Women in Science and African Nobel Laureates

IROHIN Taking Africa to the Classroom 2018

Remembering Winnie Madikizela-Mandela september 26, 1936 – april 2, 2018

Dr. Agnes Ngoma Leslie editor Jenna Agres design and layout

Fezile Mtsetfwa editorial assistant Table of The Center for African Studies at the University of Florida CONTENTS OUTREACH PROGRAM

The Center for African Studies is partially funded under Title VI of the Federal Higher Education Act as a National Center for African Studies A New Day: The Continued Rise of Resource Center on Africa. One of only 10 in the U.S., Florida’s is the only Center located in the southeastern United Outreach Program the Contemporary Mega Church States. The Center directs, develops, and coordinates interdisciplinary instruction, research, and outreach on Africa. The Outreach Program includes a variety of activities whose objective is to improve the teaching of Africa in primary 3 24 De’Shanta Everett and secondary schools, colleges, universities and local communities. The following are some of the regular activities which fall under the Outreach Program:

Understanding the Size of Africa The Manuscripts of Timbuktu Publications Community & School Presentations Ryan Reidway The Center publishes and distributes teaching resources Faculty and graduate students make presentations on 4 28 including Irohin, a publication for K-12 teachers. Africa to local communities and schools.

Teachers’ Workshops New Look for Africa on Elements of West African Influences Corrected Maps in North American Architecture The Center offers in-service workshops for K-12 teachers about instruction on Africa throughout the school year. 5 32 Paul Adams

Remembering Winnie Contemporary African Artists: Madikizela-Mandela Inspiring Change with Repurposed Art 6 34 Andrea Chavez

Women in Science Ancestral Whispers: The Roots Marquita H. Hubbard and Rhythms of Urban Expression 8 37 Nicole A. Harris

Africa and the Nobel Prize Africa: A Soccer Story 12 J.P. Brown 43 Matt Davis

African Women Representation Works Cited in Literature 17 Staci White 46

Tea Production and Fair Trade in Teacher's Summer Institute African Countries 20 Kate Lawrence 51

In front of the Old Man’s Cloth sculpture by El Anatsui at the Harn Museum are the teachers who participated in the 2017 Summer Institute and contributors to this publication: Paul Adams, J. P. Brown, Nicole Harris, De’Shanta Everett, Matt Davis, Staci White, Marquitta Hubbard, Kate Lawrence, Andrea Chavez, Ryan Reidway, Institute Director, Dr. Agnes Leslie, Presenters, Dr. Mandisa Haarhoff and Felicity Aku Tackey-Otoo.

2 · IROHIN 3 · IROHIN Understanding the Size of New Look for Africa on AFRICA CORRECTED MAPS South America is made to look about the same size as Europe, when in fact it is almost twice as large, Africa is more than three times the size of the contiguous United States; there are more than 500 extant and Greenland looks roughly the size languages spoken across more than 50 countries; and the landscape spans from desert to rainforest. Languages, of Africa when it is actually about cultures, scenery and even the hemispheres change as you traverse Africa. This map may help us understand the 14 times smaller. Alaska looks big- true size of Africa and it's diversity. ger than Mexico and Germany is in the middle of the picture, not to the north. The switch to the Gall-Peters Projection sees Boston's public schools follow the lead of the United Nations, which has advocated the map as a more 'fair', less Eurocentric representation of the world, as have several aid agencies. Teachers in the 2nd, 7th and 11th grades have already received The Sallie-Peter projection shows correct proportions putting the right size of Africa. their new maps, and say the reaction from their students has been fasci- Mar. 20, 2017 (GIN) - In an For almost 500 years, the nating. “It’s “interesting to watch the age of “fake news” and “alterna- Mercator projection – designed to students saying ‘Wow’ and ‘No, really? tive facts”, authorities in the city aid navigation along colonial trade Look at Africa, it’s bigger’”, Natacha of Boston believe their new school routes - has been the norm for Scott, director of history and social map offers something closer to the maps of the world. studies at Boston public schools, told geographical truth than that of In the Mercator system, The Guardian. traditional maps, and hope it can North America and Europe appear “Some of their reactions were serve an example to schools across bigger than South America and quite funny,” she added, “but it was the nation and even the world. Africa. Western Europe is in the also amazingly interesting to see them The school district will drop the middle of his map. questioning what they thought they Mercator projection, which physi- knew.” cally diminished Africa and South America, for the Peters, which cuts the developed world down to size. The Gall-Peters projection shows land masses in their correct proportions by area, putting the relative sizes of Africa and North America in perspective. When Boston public schools introduced a new standard map of the world this week, some young students felt their world had changed. The USA was small. Europe too had suddenly shrunk. Africa and South America appeared narrower but also much larger than usual. And what had happened to Alaska? The Mercator projection, the map most commonly seen hanging in classrooms and in textbooks, gives the right shapes of land masses, but at the cost of distorting their sizes in favor of the lands to the north.

4 · IROHIN 5 · IROHIN September 26, 1936 – April 2, 2018 Graça Machel paying tribute to the “Mother” of the South African Nation – “One of the brightest stars in the sky”:

It is with a heavy heart that I address you today.

Remembering Winnie Madikizela-Mandela As I struggle to accept your transition, I take solace in the fact that you have risen to become one of the brightest stars in the sky where you will remain ever present and radiantly shining. You will continue to serve as a guide to your loving family, your grateful nation, our beloved Africa, and indeed, the world.

The extraordinary life you led is an example of resilient fortitude and inextinguishable passion that is a source of inspiration to us all of how to courageously confront challenges with unwavering strength and determination.

Thank you for your brilliant wisdom, your fierce defiance and your stylish beauty.

Fortunately, stars shine brightest during the darkest of hours. I know you will continue to illuminate our sky, even through the storms and clouds. Your legacy will be an uplifting beacon from which we can continue to draw guidance and strength during difficult times.

You loved our people unconditionally and sacrificed so much for our freedom. It is my prayer that as befitting tributes are paid to you both at home and abroad, all of us will internalise the values you helped to mould and birth into existence.

As a nation, I hope we will stand tall and proud, and as uncompromising as you were in the defence and protection of our rights. As one of our brightest stars, continue to be the lioness that protects your children and your grandchildren. Warm their hearts so that while your transition may shake them, it does not break their spirit.

Your legacy is everlasting. Take a well-deserved rest in peace, my BIG sister.

Love and Respect Always, Your little sister, Graça.

Winnie Mandela during a rally (Source: Business Insider South Africa)

Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, South strong voice and fierce fighter while silence him, the louder I will become!"– African anti-apartheid campaigner Mandela was in prison for 27 years. 1962. Thousands of South Africans and former wife of Nelson Mandela She was also imprisoned, tortured and paid tribute to Madikizela-Mandela died on April 2, aged 81. Madikizela- at one time banished to a rural area at a memorial service held at a soccer Mandela known affectionately as and kept in solitary confinement. But stadium in Soweto after almost two “Mother of the Nation’’ kept the fight she kept the fight and never gave up. weeks of national mourning. Among the against the apartheid nation while She is quoted as saying: "They think many who paid tribute to her was Graça her husband was imprisoned. She because they have put my husband Machel, the widow of Nelson Mandela. became the international symbol of on an island that he will be forgotten. Her tribute to Madikizela-Mandela is resistance to apartheid. She was a They are wrong. The harder they try to reproduced here in full:

WinnieWinnie Mandela Madikizela during Mandela a rally and (Source: Graça Business Machel with Insider Nelson South Mandela Africa) at his 86th birthday (Source: AFP/GETTY) 6 · IROHIN 7 · IROHIN in striving towards work equality a disproportion of data due to the values of modern day South Africa. Marquita H. Hubbard in science through mentorship, fact that only 3 of the 13 members In recent efforts to promote education, and various other on the council of the Academy of women in science in South Africa, initiatives. Science of South Africa are women. participants identified key strate- In addition to this, in most other gies for training women to enhance African Women in Science and academies of science within the their access to new and emerging continent, the norm is that there fields of science, engineering, Encouraging African Women Towards Engineering (AWSE) is only one or no appointed female technology, and innovation. These council members. Therefore, the meetings have also provided African Women in Science and representation of statistical data policy guidance concerning the Engineering is an organization maybe somewhat skewed. The implementation of strategic part- that seeks to increase the number Association of African Women in nerships to empower women within of competent women scientists Science and Engineering estimates science and technology sustainable Science And Technology Innovation and engineers in Africa. This that women make up no more development. During this time, organization implements various than 20% of the academics within an action plan was developed for programs and spans high schools these fields in Africa. However, educating and training women in in efforts to recruit and mold within the continent there remains science and engineering to enhance career scientists and engineers. a strong push towards innovating their employment opportunities This program also seeks to promote women towards assimilating into and career paths. South Africa has the presence of women in science the science fields. developed a task force of energetic and technology through various Women’s involvement, access, women within the sciences who empowerment programs in addi- and perceptions within science and are resiliently working to both tion to highlighting and enhancing technology is pertinent to reducing empower and enhance women’s women’s contributions in research, poverty, creating job opportunities involvement within Science, education, and the development of and increasing agricultural and Technology, Engineering, and the continent. industrial productivity. Mathematics (STEM). They seem to be making progress to bridging the Overview of Women in Science Promoting Women in Science gap between gender inequalities. across Africa within South Africa Role Models and Biographies of Like the rest of the world, In September 2013, the United science is still a man’s world in Women in Science in Africa Nations Educational, Scientific and Africa. The marginalization of Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) Professor Jane Catherine women in science throughout the Nairobi office ran a two-day Ngila from Nairobi, Kenya has continent of Africa is comparable workshop for university women conducted research in the area to the rest of the world. It has been decision makers, mid-career of Analytical-Environmental estimated that, on average, 30% of Zambian female engineers, Rennie Shamambo and Sarah Chishimba work at an engineering company in a mining district on the Copperbelt in Zambia. women scientists and engineers to Chemistry on water resource science positions internationally (Source: Volvo Group) find a developmental approach to management. She is one of the are held by women. According express their lives, their views, and leading women scientists in Africa. to The Conversation; Academic bounds of possibilities for women’s She received a PhD in September Wangari Maathai stated in her is not a task beyond their cognitive Can you imagine what the world rigor, journalistic Flair within the concern. The meeting provided a of 1996 under the supervision of memoir “Unbowed” that her years psyche. According to The World would be like if this were so? years that Nobel Prizes have been platform for women to deliberate Professor Brynn Hibbert and Peter in the United States overlapped Health Organization women sci- Surely this would be a tragedy the awarded, 47 women have received on how to forge ahead in preparing Alexander. She became interested with the beginnings of the women’s entists in Africa play a critical role world would never want to endure. prizes. Two of these were awarded for the post 2015 development in science during the 1980s. She movement and even though many in Africa’s development, including In recent Census Bureau in physics, five in chemistry, eight agenda. It also offered women an stated that during this time there women were still bound to tradi- pushing the envelope on gender reports, women make up ap- in physiology and medicine and opportunity to identify niche areas was a belief among her fellow high tional ideas about themselves at equality. proximately 48 percent of the total one in economics. in training and research that will school peers that science was that time, she came to see that as Recently Nobel Prize winner U.S. workforce, while only making The medal, that is awarded enable women scientist to drive difficult. In addition to this, many an African woman she was perhaps Tim Hunt sparked controversy up approximately 24 percent of to outstanding mathematicians Africa’s economic transformations just thought that girls couldn’t do even more constrained in what she when he stated that women should workers in Science Technology under 40, has only once in the and its sustainable developmental science. Jane decided to set herself could do or think or even hope for not be in science, as they can Engineering, and Mathematics past 70 years been awarded to a agenda. This is a wonderful initia- up for the challenge and prove this (Maathai, 2006). prove distracting to male scientists (STEM) fields. woman. With all of the presented tive because it provides women myth wrong. Her father being a Although, women possess the within the work place. It is this Although women constantly facts representing women in the with a voice in order to divulge chief (government administrator) capability to sustain another life type egocentric bigotry that not face oppositional challenges sciences it is even more dire in their varying perspectives. Given during the British Colonial rule, for months, give birth to multiple only creates but sustains the glass in their efforts of balancing a Africa. However, although there that women are heard and granted encouraged her to pursue a higher children, love and nurture those ceiling concept for women world- demanding career with having appears to be a poor representa- input on scientific and economic education and never pressured her children all while experiencing wide. Should women also refrain children and raising the next tion of women in science fields concerns, it is a start to revolution- to get married. the pains of after birth, certainly from fields of all forms, because generation this paper looks at how throughout African, there remains making contribution(s) to science men refuse to exercise self-control? women have remained resilient izing the very principles and core

