy forest that remain after the fire. This represents 1.4% percent of the 209 acres within the analysis area. The majority of the acres that may be affected (2.7 of the 209 acres) would be on non-USFS lands. Past, present, and future actions would not be expected to cause a change in the amount of late seral closed canopy coniferous forest habitat. This alternative would not be expected to add cumulatively to the reduction in habitat and therefore would not alter the existing trend in the habitat.
Effects to MIS Species California spotted owl. As a result of the proposed actions in Alternative 1 of the Cove Project, combined with effects on private lands, a decrease in snags and downed logs would be expected on approximately 2.9 of the 209 acres of late seral, closed canopy coniferous forest. This projected reduction of habitat components within these 2.9 acres, out of the greater than 1,000,000 acres of late seral closed canopy coniferous forest (ponderosa pine, Sierran mixed conifer, white fir, and red fir) habitat on National Forest System lands currently estimated to exist in the Sierra Nevada, would not alter the existing trend in the habitat, nor would it lead to a change in the distribution of California spotted owl across the Sierra Nevada bioregion.
Pacific marten. As a result of the proposed actions in Alternative 1 of the Cove Project, combined with effects on private lands, a decrease in snags and downed logs would be expected on approximately 2.9 of the 209 acres of late seral, closed canopy coniferous forest. This projected reduction of habitat components within these 2.9 acres, out of the greater than 1,000,000 acres of late seral closed canopy coniferous forest (ponderosa pine, Sierran mixed conifer, white fir, and red fir) habitat on National Forest System lands currently estimated to exist in the Sierra Nevada would not alter the existing trend in the habitat, nor would it lead to a change in the distribution of Pacific marten across the Sierra Nevada bioregion.
Northern flying squirrel. As a result of the proposed actions in Alternative 1 of the Cove Project, combined with effects on private lands, a decrease in snags and downed logs would be expected on approximately 2.9 of the 209 acres of late seral, closed canopy coniferous forest. This projected reduction of habitat components within these 2.9 acres, out of the greater than 1,000,000 acres of late seral, closed canopy coniferous forest (ponderosa pine, Sierran mixed conifer, white fir, and red fir) habitat on National Forest System lands currently estimated to exist
45 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project in the Sierra Nevada, would not alter the existing trend in the habitat, nor would it lead to a change in the distribution of northern flying squirrel across the Sierra Nevada bioregion.
Snags in Green Forest Habitat indicative of snags in green forest consists of stands with average tree size greater than 11 inches DBH (CWHR size classes 4 and above) and all canopy cover classes, in forests that experienced less than 50 percent basal area mortality.
Effects to Habitat
Alternative 1 Direct and Indirect Effects
Of the estimated 4,504 acres of this habitat on Forest Service lands within the Cove Fire area, about 114.1. acres of this habitat type (2.5%) are included within proposed treatment units (Tables 8 and 9). The majority of the acres within treatment areas are within roadside hazard treatment areas (88.4 acres), and fewer acres occur within the area salvage units (25.7 acres).
Table 8. Acres of roadside hazard treatment by CWHR type and burn severity; habitat types burned at less than 50% basal area mortality represent snags in green forest habitat, for hairy woodpecker.
CWHR Acres pre- No 0-25% 25-50% 50-75% 75-100% Type fire mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality EPN4S1 4.7 0.0 0.2 2.5 1.4 0.6 EPN4P 38.9 0.0 1.8 11.8 9.5 15.8 EPN4M 230.8 0.0 9.3 45.8 28.8 146.9 EPN4D1 97.4 0.0 2.0 15.0 13.0 67.4 EPN5D 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 Total 372.3 0.0 13.3 75.1 53.1 230.7 1 EPN – Eastside pine habitat
Table 9. Acres of area salvage treatment by CWHR type and burn severity; habitat types burned at less than 50% basal area mortality represent snags in green forest habitat, for hairy woodpecker .
CWHR Acres pre- No 0-25% 25-50% 50-75% 75-100% Type fire mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality EPN4S1 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.3 0.4 EPN4P 63.4 0.0 0.3 2.4 8.8 51.9 EPN4M 665.7 0.0 0.5 15.4 48.0 601.8 EPN4D1 199.7 0.0 0.7 5.8 16.2 177.0 EPN5M 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.6 EPN5D 11.2 0.0 0.0 0.2 3.2 7.8 Total 942.7 0.0 1.5 24.2 76.5 840.5 1 EPN – Eastside pine habitat
46 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Snag retention within these salvage treatment areas would retain the largest 3 snags per acre, except in roadside hazard treatment areas. Snags within the roadside hazard areas would be removed if they pose a threat to public safety with the potential to fall onto the roadway. Therefore, the majority of roadside hazard acres (i.e., 88.4) are not expected to provide suitable habitat for hairy woodpeckers and would be considered “lost” habitat for this habitat type and MIS species.
Snag retention would retain the 3 largest snags within the Area Salvage units (25.7 acres). Effects of these treatments on snag abundance within these predominately burned forest areas would thus depend on the inclusion or lack of inclusion of the snags within green forest. If all snags in green forests are retained, there would be no snag reduction. If none were retained, there would be a small reduction in snags because the green forest area constitutes less than 2.7% (25.7/943) of habitat within area salvage treatments. Therefore, snag reduction would be expected to occur in a very small subset (< 25.7 acres) of the total 943 acres.
Reforestation would be focused on “de-forested” areas that lack a green-tree component, likely not within the green-tree patch. Therefore, while some snags may be reduced in reforestation areas, this treatment should not result in a substantive reduction.
Given all of the above, some level of snag reduction would be expected to varying degrees within potentially all 114 acres of this habitat type and within proposed treatment units. Roadside Hazard (88.4 acres) treatments are expected to remove all snags from the treatment areas within the snag/green forest type. Area Salvage treatments (25.7 acres) are expected to remove few snags from the treatment areas within the snag/green forest habitat type. Therefore, this project is expected to result in a maximum reduction of 114.1 acres (approximately 2.5%) of the 4,504 acres of snag/green forest habitat within the Cove Fire perimeter.
Cumulative Effects After the Cove Fire, approximately 5,376 acres of snags in the green forest ecosystem component existed within the footprint of the fire across all ownerships. Given the above analysis, as a result of proposed actions on both USFS lands and other ownership, cumulatively there may be a reduction in snags and/or downed logs on approximately 986 acres of these areas. This represents 18.39 percent of the 5,376 acres within the analysis area. The majority of the acres that may be affected would be on non-USFS lands (872 acres).
Alternative 2 Direct, Indirect and Cumulative Effects
In this alternative, there would be no reductions in burned forest habitat as a result of management activities. The lack of reforestation activities of this alternative could delay a return of forest cover to these burned areas that are distant to an existing conifer seed source. As such, there would be a substantial delay in achieving a new cohort of trees and thus future forested habitat for this species.
Personal fuelwood harvest may take place in this alternative, and these activities typically occur only adjacent to roads (Siegel et al 2013), which would result in a minor loss of snags. All other suitable hairy woodpecker habitat would be retained on the landscape.
There are several projects already implemented and expected to be implemented within the Cove Fire area on private land (Cascade Resource Consultants pers. comm.) and one BLM project has
47 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project proposed to treat 72 acres of green forest habitat. However, similar to the proposed treatments herein, the proposed BLM treatments would primarily focus on removing fire-killed trees and leave all other trees not expected to die from fire effects. This small number of snags removed in green forest would have a very small additive, cumulative impact on hairy woodpeckers or other snag/green forest wildlife species.
Effects to MIS Species Hairy woodpecker. As a result of implementing actions under Alternative 1, there would be an expected change in medium and large snags on up to 986 acres (114 USFS lands and 872 non- USFS lands) of this ecosystem component within the Cove Fire analysis area. The change in medium to large-sized snags per acre on up to 986 acres out of approximately 5,376 acres of this ecosystem component in the Cove Fire Salvage Project analysis area would not alter the existing trend in the ecosystem component, nor would it lead to a change in the distribution of hairy woodpecker across the Sierra Nevada bioregion, given the ubiquity of this ecosystem component across the bioregion.
Snags in Burned Forest Habitat indicative of snags in burned forest consists of stands with average tree size greater than 6 inches DBH (CWHR size classes 3 and above) and canopy cover classes M and D, in forests that experienced greater than 50 percent basal area mortality.
Effects to Habitat8
Alternative 1 Direct and Indirect Effects Of the estimated 7,998 acres (burn severity > 50%) of this habitat within the Cove Fire area, about 1,136 acres of this habitat type (14.2%) are included within the proposed roadside salvage treatment units and area salvage treatment units (Tables 10 and 11).
Table 10. . Acres of roadside hazard treatment by CWHR type and burn severity; habitat types burned at greater than 50% basal area mortality represent snags in burned forest habitat, for black- backed woodpecker
CWHR Acres pre- No 0-25% 25-50% 50-75% 75-100% Type fire mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality EPN3M1 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8 EPN3D 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 EPN4M 230.8 0.0 9.3 45.8 28.8 146.9 EPN4D 97.4 0.0 2.0 15.0 13.0 67.4 EPN5D 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 Total 331.1 0.0 11.3 60.8 42.2 216.7 1 EPN – Eastside pine habitat
8 Additional analysis for black-backed woodpecker can be found in Appendix B.
48 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Table 11. . Acres of area salvage treatment by CWHR type and burn severity; habitat types burned at greater than 50% basal area mortality represent snags in burned forest habitat, for black-backed woodpecker.
CWHR Acres pre- No 0-25% 25-50% 50-75% 75-100% Type fire mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality EPN3M1 9.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.0 0.0 EPN3D 12.5 0.0 0.0 2.0 10.5 EPN4M 665.7 0.0 0.5 15.4 48.0 601.8 EPN4D 199.7 0.0 0.7 5.8 16.2 177.0 EPN5M 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.6 EPN5D 11.2 0.0 0.0 0.2 3.2 7.8 Total 899.7 0.0 1.2 21.4 69.4 807.7 1 EPN – Eastside pine habitat
Snag retention within these salvage harvest areas would retain the largest 3 snags per acre, except in roadside hazard treatment areas. Where roadside hazard areas overlap with salvage harvest areas snags were retained within the treatment unit, outside of the roadside corridor. Snags within the roadside hazard areas would be removed if they pose a threat to public safety with the potential to fall onto the roadway. Therefore, the majority of roadside hazard acres are not expected to provide suitable habitat for black-caked woodpeckers and would be considered “lost” habitat for this habitat type and MIS species.
Reforestation would be focused on “de-forested” areas that lack a green-tree component. This activity is proposed on approximately 1,380 acres, which would likely include areas within suitable black-backed woodpecker habitat. Some snags may be reduced in reforestation areas to provide for a safe environment during reforestation activities. This activity would target salvage or fuels reduction treatment areas. Additional snag reduction could result in additional areas of “lost” habitat within reforestation areas. However, these acres are expected to overlap considerably with fuels reduction and salvage areas.
Given all of the above, some level of snag reduction would be expected to varying degrees within potentially all 1,136 acres of this habitat type and within proposed treatment units. Roadside hazard and area salvage treatment activities are expected to remove most snags within treatment areas, including snag/burned forest habitat type. Therefore, this project is expected to result in a reduction of 1,136 acres (approximately 14.2%) of the 7,998 acres of snag/burned forest habitat within the Cove Fire perimeter.
