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Femocrats, Feminists and the State

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Femocrats, Feminists and the State REVOLUTION OR REFORM: FEMOCRATS, FEMINISTS AND THE STATE Jane Copeland Project Report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for Master of Arts (Hons) in Interdisciplinary Studies, Women's Studies Program University of New South Wales 1991 UNIVERSITY OF N.S.W. - 7 SEP 1992 LIBRARY Abstract This dissertation examines the relationship between feminism and the state in Australia since 1972 by focusing on equal employment opportunity and affirmative action legislation and also on femocrats—those feminists employed by the state to work on issues related to women. It looks at the dilemmas that the feminist movement has had to confront about seeking state support for, and intervention in feminist issues. These dilemmas are illustrated by the problems femocrats have faced in working within state structures and by feminist criticisms of their position. In examining feminist criticisms of femocrats, equal employment opportunity and affirmative action, it asks whether the state can be productively avoided by feminists, and if not, what a feminist strategy for working with the state should entail. It argues that despite the contradictory role that the state plays in relation to women, it would not be realistic or productive for the feminist movement to totally reject involvement with the state. It outlines reasons for this and discusses the implications for feminists, femocrats and the bureaucracy. Dedicated to my mother and father Contents Acknowledgements ii Glossary of Terms iii Introduction 1 1 Feminism and the State in Australia since 1972 4 2 EEO and Affirmative Action 20 3 Femocrats 32 4 Feminist Criticisms of EEO and Affirmative Action 59 5 Feminist Criticisms of the Femocracy 66 Conclusion 85 Bibliography 93 Acknowledgements A number of people have assisted, encouraged and supported me in writing this dissertation. My supervisor, Frances Lovejoy, has been a great source of advice and information. I would like to express my appreciation for her practical assistance, her patience, and her consistently positive attitude which persuaded me from abandoning the project at various times. The staff of the Affirmative Action Agency in Sydney were always interested and willing to discuss my ideas, as well as supportive and encouraging. I am very grateful to the Agency for giving me paid study leave which enabled me to finish the dissertation to a tight deadline. The following people sent me articles, expressed interest in the project and helped me clarify thoughts: Linda Conrad, then EEO Officer at Griffith University, Chris Wieneke, Co-Director of the Women's Research Centre at the University of Western Sydney, Nepean, and Diana Wyndham, then librarian at the Department of Community Services and Health. Philip Butterss generously gave me unlimited access to his office at Sydney University and his Macintosh, and spent many hours sorting out my problems with it. More importantly, he gave me copious amounts of emotional support and encouragement. I am grateful to the library staff of the University of New South Wales, and particularly David Reeder for his impressive knowledge of periodical indexes and his interest in women's studies. In my role as Higher Education Advisor at the Affirmative Action Agency, I gained rich and valuable data in informal conversations with EEO/Affirmative Action Officers in higher education institutions throughout Australia and I thank them for their openness and honesty. Finally, I would like to thank my son/daughter, Henry/Anna for not arriving early, thus enabling me to finish this dissertation on the day before s/he was due. Glossary of Terms Affirmative Action - a systematic means of achieving equal employment opportunity by eliminating discrimination against specified groups of people who are recognised as having being disadvantaged. In this dissertation, it applies to women, although it can be used to describe programs for a variety of disadvantaged groups in society. It involves identifying barriers to women's full participation in an organisation and developing a program of activities to remove those barriers. The difference between affirmative action and equal employment opportunity is sometimes described as such: "Affirmative action is the means, equal employment opportunity is the goal". However, the terms are often confused or used interchangeably. Affirmative Action Co-ordinator/Officer, EEO Co-ordinator/Officer1 - these terms are commonly used interchangeably to refer to people (usually women) who are responsible for co-ordinating and/or implementing an EEO or affirmative action program in a public or private sector organisation. Although the terms are used interchangeably, a distinction is sometimes made between EEO/Affirmative Action Co­ ordinators (responsible for co-ordinating the program) and EEO/Affirmative Action Officers (responsible for implementing the program and for day-to-day issues). In this case, the Officer reports to the Co-ordinator. This distinction between co-ordinators and officers is most commonly used by organisations covered by the Affirmative Action (Equal Employment Opportunity for 1 Throughout this dissertation, equal employment opportunity is referred to by its common abbreviation, 'EEO'. Affirmative action is not commonly referred to as 'AA', so it is written in full. Women) Act. 19862 which requires employers to appoint a senior person to be responsible for their organisation's affirmative action program. In the private sector, the Affirmative Action Co-ordinator is usually in a position such as Personnel Manager, Human Resource Manager, or Financial Controller. In higher education institutions, the Affirmative Action Co-ordinator holds a senior position such as Vice- Chancellor. The Affirmative Action Co-ordinator does not usually have day-to-day responsibility for implementing the organisation's affirmative action program, which is carried out by the Affirmative Action Officer. Equal Employment Opportunity - a desired state or goal to be achieved in which people have the right to be considered for jobs on the basis of their skills, aptitude and relevant qualifications, regardless of factors such as sex, race or disability. Adoption of an EEO policy by an employer means that a person's sex or other irrelevant factors is not a barrier to being employed or promoted. EEO Practitioner - a blanket term used to describe those responsible for developing and/or implementing an EEO or affirmative action program. It covers Affirmative Action Co-ordinators and Officers, as well as EEO Co-ordinators and Officers. It is commonly used by professional associations of private or public sector EEO/Affirmative Action Co-ordinators/Officers. Femocrat - a term unique to Australia and New Zealand which came into use in the 1970s when large numbers of feminists entered the bureaucracy. It is usually used to refer to feminists who work for the state largely on women's issues. Although the term tends to refer to feminists working in government bureaucracies (including higher education institutions), it is sometimes used to refer to feminists working in the private sector. 2 Hereafter referred to as the Affirmative Action Act. The state - in this dissertation, 'the state' is used refer to the legal apparatus of government. It encompasses the sphere of civil administration, the political system, and the government bureaucracy, and is used in contrast to the church and the private sector. Co-option by the state - Within the parameters of this dissertation, the term describes a situation in which feminists working within the bureaucracy experience strong pressure to conform to rules, practices and values which are at odds with those espoused and practised by feminists outside the bureaucracy. For example, feminists in the bureaucracy may find themselves implementing or formulating policies which will adversely affect large groups of women. They may face pressure to compete against other women, to produce quick results rather than work towards long term solutions and to use the 'right' language and 'dress the part'. Feminists in these circumstances may find that they gradually become less involved in the issues and activities of the outside women's movement. These and other problems have been articulated by many writers including Lynch (1984), Wills (1986), Eisenstein (1986), Dowse (1989b), Sawer (1989a, 1990a), Auer (1990) and Watson (1990). Introduction The relationship between feminism and the state in Australia since 1972 and the dilemmas this relationship has provoked provide an interesting and important area of study for several reasons. The closeness of the relationship is not mirrored in Britain or North America from where Australian feminists have often taken their cue. For various reasons, British and North American feminists have not had the opportunities to develop close relationships with the state or have actively shunned state involvement and intervention in feminist issues. Australian feminists have had numerous opportunities to become involved with the state and have, on the whole, taken advantage of these opportunities. The widespread involvement of Australian feminists with the state has led to the coining of the term 'femocraf which is used to refer to those feminists directly employed by the state to work on issues related to women. At the same time, there has been a strong element in the Australian women's movement which has questioned this involvement and which has been critical of those feminists who have welcomed state intervention in issues being pushed
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