DOCSLIB.ORG

Crime-Terror Nexus” by Exploring Conditions of Insurgent and Criminal Organizations’ Origins, Incentives, and Strategic Pivots

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Crime-Terror Nexus” by Exploring Conditions of Insurgent and Criminal Organizations’ Origins, Incentives, and Strategic Pivots Dissertation Fulfilling Clandestiny Reframing the “Crime-Terror Nexus” by Exploring Conditions of Insurgent and Criminal Organizations’ Origins, Incentives, and Strategic Pivots Etienne Rosas This document was submitted as a dissertation in April 2018 in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the doctoral degree in public policy analysis at the Pardee RAND Graduate School. The faculty committee that supervised and approved the dissertation consisted of Angel O’Mahony (Chair), Christopher Paul, and Colin Clarke. This dissertation received financial support from the Doris Dong Dissertation Award. PARDEE RAND GRADUATE SCHOOL For more information on this publication, visit http://www.rand.org/pubs/rgs_dissertations/RGSDA506-1.html Published 2020 by the RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif. R® is a registered trademark Limited Print and Electronic Distribution Rights This document and trademark(s) contained herein are protected by law. This representation of RAND intellectual property is provided for noncommercial use only. Unauthorized posting of this publication online is prohibited. Permission is given to duplicate this document for personal use only, as long as it is unaltered and complete. Permission is required from RAND to reproduce, or reuse in another form, any of its research documents for commercial use. For information on reprint and linking permissions, please visit www.rand.org/pubs/permissions.html. The RAND Corporation is a research organization that develops solutions to public policy challenges to help make communities throughout the world safer and more secure, healthier and more prosperous. RAND is nonprofit, nonpartisan, and committed to the public interest. RAND’s publications do not necessarily reflect the opinions of its research clients and sponsors. Support RAND Make a tax-deductible charitable contribution at www.rand.org/giving/contribute www.rand.org Abstract From former Soviet states to prisons in post-Arab Spring nations to the slums of Latin America, ideological and criminal violent non-state actors’ (VNSAs) have harnessed weak governance conditions to challenge or infiltrate developing states, impeding democracy across the world and promoting longer and more expansive conflicts.1 While policymakers, researchers, and security officials discuss organized crime and terrorism as related threats converging in a “crime-terror nexus”, there is still only a limited understanding on how these threats are interconnected and what the best approach to counter them in the long-term is. Using qualitative comparative analysis (QCA) of 27 cases and an in-depth case study of four organizations, this dissertation explores the fundamental relationship and underlying incentives that drive criminal and ideological strategies and operations. I codify the conditions under which different types of groups originate as ideologically or criminally inclined organizations and I examine factors that compel them to pivot their strategic focus in order to spread or maintain their influence. Finally, I propose a new theoretical framework that explains these pivots in relation to the sociopolitical environment in which VNSAs they operate. Results of the QCA reinforce the view that ideological groups organize in opposition to the status quo while criminal groups work to infiltrate and coopt the status quo. The four specialized case studies show that both ideological and criminal VNSAs engage in strategic pivots or “borrow” tactics – especially low impact operations, such as smuggling or targeted threats and terrorism - opportunistically as their environment allows or their core strategies favor, but this flexibility appears to be more constrained as organizations specialize and grow. It appears more common when VNSAs splinter or their influence declines as their ideology or criminal structure loses steam. Despite drawing support from a common “underground market”, criminal operations and ideological mobilization had limited compatibility in the long run. However, this shared dynamic space emphasizes the long-term need to bridge governance gaps through greater security coordination, information sharing, and, above all, prevention strategies that promote economic development and political inclusion. 1 De Boer and Bosetti “Examining the Interactions between Conflict and Organized Crime” Sept 2015 iii Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii Figures............................................................................................................................................ vi Tables ............................................................................................................................................ vii Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................ viii Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................. ix 1. Pathways to Influence: Unravelling the Crime-Terror Nexus .................................................... 1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1 Policy Relevance .................................................................................................................................. 1 Research Questions .............................................................................................................................. 3 Deconstructing the “Crime-Terror Nexus” – Existing Theoretical Models Literature ............................ 4 Literature Background .......................................................................................................................... 4 Existing Crime-Terror Nexus Frameworks .......................................................................................... 5 Operational Dynamics of the Crime-Terror Nexus .............................................................................. 