8 · IROHIN 9 · IROHIN In 1999, she was awarded a for others. Her parents were the the science education. In recent and girls in science the Diplomatic the women were provided with one- Lesson Plans scholarship to the University of first in their family to earn degrees years progress has been made in Corps decided to mark the 2017 on-one mentoring support where New South Wales in Austria. It in architecture and electrical efforts to mainstream women in International Day of Women they were afforded the opportunity 1. In order to educate students covered medical expenses for both engineering. Prior to attending the science studies and careers. The and Girls in Science in Ghana. to ask questions obtain feedback, about women in science in Africa, her and her nuclear family which University of Cape Town, Rabana retention rate for girls in science In addition to this, the United and receive invaluable advice I would begin by gathering their included her son, Charles who attended the prestigious Roedean fields at the university level has Nations General Assembly declared about how to manage the demands prior knowledge about the conti- was born on May 17, 1992. Her School in Johannesburg. While risen considerably. This section February 11th of every year, as of a challenging professional nent of Africa and women. research focuses on leaching on at Cape Town she learned how focuses on women scientists in International Day of Women and career while maintaining a family. aluminum in cookware. It focused to code, which further led to her Ghana. Girls in Science. What a para- Subsequently, this mentoring 2. After gathering students’ on the development of new detec- passion for computer science. Ghana is located on the mount integral mark in history! project led to a platform to facilitate prior knowledge, ask students tion methods using aluminum She realized that the power of west coast of Africa, north of information sharing and profes- questions on an anticipation guide wire for indirect detection of F+ coding was the building block of the equator. It has a population Promoting Women and Girls in sional support to aspiring women about women in science in Africa. and Al3+ and polymer coated wire being able to create something of approximately 24 million, in scientist in 5 Kenyan universities. This allows students to revisit their ion-selective electrodes for nitrates practical and of real societal which 51% are women. In 1987 Science in Kenya Since then some of these women misconceptions at the end of the and chlorides. In her current value. She is the cofounder of there was a crisis when Ghana’s have developed proposals on infec- lesson. For years Kenya has sought field, she places more emphasis Yeigo Communications, which government recognized that only tious diseases that are now being to empower and inspire women in on water research because due to is South Africa’s first develop- one in 11 children at secondary reviewed for grant funding, while 3. Students would then the field of science. Comparable its prominence in Africa. She is ment company that offered free schools in Ghana was a girl. This others have established informal complete a KWL chart on what to other countries around the interested in the determination of Mobil VoIP service. She has been unfortunate circumstance led to Google and WhatsApp Groups that they already know about women globe, women in science are water pollutants and their removal listed in the Forbes 30 under 30: the development of the Science will facilitate much needed informa- in science within the continent of under-represented. In recent years using functionalized chemical Africa’s best young entrepreneurs and Math Education Clinic. Within tive professional support. Africa and what they want to know, Kenya has taken steps to address resins and biomass absorbents. and Oprah’s Magazine; O Power the inaugural class there were 110 at the end of the lesson students gender inequality and has adopted These materials are intended to List 2012. Today Rabana is the female students admitted. Due to will fill in the portion of the chat a strategy to mainstream gender Conclusion purify water at an affordable cost, innovative founder of Rekindle the fact that the Science and Math where they can state what they in science. This has been embed- by rural communities in Africa. Learning, a company that seeks to Education Clinic was such a suc- have learned. ded in their Science Technology In most African countries, Currently, she is the head of improve education in Africa into an cessful initiative, the concept was and Innovation Act (2013). This contemporary research on women the Applied Chemistry Department opportunity to learn and empower embraced and adopted into various 4. I will then assemble the Act recognizes women being and the learning of science in at the University of Johannesburg, people of all ages and backgrounds other West African Countries. students into groups of four by under-represented in leadership higher educational institutions has where she continues to lecture in to take charge of their learning Since the implementation of this varying cognitive levels in order to positions, academic, scientific, persistently focused on equal repre- analytical/environmental chemis- and development through the use program the ratio of girls versus incorporate differentiated instruc- research institutions and profes- sentation and access. Consequently, try, conduct research, recruit and of mobile technology and learning boys taking science and math at tion. Each student will possess sional associations. most governments worldwide have supervise post graduate students applications, thereby opening a the secondary level in currently one a given role to ensure academic In addition to Kenya’s decided to commit more resources and postdoctoral fellow, mentor whole new world of opportunities and three. Due to these changes accountability. They will choose a recent Act, the country’s National in order to encourage women to junior lectures. In addition, Dr. and possibilities. taking place girls from Ghana have country in Africa to research and Commission for Science and pursue the fields of mathematics, Ngila provides service to her local both an advantage and an op- teach their peers. They will play the Technology (NACOSTI) has science, technology and engineering. community through outreach portunity to thrive within the field role of the teacher and their peers Promoting Women in Science in designated funds to enable women Although there still remains a programs. of science. will be the students. scientists to conduct research, slight gap between women and men Finally, Dr. Ngila says that Ghana As part of efforts to advance while the Nairobi African Academy in science within the continent of she has been inspired by women sustainable development through 5. Students will have to not of Science (AAS) has allocated Africa, significant strides have been who have made it in a man’s world In 1987 there was a paradigm the achievement of gender equality only educate their peers, but form travel grants that are geared to taken to further promote their in- whether in education, business, shift in the inclusion of girls within and the empowerment of women a lesson to enlighten and engage support women scientists to travel volvement. As educators who are on or politics. However, she is equally their students. to conferences. Due to all these the frontline to molding and shaping motivated by men who have made avenues of support; African women our students beliefs and attitudes it to the top through hard work 6. Finally, the students will like Elizabeth Ochola, a research towards various practices, we must and perseverance. come up with some form of exit officer at the Kenyan Medical certainly not take our positions Not only has Dr. Ngila, made activity to reflect and assess Research Institute, Center for lightly. We must make women in contributions to the field of science their student’s understanding of Global Health Research are able science a norm and not an excep- in Africa but Rapelang Rabana, women/girls in science in Africa. to conduct research for infectious tion. In doing so, it would prove to who is a technologist from South diseases in Kenya. Elizabeth was be highly beneficial if we were to African is also a woman committed granted the opportunity to attend introduce our young women to the to the sciences as well. Rabana’s a week-long workshop alongside pioneers in science who paved the entrepreneurial journey began 20 aspiring women scientists. In way for them. While showing them when she was 22 years of age. She order to facilitate these workshops real-world successful women who graduated from Business Science 40 Kenyan teachers are trained in have been resilient in surpassing with honors in Computer Science gender responsive teaching, and societal bias and stereotypes, they from the University of Cape Town. new partnership initiatives for will be more enthusiastic about She comes from a family with The African Academy of Sciences and the NEPAD Agency’s Alliance for Accelerating Excellence in Science enhancing women’s participation progressing into those fields. a strong belief in the power of in Africa (AESA) and its partners announced a US$2 million program, which will train postdoctoral in (STEM). During this workshop, education to create opportunities researchers to support globally competitive research in African universities. (Nairobi, Kenya, 2017) (Source: African Academy of Sciences) 10 · IROHIN 11 · IROHIN In an analysis of the top five awarded to organizations. In order the Nobel Foundation who was J.P. Brown countries whose citizens receive to understand the history behind being actively “persecuted by his Nobel Prizes, three of them (United the Nobel Peace Prize and Africa, own authorities” at the time of Kingdom, Germany, and France) this article will start with the first his nomination. What’s more, his have a history as Old World people to receive the award. receipt of the prize had an addition European colonial powers. Another impact as it “meant that the Nobel is the nation of Sweden, the origin Albert John Luthuli, First African Committee had placed respect for Africa and the Nobel Prize: and headquarters of the Nobel human rights on the agenda, and Prize itself. Finally, there is the Nobel Laureate that it had joined the international United States; the current winner movement against apartheid” The first Peace Prize awarded to of the most prizes. However, in (nobelprize.org). an individual from Africa and first connection with the theory of to an individual outside Europe Three Women’s Stories geopolitical influence, it should be was given to Albert John Luthuli The Peace Prize and African noted that the U.S. only became in 1960 (although it was presented the dominant winner after World Women in 1961). Born into a humble War II (when it became the domi- background in 1898, Luthuli began Out of the 10 (or 11) Peace nant world power). In fact, from his adult career as school teacher. Prizes awarded from their inception 1901 until 1936 the United States Being raised with Christian influ- until the present, only three have won only two awards (nobelprize. ence (Methodist), he also became been awarded to African women. In org). a lay preacher which he continued addition to the Peace Prize, women throughout most of his life. As received awards in categories of A Special Honor: The Peace Prize early as 1928, Luthuli became Literature and Chemistry. This concerned with the discriminatory ratio is consistent with the dispar- Throughout its history, winning plight suffered by ordinary working ity between women and men from the Nobel Peace Prize has been people and was elected to Secretary all nations across all categories an especially coveted recognition of the Natal Native Teachers awarded. From the years 1901 to around the world. According to the Union. In that position he “gained 2015 only 49 women were pre- Nobel Foundation, the “Nobel Peace valuable political experience by sented with the award, compared Prize has been awarded 97 times organizing boycotts and acting as to 825 men during the same time to 130 Nobel Laureates between a negotiator with white authorities” frame. What’s more, according to 1901 and 2016, 104 individuals (sahistory.org). He made good use a historical analysis conducted by and 26 organizations”. The text of that experience in 1935 as he the British Broadcasting Company, of Alfred Nobel’s will specifies was selected to become chief in his one's likelihood of being nominated that award shall be given “to the ancestral village; a position he held is highest if you are a white male, person who shall have done the for seventeen years. In that role, over 60, married, and also clean most or the best work for fraternity Luthuli organized local farmers shaven (Schultz, 2013). However, between nations, for the abolition in disputes against white land recent data suggests that the gen- Noble Peace Prize 2011 (Source: Harry Wad) Wangari Maathai, first African to win the Noble Peace Prize or reduction of standing armies owners or government officials. der gap, especially in the sciences, (Source: Dirt! The Movie (2009)) and for the holding and promotion Later, in 1952, he was elected to is slowly closing (NPR.org). Let us of peace congresses” (nobelprize. The Nobel Prize is an honorary and monetary award presented by the Nobel Foundation for achievements in the the African National Congress as turn now to examine the three org). Unlike most laureates in sciences, literature, and for contributions to extraordinary peaceful political stability. By 2017 only twenty-five the President-General, a position African Peace Prize winners. the various categories, recipients people from Africa had received the award (nobelprize.org, 2017). The prizes awarded to Africans span across he held until his death in 1967. of the Peace Prize often undergo categories, and include both men and women. Below is a current listing by date of African laureates and the He utilized his role as president significant personal hardships Three African Women and Peace categories for which their award was presented: to support the 1952 Defiance including persecution, physical Campaign-a period of non-violent in Africa: A Brief Case Study 2013, Michael Levitt, South Africa (Chemistry) 1993, Nelson Mandela, South Africa (Peace) danger, and imprisonment in a protests, boycotts, and other Wangari Muta Maathai: Women’s Rights 2012, Serge Haroche, Morocco (Physics) 1993, Frederik Willem de Klerk, South Africa (Peace) mission to help others avoid the measures levied against the South and the Environment-Kenya 2011, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Liberia (Peace) 1991, Nadine Gordimer, South Africa (Literature) same. For this reason, let us turn African Government to affect the 2011, Leymah Gbowee, Liberia (Peace) 1988, Naguib Mahfouz, Egypt (Literature) now to explore the continent’s social inequality leveraged against Born in 1940, in 2004 Wangari 2005, Mohamed ElBaradei, Egypt (Peace) 1986, Wole Soyinka, Nigeria (Literature) history with the award. black Africans by the government Muta Maathai became the first 2004, Wangari Muta Maathai, Kenya (Peace) 1985, Claude Simon, Madagascar (Literature) during Apartheid. 2003, John M. Coetzee, South Africa (Literature) 1984, Desmond Mpilo Tutu, South Africa (Peace) black African woman to receive Africa and the Prize for Peace During his tenure as president, 2002, Sydney Brenner, South Africa (Physiology or 1979, Allan M. Cormack, South Africa (Physiology or the Nobel Peace Prize. Raised in a Luthuli was harassed, arrested, Medicine) Medicine) traditional household and during On the continent of Africa, ten forced to surrender his position 2001, Kofi Annan, Gold Coast {now Ghana} (Peace) 1978, Mohamed Anwar al-Sadat, Egypt (Peace) a time when formal education for of these awards (eleven if Yassar as chief, and severe limitations 1999, Ahmed H. Zewail, Egypt (Chemistry) 1964, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, Egypt (Chemistry) black women in African was not Arafat, born in Egypt is included) were placed on his ability to 1997, Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, French Algeria {now 1960, Albert John Luthuli, Southern Rhodesia {now common, Maathai was sent to Algeria} (Physics) Zimbabwe} (Peace) have been presented to individuals travel. In fact, Luthuli was only school by her mother who used 1994, Yasser Arafat, Egypt (Peace) *Included in the 1957, Albert Camus, French Algeria {now Algeria} and an additional four have been the second person honored by African listing by Nobel as he was born in Egypt (Literature) 1951, Max Theiler, South Africa (Physiology or Medicine) 12 · IROHIN 13 · IROHIN to her Peace Prize, Maathai has President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf rebel factions in 2003, she became and child soldiers she regularly been recognized with a variety of chairperson of the Governance encountered. international awards. President Sirleaf grew up in the Reform Commission of the National She started to organize as she Liberian capital of Monrovia, where Transitional Government of Liberia believed that the women of Liberia Ellen Sirleaf and Leymah she married and had four sons. but resigned a year later to run for needed to do something to stop the In 1961, she moved to the United president in 2005. She won and violence and chaos. She became Gbowee: Two Women Saving States with her husband and became the first female African one of the founders of the West Liberia she earned two degrees; includ- president. Africa Network for Peacebuilding. ing a Masters Degree in Public In 2007, President Sirleaf Within the organization, she began Background Administration from Harvard was awarded the Presidential an interfaith project of organizing University's Kennedy School of Medal of Freedom by the United and unifying women against war. After decades of political Government. States President George Bush. This led to important contacts instability fostered by corruption, After graduating from Harvard, She served as President of Liberia with women within the Muslim in 1980 Liberia experienced a she returned to Liberia and she for two terms until she stepped community and eventually gave Coup d'état by Samuel K. Doe. held several government posts down in 2017. She was named birth to the Women of Liberia Mass President William Tolbert and including minister of finance. by Newsweek Magazine as one Action for Peace. She convinced sixteen of his high level staff were Always trying to do the best for her of the World’s “Top Ten Leaders” other women that it was their duty immediately executed. people despite its political popular- (nobelprize.org). as women to take action to halt the In 1989, Charles Taylor, a ity, Sirleaf was often at odds with violence (nobelprize.org). former ally of Doe, led a suc- reigning political power. She was Leymah Gbowee Her active and effective role cessful revolt to unseat him from jailed for a year by then dictator in the organizations assisted with power using the National Patriotic Samuel Doe, and was threatened Leymah Gbowee also grew up the election of the first female Front of Liberia (NPFL). Soon with death by his successor in Liberia. As a teenager, she was president, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf. after in 1990, Doe was tortured Charles Taylor. present during the nation’s brutal She also earned a Master’s Degree and executed on film. The film Sirleaf persevered in her civil war which in her words “from in Conflict Transformation from was widely circulated internation- struggle to help a nation plagued a child into an adult in a matter Eastern Mennonite University ally as an instrument of fear to with violence and war. Despite of hours” (nobelprize.org). Soon (Harrisonburg, VA). solidify Taylor’s regime. grave personal risk, she ran after, she had her first child and As an international peace activ- Soon after, many of Taylor’s against Charles Taylor in the became interested in social work. ist, she continues to push forward rebel fighters splintered off 1997 presidential election—an She wanted to learn how to do and organize other organizations into separate factions in a bid election he won by terror. After something that could help the emo- of unity such as the Women Peace for power. This action led to a Taylor was forced into exile by tionally wounded young women and Security Network Africa. bloody civil war which would Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Wangari Maathai (Source: Demosh) last for nearly sixteen more years. In the interim, in the 1997 scarce money she earned doing ad- using the unemployed and paying Liberian election, Taylor waged a ditional odd jobs. This would be an them with international funds. This campaign of terror using slogans important step for Maathai as she idea was wildly successful, and such as “"He killed my ma; he found a niche in academia, and eventually became known as the killed my pa; I'll vote for him.“ eventually furthered her education Greenbelt Movement. The war ended in 2003 with in the United States through a The Greenbelt Movement Taylor being ousted, and forced to special educational program for simultaneously empowered African resign and flee to Nigeria. Africans created by President John women, provided much needed After Taylor’s removal, a F. Kennedy. Earning multiple income, and combated rampant de- peace settlement was brokered degrees, including a Ph.D. (1971), forestation at the same time. Like among the remaining factions Maathai eventually became an many other African women trying by the Economic Community of associate professor and chair of the to effect change, Maathai was West African States (ECOWAS) Veterinary Anatomy Department at actively persecuted and arrested by and monitored by 15,000 United the University of Nairobi (Unbowed, the Kenyan government. Nations peacekeeping troops 2011). Eventually the movement (PBS.org). In the 1970’s, her then hus- spread to many other countries Two women were instrumen- band ran for a seat in parliament. on the African continent, and tal in securing the peace, tending Among others, one of his primary resulted in the planting of more to the emotionally injured, and campaign issues was finding than thirty-one million trees creating a solid foundation for solutions to the growing problem of (nobelprize.org). After her election stability in Liberia. unemployment in Kenya. Maathai to parliament in 2002, she was combined this issue, along with her assigned the post of Assistant interest in environmental conserva- Minister for Environment, Natural tion, to propose planting trees Resources and Wildlife. In addition Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, President of Liberia, and Leymah Gbowee, 2011 Nobel Peace Prize Laureates. (Source: Nobel Media)