Cumulative Effects
The cumulative effects analysis area for this and all alternatives was expanded from USFS lands within the Cove Fire to include all of the Cove Fire area, including private lands. Approximately 474 acres of burned forest black-backed woodpecker habitat existed on non-USFS lands within the Cove Fire footprint following the fire (Table 12). Due to different harvest and timber management practices on private lands as compared to USFS lands, private salvage operations are expected to remove most burned forest black-backed woodpecker habitat. Some fire-killed trees would inevitably be left in inaccessible areas or where trees were naturally scattered prior to the fire, but the 474 acres of non-USFS habitat for black-backed woodpeckers is assumed to eventually be “lost” due to salvage efforts.
49 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Table 12. Acres of black-backed woodpecker habitat within the pre-fire Cove Fire perimeter (non- USFS lands). Habitat types burned at greater than 50% basal area mortality represent snags in burned forest habitat, for black-backed woodpecker
CWHR Acres pre- No 0-25% 25-50% 50-75% 75-100% Type fire mortality mortality mortality mortality mortality EPN3M1 84.1 0.0 21.2 12.5 22.3 28.0 EPN3D 6.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 6.2 EPN4M 568.1 0.0 95.7 143.7 111.1 217.6 EPN4D 119.0 0.0 16.5 16.4 22.6 63.5 EPN5M 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 EPN5D 4.4 0.0 1.8 0.9 1.5 0.2 Total 782.8 0.0 135.2 173.5 157.9 316.2 1 EPN – Eastside pine habitat type
Personal fuelwood harvest would occur within the Cove Fire footprint on USFS lands. The Modoc NF fuelwood program allows the felling of snags by woodcutters, with upper diameter limits set at 20-inch DBH for snags of commercial species of conifers, and with no diameter restrictions on lodgepole pine snags. Siegel et al (2013) in their monitoring of black-backed woodpeckers in the Peterson and Wheeler fires on the Lassen and Plumas National Forests, respectively, noted woodcutting to be pervasive along roads within both fires. Fuelwood harvest would primarily occur immediately along roads, as well as in relatively flat areas that allow off- road travel, and along user-created roads, post-harvest skid trails, meadow edges or other features that allow off-road travel. The presence of stumps along roadside corridors may also make off road travel difficult. Because Siegel et al (2013) indicated the main woodcutting activity in the fires they monitored was along roads, and since it is along roads that hazard trees would be felled and removed as part of this alternative, a large proportion of snags that would most likely be vulnerable to woodcutters would be removed anyway. This is partially due to the fact that the proposed treatments are along higher functional roads (have cinders, are wider) and are located closer to paved roads. Nevertheless, snags retained from in the vicinity of roadside hazard tree removal would be subject to removal as fuelwood if accessible. Firewood harvest has been identified as a risk factor for black-backed woodpeckers (Bond et al 2012).
Inevitably some retained snags will likely be removed by fuelwood harvesters. However, given the large areas of snag retention (see discussion in Direct and Indirect Effects, above), and the presence of slopes and other features that would limit access, most of the fuelwood harvest should be localized to areas that are accessible, as indicated in the Siegel et al (2013) study. Also, all black-backed woodpecker habitat that was contained within Area Salvage harvested units was considered “lost” as habitat due to this treatment. Thus, any additional snags lost to woodcutters within these same units would not add to acres of habitat considered lost. Therefore, this activity would not result in a substantial decrease in burned forest black-backed woodpecker habitat across the USFS lands involved in the fire.
Cumulative Effects Conclusion
Combined, about 8,472 acres of burned forest black-backed woodpecker habitat existed on both USFS and non-USFS lands within the Cove Fire perimeter. Due to salvage harvest, it was assumed that about 474 acres of this habitat on non-USFS lands would be lost. On USFS lands, treatments proposed under Alternative 1 would cause a loss of about 1,136 acres. Approximately
50 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
6,862 acres on USFS lands would not be impacted by treatments. Thus, actions across all ownerships within the fire perimeter would cause approximately 1,610 acres of the 8,472 acres (about 19%) to be lost, leaving approximately 6,862 acres of the total burned forest black-backed woodpecker habitat available to species requiring this habitat.
Alternative 2 Direct, Indirect and Cumulative Effects
Under Alternative 2, there would be no reductions in burned forest habitat as a result of management activities. The lack of reforestation activities of this alternative could delay a return of forest cover to these burned areas that are distant to an existing conifer seed source. As such, there could be a substantial delay in achieving a new cohort of trees and thus future forested habitat for this species.
Personal fuelwood harvest may take place in this alternative, and these activities typically occur only adjacent to roads (Siegel et al 2013), which would result in a minor loss of snags. All other suitable black-backed woodpecker habitat would be retained on the landscape
Due to different harvest and timber management practices on private lands as compared to USFS lands, private salvage operations are expected to remove most burned forest habitat for this species. Some fire-killed trees will inevitably be left in inaccessible areas or where trees were naturally scattered prior to the fire, but for the majority of non-USFS habitat for black-backed woodpeckers, totaling about 474 acres, is assumed to eventually be “lost” due to salvage efforts.
Effects to MIS Species Black-backed woodpecker. The direct, indirect and cumulative effect of the Cove Fire Salvage Project in terms of pole, medium and large-sized snags per acre within burned forest would change from the existing condition. With the implementation of Alternative 1, there would be a reduction in burned forest habitat supporting snags, reducing habitat that could potentially support black-backed woodpeckers. Overall, the analysis area still supports large amounts of habitat (snags in burned forest) that may support higher densities compared to previous levels. Alternative 1 would not significantly alter the existing trend in the ecosystem component, nor would it lead to a change in the distribution of black-backed woodpeckers across the Sierra Nevada bioregion.
Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive (TES) Wildlife Species Due to the project area being outside the range of the species, or due to the lack of suitable habitat or habitat components or effects to those components in the project area, it was determined that Alternative 1 would have no effect on the following Federally Listed threatened or endangered species or their critical habitat:
Gray wolf (Canus lupus), yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus), and California wolverine (Gulo gulo luteus).
Due to the project area being outside the known range of the species, or due to the lack of suitable habitat or habitat components in the project area, it was determined that Alternative 1 would have no effect on the following Forest Service Sensitive species:
51 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), great gray owl (Strix nebulosa), greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), willow flycatcher (Empidonax traillii), greater sandhill crane (Grus canadensis tabida), yellow rail (Coturnicops noveboracensis), Townsendʼs big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii), pygmy rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis), Bing’s Checkerspot Butterfly (Euphydryas editha bing), California floater (Anodonta californiensis), topaz juga (Juga acutifilosa), black juga (Juga nigrina), Willow Creek pyrg (springsnail) (Pyrgulopsis lasseni), Goose Lake sucker (Catostomus occidentalis lacusanserinus), Pacific lamprey (Entosphenus tridentatus), Modoc sucker (Catostomus microps), Goose Lake tui chub (Gila bicolor thallassina), Goose Lake lamprey (Lampetra tridentata ssp.), hardhead (Mylopharodon conocephalus), Goose Lake redband trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss ssp.), Warner Valley redband trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss pop 4), and Western pond turtle (Emys marmorata).
Sensitive species analyzed in detail for the Cove Fire project were: northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), California spotted owl (Strix occidentalis occidentalis), Pacific marten (Martes caurina), pallid bat (Antrozous pallidus), fringed myotis (Myotis thysanodes), and western bumble bee (Bombus occidentalis). Effects to these Sensitive wildlife species are summarized below and are discussed in detail in the Biological Evaluation for the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project (project record).
Northern Goshawk Three goshawk PAC ‘s were known from within the Cove Fire perimeter. High fire severity within and around these three PACs have likely rendered them unsuitable as goshawk nesting habitat. As a result, they will be either dropped from the network of goshawk PACs on the Modoc NF or remapped at a later date if the appropriate amount and suitable habitat can be found nearby and future surveys detect goshawks. Northern goshawks nest in moderate and dense forest structure with large trees and forage in a diversity of forest structure including openings and areas with less dense canopy cover. Most of the suitable goshawk nesting and foraging habitat was burned by the Cove Fire. Goshawk may take advantage of increases in prey availability from increases in snag and downed wood resulting from high intensity burned areas. Habitat types including CWHR size classes >3 with moderate and dense canopy cover that burned at high severity were analyzed for effects as this habitat type would be removed by the proposed project activities.
Alternative 1
Direct and Indirect Effects Low to moderate burn severity effects are generally found on the outer edges of the fire and located northeast of the treatment areas. High-severity burn effects, which account for the majority of the burned area, are found more in the interior of the fire and located along the southwest portion. As such, little green forest habitat survived the fire, and in the interior of the fire the patches that did are small and highly fragmented. Removal of dead and dying trees from within or from the edges of these heavily burned patches would not be expected to change the CWHR classification of these areas, and thus salvage harvest would not be expected to reduce the acres of any remnant patches of green forest habitat. No surviving green forest goshawk habitat would be rendered unsuitable under Alternative 1.
The Cove Fire rendered a large area unsuitable as goshawk nesting habitat due to the high severity nature of the fire and the loss of dense canopied, mature forest. Included was the loss, due to large patches of high severity fire, of the majority (>90%) habitat of two known goshawk nest territories and one PAC with no recent nesting attempts. Proposed treatments within the fire
52 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest footprint would not further decrease this loss of reproductive habitat since the loss was already caused by the fire itself.
Foraging goshawks may take advantage of the short-term increase in prey availability resulting from the increase in snag and down wood component throughout the burn, especially on edges adjacent to low severity and unburned habitat. Under Alternative 1 habitat elements such as snags and future downed woody debris would be reduced within salvage units and may reduce the quality of salvage units for northern goshawk foraging in the short-term. However, due to the nature of the fire, and the large patches of high severity fire within the interior of the burn, salvage units are generally not located adjacent to green forest habitat. Salvage units are focused predominantly in larger patches of forest which burned at high fire intensity. Juxtaposition of low and moderately burned forest with unburned forest generally occurs to the northwest of the PACs and these areas would not be affected by proposed actions.
Inevitably, roadside hazard tree removal and area salvage harvest would reduce foraging habitat in the short term by removing snags more quickly than they otherwise would have remained standing within salvage units. However, only 14.2% (1,136/7,998) of the forested habitat in CWHR size classes >3 with moderate and dense canopy cover that burned at high severity on USFS lands in the Cove Fire is proposed for treatment, leaving a significant amount of foraging opportunities for this species.
Approximately 6,682 acres of fire-killed snags would remain unharvested under Alternative 1, representing about 84 percent (6,682/7,998 of the acres of USFS lands (CWHR size classes >3 with moderate and dense canopy cover and >50% basal area mortality) burned by the Cove Fire. Although actions proposed in the Cove Fire project (such as commercial salvage harvests and site preparation activities) would cause a reduction in burned forest habitat in order to meet desired conditions and objectives within these areas, project area selection and design features built into the proposed actions would assure that a large amount of this habitat remains.
Roadside hazard tree harvest would occur on approximately 331 acres, and of these, 259 acres were burned at high severity and consisted of larger trees in moderate or dense canopy (CWHR size classes >3 and M and D cover class). No designed snag retention was identified for these roadside areas due to potential hazards of snags to public safety on the adjacent roads. Because most of these roadside corridors have Area Salvage units “behind” them and these corridors would be harvested in conjunction with those adjacent units, effects of this treatment were merged into the discussion above.