8 Moving Beyond the “Profit-Ideology” Dichotomy by Examining VNSA Conditions of Origin ...... 10 VNSA Expansion and Evolution: Coerce or Coopt ........................................................................... 14 The preponderance of crime: .............................................................................................................. 18 Proposed Theoretical Framework and Assumptions: ............................................................................. 20 2. From Spark to Fire: Origin Case Study of 27 Violent Non-State Actors ................................. 23 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 23 General Design ....................................................................................................................................... 24 Conditional Factors ................................................................................................................................. 24 Case Study .............................................................................................................................................. 26 Case Selection and Overview ............................................................................................................. 26 Categorization .................................................................................................................................... 29 Case Study Highlights ........................................................................................................................ 30 Qualitative Comparative Analysis .......................................................................................................... 32 Overview of QCA .............................................................................................................................. 32 Constructing the “truth table”: ............................................................................................................ 33 Preliminary results .............................................................................................................................. 34 Truth Table Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 36 Limitations .............................................................................................................................................. 42 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 43 3. To Coerce or to Coopt: Exploratory Case Study on VNSA Strategic Pivots ........................... 45 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 45 Case Selection Process ........................................................................................................................... 46 Hypotheses for Crime-Terror Shifts ....................................................................................................... 48 Elements Considered by Case ...............................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Organized Crime and Terrorist Activity in Mexico, 1999-2002
    ORGANIZED CRIME AND TERRORIST ACTIVITY IN MEXICO, 1999-2002 A Report Prepared by the Federal Research Division, Library of Congress under an Interagency Agreement with the United States Government February 2003 Researcher: Ramón J. Miró Project Manager: Glenn E. Curtis Federal Research Division Library of Congress Washington, D.C. 20540−4840 Tel: 202−707−3900 Fax: 202−707−3920 E-Mail: [email protected] Homepage: http://loc.gov/rr/frd/ Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Criminal and Terrorist Activity in Mexico PREFACE This study is based on open source research into the scope of organized crime and terrorist activity in the Republic of Mexico during the period 1999 to 2002, and the extent of cooperation and possible overlap between criminal and terrorist activity in that country. The analyst examined those organized crime syndicates that direct their criminal activities at the United States, namely Mexican narcotics trafficking and human smuggling networks, as well as a range of smaller organizations that specialize in trans-border crime. The presence in Mexico of transnational criminal organizations, such as Russian and Asian organized crime, was also examined. In order to assess the extent of terrorist activity in Mexico, several of the country’s domestic guerrilla groups, as well as foreign terrorist organizations believed to have a presence in Mexico, are described. The report extensively cites from Spanish-language print media sources that contain coverage of criminal and terrorist organizations and their activities in Mexico.
    [Show full text]
  • Perhapsthemostfamousvic
    COVER STORY Cocaine Violence Is the Last Straw SUMMARY: The threat of death, made real by assassinations and bombs, has tipped the scaies In Colombia's cocaine battle. Last summei's murder of a respected presidential contender seemed finally too much, forging public opinion and making the nation's leader talk tough on extradition. In December, authorities gunned down a drug kingpin. The changed mood in Bogota may be behind the cartels' recent claims of retreat, though skeptics call it little but public relations. Perhapstim ofthethe battlemost famousbetweenvicthe New World's oldest justice system and its most lucra tive industry is Colombia's former justice minister, Monica de Greiff. She now teaches Colombian law at the University of Miami and lives in an elegant if small apartment with a view of the Atlantic De Greiff invokes her son's safety to explain her retreat from the Justice Ministry. shoreline. The view from her balcony is a panorama of white sand beach, rows of De Greiff resigned from the Justice Greiff will not name names, she says, palm trees and Miami's most exclusive Ministry Sept. 21 amid death threats and "These were not veiled threats; they let me apartments. Youalso see a bunch of kiddie warnings from the notoriousMedellin drug know on exactly whose behalf they were seats and a Batman tricycle that belong to cartel that members would kill 10 judges calling." de Greiffs son, Miguel Jose, who is by all for every Colombian extradited to the There are about 4,000 justices, at all accounts doing well in school.