14 · IROHIN 15 · IROHIN In 2011, three women shared this level, the teacher can also use more generally. Resources include the Nobel Peace Prize for "for their the subject as an opportunity to books, online materials, and where Staci White non-violent struggle for the safety teach the students about Africa in possible-field trip opportunities. of women and for women's rights general. A basic idea could include to full participation in peace- Africa’s geography, history with Lesson Plans High School: building work" (nobelprize.org). colonial powers, and the struggle This included Tawakkol Karman of the proverbial “underdog” using Any black African Nobel Laureate’s who shared the award for playing non-violent means to secure biography would be an excellent African Women Representation in a leading role in the struggle for justice. Resources include library assignment during Black History women’s rights and for democracy books, online materials, and vari- Month. In this way, the students and peace in Yemen. ous geographical art materials. would have a way to see beyond the traditional figures assigned to Lesson Plan Objectives Lesson Plans Middle School: learn about the issues they lived African Literature through and resolved. Students The story of the Nobel Prize and The story of these activists could choose a laureate and create the Nobel Prize in Africa, presents would be a wonderful opportunity a paper then present it for the The representation of African of the woman (Fonchingong, 2006, in literature (Fonchingong, 2006, multiple learning opportunities for the students to role play class. As with the other grade women in African literature is a p.135). For example, in the novel p.135-136). ranging from the effects of colonial- as both the women and their levels discussed, studying about discourse that should be held in Things Fall Apart, three goats Even when African women ism, the injustice of Apartheid, detractors. Some students might Africa and the Nobel Prize is an the classroom. As educators, do are killed by Chinua Achebe’s are given heroic roles in African political and historical movements be assigned the role of the peace excellent opportunity to introduce we really know how our students Okonkwo, for one of his wives who literature, they are not always in Africa, the struggle for women’s activists, while others would be other topics about Africa in perceive the perpetuated images had three sons in a row, yet The acknowledged as heroic or rights in Africa, the opportunity the violent opposition. Through general. At the High School level of African women in African Concubine’s Madume, authored powerful. Research in African and disparity between men and talks and negotiation, the students a more in depth discussion and literature? Are we aware of female by Elechi Amadi, is ostracized Literatures journal “Women in the women internationally, and envi- would learn what the issues actu- analysis of topics ranging from African characters in African due to his wife being unable to African Epic” provided a critical ronmental stewardship. ally were during the conflicts and racism, political justice, feminism, literature and the context they produce a male heir. Though perspective on women and their seek to peacefully resolve them. environmental activism, and geopo- are presented in? By analyzing the males are ostracized, women roles in African Epics, or poems. Lesson Plans Elementary School: There is also an opportunity for litical influence can be introduced. African literature that provides who are unable to bear children The female character is given the short biography presentations on the illustrations of African women, are stigmatized and identified as heroic role but is robbed of her The story of these courageous African Nobel winners from any we will be able to understand and a societal misfit (Fonchingong, recognition. As an audience, we women would be an excellent story- category where the student (or acknowledge the representations of 2006, p.135). During the pre- attach the role of being a hero telling and reading opportunity. As group) would choose a topic and African women. colonial era, gender roles were to the male, while dispelling the the reader, the students will form a offer a 5-7 minute presentation complementary in African woman’s actions of significance to the class (with or without a circle around the teacher and take Gender and Literature Literature. Colonization served and perseverance. The Ashanti turns reading selected excerpts projector). As with the elementary as the era of women servants; tale “How Spider Obtained lesson plan, an opportunity is about the achievements of these To explore the dynamics of women no longer governed power Sky-God’s Stories” serves as an also present to teach about Africa women in the face of adversity. At African women representations in African literature, we must unpack the aspects of gender in African literature. There is a plethora of African literature that entails the image of male dominance and ineffectively implores the case of the woman (Fonchingong, 2006, p. 135).” The beginning era of African literature was saturated with male authors that perpetuated the idea of women being marginalized or inferior; women were rarely depicted as the superior or power- ful protagonist (Fonchingong, 2006, 135). The ideology of the female character created by male authors often disseminated traditional gender roles, such as the mother and the wife. The adap- tions of these roles by women are affirmed by social construct and (Source: We Should All Be Feminists by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie and Nervous Nobel Laureates, President Sirleaf Johnson and Leymah Gbowee attend the Nobel Peace Prize Concert at the Oslo Spektrum Arena on 11 December 2011 the value placed on the adoration Conditions by Tsitsi Dangarembga) (Source: Nobel Media) 16 · IROHIN 17 · IROHIN Conclusion example of the female character African Women Representations Ngozi Adichie, and Mariama Bâ, displaying heroic actions, but the in African Literature Written By recognize the perpetuated images African women representations male is given the acknowledgement Women and include representations that in African literature is fundamental of being valiant. The primary male explore the distinct roles of African to writing and reading. It is impor- character, Ananse, is on a quest Let’s expand the discourse women in literature. tant for students to learn about to obtain Nyankonpon, Sky-God’s regarding representations of literature in a cultural sense. It is stories. Sky-God affirms that in African women in African literature African Literature and also important for them to be able order to possess the stories, one by acknowledging the woman Contemporary Depictions of to critique and ask questions about must capture a variety of different writer. Many female African African Women societal practices, gender roles, creatures. In order to capture these writers have included different and different eras that shaped creatures, Ananse seeks guidance perspectives of female identity and The post-colonial era of African literature. Students deserve the from his wife, Aso. Ananse was purpose. She is not always docile, literature entail images of African opportunity to learn about Africa able to capture all the creatures her heroic moments are not always women that support ideologies of and its diversity and vitality. Africa requested and obtain Sky-God’s overlooked, and she is not always women fighting against stereotypi- is a continent full of knowledge and stories due to Aso’s teachings. struggling with the ideology of cal images and questioning societal history. The discussion surrounding this tradition and western civilization. systems, such as patriarchy. As an educator, it is my duty particular literature recognizes the “New Women’s Writing in African Nervous Condition, a to teach material that broaden the problematic reactions: we are all Literature,” authored by Ernest N. semi-autobiography by Tsitsi perspectives of young women and too familiar with perceiving this Emenyonu, supplies an outlook Dangarembga, shares a story young men. More activities and literature as the male being the on contemporary female poets of a young African woman who lesson guides should focus on the hero, and in the process, belittling from Northern Nigeria. Author has dreams of gaining educa- teaching of Africa. When we read the significant role of the woman Aderemi Raji-Oyelede discusses tion. Dangarembga does not omit material that touches on African (Mbele, 2006). This enforces the the poetry of Hannatu Abdul- lahi, the role of women taking care of representations, whether the focus standard of male dominance and Maria Ajima, Nana Ahmed, Binta children, or being in the kitchen. is representation of women, or the identifying the woman as inferior. Mohammed, Cecilia Kat. Raji- She uses these roles to convey the continent, we will be able to better Oyelede recognizes the idealistic hardships of patriarchy, cultural educate and discover knowledge Expansive Depictions of African concern for the environment, norms, and race concerning an that accurately define those Women in African Literature celebration of motherhood, sister- African woman striving for social representations. hood, and womanhood, a modest advancement. This novel critiques Creating literature that critique of patriarchy, and religion. patriarchy and creates the ideology accurately represents African These poets embrace the depic- of women being a part of a liber- Lesson Plan tion of African women welcoming women is a critical aspect con- ated society (Mbatha, 1988). Zimbabwean writer of novels including Nervous Conditiions, Tsitsi Dangarembga the role of being mothers and cerning perpetuated ideologies. The novel Efuru, authored by In a setting that focuses on (Source: David Clarke, Ayebia) In the review of “The Sociology of individual women, simultaneously Flora Nwapa, explores the journey literature, having different literary (Emenyonu, 2004). Urban Women’s Image in African of a remarkable woman who faces works a part of the lesson would be To prepare them before the In the book Africa, African liter- 4) Each team member will Literature” by Kevin Little, reviewer many hardships in life. The novel essential. The lesson could focus lesson, the warm up will consist of ature is discussed in the context of have a role: discussion director, Phyllis E. Goldberg acknowledges discusses the issues Efuru has on two African literary works: a guided question sheet or antici- representations of African Identity bridge builder, and summarizer. the problematic take on African with men, her struggle with moth- pation guide. The guide will consist and African perspectives. Female The discussion director will create women. The literature was uninfor- erhood, and family. Efuru offers a 1. A short story, or excerpt of of questions pertaining to African African writers identify gender questions that help guide the mative and lacked true sense of the fresh look at the African woman, an African novel, that depicts the women and how they are repre- based literature, in which male conversation. African woman (Goldberg, 1981). in which Efuru struggles with the female characters in a stereotypical sented in literature. Their learning Male written African literature, writers criticize the imperial and same aspects that African women context, such as being women who 5) The bridge builder will help slip, or exit slip, will be on the back sometimes, contain conceptual colonized philosophies for racism are defined by (wmich.edu, 2001). are helpers to their husbands, and the team connect what they are of their guided question sheet. The limitations regarding African and oppression. Even in this There cannot be a discussion only mothers to their children. reading to their own lives, or cul- students will write a summary on women and how to accurately aspect, the criticism of the impe- about African women representa- ture. The summarizer will present what they learned from each team portray them. African literature, rial and colonized philosophies is tions in African literature without 2) The second literary work a summary of the conversation to regarding African women represen- written by men, lack expansive referenced to men, while women discussing Unbowed, a memoir would provide a look at the African the class. This will give the stu- tations in African literature. images of African women; they are portrayed as “goddesses,” such by Wangari Maathai. We enter a female characters in a diverse dents an opportunity to hear more are often seen as traditional and as muses, idealized mothers, and world of real events, real roles, and context. than one perspective concerning docile. This is not to say some simply helpmates (Julien, 2014, p. real life regarding African women the representations of African African women are not traditional 220). representations. We see an African 3) Students will be placed women in African literature. or docile, but this image is per- Many African women writers woman as an environmentalist, into cooperative teams of three. ceived as one of the few images contribute to literature by offering and not just a mother, or a wife. The cooperate teams will identify of African women in colonized a unique perspective regarding and discuss the representation of African literature (Representation African women depictions. African women in the literary work of Women in African Literature, P. African women writers, such as they are given. Jadeja, 2005). Zukiswa Wanner, Chimamanda

18 · IROHIN 19 · IROHIN Kate Lawrence Tea and Fair Trade in African Countries

Tea Production in Africa other countries known for their exclusively in the Cedarberg region tea, such as China at 2lb. 7oz. of South Africa. South Africans When people think of tea, the and India at 1lb 11oz., one can see have been consuming rooibos tea first image that surfaces may be a how integrated tea is in African for centuries (Kevin Gascoyne, high tea in Britain or a ceremonial cultures. 2016). As such, this tea was a tea in China. The continent of There are many different part of South African culture long Africa is not usually the first place countries in Africa, and therefore before European colonists brought that comes to mind when thinking many different cultures and cus- with them their version of tea. of tea, but maybe it should be. toms centered around tea. Some After Asia, Africa produces the cultures are affected by the agricul- Economic Effects of Tea in second highest amount of tea in tural aspect of tea. Other countries the world and a large 62 percent are known for a specific way of pre- African Countries of this is produced in Kenya alone. paring tea, or a certain ceremony African tea growers contribute (Smith, 2016) In the global market, that is popular in that region. 12 percent of the world’s tea pro- Kenya is the third largest producer In Kenya the number three duction. Much of the tea produced of back tea after India and Sri in tea production in the world, is exported to the European, Lanka. (R.M. Gesimba, 2005) tea is consumed on a daily basis. Middle East, and North American Eleven countries in Africa However, in comparison to the tea markets. (Smith, 2016) According cultivate, produce, and export the Kenyans consume that is grown in to the census bureau of Kenya, Camellia plant which black, green, Kenya, as a percentage it exports Kenya produced 399,211 metric and white teas are derived from. the largest amount of tea it pro- tonnes of tea at a price of $2.96/ These countries are (in order of duces each year (Smith, 2016), Kg. Kenya is the world leader in volume produced): Kenya, Malawi, Almost 90 percent of Kenya’s tea Kenyan professionals discussing a frost prone tea field at a tea estate (Kericho) with Regina Mutai (center) and Geoffrey Kipngeno of James Finlays black tea exports and makes up Uganda, Burundi, Tanzania, is hand-picked and produced. and Absae Sedah (center right) of Kericho County Meteorology office (Source: Servir Global) 22 percent of the world’s exports Mozambique, Rwanda, Zimbabwe, (Gaylard, 2015) As such, tea pro- of tea. Recent reports state that Ethiopia, Cameroon and the duction makes up a large part of Kenya produced 476,640 tons and Democratic Republic of the Congo many Kenyan’s lives. exported 258,140 tons of tea, over Environmental Effects of Tea rather than many varieties, tea to dry the processed leaves, which (Smith, 2016). However, there are In northern Africa, tea cer- half of the tea produced nationally cultivation has environmental also increases environmental pollu- many other countries which pro- emonies are unique to certain Plantations (Smith, 2016). Another country impacts. Because there is, in tion (Mondal, 2017). duce herbal, floral, or rooibos teas. countries or areas. Moroccan mint that produces a high volume of Tea is a beverage that is widely essence, only one plant many Because tea estates are large, tea, is popular in Tunisia, Algeria, tea for export is Malawi. Malawi enjoyed all over the world. It is times over, it is much more easily huge amounts of land must be and Morocco. It is made by com- African Countries That Consume produces 59,525 tons and exports seen as a healthy alternative to susceptible to pests, disease, and cleared to sustain them. This bining Chinese tea, mint leaves, 38,225 tons of tea. This again is coffee with intrinsic health ben- weeds. Application of weedicides, results in large amounts of defor- Tea and the Culture of Tea in and sugar and poured from a well over half of the tea produced efits. Green tea especially is known pesticides, and inorganic fertilizers estation. In addition, the estates Africa height to create a froth. It is tradi- in the country. Uganda produces for its antioxidant properties. Tea creates environmental hazards. and gardens are kept clear of any tionally served three times creating 58,420 tons and exports nearly all production has recently increased These insecticides often eliminate weeds or native growth which For many Africans, tea is as a different flavor with each steep- at 55,115 tons of tea (Smith 2016). not only in African countries, but not only the targeted pest, but would otherwise keep the soil in much a way of life as it is for the ing (Gaylard, 2015). In Senegal, While these nations export a large globally as well. With this increase, many other animals native to the place. This results in soil erosion, British. This isn’t hard to conceive there is a similar tea, but the focus amount of tea, unfortunately much there is a need for larger tea large areas of land on which tea which in turn results in lowering of as many countries in Africa were is more on the ceremony called of it is not packaged within the estates with more tea trees avail- estates are located. the natural water table. colonized by the British and other attaya, which can take hours, country. If this were the case, it able for harvest. But tea trees take Soil degradation is an One environmental positive in tea-drinking European coun- allowing for family and friends to would earn a much greater amount a lot of care to keep. Because of the additional concern because the cultivating tea is the necessity for tries. In fact, on the continent of visit. of money per volume, and more of growth in number of tea estates incessant use of fertilizers and shade trees. Tea is a delicate plant Africa, the annual per capita tea As earlier mentioned, tea the earnings would stay within the and the care needed to cultivate herbicides compound soil erosion. which requires shade to thrive. consumption is 1 lb. 3oz (Smith, production in African countries is borders of the country itself. them, there are inherent environ- Apart from those issues, chemical This being the case, large trees 2016). When compared with the not limited to beverages made from mental impacts. runoff into bodies of water can also native to the area are planted to UK at 4lbs. 3.oz, that doesn’t seem the tea tree. Rooibos, sometimes Since it is a monoculture, create problems. Finally, during tea provide relief from constant, direct like a lot. But when compared to called red tea or redbush, is grown meaning there is only one type manufacturing, fossil fuel is used sunlight. Shade trees are helpful in