Follow-up site preparation and tree planting within salvage units under Alternative 1 would accelerate the re-establishment of conifer seedlings within harvested areas, resulting in re- establishment of forested habitat sooner than under Alternative 2. This is especially the case given very large patches of high severity fire within the interior of the burn in which conifer seed sources would not be available to seed back in to initiate natural reforestation. Therefore, in the long-term there would be beneficial effects of this alternative in restoring forested habitats within the interior of the fire and hasten the return of forested habitat for this species relative to Alternative 2. Project design would also maintain understory vegetation in the subsequent plantations, and would insure that other vegetative communities, such as oak, are considered in both site preparation and reforestation. These considerations would help insure habitat for small mammal and bird species within reforested areas and should serve to enhance prey populations more so than if all plantations were planted and managed to conventional standards.
53 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
In summary, the salvage treatments under Alternative 1 may cause minor short-term reductions in foraging opportunities for northern goshawks, but in combination with tree planting would enhance the re-establishment of forest conditions in the long-term. The degree of the short-term effects would be minimized to some extent by the snag retention, large woody debris guidelines and consideration for the retention of understory vegetation and other vegetative communities within treatment areas.
In addition, the salvage treatments do not preclude the USFS from remapping goshawk PACs where over 50% of their habitat has burned at high severity.
Other potential effects on goshawks could result from project-related activities such as human presence, mechanical activity, and noise created by project implementation. Prolonged disturbance from project activities could decrease goshawk reproductive attempts and/or foraging efficiency and disrupt typical behavior patterns. If present, individuals might alter their behavior by avoiding portions of the project area during project activities. Therefore, IDFs have been identified to avoid effects on nesting northern goshawks.
Disruption of goshawk reproductive efforts could be short-term or long-term depending upon the nesting activity and project activity. Any project activities that resulted in reduced goshawk reproductive attempts, or abandonment of young or nestlings may be considered a loss of species viability and/or significant impact. One of three goshawk PACs (Dutch Flat Creek) has approximately 106 acres of “green tree” habitat (i.e. 1-50% burned severity) remaining within the PAC. Some of these green trees will likely die in 2108, but enough may remain to provide suitable nesting habitat. This PAC has been unoccupied during the last six years of surveys, but potential habitat may still be present to provide nesting opportunities. The other two PACS are considered to have had a “stand replacing” fire that likely has rendered them unsuitable for nesting. One PAC has only twenty-six acres of green tree habitat remaining, and the second has one acre remaining.
Any displacement of foraging goshawks would be short-term until project actions at a given location are completed. Due to the availability of suitable goshawk habitat outside the burned perimeter and within deferred areas within the fire perimeter, temporary displacement of foraging goshawks to adjacent suitable habitat would not be a significant impact.
Cumulative Effects The goshawk cumulative effects analysis area for this project was expanded from USFS lands to include all of the Cove Fire perimeter. The cumulative effects analysis area was not extended beyond this due to lack of measurable direct and indirect effects at larger scales, and because goshawk foraging habitat includes an extremely wide range of forest structural types; the species is essentially a habitat generalist at larger, landscape scales.
Within the fire perimeter, the primary actions that could represent cumulative effects are fire salvage and reforestation actions on non-USFS public and private lands that were burned, and fuelwood harvest on USFS lands.
Private land fire salvage is ongoing at the time of this writing and reforestation will occur on private timberlands within the fire footprint. Due to different harvest and timber management practices on private lands as compared to USFS lands, private salvage operations are expected to remove most of the burned forest habitat on private lands. Some fire-killed trees will inevitably be left in inaccessible areas or where trees were naturally scattered prior to the fire, but for the majority of the fire footprint on private lands, burned forest habitat will be removed. This would
54 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest represent a short-term reduction in foraging habitat on these lands, since salvage would remove standing snags more quickly than they would otherwise topple, which would also serve to reduce future downed logs. However, due to the large proportion of high severity burned habitat being untreated on USFS lands (see discussion above in Direct and Indirect Effects), this expected loss of burned forest habitat would not constitute a substantive cumulative effect on USFS lands.
Similarly, due to different management practices, site preparation on private lands is usually more thorough than on USFS lands, tree planting schemes are often with tighter spacing and thus include more trees per acre, and release of planted trees from competing vegetation may be more intensive than on adjacent USFS lands. As a result, within the Cove Fire footprint there would likely be much less understory vegetation within reforested areas on private lands than on USFS lands, and thus the assemblage of prey species that would occur on private lands, and their abundances, would differ from that on USFS lands. Species composition and density of the conifers within the planted areas would also likely differ. However, given that Alternative 1 considers the value of understory vegetation in its design (see discussion in Direct and Indirect Effects, above) this would not represent a substantive cumulative effect for this species. Varying tree species composition and densities within the fire footprint across ownership boundaries would help foster future forest heterogeneity and avoid the homogeneity that would occur if all acres were planted to the same schemes and objectives.
Personal fuelwood harvest would occur within the Cove footprint on USFS lands. The Modoc NF fuelwood program allows the felling of snags by woodcutters, with upper diameter limits set at 20 inches DBH for snags of commercial species of conifers, and with no diameter restrictions on lodgepole pine snags. Siegel et al (2013) in their monitoring of black-backed woodpeckers in the Peterson and Wheeler fires on the Lassen and Plumas National Forests, respectively, noted woodcutting to be pervasive along roads of both fires.
Fuelwood harvest would primarily be immediately along roads, as well as in relatively flat areas that allow off-road travel, such as along user-created roads, post-harvest skid trails, or along meadow edges. As part of the project, stumps remaining from treatment activities along roadside corridors may also make off road travel difficult. Inevitably some retained snags will likely be removed by fuelwood harvesters. However, given the large areas of untreated burned areas (see discussion in Direct and Indirect Effects, above), and the presence of slopes and other features that would limit access, most of the fuelwood harvest should be localized to areas that are accessible, as indicated by Siegel et al (2013). Also, because Siegel et al (2013) indicated the main woodcutting activity in the fires they monitored was along roads, and since it is along roads that hazard trees will be felled and removed as part of this alternative, the greatest proportion of snags that would most likely be vulnerable to woodcutters would be removed anyway. Thus, this activity should not result in a substantial decrease in snags across all USFS lands involved in the fire.
Summary of direct, indirect and cumulative effects The Cove Fire rendered a large area unsuitable as goshawk nesting habitat due to the high severity nature of the fire and the loss of dense canopied, mature forest. Included was the loss, due to large patches of high severity fire, of two known goshawk nest territories and one PAC with no recent nesting activity.
The salvage treatments under Alternative 1 may cause minor short-term reductions in foraging opportunities for northern goshawks, but in combination with tree planting would enhance the re- establishment of forest conditions in the long-term. The degree of the short-term effects would be
55 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project minimized to some extent by the snag retention, large woody debris guidelines and consideration for the retention of understory vegetation and other vegetative communities within treatment areas.
Alternative 2
Direct, Indirect and Cumulative Effects Under Alternative 2, there would be no substantive reductions in burned forest habitat on USFS lands as a result of management activities. Hazard trees along approximately 398 acres of road corridors would be subject to being felled and left in place as downed logs. Such logs and accessible snags within the fire perimeter would be subject to being removed as fuelwood by woodcutters. Both activities would cause a minor reduction in the overall total of burned forest habitat, with most of the fuelwood activity confined to roadsides or other accessible areas. Such activities would affect relatively few (<1 percent) of the 7,998 acres of CWHR size classes >3 with moderate and dense canopy cover that burned at high severity on USFS lands, and over the majority of the burned acres snags would remain until they toppled due to decay. Burned vegetation would go through natural recovery and there would be little potential for disturbance to foraging goshawks.
Existing levels of large woody debris and snags would be maintained and may provide short-term foraging opportunities to the northern goshawk, particularly adjacent to suitable, unburned forest habitat. Natural regeneration would be expected to take much longer as compared to under Alternative 1 to re-establish forested conditions in the project area, especially given the very large patch size of high severity fire in which no conifer seed source would be available to initiate natural reforestation. Due to the lack of reforestation on USFS lands, reforestation efforts on private lands would take on a more important role in restoring forested conditions and restoring goshawk habitat to the footprint of the fire.
As discussed in the Fire and Fuels Report for this project (project record), the resulting high snag densities and large numbers of down logs across the Cove Project area under Alternative 2 would impede future fire line construction, increase safety hazards, and increase spotting potential in the event of another wildfire. Future fires could become larger, more expensive, and potentially more hazardous for firefighters and the public. Such fires could expand into private lands and the plantations that were planted as a result of the Cove Fire, or expand outside the Cove Fire footprint, and potentially cause a loss of goshawk habitat on USFS lands outside of the Cove Fire perimeter.
California spotted owl No designated California spotted owl PAC exists within the fire perimeter; the nearest PAC is nine miles to the east. High quality spotted owl habitat consists of large trees and dense forest (i.e., CWHR size classes > 5 and moderate and dense canopy cover) and the species also forages and occasionally nests or roosts in other habitats (i.e. CWHR size classes 4 and canopy cover moderate and dense). Most of this habitat type burned in the Cove Fire. The remaining “green- tree” habitat (i.e., less than 50% burn severity in size classes >4 and moderate and dense canopy cover) may be used by spotted owls and was considered in this analysis.
56 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Alternative 1
Direct and Indirect Effects Prior to the fire, approximately 9,750 acres of CWHR 4M, 4D, 5M and 5D existed within eastside pine forest types inside the fire perimeter on USFS lands. Most of this was within CWHR size class 4M (ca. 7,191 acres). As a result of the Cove Fire, this habitat was reduced to approximately 2,382 acres.
Most of this pre-fire habitat was in the southwestern portion of the Cove Fire area. There was a general lack of suitable habitat, particularly mature forest (i.e. CWHR >=5, late seral forest < 846 acres) throughout the project area. Even prior to the fire, these areas likely did not provide sufficient habitat to support reproductive pairs, and no owl sites were known from the Cove Fire area.
The low to moderate burn severity effects are generally found on the outer edges of the fire. High severity burn effects, which account for the majority of the burned area, are found more in the interior and southwest areas of the fire. As such, only a small amount of green forest spotted owl habitat survived the fire (2,382 acres), and in the interior of the fire the patches that survived are small and highly fragmented. Removal of dead and dying trees from within or from the edges of these patches would not be expected to change the CWHR classification of these areas. Roadside salvage harvest would not reduce the acres of any remnant patches of green forest habitat other than snags or green trees deemed a hazard (likely less than five acres out of 72 acres of remaining green tree habitat within the roadside treatment areas). Thus, no surviving green forest spotted owl habitat would be rendered unsuitable under Alternative 1.
Follow-up site preparation and tree planting within salvage units under Alternative 1 would accelerate the re-establishment of conifer seedlings within harvested areas, resulting in re- establishment of forested habitat sooner than under Alternative 2. This is especially the case given the very large patches of high severity fire within the interior of the burn within which there would be no or little conifer seed source for natural reforestation. Therefore, in the long term there would be beneficial effects of this alternative in restoring forested habitats within the interior of the fire that would in time enhance foraging habitat for this species relative to Alternative 2.
Alternative 1 would retain the largest three snags per acre. This alternative would also provide for additional down woody material by leaving felled cull trees (dead trees with less than 25 percent sound wood) on site as needed to meet the 5 logs per acre requirement for down wood. Additional fire-damaged trees which die in the near-future would eventually topple within the treatment areas providing additional downed log recruitment. Providing for large woody debris retention within any areas treated would provide for prey habitat within areas proposed for treatment both in the short and long term.