    [Show full text]
  • Boko Haram Beyond the Headlines: Analyses of Africa’S Enduring Insurgency
    Boko Haram Beyond the Headlines: Analyses of Africa’s Enduring Insurgency Editor: Jacob Zenn Boko Haram Beyond the Headlines: Analyses of Africa’s Enduring Insurgency Jacob Zenn (Editor) Abdulbasit Kassim Elizabeth Pearson Atta Barkindo Idayat Hassan Zacharias Pieri Omar Mahmoud Combating Terrorism Center at West Point United States Military Academy www.ctc.usma.edu The views expressed in this report are the authors’ and do not necessarily reflect those of the Combating Terrorism Center, United States Military Academy, Department of Defense, or U.S. Government. May 2018 Cover Photo: A group of Boko Haram fighters line up in this still taken from a propaganda video dated March 31, 2016. COMBATING TERRORISM CENTER ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Director The editor thanks colleagues at the Combating Terrorism Center at West Point (CTC), all of whom supported this endeavor by proposing the idea to carry out a LTC Bryan Price, Ph.D. report on Boko Haram and working with the editor and contributors to see the Deputy Director project to its rightful end. In this regard, I thank especially Brian Dodwell, Dan- iel Milton, Jason Warner, Kristina Hummel, and Larisa Baste, who all directly Brian Dodwell collaborated on the report. I also thank the two peer reviewers, Brandon Kend- hammer and Matthew Page, for their input and valuable feedback without which Research Director we could not have completed this project up to such a high standard. There were Dr. Daniel Milton numerous other leaders and experts at the CTC who assisted with this project behind-the-scenes, and I thank them, too. Distinguished Chair Most importantly, we would like to dedicate this volume to all those whose lives LTG (Ret) Dell Dailey have been afected by conflict and to those who have devoted their lives to seeking Class of 1987 Senior Fellow peace and justice.
    [Show full text]
  • Buddhism and Responses to Disability, Mental Disorders and Deafness in Asia
    Buddhism and Responses to Disability, Mental Disorders and Deafness in Asia. A bibliography of historical and modern texts with introduction and partial annotation, and some echoes in Western countries. [This annotated bibliography of 220 items suggests the range and major themes of how Buddhism and people influenced by Buddhism have responded to disability in Asia through two millennia, with cultural background. Titles of the materials may be skimmed through in an hour, or the titles and annotations read in a day. The works listed might take half a year to find and read.] M. Miles (compiler and annotator) West Midlands, UK. November 2013 Available at: http://www.independentliving.org/miles2014a and http://cirrie.buffalo.edu/bibliography/buddhism/index.php Some terms used in this bibliography Buddhist terms and people. Buddhism, Bouddhisme, Buddhismus, suffering, compassion, caring response, loving kindness, dharma, dukkha, evil, heaven, hell, ignorance, impermanence, kamma, karma, karuna, metta, noble truths, eightfold path, rebirth, reincarnation, soul, spirit, spirituality, transcendent, self, attachment, clinging, delusion, grasping, buddha, bodhisatta, nirvana; bhikkhu, bhikksu, bhikkhuni, samgha, sangha, monastery, refuge, sutra, sutta, bonze, friar, biwa hoshi, priest, monk, nun, alms, begging; healing, therapy, mindfulness, meditation, Gautama, Gotama, Maitreya, Shakyamuni, Siddhartha, Tathagata, Amida, Amita, Amitabha, Atisha, Avalokiteshvara, Guanyin, Kannon, Kuan-yin, Kukai, Samantabhadra, Santideva, Asoka, Bhaddiya, Khujjuttara,
    [Show full text]
  • What Technology Wants / Kevin Kelly
    WHAT TECHNOLOGY WANTS ALSO BY KEVIN KELLY Out of Control: The New Biology of Machines, Social Systems, and the Economic World New Rules for the New Economy: 10 Radical Strategies for a Connected World Asia Grace WHAT TECHNOLOGY WANTS KEVIN KELLY VIKING VIKING Published by the Penguin Group Penguin Group (USA) Inc., 375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014, U.S.A. Penguin Group (Canada), 90 Eglinton Avenue East, Suite 700, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4P 2Y3 (a division of Pearson Penguin Canada Inc.) Penguin Books Ltd, 80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL, England Penguin Ireland, 25 St. Stephen's Green, Dublin 2, Ireland (a division of Penguin Books Ltd) Penguin Books Australia Ltd, 250 Camberwell Road, Camberwell, Victoria 3124, Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) Penguin Books India Pvt Ltd, 11 Community Centre, Panchsheel Park, New Delhi - 110 017, India Penguin Group (NZ), 67 Apollo Drive, Rosedale, North Shore 0632, New Zealand (a division of Pearson New Zealand Ltd) Penguin Books (South Africa) (Pty) Ltd, 24 Sturdee Avenue, Rosebank, Johannesburg 2196, South Africa Penguin Books Ltd, Registered Offices: 80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL, England First published in 2010 by Viking Penguin, a member of Penguin Group (USA) Inc. 13579 10 8642 Copyright © Kevin Kelly, 2010 All rights reserved LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING IN PUBLICATION DATA Kelly, Kevin, 1952- What technology wants / Kevin Kelly. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-670-02215-1 1. Technology'—Social aspects. 2. Technology and civilization. I. Title. T14.5.K45 2010 303.48'3—dc22 2010013915 Printed in the United States of America Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the above publisher of this book.