20 · IROHIN 21 · IROHIN that they add organic matter to the beyond that time line (Palmer, family farmers and workers around smaller scale. The findings were negative impacts of tea estates on foods and beverages. Afterwards, soil by shedding their leaves, pre- 1986). the world, while enriching the that many of the values advocated the local ecology and health of the you could represent the different serve soil moisture during the dry Although there were tea lives of those struggling in poverty. in Fairtrade were already in effect local people are still in effect. While privileges of different peoples and winter months, as well as balanc- associations formed and laws These are indeed commendable in Tanzanian tea gardens. It was many national and international the unequal balance of the global ing nitrogen levels (Mondal, 2017). passed, more often than not, those and desirable characteristics to found that the benefits claimed by tea associations and organizations economy by creating a “global in control chose to work around strive for. However, there has been Fairtrade as it is currently enacted under the Fairtrade umbrella are economy” in your classroom. Brief History of Tea in Africa them, or ignore them. (Palmer, some concern raised that these (direct contracts, empowerment, making positive differences, we 1986) The wages for workers on tea models may not be reaching their and higher prices) may also be need to consider if small positive 3. Split the students into Tea has an interesting and plantations or estates have been intended goals for tea farmers in obtained from existing business movement is enough for the coun- “countries” which will need to all vibrant history that is oftentimes extremely unbalanced compared Africa. relationships between producers tries in Africa. We need to consider produce the same exact things. marked or accompanied by strife to the amount of money brought in In a study of Fairtrade in and buyers in the Tanzanian tea if better is the same thing as good. This can be simplified to even and discord. This has been no by their tea production. This has Aruka, Kenya, it was found that industry (Simbua, 2012). There is still a great deal of growth producing the same exact shapes. different on the African continent. continued until recent and even while the intended goal of having When looking at the effects of to be done to truly empower tea However, only provide some stu- As with many other countries, tea present times. However, in present a minimum working wage was set Fairtrade in the rooibos tea market farmers in Africa. dent groups with the materials growing and cultivation started times there are some organizations and realized, the tea being pro- in South Africa we find similar necessary to create the items. The as a result of European coloniza- that are working to recalibrate the duced could garner a higher price results. South Africa’s largest tea Classroom Connection shapes will need to be measured tion. In the pre-colonial era, tea balance of not only money, but at the Mombasa Tea Auction since export is by far rooibos, which against the model and must match trees were not indigenous to any empowerment. In Kenya, the Kenya it was a higher quality tea (Dolan, until recently had been consumed These ideas can be introduced exactly for the country to be “paid”. countries in Africa. As European Tea Development Agency (KTDA) 2010). While the goal of providing largely domestically. The plantation in the classroom in multiple ways. colonialists settled in Africa, they has undergone some reforms workers with a minimum working which produced by far the most I will outline one possible lesson, 4. Students will quickly realize brought with them their own cul- for the benefit of all its workers wage is important, in this case, it tea has been historically cultivated but the variations are many. the discrepancy and lack of fair- tures and enforced their lifestyles (Messah, 2011). stunted the wages of the workers by marginalized black workers and ness between countries. As a follow on peoples and environments that rather than embellished them. sold by white middlemen paying 1. First, it is important for up activity, encourage students were previously unaffected by Fair Trade and the Tea Industry Another study in Kenyan prices so low that they failed to students to understand where dif- to use their voices and write to the sweeping brush of European Fairtrade showed that there was even cover costs. With the arrival of ferent products that they consume companies who are not currently colonialism. Tea production and trade is definitely success and growth in Fairtrade markets, empowerment in daily life come from before they Fairtrade partners explaining the Tea trees were first introduced growing globally and especially some areas. There is compelling and benefits have significantly are in the store where they are activity and why it is important for in tea gardens in the 1850’s in in African countries. It is an evidence that the projects have increased, but the benefits con- purchased. everyone who produces a product South Africa, and the first planta- important part of the economic made a positive contribution to tinue to be unequal (Ngcwangu, to be empowered to do the best tions appeared in 1877 (Kevin structures of many African the area, reducing productive and 2010). 2. Open a discussion of what they can. Gascoyne, 2016). Colonial culture countries, however more could be reproductive labor constraints goes into making their favorite greatly impacted the previous done to increase the income from and opening up new possibilities Conclusion agriculture of African nations. The tea exports. Despite advances in for education and health care. colonists created a cash society of representation for the labor force Approximately two-thirds of small- Tea in Africa is not to be economics that required African on tea plantations, many workers holders claimed to have directly overlooked. The people in African farmers to grow cash crops or work on estates labor in hard conditions benefited, or knew other mem- countries consume large amounts on farms of settlers that grew such and for very little compensation. bers of the community who had of tea as a part of their daily life crops. Ecological sustainability is an issue benefited from the community proj- and culture. Each country is In many cases in Kenya, entire within tea estates and gardens, ects (Dolan C. S., 2008). However, affected by tea in its own unique families moved to the settlers’ including deforestation, displaced there is still lack of transparency way, by cultivating, exporting, con- farms to work. But as there were wildlife, soil erosion, and lowering and gender equality promised by suming, or in ceremonies. African no schools on or near the farms, of the water table. Fortunately, the the values of Fairtrade. countries are an essential compo- education was not readily acces- Fairtrade organization has recently Allison Marie Loconto and nent in global tea trade. Be that sible. (Maathai, 2007) Because of added tea to its umbrella of protec- Emmanuel Frank Simbua con- as it may, a multitude of workers this, families were either separated tion. There are now multiple tea ducted a study on Fairtrade tea are underpaid for their efforts, and when children went to school, plantations across the continent in Tanzania. They looked at the the countries suffer for it in vari- or remained on the farms for that have benefitted from a rela- differences in Fairtrade and exist- ous ways, not the least of which is generations due to lack of social tionship with Fairtrade and other ing ownership to promote the financial. In the last decade, some movement related to lack of educa- sustainable business partners, values of trading and governance African countries like Kenya and tion. In Malawi, European settlers such as United Kingdom-based relationships. In addition to these Malawi have proven that given a offered land in exchange for labor. Ethical Tea Partnership and the relationships, they delved into fair trade regime internationally, There were verbal agreements of Rainforest Alliance. the other ideas of sustainability and pro-growth economic policies one month of work to pay taxes, Fairtrade prides itself on promoted by Fairtrade. One at home, they are capable of com- and one month of work, to pay espousing the values of empower- such notion is that of empower- peting in the international market. for rent. However, the idea of “one ment, integrity, sustainability, ing farmers. The Tanzanian Tea (Ndegwa, 2014) month” was often stretched well innovation, excellence, personal Authority (TTA) had already passed There are still very few ecologi- development, community, fairness, ordinances that allowed smallhold- cally sustainable practices being and impact. They wish to empower ers to produce and sell tea on a instituted as a part of Fairtrade partnerships. Because of this, the Tea field workers in Rwanda (Source: Jordygashagaza/Wikimedia)

22 · IROHIN 23 · IROHIN assistance, contacting spiritual not in retreat. The period saw the chiefs and sub chiefs in villages De’Shanta Everett forces in specific places or through flowering of a wide spectrum of and towns” (pg 11, 2007). the use of masks and other objects churches” (Goodhew, 2000). With its stronghold in every (Grosz-Ngate, Hanson, O’ Meara, One of the churches that began area of African life, Africans desired 2014). These traditional practices to blossom during this time period a change. The apartheid system were passed down from generation was the Pentecostals. Pentecostals with its enforced segregation within to generation of Africans. However, as defined by the author of “New early South African Pentecostalism A New Day: The Continued Rise of the the introduction of Christianity and African Initiated Pentacostalism drove many Africans into rejecting Islam through colonization brought and Charismatics in South Africa”, Europeans' form of Christianity about a new change. Today it is states “ I am one of those who and resulted in the mushrooming common to see Africans practicing favor a wide definition to include of African independent churches. traditional African religion as well in South Africa those Pentecostals Also the effects of discriminatory Contemporary Mega Church as Christianity and Islam. with historical links to worldwide laws led to a feeling of depression, Christianity and Islam are ‘classical’ Pentecostal denomina- disorientation, and marginalization the two most dominant religions tions, the African Initiated ‘spirit’ among South Africans. Many The belief in the existence of participants, 63% of participants down within one’s family, so too in Africa. From 1900 to 2010 the churches with historical intersec- new converts simply wanted a a God or supernatural entity is a stated they believed in the exis- are religious beliefs. number of Christians in Africa tion with Pentecostalism (67). The place where they could belong and simple definition of what is religion. tence of God in comparison to 9% In a continent consisting of grew from 10 million to 470 million author went on to state some char- be respected (Anderson, 2005). According to Merriam-Webster who adamantly stated they do not 54 countries, Africa is as diverse believers. In addition, the number acteristics found in the Pentecostal Anderson also stated that it was religion can also be defined as an believe in the existence of a god. with its topical landscapes of Muslims also increased to more church such as, emphasis on the also an attractive alternative to the “organized set of beliefs, ceremo- Why people believe in the exis- as it is with its religions. Its than 450 million (Grosz-Ngate, power of the Spirit in the church, “pie in the sky approach (71)”. The nies, and rules used to worship a tence of God varies. Many times origins centered primarily on Hanson, O’ Meara, 2014). In a especially manifested through such “pie in the sky approach,” accord- god or group of gods." The desire individuals believe in the existence its traditional religions. Africa’s close examination of the growth phenomena as healing, prophecy, ing to phrases.org, is an idiom to believe in the existence of a god of God, because their parents, traditional religions consisted and decline in South African exorcism and speaking in tongues coined by a Swedish born labor in is not uncommon. In a research grandparents, aunts, uncles, and of public rituals that engaged churches, David Goodhew exam- (Anderson, 2005). 1911. The phrase appeared first study conducted by Pew Research, other loved one’s do; Just like unforeseen forces, private conso- ined census documents to study There are many ideas as to why in Joe Hills, The Preacher and with a sample size of 35,071 physical characteristics are passed lations that provided individual the trends between 1960 through this shift began to occur, politics the Slave. The song criticized and 1991. In his research he found that being one of them. Desmond Tutu brought attention to the focus of before 1960 all churches showed described it best with this quote: saving souls rather than meeting evidence of growth. Within the the basic needs of the people. Roman Catholic Church member- “When missionaries came to Africa they had Eventually the phrase came to ship grew from 24,000 to 233, 000 the bible but we had the land. They said represent any prospect of future by 1936. ‘let us pray’. We closed our eyes. When we happiness which was unlikely to Although African Independent opened them we had the bible and they had occur here on earth. churches were not included in the the land”. (Xplore.Inc, 2017) Due to the various reasons, 1911 census, by 1936 records indi- many Africans began to move away The arrival of colonialists in cated membership of over 1 mil- from mainline churches to seek Africa changed everything includ- lion, and 2, 188, 000 by 1960. At alternatives. Today you can see ing languages, cultural traditions this time one group that did show numerous African independent and family structures. In her mem- a decline was the ‘No religion/ churches with membership’s oir “Unbowed”, Wangari Maathai, other and Unspecified which went attendance in the thousands described some of the changes that from being three quarters of the throughout Africa. took place. “ Throughout Africa total in 1911 to one third in 1960. According to ABC News, the missionaries renamed whatever Goodhew also noticed that Roman number of Americans who attend they came across. At home, we Catholic churches, Anglicans, a mega church is between 2 -5 learned the names of mountains, Presbyterians, Lutherans, and million people. In 1999, Church streams, or regions from our Methodist all continued to grow Growth Today had already identi- parents, but in school we were rapidly while African Independent fied 10 churches outside the U.S. taught the colonists names deemed churches grew at a more gradual with 30,000 weekend attendance. “the proper names” in which had pace in comparison (pg 36). “In The three largest were Yoido Full to use on exams” (Maathia, pg the three decades between 1961 Gospel Church-Seoul, Korea 6). The shifting of power became and 1991 mainline Protestantism (180,000), Vision de Futuro-Santa immediate once colonialists suffered a huge decline. Roman Fe, Argentina (80,000), and Deeper became integrated in the African Catholicism saw significant Christian Life Ministry – Lagos, society. Maathai adds: “in general, growth, but may have begun to Nigeria (70,000). local Kenyans who converted to be effective by the same malaise Africa is projected to be the Christianity were given preference as other mainline churches. most populated Christian continent within the British colonial admin- A mega church in Lagos, Nigeria. Some mega churches in Nigeria accommodate more than 200,000 people. However, Christianity per se was by 2020. Africa already has more (Source: REUTERS/Akintunde Akinleye) istration and often were appointed