Inevitably, salvage harvest within the fire perimeter would reduce foraging habitat in the short term by removing snags more quickly than they otherwise would have remained standing within salvage units. However, project area selection would retain 6,256 (7,368-1,112) acres of untreated fire killed trees, which would provide some opportunities for foraging for this species. Thus, about 6,256 acres of fire-killed snags (size classes 4M, 4D, 5M, 5D) would remain unharvested in this alternative, representing about 85 percent (6,256/7,368) of the spotted owl habitat that existed pre-fire on USFS lands and that burned in the Cove Fire at high severity (CWHR 4-5 size classes). Given there are no activity centers in the Cove Fire area, and the
57 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project general lack of habitat within the interior of the fire on USFS lands even prior to the fire, this alternative and its design features would not represent a substantive effect to spotted owl habitat within the fire area.
Cumulative Effects The cumulative effects analysis area for spotted owls for this and all alternatives was expanded from USFS lands to include the footprint of the Cove Fire perimeter. On-going projects within the cumulative effects analysis area include fire salvage and reforestation on non-USFS lands, and personal fuelwood harvest on USFS lands. Because the habitat types for California spotted owl (CWHR size classes >4 and moderate and dense canopy cover) overlap those of northern goshawk (CWHR size classes >3 with moderate and dense canopy cover), the cumulative effects on spotted owl habitat from these activities would as described above for northern goshawk.
As described under cumulative impacts to goshawks, the majority of burned forest habitat on private lands will likely be removed. This would represent a removal of burned forest foraging habitat on these lands. However, there was minimal suitable spotted owl habitat prior to the fire on private lands (692 acres), and about one half of this burned at high severity (417 acres) and resulted in <50% loss of basal mortality. This expected loss of burned forest habitat would not constitute a substantive cumulative effect to spotted owl foraging habitat on USFS lands.
Within the cumulative effects analysis area, the existing condition was created by the effects of the Cove Fire and, as a result, the high proportion of lands burned at high severity. Treatments proposed within the Cove Fire Salvage Project would not substantively add to these effects to spotted owls and their habitat within the fire footprint due to the lack of spotted owl activity centers within the interior of the fire footprint and the small portion of remaining foraging habitat treated (i.e. 19.6% [1,529/7,785]). Within the fire footprint, on-going projects such as salvage harvest on private lands and fuelwood harvest on USFS lands would represent cumulative effects but would not be substantive.
Summary of direct, indirect and cumulative effects
Within the cumulative effects analysis area, the existing condition was created by the effects of the Cove Fire and, as a result, the high proportion of lands burned at high severity. Treatments proposed within the Cove Fire Salvage Project would not substantively add to these effects to spotted owls and their habitat within the fire footprint due to project design features, lack of spotted owl activity centers within the interior of the fire footprint, and overall small proportion of suitable habitat treated (i.e. 19.6%). Within the fire footprint, on-going projects such as salvage harvest on private lands and fuelwood harvest on USFS lands would represent cumulative effects, but would not be substantive
Alternative 2
Direct, Indirect and Cumulative Effects Under Alternative 2, there would be no substantive reductions in burned forest habitat on USFS lands as a result of management activities. Roadside hazard tree removal under the LRMP and woodcutting would cause a minor reduction in the overall total of burned forest habitat, with fuelwood activity largely confined to roadsides or other accessible areas. Such activities would affect relatively few of the 7,368acres of habitat that existed pre-fire on USFS lands and that burned in the Cove Fire at high severity, (CWHR 4-5 size classes). Over the majority of the burned acres snags would remain until they toppled due to decay and burned-area vegetation
58 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest would go through natural recovery. As such, there would be little potential for disturbance to foraging spotted owls. Existing levels of large woody debris and snags would be maintained and may provide enhanced short-term foraging opportunities to California spotted owls, particularly adjacent to suitable, unburned forest habitat. Due to the lack of reforestation on USFS lands, reforestation efforts on private lands would take on a more important role in restoring forested conditions to the footprint of the fire. High concentrations of woody debris could lead to increased fire hazard in the future. Future fires could be larger and expand into private lands and plantations within the project area, or expand outside the Cove Fire footprint, and potentially cause a loss of spotted owl habitat on USFS lands outside of the Cove Fire perimeter.
Pacific Marten There has been one marten sighting in the Cove project area, at Studley Spring, in August 1992. The area was considered low-quality habitat for marten, especially compared to the Rush Creek drainages six miles to the northeast. However, there have also been sightings in an arc that stretches from the Cove project through the Miller Flat and Adin Pass areas. Marten prefer high elevation coniferous forests with close-canopied, late-seral attributes such as large diameter trees, large downed logs, and moderate to high canopy closure. CWHR habitat types indicative of these conditions are: 4M, 4D, 5M, and 5D.
Alternative 1
Direct and Indirect Effects Prior to the fire, approximately 9,750 acres of CWHR 4M, 4D, 5M and 5D existed within eastside pine habitat types. The Cove Fire reduced the amount of this habitat to about 2,382 acres, the rest being burned at high severity resulting in over 50% basal area mortality. Most of the pre-fire habitat was in the southwestern portion of the project area. There was a lack of suitable marten habitat on the east side of the project area as most of the timber was smaller. In addition, all of the forest structure in the Cove fire is eastside pine, which is not considered high quality habitat for this species. As such, only a small amount of green forest habitat survived the fire, and in the interior of the fire the patches that did are small and highly fragmented. Removal of dead and dying trees from within or from the edges of these patches would not be expected to change the CWHR classification of these areas, thus salvage harvest would not be expected to reduce the acres of any remnant patches of green forest habitat. Thus, no surviving marten habitat would be rendered unsuitable under Alternative 1. Given the small, fragmented nature of low to moderately burned habitat, and the large areas of USFS lands that were burned at high intensities, potential use of USFS lands within the fire interior by Pacific marten is unlikely. Habitat elements such as snags and future downed woody debris would be reduced within treatment units and may reduce the quality of habitat for marten habitat in the short-term. However, salvage units are focused predominantly in larger patches of forest which burned at moderate to high fire severity and are not within largely contiguous green forest patches. Because the proposed salvage units are primarily within high severity burn areas, the degree of the short- term effects to overall habitat quality from the removal of dead and dying trees in the proposed salvage units would be expected to be relatively minor due to the general lack of marten habitat prior to the fire. Follow-up site preparation and tree planting within salvage units would accelerate the re-establishment of forested conditions within treatment units sooner than under Alternative 2. Given a very small amount of treatment acres (95 acres of size class 4M, 4D, 5M, and 5D) in green forest, the fact that only fire killed trees within this green forest would be removed, and the lack of high quality habitat, this alternative and its design features would not represent a substantive effect to marten habitat within the fire area.
59 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Of the 7,368acres of habitat that existed pre-fire on USFS lands and that burned in the Cove Fire at high severity, this alternative proposes reforestation on approximately 1,112 acres within sites prepared by salvage harvest and fuels treatments, Reforestation thus represents about 15 percent of the burn acreage, leaving most of the burned area to recover on its own. Together, the design features related to snag retention and reforestation would serve to retain many of the features that would maintain habitat components for many prey species (snags and subsequent patches of downed logs, and an abundant understory vegetation including abundant shrubs and herbaceous vegetation) while still allowing multiple-use objectives to be met within the burned area. The proposed hazard tree removal along approximately 398 acres of roadside corridors would not change the CWHR classification (CWHR type, size, or canopy cover) of remnant patches of green forest, and there would not be a reduction in the amount of suitable green forest habitat from hazard tree removal. The removal of hazard trees would reduce the number of snags within the fire footprint on USFS lands, and in the long term would reduce the amount of large woody debris reaching the forest floor. The reduction of these habitat elements along roads has the potential to cause slight effects to prey populations in the short and long term. Retention of downed logs in treatment units where available would moderate the potential for effects to prey populations.
Cumulative Effects The cumulative effects analysis area for Pacific marten for this and all alternatives was expanded from USFS lands to include the entire Cove Fire footprint. Within the fire perimeter, the primary actions that could represent cumulative effects are fire salvage and reforestation actions non- USFS lands (mostly private lands) that were burned, and fuelwood harvest on USFS lands. Because the habitat types for Pacific martin and California spotted owl are the same, the cumulative effects on marten habitat from these activities would be the same as described under spotted owl. The primary impacts to marten habitat were caused by the Cove Fire itself. Prior to the fire, approximately 10,442 acres of CWHR 4M, 4D, 5M and 5D existed within eastside pine forest type on all lands. As analyzed in the Cove Fire Project Silviculture Report (project record), the Cove Fire reduced the amount of this habitat to about 2,657 acres, which represents about a 75 percent reduction of this habitat.
Summary of direct, indirect and cumulative effects The primary impacts to marten habitat were caused by the Cove Fire itself. Prior to the fire, approximately 9,750 acres of CWHR 4M, 4D, 5M and 5D existed within eastside pine forest type on Forest Service lands. Most of this habitat was in the southwestern portion of the fire area. The Cove Fire reduced the amount of this habitat on Forest Service lands to about 2,382 acres, which represents about a 75 percent reduction of this habitat. Given the lack of marten detections and existing presence of low quality habitat, potential use of USFS lands within the fire interior by marten is not likely other than as possible short-term dispersal habitat. This alternative and its design features would not represent a substantive effect to marten habitat within the fire area. Within the cumulative effects analysis area, the existing condition was created by the effects of the Cove Fire and the high proportion of lands burned at high severity. Treatments proposed within the Cove Fire Salvage Project would not substantively add to these effects to Pacific marten and their habitat due to the project treating only a small portion of marten habitat. Within the fire footprint, on-going projects such as salvage harvest on private lands and fuelwood harvest on USFS lands would not represent substantive cumulative effects.
60 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Alternative 2
Direct, Indirect and Cumulative Effects The effects of Alternative 2 on Pacific marten habitat would be the same as described for California spotted owl as both species use the same habitat types. Over the majority of the burned acres, snags would remain until they toppled due to decay, and burned-area vegetation would go through natural recovery. As such, there would be little potential for disturbance to foraging marten. Most of the current levels of large woody debris and snags would be maintained on USFS lands, and may provide enhanced short-term foraging opportunities for marten, at least in the summer season. Given the overall lack of salvage on USFS lands, the salvage harvest on private lands would represent less of a cumulative effect. Private-land salvage will be followed by reforestation efforts on the same lands. Due to the lack of reforestation on USFS lands, reforestation efforts on private lands would take on a more important role in restoring forested conditions to the footprint of the fire on private lands and hastening a return of forested cover within the footprint of the fire. For marten this would not be as important of a factor as for other species since much of the area of private land is outside of areas predicted as high suitability marten habitat, but these plantations, once mature, could provide for greater connectivity through this area.
Pallid Bat and Fringed Myotis Pallid bat and fringed myotis were mist-netted at several locations during bat surveys from 2001- 2004 on the adjacent Eagle Lake Ranger District of the Lassen National Forest. Pallid bat individuals were caught at 37 of these sites, none of which were located within the Cove Project area. No pallid bat roosts were located within the Cove Project area. Locations where fringed myotis were recorded included sites within eastside pine forests and within mixed conifer forests. Trapping results indicate that the species was not as numerous as other species encountered, but that fringed myotis were widely distributed across the District. Both pallid bat and fringed myotis are known to use cavities in larger trees and forage in woodlands where open areas are interspersed with mature forest. Fire-created snag habitat (CWHR size class > 3 and moderate and dense forest with greater than 50% basal area mortality) and early seral forest stages provide potential roosting and foraging sites, respectively, and were analyzed for effects.