    [Show full text]
  • 2 a Origem Do Crime Organizado No Brasil
    2 A origem do crime organizado no Brasil O início das organizações criminosas no Brasil ainda não foi devidamente estudado de maneira sistêmica. Assim, os autores que abordam o tema acabam divergindo em alguns pontos. Para o promotor de justiça do Ministério Público de São Paulo Eduardo Araújo Silva (2003, p. 25-26) a origem das organizações criminosas brasileiras encontra-se no fenômeno do cangaço. O autor ainda cita o jogo do bicho como a primeira infração penal organizada no Brasil. Para ele o movimento conhecido como cangaço, cuja atuação ocorreu no sertão nordestino, no final do século XIX, é o antecedente da criminalidade organizada brasileira. O movimento que acabou conhecido pela figura de seu líder Virgulino Ferreira da Silva, o Lampião era dotado de organização hierárquica, divisão de funções e, com o transcorrer do tempo, passou a atuar em frentes como os saques a vilarejos, fazendas e municípios de pequeno porte; práticas de extorsão de dinheiro através de ameaças de ataques; e, sequestros de pessoas importantes e influentes. Os jagunços, capangas e cangaceiros agiam com apoio de fazendeiros e parte da classe política, bem como com o apoio material de policiais corruptos que acabavam lhes fornecendo armamento e munição. No que diz respeito ao jogo do bicho, o autor (2003) afirma que se trata da primeira infração penal organizada no Brasil. Esta contravenção penal que se iniciou em nosso país no século XX consiste no sorteio de prêmios em dinheiro a apostadores mediante prévio recolhimento de apostas. A sua origem é imputada ao Barão de Drumond que, com esse jogo, teve como finalidade salvar os animais do Jardim Zoológico do Estado do Rio de Janeiro 2.
    [Show full text]
  • The Changing Face of Colombian Organized Crime
    PERSPECTIVAS 9/2014 The Changing Face of Colombian Organized Crime Jeremy McDermott ■ Colombian organized crime, that once ran, unchallenged, the world’s co- caine trade, today appears to be little more than a supplier to the Mexican cartels. Yet in the last ten years Colombian organized crime has undergone a profound metamorphosis. There are profound differences between the Medellin and Cali cartels and today’s BACRIM. ■ The diminishing returns in moving cocaine to the US and the Mexican domi- nation of this market have led to a rapid adaptation by Colombian groups that have diversified their criminal portfolios to make up the shortfall in cocaine earnings, and are exploiting new markets and diversifying routes to non-US destinations. The development of domestic consumption of co- caine and its derivatives in some Latin American countries has prompted Colombian organized crime to establish permanent presence and structures abroad. ■ This changes in the dynamics of organized crime in Colombia also changed the structure of the groups involved in it. Today the fundamental unit of the criminal networks that form the BACRIM is the “oficina de cobro”, usually a financially self-sufficient node, part of a network that functions like a franchise. In this new scenario, cooperation and negotiation are preferred to violence, which is bad for business. ■ Colombian organized crime has proven itself not only resilient but extremely quick to adapt to changing conditions. The likelihood is that Colombian organized crime will continue the diversification
    [Show full text]
  • International Terrorism
    Griset02.qxd 9/20/02 5:58 PM Page 45 2 INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM An eye for an eye only leads to more blindness. —Margaret Atwood he attacks of September 11, 2001, were the most ghastly acts of transnational terrorism in history. Yet, as is true for other terrorists’ strikes throughout the Tages, understanding the atrocities of September 11 requires knowledge of the social, economic, political, and religious conditions from which terrorism arises. As in earlier eras, advances in communication, transportation, and weaponry are exploited by today’s terrorists. Contemporary terrorists have a vast and terrifying array of choices, but they also face a new enemy: the forces of globalization. Our world has become more unified, and evidence of interconnections are every- where. Commerce and technology have brought the people of our planet together in ways previously unimaginable. The Internet has penetrated into remote corners of the planet, and new discoveries in digital and optical technologies are likely to drive human beings even closer together. McDonald’s sells hamburgers in Beijing, and American music and videos can be heard and seen in remote corners of the world. Free-trade agree- ments make national borders more porous; someday, they may make them obsolete. Falling stock markets in Tokyo devastate investors in Chicago. The International Monetary Fund intervenes in the economies of many underdeveloped countries because of global interdependence and the push for prosperity. International peace and stability are invaluable in this new world order. Problems and their solutions are no longer isolated geographically. Terrorism is at odds with civilization’s march toward globalization.