24 · IROHIN 25 · IROHIN Center. Family Worship Center is Conclusion a non-denominational charismatic church that offers pre-marital While church memberships in and martial counseling, training North America seem to be declin- in discipleship and has multiple ing, this is not the case in other locations in South Africa and parts of the world including Africa Nigeria. Its vision is “to exist to where the gospel is touching many worship God to demonstrate God’s people’s lives. People are seeking transforming love to man in order alternatives that shy away from the to make him an agent of love. traditional churches. The growth Another similarity found can be seen globally as well as within mega churches besides its in the United States of America. physical structure, is its funding Some people call it a movement or source. The funding source of even phenomena but it’s not being mega churches seem to be derived described as a fad. from member tithes. Members of churches are asked to give 10 per- Lesson Plan Ideas cent of all income they earn back to the church. Many churches see Activity: Shattering Misconceptions up to 20,000 people a service or have a solid member base of 2,000 Allow students a few minutes people. If each member contributes to think about and write everything 10% of their income along with they know about Islam, Judaism, charitable donations received, Christianity, Buddhism and each church stands to bring in Hinduism on a sheet of paper. millions of dollars each year. Many Once completed allow students churches also own other business the opportunity to discuss what such as restaurants, which all they have written using the talking remain untaxed since the church is stick. Another mega church, the Holy Ghost of The Redeemed Christian Church of God (RCCG) in Nigeria. a charitable organization. Winner’s (Source: National Geographic/Robin Hammond) Chapel is a prime example. Its After the discussion read a church has expanded to include book regarding one of the religions than 15 churches reporting more destinies, to bring healing to the a biblical but practical, non- for profit business such as gas discussed previously. Once the than 20,000 attendances. As more infirmed. Another similarity found dogmatic, worldly message that stations, schools, restaurants just book is finished ask students the people seek an alternative solution within some mega churches is the also suggests that religion should to name a few. Officially Bishop following questions: to the traditional growth will con- non-traditional approach. This not be separated from daily life’. Oyedepo is known as the richest tinue to occur. Do mega churches approach describes the church’s This description perfectly describes pastor in Nigeria and possibly the • Have any of your ideas or possess similar characteristics? mission to deviate from past Sara Omakwu’s church the Family world. It is believed that his net- thoughts changed? If yes how? In his research Dr. Scott Thumma traditional models of churches. Worship Center in Nigeria, Africa. work is about 150 million dollars has determined this to be true. In Their goal is to attract those If one were to view a sermon you as reported in 2011. • What will you now tell a his research “Exploring the Mega individuals who wouldn’t fit in or would find that its service is held In the face of poverty in friend, parent, or relative about the Church”, Dr. Scott Thumma stated feel comfortable in a traditional in a large auditorium upon a stage, countries such as Nigeria, many religion you learned about? “Whatever the focus, this visionary church where there exists a strict delivered from a clear plexus glass. wonder if churches should be taxed identity is seen as a particular social code including for dress In a field dominated by men considering the vast sum of money • Did you see any similarities "calling" and God-given "mission." attire. Dr. Thumma stated the idea Pastor Sara Omakwu along with that could assist its citizens. With between two religions discussed? Many of the mega church pastors is to remake traditions so that her husband founded Family pastors owning private planes and speak of this special "mission" they are acceptable and relevant Worship Center in 1993. The appearing on Forbes Magazine as having been given them in a to a modern person who had been church has grown since its begin- as one of the world’s elite, ques- supernatural "revelation," "dream," turned off by traditional religion. ning membership of 47 to now tions have arisen how financial or "vision." The congregation's He also discovered through his 8,000. Besides her pastoral duties donations are being spent, and if identity then is shaped around that research that most non-traditional she is also the chief organizing of- churches should be taxed. vision. Today’s more contemporary mega churches exude simplicity. ficer of the Christian Broadcasting mega churches seem to fit this Sanctuaries are usually spacious Network INT’L in Anglophone, West mold. For instance, Bishop David auditoriums, large stages exist, Africa and the National director of Oyedepo of Living Faith Church and a minimum of religious counseling- World Reach Nigeria. stated that he received a mandate symbols are present. He goes on to After the death of her husband she from God in an 18 hour vision to state that “the sermon would also became the President of Family liberate all mankind in all facets of be delivered from a clear plexus Ministries International and the human existence, to restore broken glass removable podium, convey senior pastor of Family Worship

26 · IROHIN 27 · IROHIN the city and the people that wrote By the year 1591; however, the manuscripts that are written in Ryan Reidway them. Many historians date the city was in decline due to the oc- several different local languages founding of Timbuktu to around cupation of and eventual conquest and dialects including Songhay, 1100 C.E. (Riason, 2004). It was by the Saadian Empire. The search Fulfulde, Tamasheq, and Hausa originally founded as a nomadic for gold and the rise of the Atlantic (Riason, 2004). Many also include settlement, but very soon played trade routes in the 16th, 17th, and calligraphy, diagrams, drawings, an intricate part in Saharan Trade 18th centuries allowed for control graphs, and charts. Some are The Manuscripts of Timbuktu: networks. It was because of these of the city to change hands and single sheets of parchment, while trade networks, that knowledge caused the city to fall into disarray others are bound together in became a major commodity for (Riason, 2004). However, new books with leather coverings. In the city and its people. The first research shows that the story of terms of the content, the manu- manuscripts date back to the 12th the manuscripts doesn't end there. scripts vary. Topics range from The Unacknowledged History of Knowledge century and give insight into the In fact, some of the most philosophy to medicine, literature day to day lives of the Arab traders notable of the manuscripts were to astronomy, law to finance, who visited the city (Ghayyur, written after the Moroccan inva- mathematics to art, as well as N/D). sion of 1591 and into the French numerous priceless editions of Word quickly spread across Colonization period in the late 19th Qurans and other important the desert of the vast fortunes century. Scholars and common Islamic texts (Understanding and opportunities that lay within people alike in the city began writ- Slavery Initiative, 2017). Timbuktu, and by the time it was ing about their experiences, ideas, Yet despite the variety conquered by the Mali Empire in and views (Riason, 2004). These of topics, they give us a rare the 14th century, it was seen as a “newer” manuscripts represent the insight into issues we have faced major player in the Islamic world changing times, while still honoring and continue to face in 21st (Riason, 2004). Beautiful Mosques, the written traditions of Timbuktu. century. For example, Okolo including the Dijinger-Ber, lined Rashid, Executive Director of the streets and academics, reli- The Manuscripts International Museum of Muslim gious officials, and royalty alike, Cultures (IMMC) in Jackson, traveled from as far as Mecca to Even to this day, there is not Mississippi, states that there are visit the scholarly heartland of the a centralized collection of these numerous manuscripts that deal Sahara (Penney, 2017). manuscripts. Vast private collec- with the idea of global governance Research suggests that approx- tions of them have traditionally (Ghayyur, N/D). This is an idea imately 85% of the manuscripts belonged to families within the city. that only came into fruition in are written in Arabic; however, this Some collections are said to have the Western world in latter half of began to change when the city was numbered close to 40,000 pieces the 20th century, with the rise of integrated into the Songhai Empire and new collections are being organizations such as the United in 1468. It is under Songhain rule discovered all the time (Riason, Nations and technology such as that Timbuktu saw its “Golden 2004). the internet that truly created a Age” (Boissoneault, 2015). For the This runs contrary to Western global community. next 120 years, the city retained Europe where up until the inven- Others deal with social and relative autonomy over its gover- tion of the printing press in 1440, religious topics, such as morality. nance and trade. This autonomy written knowledge was limited For instance, there is an exten- allowed intellectuals from all over to the elite, such as nobles and sive number of manuscripts that Great Mosque of Djenné (Source: Ruud Zwart) North Africa, West Africa, and what priests, and centralized in places deal with how Muslims inter- is now the Middle East to come to like universities and churches. rupted slavery. These types of Colonization of the African hierarchies, governance, and to be the intellectual hub of the the city. During this time period, These private collections offer manuscripts reference both Sub Continent in the late 19th and morality can be found in the Islamic World, Timbuktu and its which mirrored the European insight into how written knowledge Saharan Slavery and the Atlantic early 20th centuries by European deserts of Mali. vast collection of manuscripts, Renaissance, a very sophisticated was controlled and dispersed not Slave Trade. They give insight countries perpetuated the idea It is estimated that between provide insight into a civilization education system developed only in Timbuktu, but within the into who could become enslaved that Africa was intellectually 400,000 and 700,000 written full of rich knowledge and intrigue, within Timbuktu that rivaled the various African Kingdoms that and how enslaved people were backwards. One of the common manuscripts currently reside in the which deserves that same reputa- rest of the Islamic World and its controlled it. This challenges the meant to be treated under stereotypes is that Africa is void of city of Timbuktu (Riason, 2004). tion as its Western counterparts. counterparts in Western Europe. stereotypes of Africa being primi- Islamic law. One manuscript in a written history. While it is true They offer a different perspective, Intellectuals were encouraged to tive, as one of the dimensions of a particular, from the 17th century, that many African cultures did rely not only on the literate history of History study at the various mosques and civilization is documentation of a is translated as Ahmad Baba on oral traditions such as stories the continent and in particular schools within the city and were written language - which, as the Answers a Moroccan's Questions and songs to pass down informa- West Africa, but paint the city as The history of these manu- expected to contribute written evidence shows, was more widely about Slavery. This manuscript tion about their customs, numer- a cultural heartland equivalent to scripts and how they came to exist works about Islam and the world available in West Africa before it describes how the institution of ous libraries consisting of written the north African city of Alexandria is just as fascinating and enlight- around them (Understanding was in Western Europe. slavery defies Islamic law because African history including subjects in antiquity, and Paris or London ening as what is written in them. Slavery Initiative, 2017). In addition to Arabic, there are the Quran states that, “the such as language, religion, social in modern times. Once considered It is entwined with the history of

28 · IROHIN 29 · IROHIN were interested in reclaiming the Climate factors, political Lesson Plans: country's history. Several initia- instability, funding, basic in- tives were started including the frastructure, and translation World History: Manuscripts centralization of private collec- problems, are listed as some of the used to gain insight into Islam, West tions at the Ahmed Baba Institute numerous challenges historians African Culture, and Colonialism. in the 1970’s (Riason, 2004). are facing as they take on this Teachers could combine several However, due to funding issues daunting task (Riason, 2004). manuscripts to create a great a majority of the work done to Several books including The Book Document Based Question activity preserve the manuscripts in the Smugglers of Timbuktu by William for teaching historical analysis. later half of the 20th century was Collins, and several documentaries Civics/Economics: Using the done with the help of numerous including the California Newsreels manuscripts, students could European and International The Manuscripts of Timbuktu, have make comparisons to modern organizations, leaving some of been created to depict the story of day political thought, laws, and the owners of private collections these manuscripts and the pains- governance. Students could also skeptical and reluctant to give taking efforts to preserve them. identify the importance of trade and up their manuscripts. This is commerce using the manuscripts. an issue that continues to be an Conclusion Comparisons for trade could be intricate part of the manuscripts made to the Silk Road in antiquity story to this day (Penney, 2017). The study of these manu- and to the internet in the modern In 2013, there was a brief scripts and their story is not only era. Comparisons for government occupation of Timbuktu by an informative and fascinating, but could be made to the democracies, Islamic Extremists group linked it is crucial to writing the story theocracies, and oligarchies of the to Al-Qaeda. It was rumored of West Africa and the continent modern world. that the group was stealing in general. It provides us with a American History: Teachers manuscripts from private collec- unique insight into the minds of could use the manuscripts to tions across the city and burning West Africans not only during the examine the Atlantic Slave Trade, them in attempt to wipe away any Colonial Era but in terms of the the Saharan Slave Trade, and traces of Islamic history in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance the interactions of Europeans/ region (Sabine, 2017). Much like as well. It debunks popular myths, Americans with North Africa in the French colonialists a hundred common stereotypes, and gives 18th - 20th centuries. Analysis Storage cases full of ancient manuscripts from Timbuktu (Source: Brent Stirton / National Geographic) years before, the insurgents meaning to cultures that are far would allow students to have a viewed the manuscripts as a too often dismissed as uncivilized. better understanding of the crucial fundamental and original nature in the deserts surrounding the region, known as the French threat to their narrative about They make connections and offer role Africans have played in their of humanity is that individuals are West African city prompted some Sudan from 1892-1960, many of Islam. When French military answers to questions that the Oral own and global history. free” (Mohammed, 2010). to call it the El Dorado of Africa the private collections were pillaged forces arrived to liberate the city history of Africa can't answer as All Social Science Disciplines: Some manuscripts also deal (The Economist, 2017). And while and the manuscripts were either later in the year, they discovered well as highlight the relationships As the archiving of the manuscripts with science such as one that gold did play an important role destroyed or taken back to Europe that many of the manuscripts of truly global communities, is currently going on, it is a great translates as The Important in Timbuktu's colonial history, it as souvenirs, which could be then were still intact and in hid- centuries before Western scholars opportunity for students to learn Stars Among the Multitude of the was the manuscripts that seemed bought or traded for very low prices ing throughout the city (The even came up with the concept of about history as a science. Teachers Heavens, from 1733. In it, the to be the most valuable resource (Riason, 2004). Economist, 2017). globalization. Each manuscript is a could reach out to the numerous author uses diagrams to describe the city had to offer. Timbuktu It should be noted that the story worth telling, and it is crucial organizations conducting research the careful practices students must remained a source of fascination intrigue of European explorers in Preserving the Manuscripts that the preservation of these and create a partnership in which take when studying Astronomy. to scholars who were enraptured these works ran concurrent to the documents continue, before they students could engage in helping It describes how with practice, by the gilded legend of its libraries overall idea of Western Christian In recent years, progress are lost and forgotten in the pages document the manuscripts. they will be able to determine the and unrivalled learning well into Colonization. Missionaries would has been made in attempting of history. lengths of seasons by tracking the the 20th century. have forced conversion on the to preserve the manuscripts. movements of the stars, which Despite numerous attempts to conquered peoples of the region, Several agencies have taken the would in turn be crucial for provid- reach the city by European explor- and deemed the manuscripts to be lead including UNESCO, The ing horoscopes and for agriculture ers, it wasn't until 1826 when a form of heresy. The manuscripts Library of Mali, The Luxembourg practices (Ghalaw, 2010). Alexander Gordon reached the city, that were removed were not seen Development Agency, and the that Westerners got a real glimpse as scholarly works, but rather as South African-Mali Project. The The Significance of European at what Timbuktu had to offer. exotic treasures from primitive goal of preservation is to take In 1853, Hendrich Barth wrote peoples (Penney, 2017). This Search and Conquest the manuscripts and have them detailed descriptions about the city distinction adds to the narrative digitized. Through digitization, As early as the 16th century, and its vast wealth of knowledge. and reinforced the common these agencies not only hope Europeans began hearing rumors It was his accounts that inspired misconception that there was not a to preserve the legacy of the and various accounts of the mys- more interest in the manuscripts. written history of Africa. manuscripts, but hope to help terious desert city of Timbuktu. However, during the French After Mali gained its inde- change the preconceived notions Stories of massive deposits of gold colonization of the surrounding pendence in 1960, many people of African history (Riason, 2004). Manuscripts dating back to the 11th century (Source: Brent Stirton / Nat. Geo.) 30 · IROHIN 31 · IROHIN The need for a skilled labor Paul Adams force in European Atlantic Rim Colonies, as well as the necessity of maintaining a large enough population base in order to make and keep their colonial holdings profitable and under each nation's Elements of West African Influences in control (Hall, 22-25). Europeans were unwilling to emigrate to their Atlantic Rim settlements in large enough numbers to keep control and profits. At this time, Native North American Architecture American populations had been decimated by warfare, disruption of food production, and trade The Atlantic Rim of Africa has and societies. In addition, the 1492 A.D., Moorish architecture systems. Furthermore, Native had and continues to have a vanity development of local building flourished and many well preserved American populations were deeply of architectural styles influenced techniques and the adaptation and examples of this style still exist, affected by diseases from Europe by a wide variety of variables. incorporation of foreign building according to National Geographic. and Africa from which they had no Architectural styles have been techniques have also influenced There are very few major urban immunity and were in no position impacted by climate, cultural, these styles as well. centers in the Atlantic Rim regions to fulfill the needs of mercantilists religious practices, available re- During the Islamic presence of the Western hemisphere that European societies. sources, the amount of disposable in the Iberian Peninsula called were not impacted in some way by Many Africans were brought wealth of communities, individuals, Al-Andalus from 711 A.D. to the West African Rim societies. to North America because of Ornamental iron work in New Orleans (Source: David Ohmer) their skills in areas such as Blacksmithing and iron-wrights, and carpenters . While, African to the origin of the name. Some the ornamental iron work mostly American builders have contrib- say that it is because if one fired designed and made by African- uted greatly to the design, con- a shotgun, thru one of the doors, born populations and their descen- struction, and design renovations the buckshot would pass out the dants. Examples of this excellent to great structures both public other door. According to author craftsmanship can be found from and private. According to Vlach Vlach (1990), the name originated New York to New Orleans and (1990), "the greatest contributions with the Fon ethnic group in the as far as the Mississippi valley. of Blacks to American building area of what is now Benin. The African American blacksmith were custom and precedent has been in word, "To-gun," is said to have prominent in many areas from the the realm of the common dwelling meant place of assembly and 1600’s to the early 20th Century. house." It is in this area that the in the linguistic diffusion of that Tools, weapons and household design of what is known as the was understood to mean shotgun, items were also manufactured by shotgun house is found in many when the design arrived in North both enslaved and free master communities. This design of private America. The early benefits of this craftsmen (Altman, 1997). houses spread from Africa to Haiti dwelling were that it was easy to While much of the work of and then to New Orleans in the build with minimum materials and African American artisans has early nineteenth century and from the utilization of small of spaces in been lost in some cases, the details there to the Mississippi valley urbanized areas (Dapper, 2000). As of who produced particular pieces and east along the Gulf Coast. more space became available for still remain. The main gates of Originally there were two distinct housing, modern amenities were many existing plantation homes variations first there was the single added at the consumer level. For throughout the south, wrought design which was the conventional example, appliances and indoor iron balconies, balcony supports, freestanding one story home. The plumbing. In addition, variations overhangs in the form of animals, second design is referred to as a of this basic plan were expanded to geometric shapes and Roman double shotgun and is basically also take into account occupants’ letters can still be found through- two shotgun houses connected desire for increased privacy and out these areas. These were the to each other, sharing one long new construction materials and areas where African American central hallway. The original advanced techniques. blacksmiths once dominated the shotgun house had three to five Another element of African profession throughout the Atlantic rooms, while the double had architecture found along the Rim region and have left lasting twice the number of rooms as the Gulf and Atlantic RIm regions examples of their work and their Classic "shotgun" style house on Rampart Street, Faubourg Marigny neighborhood of New Orleans single. There is some debate as but not limited to these areas is crafts for future generations. (Source: Infrogmation/Wikimedia)