Alternative 1
Direct and Indirect Effects Bats, including pallid bat and fringed myotis, have been shown to respond positively to wildfire, including high-severity wildfire (Buchalsky et al 2013). As discussed by Buchalsky et al (2013), observations of increased bat activity after disturbance (such as timber harvest, thinning or prescribed fire) could be related to decreased amount of clutter in the forest canopy, increased abundance of insect prey, or increased quantity and/or quality of roost habitat as a result of trees killed or damaged by fire. The Cove Fire accomplished all three of the above factors: it reduced clutter, it will increase insect abundance within the burned footprint, and it resulted in thousands of acres of snags.
In the Buchalsky et al (2013) study, pallid bats showed a positive response to fire, with no differentiation in activity between moderate and high severity fire areas. In contrast, fringed myotis activity increased with fire severity. The authors suggest that an increased abundance of flying insects played an important role in the patterns they observed of increased bat activity after a mixed-severity wildfire in mixed-conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada. As a result of their
61 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project findings, Buchalsky et al (2013) considered the occurrence of fire on the landscape to be an important process for the maintenance of forest bat communities. The ecological importance of fire-created snag habitat and early seral forest stages were recognized in the design of this alternative. Alternative 1 balances the retention of these features while meeting multiple-use objectives on FS lands burned by the Cove Fire. These are discussed below.
Proposed in this alternative are 1,380 acres of salvage treatments, of which 1,230 acres of suitable habitat (CWHR size class >3 and canopy classes M and D) existed pre-fire within high severity burned areas. The treated acres (i.e., 1,136) constitute 14% (1,136/7,998) of pre-fire suitable habitat on all USFS lands. Thus, about 6,682 acres of fire-killed snags would remain unharvested under this alternative, representing about 86 percent of the USFS lands burned by the Cove Fire. Actions proposed in the Cove Fire (such as commercial salvage harvests and site preparation activities) would cause a reduction in snag habitat to meet desired conditions and objectives within these areas. However, design features built into Alternative 1 would assure that snags would be retained across a substantial area of the fire.
Of the 7,998 acres of CWHR size classes >3 with moderate and dense canopy cover that burned at high severity on USFS lands, this alternative proposes reforestation on approximately 1,136 acres within sites prepared by salvage harvest and fuels treatments. Reforestation thus represents about 14 percent of the severely burned acreage in these size and canopy classes on USFS lands, leaving most of these burned areas to recover on their own. In addition, planting densities would generally be lower and trees more widely spaced in areas containing black oaks, and conifers would not be planted within 20 feet of live black oak tree crowns, including sprouts greater than three feet tall. Given all the above, with reforestation representing about 17 percent of burned area on USFS lands, and the techniques of reforestation being proposed, an abundance of understory vegetation promoted by the high-severity fire would be retained through time and would provide foraging habitat for bats.
Together, the design features related to snag retention and reforestation would serve to retain many of the features that are thought to make burned areas valuable as bat habitat (snags, and abundant understory vegetation leading to an increase in insects), while still allowing multiple- use objectives to be met within the burned area. While salvage operations and removal of fire- killed trees would reduce habitat for potential prey species such as wood-boring and bark beetles, the combination of snag retention and unharvested areas, as well as the increase in understory vegetation would still provide for greater insect prey abundance than what likely occurred pre- fire.
The primary potential for direct effects to pallid bats is disturbance to roosting/maternity individuals during salvage operations. Pallid bats are considered to be sensitive to roost site disturbance (Zeiner et al 1990) and may locate their roosts low in snags in basal scars (Baker et al 2008). Fringed myotis are very sensitive to roost site disturbance (O’Farrell and Studier 1980). Thus, there is potential for the flushing of this species from roost trees as salvage operations occur adjacent to a roost snag, or the direct loss of young if maternity sites are within trees felled during treatments. There may also be some potential for mortality if roosting trees are removed while bats are roosting within them, though this is unlikely for adults as sensitivity to disturbance would likely cause the bats to abandon roost sites prior to tree falling.
Due to salvage harvest occurring in the first spring and summer following the fire, occupancy of fire-killed trees by fringed myotis may be lower than what would be expected in later years. Roost placement in snags is often behind exfoliating bark and also in crevices resulting from lightning strikes and from broken tops (Rabe and Morrell 1998, Weller and Zabel 2001). Use of
62 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest fire-killed trees as roosts would thus likely increase in years post-fire as bark loosens and structural defects start to accumulate within standing snags. In addition to tree roosts, Lacki and Baker (2007) found fringed myotis in xeric regions of Oregon and Washington to commonly roost in crevices of rocks within outcrops and boulder fields.
As discussed above, there would remain a large number of acres of undisturbed fire killed trees that would provide undisturbed snag habitat. Therefore, potential for direct effects of this project, while present, are likely not substantial for this species.
Cumulative Effects The cumulative effects analysis area for pallid bat for this and all alternatives was expanded from the USFS lands within the fire perimeter to the larger Cove Fire footprint in order to consider activities on private lands burned by the Cove Fire that are adjacent to USFS lands. The activities within the Cove Fire footprint that would represent cumulative effects to this species and its habitat include salvage and reforestation on non-USFS lands (mostly private lands) burned by the fire, and personal fuelwood harvest on USFS lands.
Private land fire salvage is ongoing at the time of this writing and reforestation will occur on private timberlands within the fire footprint. Due to different harvest and timber management practices on private lands as compared to USFS lands, private salvage operations are expected to remove most potential snag habitat for this species. Some fire-killed trees will inevitably be left in inaccessible areas or where trees were naturally scattered prior to the fire, but for the majority of the fire footprint on private lands, fire-killed trees of sufficient size to represent potential roosts will likely be removed. However, due to snag habitat being considered during the planning and design of actions on USFS lands (see discussion above in Direct and Indirect Effects), this expected loss of roost habitat would not constitute a substantive cumulative effect on USFS lands.
Similarly, due to different management practices, site preparation on private lands is usually more thorough than on USFS lands, tree planting schemes are generally with tighter spacing and thus include more trees per acre, and release of planted trees from competing vegetation may be more intensive than on adjacent USFS lands. As a result, within the Cove Fire footprint there would likely be much less understory vegetation on private lands than on USFS lands, and thus less potential for private land to contribute to a post-fire increase in insect prey relative to USFS lands. However, given that Alternative 1 considers the value of understory vegetation in its design (see discussion in Direct and Indirect Effects, above) this would not represent a substantive cumulative effect for this species.
Personal fuelwood harvest would occur within the Cove Fire footprint on USFS lands. The Modoc NF allows the felling of snags by woodcutters, with upper diameter limits set at 20 inches DBH for snags of commercial species of conifers, and with no diameter restrictions on lodgepole pine snags. Fuelwood gathering is currently occurring and will continue after salvage operations are complete. As such, snags retained from salvage harvest would be subject to removal as fuelwood if accessible. Siegel et al (2013) in their monitoring of black-backed woodpeckers in the Peterson and Wheeler fires on the Lassen and Plumas National Forests, respectively, noted woodcutting to be pervasive along roads of both fires.
Fuelwood harvest would remove snags. However, because most woodcutting occurs along roads, and since it is along roads that hazard trees will be felled and removed as part of this alternative, a large proportion of snags that would most likely be vulnerable to woodcutters would be removed anyway. Inevitably some retained snags will likely be removed by fuelwood harvesters.
63 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
However, given the large areas of snag retention (see discussion in Direct and Indirect Effects, above), and the presence of slopes and other features that would limit access, most of the fuelwood harvest should be localized to areas that are accessible, as indicated in the Siegel et al (2013) study, and therefore, fuelwood cutting would not result in a substantial decrease in snags across all the USFS lands involved in the fire.
Baker et al (2008) found that pallid bats roosted in large trees >100 cm (about 39 inches) in diameter, and on the Eagle Lake Ranger District the average diameter of the roost trees was 30.3 inches DBH, and the smallest diameter conifer roost tree was a 23.5-inch DBH ponderosa pine. Weller and Zabel (2001) found that fringed myotis roosted in large trees 58.5-167 cm (about 23- 66 inches) in diameter. The fuelwood diameter restrictions of 20 inches DBH would help retain these larger diameter snags.
Summary of direct, indirect and cumulative effects The ecological importance of fire-created snag habitat and early seral forest stages were recognized in the design of this alternative. The design features related to snag retention and reforestation would serve to retain many of the features that are thought to make burned areas valuable as bat habitat (snags, and an abundant understory vegetation leading to an increase in insects), while still allowing multiple-use objectives to be met within the burned area.
Due to snag habitat being considered during the planning and design of actions on USFS lands and given that Alternative 1 considers the value of understory vegetation in its design, salvage harvest and reforestation efforts on private lands within the Cove Fire perimeter would not represent substantive cumulative effects to these species or their habitat.
Alternative 2
Direct, Indirect and Cumulative Effects As discussed under Alternative 1, pallid bats and fringed myotis have been shown to respond positively to wildfire (Buchalsky et al 2013). Under Alternative 2, there would be no substantive reductions in burned forest habitat on USFS lands as a result of management activities. Hazard trees along approximately 398 acres of roadside corridors would be subject to being felled and left in place as downed logs. Such logs and accessible snags would be subject to being removed as fuelwood by woodcutters. Both activities would cause a minor reduction in understory vegetation within the localized areas affected. However, such activities would affect relatively few of the 7,998 acres of the forested habitat in CWHR size classes >3 with moderate and dense canopy cover that burned at high severity on USFS lands. Over the majority of the burned acres snags would remain until they toppled due to decay, and vegetation would go through natural recovery. As a result, the factors created by wildfire that may result in increased bat activity (reduced clutter, increased insect production and increased snag availability) would all remain unaffected in this alternative, which would sustain these factors in greater amounts and for longer into the future than would Alternative 1.
Given the large patches of high severity fire within the southwestern area of the Cove Fire, the lack of reforestation activities under Alternative 2 would substantially delay a return of forest cover to these burned areas that are distant to an existing conifer seed source. As such, there would be a substantial delay in this alternative in achieving a new cohort of trees and thus future roost trees over a large expanse of USFS lands within the fire footprint.
64 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Future fires, if larger, could expand into private lands and the plantations that were planted as a result of the Cove Fire or expand outside the Cove Fire footprint. Depending on the severity and size of such fires, this potential could represent a benefit to these species and their habitat.
Western Bumble Bee Western bumblebees rely on a diversity of flowering plants that are more abundant in open areas compared to forests. Therefore, the Cove Fire should benefit this species and other pollinating species where large trees and dense forest habitat (i.e. CWHR > 3 and canopy cover moderate and dense) were burned at high severity (7,998 acres). High severity burned forest of this habitat type was analyzed for effects as reforestation would alter the rate of forest recovery.
Alternative 1
Direct and Indirect Effects Generally, management actions or events that increase the diversity and abundance of flowering plants on the landscape would tend to benefit western bumble bees and other pollinator species. The Cove Fire, by causing widespread mortality to forested stands and thus increasing understory vegetation on 7,988 acres of USFS lands, will result in a greater abundance and variety of flowering plants compared to what existed prior to the fire (DellaSalla et al 2014, Swanson et al 2014). As has been found elsewhere (Bogusch et al 2015, Taylor and Catling 2011, Grundel et al 2010), this greater abundance and diversity in floral resources should benefit western bumble bees as well as other pollinator species.
Of the proposed post-fire activities, the action that would have the greatest long-term effects to western bumble bees would be reforestation activities. Due to fire salvage harvest occurring so quickly after the fire, relatively little flowering plant life would be expected to occur within treatment units during the first spring and early summer after the fire as compared to subsequent years. There may be some disturbance to foraging individuals due to project activities, but there is likely little potential for direct mortality. Due to the highly mobile nature of this species, there would be little potential for direct effects of the proposed activities to this species.