    [Show full text]
  • 2017 DGA Episodic Director Diversity Report (By STUDIO)
    2017 DGA Episodic Director Diversity Report (by STUDIO) Combined # Episodes # Episodes # Episodes # Episodes Combined Total # of Female + Directed by Male Directed by Male Directed by Female Directed by Female Male Female Studio Title Female + Signatory Company Network Episodes Minority Male Caucasian % Male Minority % Female Caucasian % Female Minority % Unknown Unknown Minority % Episodes Caucasian Minority Caucasian Minority A+E Studios, LLC Knightfall 2 0 0% 2 100% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0 Frank & Bob Films II, LLC History Channel A+E Studios, LLC Six 8 4 50% 4 50% 1 13% 3 38% 0 0% 0 0 Frank & Bob Films II, LLC History Channel A+E Studios, LLC UnReal 10 4 40% 6 60% 0 0% 2 20% 2 20% 0 0 Frank & Bob Films II, LLC Lifetime Alameda Productions, LLC Love 12 4 33% 8 67% 0 0% 4 33% 0 0% 0 0 Alameda Productions, LLC Netflix Alcon Television Group, Expanse, The 13 2 15% 11 85% 2 15% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0 Expanding Universe Syfy LLC Productions, LLC Amazon Hand of God 10 5 50% 5 50% 2 20% 3 30% 0 0% 0 0 Picrow, Inc. Amazon Prime Amazon I Love Dick 8 7 88% 1 13% 0 0% 7 88% 0 0% 0 0 Picrow Streaming Inc. Amazon Prime Amazon Just Add Magic 26 7 27% 19 73% 0 0% 4 15% 1 4% 0 2 Picrow, Inc. Amazon Prime Amazon Kicks, The 9 2 22% 7 78% 0 0% 0 0% 2 22% 0 0 Picrow, Inc. Amazon Prime Amazon Man in the High Castle, 9 1 11% 8 89% 0 0% 0 0% 1 11% 0 0 Reunion MITHC 2 Amazon Prime The Productions Inc.
    [Show full text]
  • Drugs and Development: the Great Disconnect
    ISSN 2054-2046 Drugs and Development: The Great Disconnect Julia Buxton Policy Report 2 | January 2015 Drugs and Development: The Great Disconnect Julia Buxton∗ Policy Report 2 | January 2015 Key Points • The 2016 United Nations General Assembly Special Session on the World Drug Problem (UNGASS) will see a strong lobby in support of development oriented responses to the problem of drug supply, including from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). • The promotion of Alternative Development (AD) programmes that provide legal, non-drug related economic opportunities for drug crop cultivators reflects the limited success of enforcement responses, greater awareness of the development dimensions of cultivation activities and the importance of drugs and development agencies working co-operatively in drug environments. • Evidence from thirty years of AD programming demonstrates limited success in supply reduction and that poorly monitored and weakly evaluated programmes cause more harm than good; there has been little uptake of best practice approaches, cultivators rarely benefit from AD programmes, the concept of AD is contested and there is no shared understanding of ‘development’. • AD was popularised in the 1990s when development discourse emphasised participatory approaches and human wellbeing. This is distinct from the development approaches of the 2000s, which have been ‘securitised’ in the aftermath of the Global War on Terror and which re-legitimise military participation in AD. • UNGASS 2016 provides an opportunity for critical scrutiny of AD and the constraints imposed by the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs on innovative, rights based and nationally owned supply responses. Cultivation is a development not a crime and security issue.