32 · IROHIN 33 · IROHIN internationally for his “massive, issues within his artwork, includ- widely celebrated as being a Andrea Chavez striking sculptures composed of ing national identity, the complex- pioneer for junk-metal art in East thousands of folded and crumpled ity of urban life, and globalization Africa (Kabukuru, 2010). Kioko’s pieces of metal that had been (Pijpers & Mallos, 2010). With his path to success, and ability to be discarded (M&G Africa, 2015).” El motivation to outline the effects freely expressive and creative, was Anatsui’s metal sculptures, which of urbanization, Tayou produces embedded with challenges. As a hang like tapestries, demonstrate artwork in hopes of eliciting an student at Kenyatta University Contemporary African Artists: society’s uncritical relationship emotional response from his College in the 1980s Mwitiki began with consumption and waste. The audience. His famous installment, to study Fine Arts; however, his Old Man’s Cloth (2003), which is Plastic Bags hung at the Gallery experiences during his years at currently on display at the Harn of Modern Art (2001-2009), “is college are what inspired him to Museum in Gainesville, Florida, made up of hundreds of plastic create repurposed artwork. He Inspiring Change with Repurposed Art was constructed with “flattened bags which hangs from the ceiling states: “The year was 1986. When, aluminum from liquor bottles in a giant drop-like shape (Pijpers along with some other radical that were collected near his home & Mallos, 2010).” Tayou uses the students, we were suspended from in Nigeria (Young).” El Anatsui’s plastic bags to draw the audience’s campus because of our hard-line artwork has also been featured in attention to the correlation of stance on political issues that art museums around the world, consumerism with the overuse of affected our lot and the country in including The Brooklyn Museum, plastic in our daily lives, and the general (Kabukuru, 2010).” Mwitiki The British Museum, and The vast amount of non-biodegradable was a part of a “leftist movement Metropolitan Museum of Art. In waste they produce. Plastic bags calling upon to elite powers to re- 2003, El Anatsui stated: “Art grows are an essential component of linquish power” and in the process, out of each particular situation, our everyday lives; yet through was forced underground as the and I believe artists are better Tayou’s installation, we can see government initiated a massive off working with whatever the the excess of contemporary living witch-hunt for “real and imagined environment throws up (Anatsui, and how plastic bags, like so many culprits (Kabukuru 2010).” Mwitiki 2003).” The world recognition consumer products, are useful and said that during these lonely years of El Anatsui’s artwork, and his convenient but also dangerous. in exile he became interested in promotion for artists to use the Tayou premises his work junk art. Despite the difficulties of environment around them, mir- on the assumption that artwork the time, he began to work, using rors many contemporary African cannot be separated from life. He what was readily available to him artists using recycled materials to feels inspired to create site-specific and searched through the Kikomba create repurposed art. This article installations in which he recycles landfill and “learned to pick up explores the influential messages materials, objects, and images scrap items which could be used of three distinct contemporary that have a history and personal to make something new (Rosa, African artists and their use of culture (Magnin, Greene, Wardlaw, 2009).” Mwitiki challenges himself repurposed art: Pascale Marthine & McEvilley, 2005). He also and society by creating beautiful Tayou, Elias Sime, and Kioko views his artwork as ‘collective’ sculptures through discarded Mwitiki. Each artist has their own pieces, in which he includes his objects. To this day, Mwitiki enjoys style, mediums, motivations, and “experiences, journeys, encounters, leaving his workshop to search for culture, yet they’re united over one energy, chance, and spontaneity” scrap metal in his community, and commonality: to inspire change (Magnin et al., 2005). Tayou’s often still goes to Kikomba (Rosa, with repurposed art. work sends inspiring messages for 2009). Similar to El Anatsui and Cameroon artist Pascale Marthine Tayou with his plastic bag installation (Source: Luigi Constantini/AP) self-examination of our actions, Pascale Marthine Tayou, Mwitiki Pascale Marthine Tayou and the consequences they may believes that artists should become There is a growing global The need to advocate and inspire is comparatively low on the list of have on our planet. Tayou consid- inspired by the environment they concern about the increase of pol- change stems from concerning regions, with 62 million tons of Born in Cameroon in 1967, ers himself simply a deliverer of live in. lution, greenhouse gas emissions, statistics of globalization and waste waste generated per year (Asnap, Pascale Marthine Tayou prefers these messages and states; “I leave In 1997, Mwitiki started his and the depletion of Earth’s natu- production. According to Paul 2012). However, African artists are to work with materials that are a to others the possibility to saying own art gallery in Nairobi, Pimbi ral resources. Africa produces only Muggeridge of the World Economic transforming discarded objects, part of his everyday life (Pijpers & it all. For me, art is just a simple Gallery. According to the news five percent of the world’s solid Forum (2015), the amount of which were once considered trash, Mallos, 2010). Tayou’s goal is to vector of communication (Magnin source, Kenya Buzz, “Pimbi Art waste production (Asnap, 2012), waste that is being produced is into internationally recognized take discarded materials and alter et al., 2005).” Gallery is the home of metal art yet contemporary African artists out growing urbanization The works of art (M&G Africa, 2015). their meanings in the context of and has been at the forefront are contributing their voices to the World Bank’s Urban Development Contemporary African artists are his installments (Pijpers & Mallos, Kioko Mwitiki of conserving the environment discussion of sustainability and Department estimates the amount redefining the way we see and use 2010). Tayou’s mediums vary, through education, recycling junk using their artwork as a medium to of waste will rise from 1.3 billion waste. including drawings, sculptures, Kioko Mwitiki who lives in metal and articulating conservation communicate messages about glo- tons per year to 2.2 billion tons per El Anatsui, a Ghanaian installations, videos, and perfor- Nairobi, Kenya, is regarded as issues through art.” Mwitiki is also balism, consumerism, and waste. year by 2025 (Asnap, 2012). Africa contemporary artist, is recognized mances. Tayou tackles various "Kenya's Michelangelo" and is a dedicated supporter of wildlife

34 · IROHIN 35 · IROHIN conservation and often works in The James Cohan Gallery, was Conclusion with the Kenya Wildlife Service. created with reclaimed electronics Nicole A. Harris In return, many of his metal (Cotter, 2015). Holland Cotter of In The Art of Recycling in Kenya, sculptures depict the beauty of the the New York Times describes Annelise Della Rosa states: “The vast wildlife of Kenya. Mwitiki is a Tightrope 7 by stating: “Stretching environment is suffering the effects contemporary African artist using almost floor to ceiling over two of man-made damage, and pollu- repurposed art to not only clean up walls, it’s a collage of thousands tion and looming global warming his local community, but inspire of metal computer boards lined are not only the only problems: the Ancestral Whispers: The Roots and and educate others about the up edge to edge and adorned with interaction between the man and realities of waste and consumer- buttons, screws, batteries, bundled nature, has too been altered (Rosa, ism. Mwitiki states: “…Believe you wires and sections of keyboards, 2009).” Contemporary African can change the world and not be along with bottle caps and scraps artists, such as El Anatsui, Pascale overwhelmed by it (Rosa, 2009).” of cigarette packs (Cotter, 2015).” Marthine Tayou, Kioko Mwitiki, Rhythms of Urban Expression Dumping electronic waste has and Elias Sime recognize the Elias Sime become an increasing problem environmental and social issues af- in African communities. Often, fecting our globe and contribute to Based in Addis Ababa, western countries, including the geo-political discussions on climate Ethiopia, Elias Sime makes United States, are discarding change and waste production with complex art from tiny discarded e-waste into many parts of Africa, their artwork. These are only a few objects (Cotter, 2015). Creating such as in Agbogbloshie, a 20- of the many African artists using collages and sculptures, Sime has acre scrap yard in Accra, Ghana recycled materials to communicate made a name for himself in the (Minter, 2016). The erupting fires messages of environmentalism, East African art scene (M&G Africa, and the potential for e-waste to globalization, and of course, to 2015). Unlike other contemporary seep into bodies of water is a major inspire change. artists in Ethiopia, Sime rarely concern for many living in Africa, uses brushes or paint (Klemm, including Elias Sime, who uses 2010). Sime used objects such as Tightrope 7 to communicate the thread, buttons, plastic, fabric, detrimental effects of e-waste and bottle tops, and e-waste (electronic our consumer-based world. Sime waste); as well as organic materials is redefining what others consider such as mud, straw, and animal to be discarded waste and creating skin (Waldron). According to Mali a diverse range of artwork that & Guardian Africa (2015), Sime is impacts not only the members of interested in the “new lease of life” his community in Ethiopia but also he gives these discarded objects. around the world. He appreciates using his hand to create his elaborate artwork, and will often sew or sculpt over long periods of times (Klemm, 2010). Sime’s artwork, mirroring El Anatsui, has been featured in many prominent museums such as Santa Monica Museum of Art and Dancers Diamia Foster, Daniel Morimoto, Amanda Ruiz and Larry Rosalez Lewis with drummer Aboubacar Soumah pose in costume for the Agbedidi The James Cohan Gallery in New performance (2014). Rosalez reminds us that aesthetic is constantly evolving. (Source: University of Florida College of the Arts) York, NY. Peri K Kelman (2010), reviews Sime’s exhibition at the Renowned anthropologist of their social heritage” (Frazier rituals, gatherings, and art. Santa Monica Museum of Art titled, Melville J. Herskovits and promi- 1963). Herskovits maintained In the ground-breaking 1969 Elias Sime: Eye of the Needle, Eye nent sociologist E. Franklin Frazier that African Americans had “pure film, “Guess Who’s Coming to of the Heart, and states his two- famously debated in the mid-20th African carry-overs” (Herskovits Dinner” starring African-American and three-dimensional artwork century whether African-Americans 1941). Since then, scholars have actor Sidney Poitier, he explains to demonstrate the contrast between had retained a cultural African emerged to provide evidence that his soon-to-be Caucasian father- Addis Ababa’s urbanization and heritage or if traces of that heritage enslaved Africans did indeed pass in-law, “you can do the Watusi, landscape. However, Sime does were lost during the Mid Atlantic down a host of traditions that but we are the Watusi” in reference not treat his objects like trash, but slave trade. Frazier argued in favor are seen in retentions known as to a dance craze that swept the instead, he states: “I treat them like of deculturation, stating that “the “Africanisms” which appear in U.S. in the 60s, named after the oil paint, acrylic or clay (Waldron)” manner in which the Negroes were the African-American use of the Tutsi people of Rwanda. These One of Sime’s most famous Kenyan artist Kioko Mwitiki used scrap metal to create new repurposed art. captured in Africa and enslaved, English language, cuisine, religious Africanisms are defined as “those sculptures, Tightrope 7, featured (Source: Tourism Media) they were practically stripped and spiritual practices, fashion, elements of culture found in the