Reforestation efforts would result in the intentional reduction of non-coniferous vegetation within the reforested areas. Of the 7,998 acres of CWHR size classes >3 with moderate and dense canopy cover that burned at high severity within the Cove Fire on USFS lands, reforestation is proposed on 1,136 acres, or about 14 percent of the burned acreage on USFS lands. Reforestation would occur after salvage harvest and/or fuels treatments. Actions associated with reforestation include site preparation, planting, and post-planting release of competing vegetation.
Site preparation would include the removal of small diameter trees as biomass, mastication, felling by hand and lopping, machine- or hand-piled and burned, or broadcast burned. All of the above activities would result in a short-term reduction in understory vegetation due to disturbance, damage or mortality from the effects of machinery, piling and burning, or broadcast burning. However, in time, understory vegetation would resprout or seed back into these sites. Reforestation itself would cause only a slight disturbance to other vegetation since it would entail the digging of small holes in which to insert seedling trees. Release of competing vegetation after the planting would cause a greater disturbance and reduction in vegetation. Such release would generally be within a several-foot radius of each planted tree from which vegetation would be removed via hand-grubbing or mastication. As a result, there would be an inevitable and intentional reduction in understory plants within these areas.
65 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Thus, site preparation and the release of planted trees would serve to reduce the amount of floral resources within reforested units. However, Alternative 1 recognized the value of understory vegetation that is promoted and increased by wildfire and took this value into account when selecting treatment areas. A total of 6,862 (7,998-1,136) acres (86%) of the areas of habitat in CWHR size classes >3 with moderate and dense canopy cover that burned at high severity on USFS lands would be left untreated and would also remain un-forested for a longer time period.
Given all of the above, the enhanced floral resources created by the Cove Fire would be retained throughout the majority of the fire area, and the burned area would still provide an abundance of floral resources for this species after project implementation.
Cumulative Effects The cumulative effects analysis area for western bumble bee for this and all alternatives was expanded from the USFS lands within the fire perimeter to the larger Cove Fire footprint in order to consider activities on private lands burned by the Cove Fire that are adjacent to USFS lands.
Given more thorough salvage harvest which would result in a greater percentage of ground disturbed by machinery on private than on USFS lands, tighter spacing of planted trees, and potential use of herbicides to control competing vegetation, floral resources on the private lands burned by the Cove Fire would be expected to be substantially less in both the short- and long- term than on burned USFS lands. However, because the importance of understory vegetation was considered under Alternative 1, and a large component of this vegetation would be retained in both the short- and long-term (as described above under direct and indirect effects), the reductions of this vegetation on private lands within the Cove Fire area would not represent a substantive cumulative effect for bumble bee habitat on USFS lands.
Summary of direct, indirect and cumulative effects Of the proposed post-fire activities, the action that would have the greatest long-term effects to western bumble bees would be reforestation activities. However, Alternative 1 recognized the value of understory vegetation that is promoted and increased by wildfire and took this value into account identifying treatment areas. Given the fact that only 14 percent of the fire area on USFS lands would be artificially reforested, the enhanced floral resources created by the Cove Fire would be retained throughout the majority of the fire area, and the burned area would still provide an abundance of floral resources for this species after project implementation.
Because the importance of understory vegetation was considered under Alternative 1, and a large component of this vegetation would be retained in both the short- and long-term, the reductions of this vegetation on private lands within the Cove Fire area would not represent a substantive cumulative effect for bumble bee habitat on USFS lands.
Alternative 2
Direct, Indirect and Cumulative Effects The Cove Fire, by causing widespread mortality to forested stands, will result in a greater abundance and variety of flowering plants compared to what existed prior to the fire (DellaSalla et al 2014, Swanson et al 2014). As has been found elsewhere (Bogusch et al 2015, Taylor and Catling 2011, Grundel et al 2010), this greater abundance and diversity in floral resources should benefit this species as well as other pollinator species. Alternative 2 would not result in reforestation or site preparation activities that would reduce this vegetation within treatment
66 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest areas, and due to the lack of reforestation, the understory response under Alternative 2 would persist within all areas of the fire for a greater duration than compared to Alternative 1.
Livestock grazing occurs within the fire footprint, and this activity would likely result in a floristic reduction of forage plants. Future fires could expand into private lands and the plantations that were planted as a result of the Cove Fire or expand outside the Cove Fire footprint. Such fires would likely represent a benefit for this species and its habitat.
Determination It is the determination of the Biological Evaluation and Assessment for R5 Sensitive and Federally Listed Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Species, Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project that with the incorporation of project Integrated Design Features, the implementation of Alternative 1 of the Cove Fire project may affect individuals of the following FS Sensitive species, but is not likely to result in a trend towards federal listing or loss of species viability:
California spotted owl, northern goshawk, pacific marten, pallid bat, fringed myotis, and western bumble bee.
Transportation Approximately 25.3 miles of roads exist within or provide access to the Cove Fire project area. The existing road network consists of NFTS roads, existing unauthorized roads, and privately- owned roads. The NFTS roads provide access to and from CA Highway 139. Indicators used in the analysis of transportation effects include forest transportation system conditions, traffic, and health and safety.
Alternative 1
Direct and Indirect Effects With the hauling of timber products for this project, a direct effect would be an increase in traffic on the roads due to movement of equipment, forest products, and personnel in and out of the project area. Traffic management in accordance with standard contract provisions would mitigate risk to workers and provide safety to the public during the increased traffic. In addition, forest health would be addressed and road safety would be improved by the removal of danger trees.
The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) has land adjacent to the Forest on the easternmost project boundary that project roads cross through. The BLM has proposed salvage treatments in these areas, so there may be concurrent commercial use authorized under road use permit on some sections of the road system, but effects would be minor and mitigated with standard contract provisions.
The Forest has ongoing BAER work that occurred in the fall of 2017 and will resume in the spring of 2018. The BAER work is scattered around the project burn area, so there would need to be coordination between the interested parties. The roadwork applied during project implementation would reinforce the Forest BAER roadwork efforts.
Following implementation, the combination of road maintenance and removal of roadside danger trees would provide for long-term public and administrative access throughout the project area. The roadwork applied during implementation would leave the system in a more stable and functional condition, minimizing adverse resource impacts. Benefits include catching up on
67 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project deferred maintenance, maintaining the roads to minimize adverse resource impacts, and sustaining safe public and administrative access throughout the project area. Negative effects include higher traffic volume during project implementation.
Cumulative Effects The short-term combination of traffic from the removal of forest products from this project and the recurring annual maintenance would require adequate traffic control, temporary public road closures, and proper communications to maintain safe and efficient traffic flow. Main collector and arterial forest roads would receive the majority of traffic and would have surface deterioration. Maintenance activities would preserve the function of these roads; otherwise, the standard could be reduced. After project implementation, decommissioning of unauthorized and temporary roads would provide for resource protection and allow for better vegetative and hydrologic function of the roadway footprint on the land.
The result of the recurring annual maintenance and the road maintenance associated with the project would be a generally well-maintained road system. The road maintenance would provide safe long-term public and administrative access for many of the roads throughout the project area.
Considering cumulative effects associated with Alternative 1, the overall long-term Forest transportation system within the project area would benefit, resulting in a safer, more efficient, and more used network. Long-term public and administrative access would be sustained for many of the roads throughout the project area.
Alternative 2
Direct, Indirect, and Cumulative Effects Under Alternative 2, no treatments would be performed and the existing road system within the project area will remain as is. There would be no direct or cumulative effects. NFTS roads may need to be closed for public safety due to numerous snags that would pose a danger to users. Without any planned hazard tree removal these roads would effectively close to public and administrative use though the large accumulation of potential tree fall. Without access for maintenance, some of these roads could possibly deteriorate to the point where they would no longer be accessible to high clearance vehicles, including fire suppression equipment. This would limit ingress/egress for firefighting ground resources and would therefore reduce firefighter safety.
68 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
References Agee, J.K., Skinner, C.N. 2005. Basic principles of forest fuel reduction treatments. Forest Ecology and Management 211:83-96.
Angwin, P.A, Cluck D. R., Zambino, P. J. Oblinger, B. W and Woodruff, W.C. 2012. Hazard Tree Guidelines for Forest Service Facilities and Roads in the Pacific Southwest Region. Forest Health Protection, Region 5, Report #RO-12-01
Baker, M. D., M. J. Lacki, G. A. Falxa, P. L. Droppelman, R. A. Slack, and S. A. Slankard. 2008. Habitat use of pallid bats in coniferous forests of Northern California. Northwest Science 82(4): 269-275.
Bond, M. L., R. B. Siegel, and D. Craig, editors. 2012. A Conservation Strategy for Black backed Woodpecker (Picoides arcticus) in California. Version 1.0. The Institute for Bird Populations and California Partners in Flight. Point Reyes Station, California.
Bogusch, P., L. Blazej, M. Tyzna and P. Heneberg. 2015. Forgotten role of fires in Central European forests: critical importance of early post-fire successional stages for bees and wasps (Hymenoptera: Aculeata). European Journal of Forest Research 134: 153-166.
Buchalski, M.R., J.B. Fontaine, P.A. Heady, J.P Hayes, W.F. Frick. 2013. Bat response to differing fire severity in mixed-conifer forest California, USA. PLoS ONE 8(3): e57884. Doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057884.
Colin B. Sorenson, Charles E. Keegan, Todd A. Morgan, Chelsea P. McIver, Michael J. Niccolucci; Employment and Wage Impacts of Timber Harvesting and Processing in the United States, Journal of Forestry, Volume 114, Issue 4, 1 July 2016, Pages 474–482, https://doi.org/10.5849/jof.14-082
DellaSala, D.D., M.L. bone, C.T. Hanson, R.L Hutto, and D.C. Odion. 2014. Complex early seral forests of the Sierra Nevada: What are they and how can they be managed for ecological integrity? Natural Areas Journal 34(3): 210-324.
Fites, J.A., M. Campbell, A. Reiner, T. Decker. 2007. Fire Behavior and Effects Relating to Suppression, Fuel Treatments, and Protected Areas on the Antelope Complex Wheeler Fire. USDA Forest Service, AMSET Enterprise Team. August 2007.
Freyman, S. 1968. Spectral Distribution of Light in Forest of the Douglas fir Zone of Southern British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 48(3): 326-328.
Graham, R.T., S. McCaffrey, and T.B. Jain 2004. Science basis for changing forest structure to modify wildfire behavior and severity. RMRS-GTR-120, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ogden Utah, 43 p.
Grundel, R., R.P. Jean, K.J. Frohnapple, G.A. Glowacki, P.E. Scott, and N.B. Pavlovic. 2010. Floral and nesting resources, habitat structure and fire influence bee distribution across an open- forest gradient. Ecological Applications 20(6): 1678-1692.
Lacki, M.J., and M.D. Baker. 2007. Day roosts of female fringed myotis (Myotis thysanodes) in xeric forests of the Pacific Northwest. Journal of Mammology, 88(4): 967-973.
69 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
MacDonald, L. and Coe, D. 2008. Road Sediment Production and Delivery: Processes and Management. In Proceedings of The First World Landslide Forum, November 18-21, 2008, Tokyo, Japan, Global Promotion Committee of The International Programme on Landslides (IPL), Parallel Session; p.385–388.