    [Show full text]
  • Inside Out: the Challenge of Prison-Based Criminal Organizations
    Local Orders Paper Series BROOKINGS PAPER 3 | September 2016 Inside Out: The Challenge of Prison-Based Criminal Organizations BENJAMIN LESSING ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper is part of the Brookings seminar, “Reconstituting Local Orders.” The seminar is directed by Brookings Senior Fellows Vanda Felbab-Brown, Shadi Hamid, and Harold Trinkunas, who are grateful to the Foreign Policy Director’s Special Initiative Fund for its support. Brookings recognizes that the value it provides to any support- er is in its absolute commitment to quality, independence, and im- pact. Activities supported by its donors reflect this commitment, and the analysis and recommendations of the Institution’s scholars are not determined by any donation. Local Orders Paper Series ABOUT THE RECONSTITUTING LOCAL ORDERS PROJECT Led by Brookings Senior Fellows Vanda Felbab-Brown, Shadi Hamid, and Harold Trinkunas, the Brookings Seminar on Reconstituting Local Orders seeks to better understand how do- mestic political order breaks down and is reconstituted. It draws out policy implications and recommends more effective action for local governments and the international community. It examines these issues by bringing together top-level experts and policymakers. The present disorder in the international system is significantly augmented by the break- down of domestic order across a number of key states. Around the globe, the politics of iden- tity, ideology and religion are producing highly polarized societies and deepening conflicts among non-state actors and between non-state actors and the state. In the Middle East, the Arab Spring disrupted long calcified political systems in ways that are still producing unpre- dictable effects on the regional order.
    [Show full text]
  • 36 BAB II AL QAEDA DAN JEJARINGNYA Pada Bab II Skripsi
    BAB II AL QAEDA DAN JEJARINGNYA Pada bab II skripsi ini dibahas mengenai sejarah terbentuknya kelompok Al Qaeda. Kemudian disebutkan tentang struktur organisasi Al Qaeda dan cara perekrutan anggotanya yang disertai riwayat serangan-serangan yang telah dilakukan hingga tahun 2009, dimana tahun tersebut merupakan tahun awal analisis terkait penurunan serangan yang dilakukan Al Qaeda. Lalu akan dibahas juga tentang jejaring-jejaring Al Qaeda yang tersebar di berbagai negara dan profil beberapa tokoh yang berpengaruh di Al Qaeda. 2.1 Sejarah Terbentuknya Al Qaeda Al Qaeda yang merupakan kelompok teroris internasional ini dibentuk pada tahun 1988 oleh Osama bin Laden dengan gagasan awal dari Abdullah Azzam. Osama bin Laden adalah keturunan dari keluarga kontraktor asal Yaman yang sukses di Arab Saudi. Osama bin Laden yang lahir pada Juli 1957 tumbuh di lingkungan keluarga yang taat beribadah. Ayahnya, Mohammad Awad bin Laden mendidik Osama bin Laden dan saudara-saudaranya secara disiplin dan mengajarkan agama secara kolot (www.pbs.org/20/05/16). Seperti keluarganya yang lain, Osama bin Laden mengenyam pendidikan dasar dan menengahnya di Lebanon. Lalu melanjutkan pendidikan tinggi di Universitas King Abdul Aziz, Jeddah, Arab Saudi, mengambil jurusan bisnis manajemen. Semasa kuliah, Osama bin Laden juga berguru kepada Muhammad 36 37 Qutb, yang merupakan saudara dari tokoh pembaharu Islam, Sayyid Qutb37, dan Abdullah Azzam, yang merupakan seorang ulama Palestina dan salah satu pemimpin jihad anti-Soviet di Afghanistan (Riedel, 2008). Abdullah Azzam dilahirkan pada tahun 1941 di Desa Selat al-Harithis, sebelah utara Palestina. Dirinya bergabung dengan Muslim Brotherhood atau Ikhwanul Muslimin ketika berumur 18 tahun. Pada tahun 1967, Abdullah Azzam berangkat ke Yordania ikut serta dalam perang melawan Israel, ketika itu dirinya juga sedang belajar syariah di Universitas Al Azhar, Kairo, Mesir.
    [Show full text]