36 · IROHIN 37 · IROHIN New World that are traceable to an passed down when enslaved This dance was a spiritual experi- of a community and experience 1. African Movement the use of total body movement African origin” (Holloway 1990). Africans brought their rituals to ence, transforming later into a beyond their dire circumstances. Vocabulary One area where such Africanisms the plantations. Choreographer, practice by “Christianized African- It was an awakening and reprieve are evident is in the area of 2. Orientation to the Earth bent knees, flattened or flexed feed, leaned educator, and TED Fellow Camille American communities” (Glass in the face a consistent attempt performance art, particularly in forward A. Brown explains that “dance is a 2007). Peter H. Wood, a cultural at a breaking of the human spirit. urban expressions of social dance 3. Improvisation leaving room to shape a traditional dance for language” and “[African-American] historian remarks, “as the old song Almost immediately, white captors and rap. For this context, “urban new contexts by infusing individual creativity as social dance is an expression that says ‘gimme the knee bone bent.’ and slave owners began to create expression” will be used to explore long as it is in line with the music and original emerges from a community. A In Africa, the knees bent symbol- traveling productions and shows rap and social dances originating purpose social dance isn’t choreographed by ize being alive, if your legs are which spread the African aesthetic in America’s major urban cities any one person, it can’t be traced straight, you’re dead, they might as of dance worldwide. Many posters 4. Circle and Line reflects communal nature of African dance and that now form a significant part to any one moment. Each dance well bury you” (PBS Free to Dance for these shows can be found in Formations/Communal commitment to the group. Even solo dancers are of entertainment and expres- has steps that everyone can agree 2001). or historical archives. Dance encouraged by the group through songs, chants, Corn Shucking Husking sion amongst African-American on but it’s about the individual was another dance created by The commercialization of these claps, and instruments youth everywhere as well as pop and their creative identity. Because enslaved African-Americans. The dances led to The Cake Walk, The culture at large, and in the African 5. Polyrhythms the ability to dance to multiple rhythms at the of that, social dances bubble up, movements and songs happened Charleston, The Lindy Hop, The Diaspora globally. same time in line with music that also included they change, and they spread like while working in the corn fields Twist, and other dances created In almost every classroom, any several rhythms, responding to chants and songs wildfire. They are as old as our and accompanied by songs where by African-American communities teacher could ask their students to which often utilized call-and-response remembered history” (Camille A. there was a caller to facilitate call- which are regarded, centuries do the “Benny Whip”, “Nae Nae” 6. Percussion dances centered around percussive instruments Brown, TED Ed 2016). and-response songs that initiated after slavery, as quintessential or “Hit the Quan” and bets are at or movements such as hand-clapping, foot Though African dance cannot competition between the teams. American dances. The Cake Walk least half of the class would be tapping, and patting (especially later on when be lumped into one category be- These songs were comical and is another shining example of able to produce energetic results, drumming was banned on the plantations) cause of the diversity of cultures on often satirical. White masters al- dance as resistance. The African rapping along and dancing to the 7. Pantomime movements that imitate the realities of life such the continent, there lies a unifying lowed this merriment and saw it as dance aesthetic of objects in hand latest dance crazes (latest, 2017 as agricultural jobs, animals in motion, the aesthetic that forms the foundation a form of entertainment and a way is visualized with top hats, fans, anyway). However, even the last opposite sex, or the spirit world of movement across many African to avoid the effects of depression on and canes. This dance made fun 5, 10, or 20 years would produce 8. Something in Hand using props to tell the story dance styles. Barbara Glass the enslaved. The enslaved people of the upper echelons of white the same results when one recalls categorizes defining characteristics used it to make the labor bearable society, mimicking their manner- dances such as “The Stanky Leg”, of African dance: These character- and as a form of resistance and isms and was a parody of their “Walk It Out”, “Crank That”, “Lean 9. Competition competing to show skill istics can be seen in the earliest empowerment through songs that lifestyles unbeknownst to many Wit It, Rock Wit It”, “The Dougie”, forms of African-American social addressed their conditions. One in white society that the dance or as far back as “The Tootsie Roll” NOTE: This list was modified and adapted from African American Dance: An dance. The enslaved Americans of such song is as follows: “Rabbit in targeted them. They enjoyed the and “The Electric Slide”. Almost Illustrated History by Barbara S. Glass, 2007 African descent (now somewhat de gyordin (general’s call)/Rabbit display and crafted productions of everyone of these social dances acculturated into American society hi oh (all [farm] hands respond)/ the dance (Camille A. Brown, TED has an accompanying song, which, and some at this time, American- Dog can’t ketch um/Rabbit hi oh/ Ed 2016). The Charleston, created sentiment: “when captive Africans in West Africa since a “majority of most commonly in recent years, is born) as well as newer arrivals Gun can’t shoot um/Rabbit hi oh/ in the 1920s in South Carolina has were brought to North America, African-Americans can trace their a rap song. Rap and social dances from Africa still being smuggled in Mon can’t skin um/Rabbit hi oh/ Congolese roots and followed the beginning in the 1600s, they ancestry to captives taken in West are forms of urban expressions after the official ban on importing Cook can’t catch cook um/Rabbit African dance principles of bended came without possessions, but Africa and brought as slaves to the within Hip-Hop culture that work slaves in 1808 maintained a con- hi oh/Folks can’t eat um/Rabbit hi knee and response to polyrhythms not without culture. In their Western Hemisphere” (Glass 2007). in tandem; there cannot be one nection between the continent and oh” (Hazzard-Gordon 1990). with an orientation to the Earth. memories, their customs, and Stripped from these origins, without the other. In terms of the United States, where customs “Ralph Ellison, a 20th Century The Charleston’s influence can their world views, they carried Africans brought to the U.S. their aesthetic, they overlap. To could be directly linked to tradi- writer, called these dances be seen as late as the 90s in the their cultural arts” (Glass 2007). various means to form new help uncover the African roots of tions of home as well as reinforce ‘America’s first choreography’” (PBS famed “Kid ‘N Play” dance, first In this survey of Africanisms relationships and alliances across these urban art forms this article and reinvigorate an African identity Free to Dance 2001). Many of these known as “The Funky Charleston” retained in urban expression, languages and groups. One of the explores its beginnings. amongst those who would now be songs and dances transformed (Camille A. Brown, TED Ed 2016). it is important to recognize that ways to communicate was dance more removed from the place of into secular songs and dances Early on, the African ancestral Africa is a large continent that is and music. Thus, transforming into their birth (Hazzard-Gordon 1990). purely for entertainment, rooted in whispers now permeated not only Social Dance As Freedom, triple the size of the United States, a new African-American identity in The Ring Shout was one of the experiences of African identity and in African-American communities, Survival, and Belonging with 54 countries, and about a the New World. Some functions of first social dances created on the captivity. These songs and dances but within the nation as these thousand cultural groups within dance in many African communi- plantations. African dance prin- were a psychological means of sur- dances as well as others spread Dr. Patricia Hilliard-Nunn, these countries that all possess a ties before slavery were to perform ciples could be seen here; enslaved vival. Though some cultural prac- into crazes. This tradition contin- professor of African-American unique worldview, customs, and rites of passage, communicate descendants of African ancestors tices were forbidden, the ones that ues today. studies at the University of beliefs. This vast richness could with deities and facilitate spiritual would form a circle, with knees remained were seen as less threat- Florida, reminds students “if you never be fully explored in a single practices, honor those who died, bent, stomping and clapping, as ening and helped the enslaved start [African-American] history study. However, one common “satirize misbehavior”, celebrate a they sung songs of blessings over retain their humanity in inhumane with slavery, you miss most thread exists among the distinctive new birth or the harvest of a crop, their lives and labor while panto- conditions and become a part of the story.” Barbara Glass, qualities, and that is a strong tell stories of community history, miming the digging of potatoes, the a retired professor and author tradition of music and dance in or simply joyous recreation. picking of cotton, or the rocking of of African American Dance: An its varied forms throughout the These functions were not a baby (PBS Free to Dance 2001). Illustrated History, echoes this continent. The focus here will be removed, but only continued and

38 · IROHIN 39 · IROHIN Ancestral Whispers Remain After circle in the Mandinka language) to and popping of joints, contraction Africana. It’s a transitive property,” (Holloway 1990). Similar to the song isn’t directives, however. Colonial Legacy the stage (2017). and release, variations within a set rosalez (rozalez 2017). Another Mbuti and Twa people groups There is other rapping that leaves When it comes to the dances dance, flat or flex feet as opposed Africanism seen in today’s social that are skilled at impersonating room for freestyle dancing, though In making the bridge between and accompanying rap songs to pointed toe commonly associated dances is the appropriation of sounds that occur in nature, the moves retain the initial overall the African dance principles that of today, rosalez has a thought- with more Eurocentric dances, and dance. Urban expressions of dance, “beatboxing” within hip-hop to style.One dance that isn’t specifi- exist in urban expressions, larry provoking perspective: “I think it’s percussive stepping positions. though carrying similar technique, imitate drums or electronic beats cally directed but happens in the d. rosalez (intentionally lower- interesting, the root and branch However, he expands these uni- change when that dance is for is an Africanism that emphasizes duration of the song is one called cased) was interviewed to help idea, this circular narrative. We versal principles of African dance recreation, church, or cultural ‘the voice as instrument’ and can “Hittin’Dem Folks.” In it, hands are make these connections. rosalez inherited a “traditional” dance beyond their aesthetic to their celebration asserting freedom and facilitate dance. raised in fisted position, one leg is a professional contemporary that was already changed from functions. He says the Africanisms identity (rosalez). Though the line of African is raised, while the other is bent. dancer who has studied in New its original form. This dance that we see in the dances of Venue and place is another influence may seem further re- This move looks strikingly similar York with Ron Brown’s EVIDENCE influenced African-American today not only lie in how they are Africanism. Often social dances moved from today’s urban expres- to a move done in the West African dance company and Movement communities, eventually leading performed, but how they are used. are performed outside in a natural sion of social dance and rap than Dance called Sinte. of the People (MOPDC) and also to hip-hop dances. Now, the youth He poses the question: “Can you element similar to early enslaved its plantation predecessors, the Next is the song by rap artist taught and performed West African of different African countries have think of the day or class where you African-Americans and African an- ancestral whispers remain through Silento, “Watch Me (Whip/Nae Dance at Santa Fe College and the their own forms of urban dance in learned the Electric Slide?” rosalez cestors before them. Today’s social the principles and survive the Nae).” This song follows the tradi- University of Florida. He cautions which they are both taking from makes the point that the very pass- dances are often spread through colonial legacy. African-American tion of dance variation. Within against freezing Africa in time. He their ancestors as well as America’s ing down of dances and their songs videos on social media, often youth have centuries between them the lyrics, listeners are called to explains that in the 1300s, the hip-hop culture through globaliza- from generation to generation in taking place outside. Within urban and their African ancestors, yet do other dances that were created Mali Empire of the Mande people, tion, which originally finds its own griot-like (oral tradition seen in expression, rap and social dances there lies the idea of cultural or prior to the making of the song formed their own “ballets” in an at- roots on Africa’s soil” (rosalez). many African societies for storytell- are not mutually exclusive entities. collective memory, a psychological other than just “The Whip”or the tempt to spread their influence and When asked to identify his own ing) form is its own Africanism This melding is in itself a retention phenomena where traditions are “Nae Nae”. These dances employ expand the empire. This effort led universal principles that he saw in and a retention that we see even from Africa. Social dances are often passed down and then learned or the polyrhythmic nature of African to a pre-colonial global awareness West African dance, rosalez offered with newer dances in pop culture not made in a vacuum apart from known intuitively (Price 2013). dance, as well as repetition both in of the African aesthetic of dance the following: bent knees, hip and such as the “Nae Nae” or “Hit the a song that is intended to make Let’s examine three of today’s song and movements throughout and its influence on all forms of pelvic movement, thrusts, gyra- Quan.” “Instead of being formally explicit references to the dance, latest dance crazes created by the entire song. “Repetition is a dance. rosalez reminds us that this tions, circular motions, repetition learned, it’s just embedded and a the same way drums inform the African-American youth. First crucial element of traditional West aesthetic is constantly evolving as that follows the rhythm, polycen- part of ‘Afric-Americana’ which is Gelede dancers among the Yoruba is “Hit the Quan”. Like the African...music. It brings out a it goes from the bantaba (the word tric isolations, gestures, locking just Americana, which in turn is, people, or the Zaouli dance of the Ring Shout, this dance is often rhythmic tension that constitutes Guro people in Cote D’Ivoire (Ivory performed communally in a cluster a beat. [It] also locks the listener to Coast). Africanisms are seen in or circle. The rap has a call-and- the song, compels them to dedicate the rap songs that make the social response nature similar to songs their attention and teaches them dances possible. For instance, it and beats in traditional African how to move in accordance with is common that young people will dances and chants: “Hit the Quan its rhythm” (Johnson 2012). Flat form a circle as they are dancing. If (hit the Quan)”. There is a Caller, and flexed feet are seen in “The the actual recording is not played, artist iLoveMemphis, that shouts Bop” and “Break Your Legs” (both it may be rapped by someone who directions to be followed by the dances embedded within this knows the lyrics or new lyrics participants listening and dancing song). In both dances, circular altogether originally made by to the song: “I said get down low motions of the hand are seen in someone who is skilled at doing so and swing your arms/I said get the freestyle. The “Do It Like Me in a freestyle. An Africanism often down low and hit the Quan.../ Challenge” is a mashup of the seen at such informal gatherings Please watch your step 'cause I'm aforementioned songs, but in the is the participatory nature of the feeling myself/Throw a flag on the lyrics, it challenges the listener music (Holloway 1990). As the play, man somebody get the ref/Go when rap artist DLOW boasts, rapper raps with dancers dancing, blah da da da dol, man somebody “betcha can’t do it like me.” This it is common to hear sounds of get some help…” There is the speaks to the African dance princi- approval from the audience like repeated and long-standing African ple of competition seen in the Corn “ayyyeee,” “yah,” or “get it” to show dance aesthetic of bent knees Shucking Dance and traditional shared joy or approval of someone’s throughout this dance. Pantomime African dances like the competitive skills and abilities, incorporating is also seen during the directives of jumping Adumu dance of the vocal sounds with the rhythms. the rap artist when dancers touch Maasai people (Eastern Africa, This adds to the African tradition their face and chest with the lyric Kenya and Tanzania). Modern of polyrhythmic sounds and a “I’m feeling myself.” This continues dances done among African youth “communal approach to music- when there is a literal run when share these similarities as well. making.” Often call and response listeners are asked “get the ref” and Azonto is a dance and music happens through a rap lyric asking a bending low and praying hands genre in Ghana that employs the ​"Dance is a language." Camille A. Brown for either a vocal response or bodily when iLoveMemphis says, “some- same principles with a body orien- (Source: Ted Ed) response through movement. body get some help.” The whole tation towards the Earth. Coupe

40 · IROHIN 41 · IROHIN Decale from Cote D’Ivoire (Ivory Lesson Plans 5) a Modern African dance and Coast) includes a pop and locking discuss their origins, meaning, Matt Davis of the joints. Many of the modern Here are some ways to extend the and any spreading that might youth African dances like the lesson and make these connections have occurred. Have students ones aforementioned also include in your classroom: use RAFT (Role, Audience, moves from the urban expressions Format, Topic) method to of African-American youth. With Middle School and High School present findings social media, there is now an even Ethnographic study as form of research Africa: A Soccer "Footbal" Story more active sharing as well. It’s Both secondary lessons can be centered full circle. It’s the bantaba. 1. Have students look up on the essential questions: This article barely scratches prominent dances and hip-hop art- How does culture spread and form identity? the surface of all the linkages that ists in the African diaspora (Latin exist in urban expression and their America, Caribbean, America, Elementary original African roots. Hopefully, it Europe) and do observational Explore and Move has piqued your interest to explore study to identify universal African beyond the history in these pages. principles in dance. 1. Introduce the African The recognition of Africanisms continent, highlight COUNTRIES, in urban expression is powerful 2. Provide a list of artists and find three SPECIFIC dances from because beyond entertainment, dances with region to make sure various regions. Show students it helps widen the lens of what the choices for presentations are videos of these dances and teach is American history among all varied. students purpose and function of peoples who have been influenced each dance for the community. by African dance and the innova- A Comprehensive Case Study Analysis Have them compare with their own tion and contribution of the conti- Have students choose five specific dances: favorite dances and find similarities nent of Africa to our everyday lives in movements. that we often miss. Furthermore, 1) Traditional dances from it can help solidify an identity for pre-colonial Africa, 2. Let the students up with their so many African-American youth 2)Early African-American own dance in small groups and who do not have an Ellis Island to Dance from Slavery Era, name it, ensure that they use the affirm their roots and have a need 3)Post-slavery African- African dance principles, and decide to connect to a rich heritage. American Dance, meaning of each movement with a 4) Urban African-American song and an overall function/reason dance behind their dance.