Mayer, K and W Laudenslayer (eds), 1988. A Guide to Wildlife Habitats of California. State of California, Resources Agency, Department of Fish and Game. Sacramento, CA. 166 pp.
Moir W. 1966. Influence of Ponderosa Pine on Herbaceous Vegetation. Ecology, 47(6), 1045- 1048.
Naumburg and DeWald 1999. Relationship between Pinus Ponderosa Forest Structure, Light Characteristics, and Understory Graminoid Species Presence and Abundance. Forest Ecology and Management, 124, 205-215.
O’Farrell, M.J. and E.H. Studier. 1980. Myotis thysanodes. American Society of Mammalogists, Mammalian Species, 137:1-5.
Peterson, D. L., M.C. Johnson, J.K. Agee, T.B. Jain, D. McKenzie and E. Reinhardt. 2005. Forest structure and fire hazard in dry forests of the Western United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR- 628. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 30 p.
Peterson, David L.; Agee, James K.; Aplet, Gregory H.; Dykstra, Dennis P.; Graham, Russell T.; Lehmkuhl, John F.; Pilliod, David S.; Potts, Donald F.; Powers, Robert F.; Stuart, John D. 2009. Effects of timber harvest following wildfire in western North America. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW- GTR-776. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 51 p.
Rabe, M.J., and T.E. Morrell. 1998. Characteristics of ponderosa pine snag roosts used by reproductive bats in northern Arizona. Journal of Wildlife Management 62(2): 612-621.
Shatford, J. P. A.; Hibbs, D. E. and Puettman, K. J. 2007. Conifer regeneration after forest fire in the Klamath-Siskiyous: how much, how soon? Journal of Forestry. April/May 2007: 139-146.
Siegel, R. B., M. W. Tingley, R. L. Wilkerson, M. L. Bond, and C. A. Howell. 2013. Assessing home range size and habitat needs of Black-backed woodpeckers in California: Report for the 2011 and 2012 field seasons. Report to USFS Pacific Southwest Region. The Institute for Bird Populations, Point Reyes Station, CA.
Smith, S.L. and D.R. Cluck. 2011. Marking guidelines for fire-injured trees in California. US Forest Service, Forest Health Protection, Region 5, Susanville, CA. Report # RO-11-01. 13 p.
Taylor, A.N., and P.M. Catling. 2011. Bees and butterflies in burned and unburned alvar woodland: evidence for the importance of postfire succession to insect pollinator diversity in an imperiled ecosystem. The Canadian Field-Naturalist 125(4): 297-306.
US Fish and Wildlife Service 2014. National Wetland Inventory GIS layer. Retrieved from website: http://www.fws.gov/wetlands/Data/State-Downloads.html
USDA Forest Service 2011. Water Quality Management Handbook: Best Management Practices. R5 FSH 2509.22 Chapter 10, Southwest Region, 261p.
70 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
USDA Forest Service. 2010 Final Environmental Impact Statement for Modoc National Forest Motorized Travel Management Plan, Modoc, Lassen, and Siskiyou Counties, CA
USDA Forest Service. 1988. Cumulative off-site watershed effects analysis. Forest Service Handbook (Section 2509.22, Ch. 20, July 1988), San Francisco, CA: Region 5 Regional Office, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture; 32p.
USDA Forest Service. 2004. Sierra Nevada Forest Plan Amendment: Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement, Vols. 1-2 and Record of Decision. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Region, Vallejo, California.
USDA. 1991. Modoc National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan Record of Decision (1993) and Final Environmental Impact Statement (1993). San Francisco, CA: Pacific Southwest Region.
USDA. 2012. Guidelines for Road Maintenance Levels. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service National Technology & Development Program 7700-Transportation Management 1177 1811-SDTDC. 47pp.
Weatherspoon, C.P. and C.N. Skinner. 1995. An assessment of factors associated with damage to tree crowns from the 1987 wildfires in northern California. Forest Science, Volume 41, No. 3: 430- 451.
Welch, K. R., H. D. Safford, and T. P. Young. 2016. Predicting conifer establishment post wildfire in mixed conifer forests of the North American Mediterranean-climate zone. Ecosphere 7(12):e01609.
Weller, T.J., and C.J. Zabel. 2001. Characteristics of fringed myotis day roosts in northern California. Journal of Wildlife Management 65(3): 489-497.
Zeiner, D.C., W.F. Laudenslayer, K.E. Mayer, and M. White. 1990. California’s wildlife, Volume III, Mammals. California Department of Fish and Game. Sacramento, CA. 407 pp.
Zhang, J., J. Webster, R.F. Powers, and J. Mills. 2008. Reforestation after the Fountain Fire in northern California: an untold success story. Journal of Forestry, December, 2008. 425-430 pp.
71 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
Appendix A: Past, Ongoing and Reasonably Foreseeable Future Actions Summary Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project Analysis Area
This appendix summarizes the analysis area and the temporal scale considered for cumulative effects within the Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project Area. The present and reasonable foreseeable future actions that are considered for cumulative effects analysis may vary by resources. Each resource report discloses specific cumulative effects for that particular resource.
This cumulative effects analysis does not attempt to quantify the effects of past human actions by adding up all prior actions on an action-by-action basis. There are several reasons for not taking this approach.
First, a catalog and analysis of all past actions would be impractical to compile and unduly costly to obtain. Current conditions have been impacted by innumerable actions over the last century (and beyond) and trying to isolate the individual actions that continue to have residual impacts would be nearly impossible.
Second, providing the details of past actions on an individual basis would not be useful to predict the cumulative effects of the proposed action or alternatives. In fact, focusing on individual actions would be less accurate than looking at existing conditions, because there is limited information on the environmental impacts of individual past actions, and one cannot reasonably identify each and every action over the last century that has contributed to current conditions.
Additionally, focusing on the impacts of past human actions risks ignoring the important residual effects of past natural events, which may contribute to cumulative effects just as much as human actions. By looking at current conditions, we are sure to capture all the residual effects of past human actions and natural events, regardless of which particular action or event contributed those effects.
Third, the Council on Environmental Quality issued an interpretive memorandum on June 24, 2005 regarding analysis of past actions, which states, “agencies can conduct an adequate cumulative effects analysis by focusing on the current aggregate effects of past actions without delving into the historical details of individual past actions.” The cumulative effects analysis in this environmental assessment is also consistent with Forest Service National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) Regulations (36 CFR 220.4(f)) (July 24, 2008), which state, in part:
“CEQ regulations do not require the consideration of the individual effects of all past actions to determine the present effects of past actions. Once the agency has identified those present effects of past actions that warrant consideration, the agency assesses the extent that the effects of the proposal for agency action or its alternatives will add to, modify, or mitigate those effects. The final analysis documents an agency assessment of the cumulative effects of the actions considered (including past, present, and reasonable foreseeable future actions) on the affected environment. With respect to past actions, during the scoping process and subsequent preparation of the analysis, the agency must determine what information regarding past actions is useful and relevant to the required analysis of cumulative effects. Cataloging past actions and specific information about the direct and indirect effects of their design and implementation could in some contexts be useful to predict the cumulative effects of the proposal.
72 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
The CEQ regulations do not require agencies to catalogue or exhaustively list and analyze all individual past actions. Simply because information about past actions may be available or obtained with reasonable effort does not mean that it is relevant and necessary to inform decision-making. (40 CFR 1508.7)”
To understand the contribution of past actions to the cumulative effects of the No Action and Proposed Action alternatives, this analysis relies heavily on current environmental conditions as a proxy for the impacts of past actions. Existing conditions reflect the combined impact of all prior human actions and natural events that have affected the environment and might contribute to cumulative effects.
This is because existing conditions reflect the aggregate impact of all prior human actions and natural events that have affected the environment and might contribute to cumulative effects.
Past, Ongoing, and Reasonably Foreseeable Future Actions
Activities that were considered in the cumulative effects analysis were located adjacent to or outside of the Cove Fire Area and are shown in Table 1 and discussed in following sections (i.e., Past Actions, Present and Ongoing Actions, Reasonably Foreseeable Future Actions). Note that the past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future activities relevant to each resource may differ, because the appropriate scale for evaluating effects varies for each resource, and for individual wildlife species. Cumulative Watershed Effects (CWE) analysis was performed for the 6th Field Watershed (see hydrology report). The temporal boundary is 20 years. Past Actions Past activities within the analysis area are listed in Table 1 below. Additional fire management activities in 2017 involved construction of dozer line, and hand line with many created clearings for drop points, safety zones, staging areas, and helispots. BAER activities were initiated post fire. Present and On-going Actions Livestock grazing, hunting, OHV riding, fuelwood gathering, fire management, and road maintenance are present or on-going actions in the project area. Other ongoing activities include falling danger trees when safety is a concern and some BAER activities. Reasonably Foreseeable Future Actions The proposed actions in the Cove Fire Salvage Project Area are considered reasonably foreseeable future management activities, including salvage timber management, fuels treatment, reforestation, re-seeding, and road maintenance. Livestock grazing within the analysis area will resume in 2018. Fuel wood cutting activities (targeting primarily incense cedar, oak, and juniper) would continue along roadways. Other reasonably foreseeable future actions include forest treatments on US Forest Service lands (i.e., Ash., Rice, and Rush Timber Sales), Bureau of Land Management (BLM), and private lands. The BLM prepared and permitted a timber salvage project in 2108 for a total of 72 acres. They requested bids for the project and did not sale it during that process. It is unknown if the project will be implemented.
73 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
The majority of the salvage harvesting on private timberlands occurred in 2017; however, approximately 35 acres are will be logged in 2018. Additional site preparation on private timberlands may occur on 200 acres to reduce fuels and prepare portions of the private land for reforestation.
Table 1: Actions Considered in Cumulative Effects Analysis Action Description Date Happy Insect Salvage (US Forest Pre-commercial Thin, Piling of Fuels 1992-1997, 2000, 2007-2008 Service) (Hand or Machine), Burning of Piled Materials, Tree Planting Rush 2 Vegetation Treatment (US Pre-commercial Thin, Commercial 2004, 2009-2009, 2011-2018 Forest Service) Thin, Piling of Fuels (Hand or Machine), Burning of Piled Materials, Low Intensity Underburn Fox Fire Salvage (US Forest Plantation Stand Clear Cut, Tree 2006-2009, 2011, 2013 Service) Planting Dutch Insect Salvage (US Forest Pre-commercial Thin, Burning of 2007-2008 Service) Piled Materials Miller Fire Salvage (US Forest Plantation Stand Clear Cut, Tree 2007-2009, 2011, 2013 Service) Planting Ash Vegetation Treatment (US Pre-commercial Thin, Piling of Fuels 2007, 2010-2014, 2016, 2021 Forest Service) (Hand or Machine), Burning of Piled Material Rush 1 Vegetation Treatment (US Pre-commercial Thin, Commercial 2008, 2012-2015, 2017-2018, 2020 Forest Service) Thin, Piling of Fuels (Hand or Machine), Burning of Piled Materials, Low Intensity Underburn Noxious Weed Treatment (US Mechanical/Physical Removal of 2009-2001, 2016 Forest Service) Invasive Species, Pesticide Application County Road 71 Hazard Tree Hazard Tree Removal, Burning of 2011, 2017 Removal (US Forest Service) Piled Material Day Fire Salvage (US Forest Salvage Harvest, Danger Tree 2015-2017 Service) Removal, Reforestation Rice Timber Sale Timber and Biomass Removal; 2018-2023 Piling of Fuels (Hand or Machine), Burning of Piled Materials Modoc Complex and Parker 2 Fires Noxious weed detection and rapid 2017-2018 Burned Area Emergency Response response; Road and trail (BAER) activities stormproofing, Sensitive species protection fencing, Heritage site protection BLM Timber Salvage Salvage Harvest 2018 Salvage harvest on private land in Salvage Harvest 2017-2018 Cove Fire area
74 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Appendix B: Supplemental Black-backed Woodpecker Information
Black-Backed Woodpecker
Status
The black-backed woodpecker (Picoides arcticus) is currently listed as a Management Indicator Species (MIS) representing the ecosystem component of snags in burned forests, as described in the Cove Fire Salvage Project MIS report available in the project record. The species was petitioned to be listed as threatened or endangered under the California Endangered Species Act, and it has been petitioned for listing as threatened or endangered under the Federal Endangered Species Act. Both the State and Federal agencies did not find listing the species warranted.