In 2010 South Africa became the first African country to host the FIFA World Cup. The event was colorfully celebrated and introduced new culture including the Vuvuzelas (seen in the picture)!! (Source: Marcello Casal Jr/ABr)

“I feel like a young man of 15,” Prize winner Nelson Mandela, feel on the African continent in 2010. stated 85-year-old Nelson Mandela young again. Although Europe and (FIFA.com, 2016, para. 5). Soccer when South Africa was granted the South American national teams has a rich diverse history that has privilege of hosting the 2010 FIFA perpetually dominate the global touched the lives of people on every World CupTM (FIFA.com, 2016, soccer scene, soccer has been on continent including Africa. The para. 3). It is common knowledge the rise in Africa during recent African soccer landscape has been that soccer is the most popular decades. Mandela could not have continually molded and shaped by sport in the world, and its influ- said it better when describing various factors including European ence reaches every remote corner of his feeling for the game of soccer; colonialism, the fight for “soccer the globe. Individual and collective "Sport has the power to inspire independence,” organizational, passion for this simple yet complex and unite people. In Africa, soccer political and economic challenges game is capable of making nations enjoys great popularity and has and international competition. pause virtually all other activities a particular place in the hearts of in order to watch their teams and people. That is why it is so impor- causing elderly men and women, tant that the FIFA World Cup will, including the late Nobel Peace for the first time ever, be hosted

42 · IROHIN 43 · IROHIN African soccer organizations Cup of Nations that does not yet “We need to be open to discus- A Brief History of Football interview with National Public respectively [3]. Compare that to a are working to keep players at receive much publicity and that sion again and open to advice on (Soccer) Radio, Alegi (2010) went on to say country like Norway, ranked 47th, home by providing training at Africa has been represented in how to improve. We want to talk to that the sport spread at different despite having a GDP per capita the local level (Kuhn, 2011). recent international competitions Africa’s top players to see how we “The very earliest form of the rates throughout the continent over 30 times greater than that Grassroots efforts like the such as the FIFA Women’s World can run the game better. We want game for which there is scientific with nations such as Algeria and of the Ivory Coast” (Gagne, 2011, Mathare Youth Sports Association Cup. anyone with a love for football and evidence was an exercise from a Ghana having organized teams and para. 1). The world rankings have and the Baba Dogo Sports ideas on how to improve the game military manual dating back to leagues as early as the late 1890s continually changed since Gagne’s Association in Kenya and the to feel they can come and discuss the second and third centuries and very early 1900s. The longest report in 2011, but this informa- Future and Conclusion Bosco United Sports Association this with us,” Ahmad said on BC in China” (FIFA.com, 2017, surviving African soccer team is tion still shows a relatively current in Liberia are some examples of Friday” (Gleeson, 2017, para. 3). para. 3). The origins of soccer date Cape Coast Excelsior which was look at the connection of African The future of African soccer how African nations are achieving “Now that the elections are back over 2,000 years to China’s started in 1903. Although soccer soccer and economics. has some challenges but also some success in the realm of organized over, everyone should be focusing Tsin and Han Dynasties. In this was mainly controlled by Europe great opportunities for continued soccer player development despite on a bright future for African foot- era, the game was called cuju or and South America for the first growth. In 2017, the Confederation Player Development and dealing with negative issues such ball,” he [Ahmad] told reporters at t’su chu, which means “football.” half of the 20th century, Africa is of African Soccer elected a new Organizational Challenges as corruption and other factors the end of the Congress (Gleeson, Although the ancient forms of credited with democratizing the president. One should consider the football did not directly impact the that are capable of undermining following quotes when analyzing 2017, para. 11). sport which was greatly linked Gabriel Kuhn (2011) says that development of the modern game, success. Even with the chal- the current and future situation on to the soccer sanctions against most soccer associations in African it is clear that there is a connection lenges, African soccer will remain the African continent: apartheid in South Africa (npr.org, nations are only concerned with Lesson Plan Ideas to past (historyoffootballreally. in the circles of international 2010, para. 13). the national teams and younger “African football grew much more blogspot.com, 2017). The game was discussion. 1) Write a brief 1-2 page essay players must be involved with prosperous…thanks to lucrative sponsorship played with a leather ball filled with deals and the sale of television rights to that compares and contrasts the Politics and Economics private academies if they want to feathers and hair and the object African Soccer on the global broadcasters. But critics have long national soccer teams from two receive organized skill development was to kick the object into a net wondered where all the money went. Much African nations. Students may Greenstreet and Oliveri (2013) training. Although the number International Scene affixed to lengthy bamboo poles. of the continent’s footballing infrastructure choose to focus on either the men’s state that in the beginning, of African soccer academies has Although the Chinese are credited As of June 1, 2017, there were is old and shoddy, as a short drive from or women’s teams. colonialists used soccer as a way to increased significantly in the last the AU offices in Addis Ababa, the capital with developing the earliest forms 206 countries that maintained a control Africans and maintain an 25-30 years, many young aspiring of Ethiopia, to the decrepit national of soccer (football), the contem- 2) Research the current uni- environment that was comfortable African players choose to leave men’s national soccer team and stadium illustrates. Cash barely reaches the porary game is widely accepted to form design for one African na- for Europeans to remain on the 115 nations that had an active grassroots” (Ababa, 2017, para. 3). their continent and take their tional team. Design a new uniform have begun in England with the continent. Missionaries introduced women’s national team. Africa chances abroad. Many African for the team. Make sure to keep the first official soccer governing body soccer in schools and Europeans has 9 nations in the top 50 of the “CAF’s incoming president, soccer players have traveled to nation’s official colors and national forming in 1863 (historyofsoccer. owned just about every aspect of men’s FIFA world soccer rank- Ahmad Ahmad…, says he wants to Europe with no guarantee of symbols in mind when creating info, 2017). the game (stadiums, equipment, ings (Egypt, Senegal, Cameroon, clear out the rot. He also wants to success. Several younger players the design (ie. United States – red, etc). Eventually, African soccer was Nigeria, Democratic Republic provide annual grants for national in lower leagues are reportedly white, blue). The Introduction of Soccer to free from European control and underpaid, but they still consider of the Congo, Tunisia, Burkina federations, which would be a Africa became a “vehicle for expressing it a better opportunity than what Faso, Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana) with first.” (Ababa, 2017, para. 4). indigenous aspirations for emanci- they would earn in their African 2 more countries in outside the Soccer was introduced to the pation and harnessing resentment homelands. “Every African player top 50 (Algeria, Morocco). On African continent in the mid 1800s towards the exploitative and op- that is any good quickly finds the women’s side, the top 50 by colonialists from European pressive conditions which typified themselves being lured to Europe spots are divided among nations nations such as England, France, much of colonial life in Africa.” with the promise of more money from a variety of regions includ- Belgium and Portugal (explorin- (Oliveri, 2013, para. 4). “The and better training, some end up ing North and South America, gafrica.matrix.msu.edu, 2017). foreign sport of football unified and cleaning streets instead. (Even Europe, Asia, Africa and Oceania Peter Alegi, author and African liberated African cultures — only FIFA recognizes that false promises (Australia, New Zealand). Africa studies professor at Michigan after the sport’s initial application to African boys with promise is an holds 3 of the top 50 spots with State University, states that as an instrument for colonial issue). Consequently Africans have Nigeria, Ghana, and Cameroon “the game came with European control” (Oliveri, 2013, para. 1). to follow European football to get leading the way for the continent. imperialism and first with the One of the main things that to see their own players. There are Practically speaking, South Africa British, of course. It was soldiers, separates Africa from the world’s currently more than 1000 Africans can also be included in this group traders and the missionaries who most dominant soccer continents playing for European clubs…The as it ranked just outside the top really pushed the game. And they is its comparatively low level of televised matches and the radio 50 at #51. (FIFA.com, 2017). In were the ones who played that financial resources (Weaver and broadcasts from the European Africa, “Football is really a male first game in 1862, almost 150 Gagne 2011). “When compared to leagues is also of much better qual- thing in Africa. You won't see a years ago. But the game spread the rest of the world, African soccer ity than anything broadcast locally. lot of girls kicking a ball around very quickly through the mission teams fare surprisingly well consid- Plus people just enjoy a good game in village” (Zijlma, 2016, para. 6). schools, through the military forces ering their lack of resources. Ivory of soccer and it's played awfully However, the women’s game is and through the railways. And it Coast and Ghana have the lowest well in Europe” (Zijlma, 2016, para. making some progress across the was quickly embraced by Africans” GDPs per capita out of all teams in 3,4) continent (Zijlma, 2016). Africa Ghana Black Stars team playing against the United States in the 2014 World Cup! (npr.org, 2010, para. 6). In his the Top 25 and rank 17th and 23rd holds a bi-annual Africa Women {Source: AP Photo/Hassan Ammar)

44 · IROHIN 45 · IROHIN peace/laureates/2011/Gbowee_leymah-facts.html. Vol. 37, No. 1, Textual Ownership in Francophone Milmo, Cahal. "Fury at DNA pioneer's theory: Africans are African Writing (Spring, 2006), pp. 139-14 less intelligent than Westerners." The Independent. Jadeja, P. (2015). Representation of Women in African Lit- October 16, 2007. Accessed June 14, 2017. http:// erature. Retrieved from http://poojabajadeja1315. www.independent.co.uk/news/science/fury-at-dna- blogspot.com/2015/03/representation-of-women-in- pioneers-theory-africans-are-less-intelligent-than- african.html WORKS CITED westerners-394898.html. Efuru. (2001, April). Retrieved from http://wmich.edu/dia- PBS. Accessed June 16, 2017. http://www.pbs.org/front- logues/texts/efuru.html lineworld/stories/liberia/facts.html. Julien, E. “Literature in Africa.” Africa. Eds. Maria Grosz- Perry, Mark J. "Looking back at the remarkable history of Ngate, John H. 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46 · IROHIN 47 · IROHIN sponses on Nyasaland Tea Estates, 1930-1953. The ma_article2.html Schmidtke, Sabine. "The Zaydi Manuscript Tradition." Insti- mgafrica.com/article/2015-07-10-african-artists-do- Journal of African History, 105-126. Skinner, Gary. Our History: Watato Ministries. nd. 15th tute for Advanced Study. Princeton, 2017. Web. 15 ing-amazing-things-with-recycled-material R.M. Gesimba, M. L. (2005). Tea Industry in Kenya; The June 2017. https://www.watoto.com/about/history/ June 2017. Magnin, A., Greene, A., Wardlaw, A. J., & McEvilley, T. Challenges and Positive Developments. Journal of Ap- Tutu, Desmond. Brainy Quotes.com. n.d. 14th June 2017. (2005). African Art Now: plied Sciences, 334-336. https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/d/ Elements of West African Influences in North Masterpieces from the Jean Pigozzi Collection. London: Simbua, A. M. (2012). Making Room for Smallholder Coop- desmond_tutu.html Merrell Limited Publishers. 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48 · IROHIN 49 · IROHIN cessed 15 June 2017. Radical Politics. Oakland, CA: PM Press. Lacy, Madison and Reinhart, Charles and Stephanie.Free to NPR Staff (2010). The History of Soccer in Africa. Retrieved Dance. DVD. PBS, 2001. from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story. Harris, Nicole A., and larry d. rosalez. Interview. “West Afri- php?storyId=127600200 on January 14, 2017 can characteristics and similarities in urban dance.” Website Administrator (2017). Chinese and Tsu Chu. Re- 14 June 2017. trieved from http://historyoffootballreally.blogspot. TEACHERS’ SUMMER INSTITUTE Hazzard-Donald, Katrina. Jookin: the rise of social dance com/2009/09/chinese-and-tsu-chu.html on June 15, formations in African-American culture. Philadelphia, 2017 Temple University Press, 1990. Zijlma, A. (2016). Football (Soccer) in Africa. Retrieved from The Center for African Studies at the University of Florida is offering a two-week Summer Institute for ten K-12 teachers. The Johnson, Jasmine Elizabeth. “Dancing Africa, Making https://www.tripsavvy.com/football-soccer-in-afri- objective of the institute is for participants to increase their knowledge about Africa, including its geography, history, and cul- Diaspora.”University of California, Berkeley, 2012. ca-1454639 on June 15, 2017 ture. Participants will develop lesson plans for use in their classrooms. Participation in the summer institute is free. Price. “Rhythms of Culture: Djembe and African Memory in In addition participants will receive a stipend of $700. Alachua county teachers will receive continuing education credit. Participants are responsible for their accommodation. African-American Cultural Traditions.”Black Mu- Cover Photo by sic Research Journal, vol. 33, no. 2, 2013, p. 227., doi:10.5406/blacmusiresej.33.2.0227. Rex/Shutterstock HOW TO APPLY SEND APPLICATIONS TO: Complete the application below and include the following items: Dr. Agnes Ngoma Leslie, Outreach Director Africa: A Soccer "Footbal" Story • A brief statement of at least one page outlining 427 Grinter Hall, P.O. Box 115560, Gainesville, FL 32611-5560 Matt Davis - What you teach - How you would benefit from the institute T | 352.392.2187 - How you would incorporate those benefits in your teaching F | 352.392.2435 Ababa, A. (2017). African Football Has a New Boss. Re- • A complete curriculum vitae E | [email protected] trieved from http://www.economist.com/news/ middle-east-and-africa/21719241-new-president- • A letter supporting your application from your school confederation-african-football-has-his-work- cut?zid=319&ah=17af09b0281b01505c226b1e574f- 5cc1 on June 15, 2017 Exploring Africa Staff (2017). Football (Soccer) in Africa. Retrieved from http://exploringafrica.matrix.msu. TEACHER’S SUMMER INSTITUTE APPLICATION edu/football-soccer-in-africa/ on June 14, 2017 FIFA Staff (2016). In Quotes: Mandela and Football. Re- trieved from Name Email http://www.fifa.com/news/y=2013/m=12/news=quotes- mandela-and-football-2239872.html on June 14, DOB 2017 Telephone: Office / Personal FIFA Staff (2017). History of Football - The Origins. Re- trieved from http://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/who-we- School Affiliation & Address Home Mailing Address are/the-game/index.html on June 14, 2017 Gagne, M. & Weaver, R. (2011). The Economics of African Soccer. Retrieved from https://sites.duke.edu/wcwp/ research-projects/africa/the-economics-of-african- soccer/ on June 14, 2017 Gleeson, M. (2017). Soccer: African Game Faces Uncertain Future Under New Regime. Retrieved from https:// sports.yahoo.com/news/soccer-african-game-faces- Grades & Courses You Teach uncertain-future-under-regime-133748060--sow.html on June 15, 2017 Greenstreet, K. &, Oliveri, L. (2009/2013). The Politics of African Soccer. Retrieved from https://sites.duke. edu/wcwp/research-projects/africa/the-politics-of- Highest Degree Discipline Institution african-soccer/ on June 14, 2017 History of Soccer Staff (2017). History of Soccer. Retrieved from http://www.historyofsoccer.info/ June 15, 2017 Kuhn, G. (2011). Soccer vs. the State: Tackling Football and

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