Habitat Account
Black-backed woodpeckers are distributed in the Sierra and southern Cascades mountain areas of California. The species black-backed woodpecker is a monotypic species that occurs at elevations of 4,000 to 10,000 feet in Siskiyou, Warner, and Shasta counties, the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California and Nevada south to the southern limits of Tulare County in Sequoia National Forest. Black-backed woodpeckers are still distributed across their historical breeding range in California (Bond et al. 2012). They have been documented on the Modoc National Forest (MNF) in the Frog and Cougar Fire areas, following fire (Johnston pers. comm.) and the adjacent Lassen National Forest (LNF) in burned forest resulting from previous wildfires such as the Sugarloaf and Peterson fires (Siegel et al 2013). The Sugarloaf Fire, which burned in 2009, is located about 30 miles south of the Cove Fire.
Black-backed woodpeckers are primary cavity excavators, creating holes in trees in which to lay their eggs and raise their young (Dixon and Saab 2000). The breeding season generally occurs from April through July and both sexes incubate, brood, and feed young (Bond et al. 2012). Nest cavities are usually excavated in snags but can be found in dead portions of live trees and in unburned forests. On the Lassen and Plumas NFs, 21 nest trees were generally medium sized snags that ranged from 23 to 53 cm DBH (about 9-21 inches), with an average of 33 cm (13 inches) DBH (Siegel et al 2013). Nest trees have occasionally been documented as small as 7” (Bond et al. 2012, Seavy et al. 2012). Lorenz et al. (2015) found limited availability of nest trees within burned forests due to unsuitable wood hardness of snags (i.e. many trees do not have soft wood), but the external characteristics of snags was poorly correlated with wood hardness.
Roberts et al (2015) provided an update to research originally published in Fogg et al (2014) regarding black-backed woodpeckers in unburned forests. The authors stated that, “These results suggest that prior to 2014 many of the individuals detected in green forest were not just actively
75 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project dispersing across the landscape in search of burned areas, but were occupying relatively stable home ranges. A large number of fires occurred in 2012 and especially 2013, and we feel this might account for the high extinction rate as it is possible that many individuals that had been occupying our field sites moved to the recent fire areas following the 2012 and 2013 field seasons. These results are preliminary and future work will be necessary to further elucidate this pattern.”
Similarly, Siegel et al (2015), in an update of black-backed woodpecker monitoring efforts on National Forest lands, found reduced levels of black-backed woodpecker occupancy in burned forests in California. Mean black-backed woodpecker occupancy within recent fire areas was significantly less than all previous years of this monitoring effort. Regarding this lower level of occupancy, the authors state, “At this time there is no significant evidence of a temporal trend in occupancy rates during the six years (2009-2014) we have been monitoring Black-backed Woodpeckers on National Forests in California, or of a broad-scale change in the species’ distribution in California. While there is a marginal (P = 0.13) negative trend in mean point-level occupancy following the 2014 survey season, this may be due to stochastic factors including temporal autocorrelation. Nevertheless, the proportion of occupied fires has remained constant. While the significantly lower point-level occupancy in 2014 indicates that overall abundance of Black-backed Woodpeckers was lower in the past year, this does not yet indicate a declining population trend. Black-backed Woodpeckers remain present across their historic range in California.”
The black-backed woodpecker is strongly associated with burned forests, more closely than any other western bird species (Hutto 1995, Hutto 2008, Bond et al. 2012). Although the black- backed woodpecker is found in unburned forested stands throughout its range, population densities in recently burned forest stands are substantially higher (Hutto 1995, Hoyt and Hannon 2002, Smucker et al. 2005, Hutto 2008). Burned forest habitat is most productive for black- backed woodpeckers during the first eight years following a fire. Black-backed woodpecker home-ranges are highly variable. Snag basal area best predicted home-range size (study on the adjacent Lassen NF), explaining 54 to 62 percent of observed variation (Tingley et al. 2014a). Snag basal areas (>17 m2 ha-1; 74 ft2/acre) are generally likely to support greater numbers of black-backed woodpeckers than similar-sized stands with less snag basal area (Tingley et al. 2014).
Siegel et al. (2016) recommended that high priority be placed on protecting black-baked woodpecker habitat (dense, mature conifer forest that recently burned at high severity) in the early post-fire years, as woodpeckers prefer medium and large snags (Siege et al. 2013), and these trees are typically targeted for salvage removal. Tingley (2017) more recently provided summary points for potential threats to black-backed woodpeckers within “A Conservation Strategy for the
76 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest black-backed woodpecker (Picoides arcticus) in California – Version 2.0”: These included: 1) forest management practices including fire suppression, forest thinning and post-fire logging, may eliminate or reduce suitability of black-backed woodpecker habitat; 2) probability of occupancy and nesting by black-backed woodpeckers in burned forest is positively correlated with snag density; and 3) most studies show that even partial or less-intensive post-fire snag removal that eliminates some but not all standing snags reduces occupancy and nesting density of Black-backed Woodpeckers.
Conditions in Cove Fire
Approximately 23,956 acres burned on USFS lands and of those 17,741 were considered high severity (i.e. greater than 50% basal area mortality). The project proposes to treat approximately 1,380 acres. This is an overestimate of treatment acres as some of these acres occur along Roadside Hazard treatment areas and include green trees which will not be removed. Regardless, the treatment acreage percentage compared to the amount of burned forest on USFS lands and high severity burned areas constitutes 5.8%. and 7.8%, respectively. Black-backed woodpeckers are known to use green forest and partially burned forest and may use all these areas in the Cove Fire area. However, as stated above, they prefer severely burned dense forest. Of the 10,416 acres of forest (i.e. CWHR size class > 3 with densities of Moderate and Dense) that burned, 7,998 acres burned at high severity (> 50% of basal area mortality). The treatment acreage constitutes 17.2% of this acreage. This percentage is similar to those found across the Sierra and Cascades on USFS lands. The USFS Region 5 office has recently been summarizing percentage of their lands treated for salvage. Using the same criteria above (i.e. CWHR size classes >3 with Moderate and Dense forest, and high severity burned areas [> 50% basal area mortality]), they Region 5 of the U.S. Forest Service have treated 30,723 acres out of 205,925 between 2009 - 2016. This results in a percentage of 14.9%, and conversely 85.1% untreated. Thus, the removal of roughly 15% of burned forest habitat is not expected to substantially reduce the amount of this habitat within the Cove Fire area, and therefore the salvage project is not expected to result in a discernable impact on black backed woodpeckers on the Modoc National Forest, nor the species population range wide.
One black-backed woodpecker was observed during surveys in January 2018 for the Cove Project. The individual was foraging on a fire-killed Ponderosa pine, approximately 24” diameter breast height. The individual was observed along the Dutch Flat road north of the “DF-D” treatment polygon.
77 Cove Fire Salvage and Restoration Project
LITERATURE CITED
Bond, M. L., R. B. Siegel, and D. Craig, editors. 2012. A Conservation Strategy for Black backed Woodpecker (Picoides arcticus) in California. Version 1.0. The Institute for Bird Populations and California Partners in Flight. Point Reyes Station, California.
California Fish and Game Commission. 2013. Notice of Findings: Black-backed woodpecker (Picoides arcticus). November 12, 2013. Available at http://www.fgc.ca.gov/regulations/2010/#bbw
Dixon, R. D. and V. A. Saab. 2000. Black-backed Woodpecker (Picoides arcticus), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/509.
Fogg, A.M., L.J. Roberts, R.D. Burnett. 2014. Occurrence patterns of black-backed woodpeckers in green forest of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, California, USA. Avian Conservation and Ecology 9 (2): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ACE-00671-090203
Hoyt, J.S., and S.J. Hannon. 2002. Habitat associations of black-backed and three-toed woodpeckers in the boreal forests of Alberta. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 32: 1881- 1888.
Hutto, R.L. 1995. Composition of bird communities following stand-replacement fires in Northern Rocky Mountain (U.S.A.) conifer forests. Conservation Biology 9(5):1041-1058. Hutto, R. L. 2008. The ecological importance of severe wildfires: some like it hot. Ecological Applications 18(8):1827-1834.
Johnston, P. 2018. Wildlife Biologist, Modoc National Forest. Email correspondence, April 2018.
Lorenz, T.J., K.T. Vierling, T.R. Johnson, and P.C. Fisher. The role of wood hardness in limiting nest site selection in avian cavity excavators. 2015. Ecological Applications 25(4):1016-1033.
Roberts, L.J., A.M. Fogg, R.D. Burnett. 2015. Sierra Nevada national forests avian management indicator species: 2014 Annual Report. Point Blue Conservation Science, Petaluma, CA.
Seavy, N. E., R. D. Burnett, and P. J. Taille. 2012. Black-backed woodpecker nest-tree preference in burned forests of the Sierra Nevada, California. Wildlife Society Bulletin 36(4):722-728.
Siegel, R. B., M. W. Tingley, and R. L. Wilkerson. 2015. Black-backed Woodpecker MIS Surveys on Sierra Nevada National Forests: 2014 Annual Report. Report to USFS Pacific Southwest Region. The Institute for Bird Populations, Point Reyes Station, CA.
Siegel, R. B., M. W. Tingley, R. L. Wilkerson, M. L. Bond, and C. A. Howell. 2013. Assessing home range size and habitat needs of Black-backed woodpeckers in California: Report for the 2011 and 2012 field seasons. Report to USFS Pacific Southwest Region. The Institute for Bird Populations, Point Reyes Station, CA.
78 Big Valley Ranger District, Modoc National Forest
Siegel, R.B., M.W. Tingley, R.L, Wilkerson, C.A. Howell, M. Johnson, and P. Pyle. 2016. Age structure of black-backed woodpecker populations in burned forests. The Auk 133: 69-78
Smucker, K.M., R.L. Hutto, B.M. Steele. 2005. Changes in bird abundance after wildfire: importance of fire severity and time since fire. Ecological applications 15(5):1535-1549.
Tingley, M.W., R.L. Wilerson, M.L. bond, C.H. Howell, and R.B. Siegel. 2014a. Variation in hom-range size of black-backed woodpeckers. Vol. 116, pp. 325-340.
Tingley, M. W, R. L. Wilkerson, and R. B. Siegel. 2014b. Modeling expected density of black- backed woodpeckers at the Rim fire, California: a decision-support tool for post-fire management. The Institute for Bird Populations, Point Reyes Station, California.
Siegel, R. B., M. L. Bond, C. A. Howell, Sarah C. Sawyer, and, D. L. Craig, editors. 2018. A Conservation Strategy for the Black-backed Woodpecker (Picoides arcticus) in California. Version 2.0. The Institute for Bird Populations and California Partners in Flight. Point Reyes Station, California.
79