THE EFFECT OF OCTAVE AND TIMBRE COMBINATIONS

ON UNDERGRADUATE BAND MEMBERS’ PERCEPTION OF PITCH

by

CLINTON M. STEINBRUNNER

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts

Thesis Advisor: Dr. Nathan B. Kruse

Department of Music

CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY

August 2019

2

CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

We hereby approve the thesis of

Clinton M. Steinbrunner

candidate for the degree of Master of Arts.

Committee Chair

Dr. Nathan B. Kruse

Committee Member

Dr. Kathleen A. Horvath

Committee Member

Dr. Ryan V. Scherber

Date of Defense

June 29, 2019

*We also certify that written approval has been obtained

for any proprietary material contained therein. 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ...... 5 ABSTRACT ...... 6 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 7 Tuning as an Individual Process ...... 8 Instrument Timbre ...... 9 Ensemble Tuning Procedures and Octave Displacement ...... 10 Need for the Study ...... 11 Purpose and Problems of the Study ...... 14 Summary ...... 14 Definition of Terms ...... 15 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 18 Pitch Perception and Performance ...... 19 Just Noticeable Difference (JND) ...... 20 Pitch Perception Preferences and Performance Tendencies ...... 24 Experience Effect on Pitch Preference and Accuracy ...... 26 Relationships Between Perception and Performance ...... 28 Common Practices ...... 29 Temperament ...... 30 Development of Intonation Skills ...... 33 Musician Perceptions of Tuning Practices ...... 38 External Stimulus Pitch Factors ...... 40 Instrument Timbre ...... 40 Tone Quality ...... 42 Octave Displacement ...... 45 Summary ...... 46 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ...... 47 Purpose and Problems of the Study ...... 47 Participants ...... 48 Consent ...... 48 Instrument Development ...... 49 Stimulus Creation ...... 49 Data Collection Instrument ...... 52 Pilot Testing ...... 52 Procedures...... 53 Analysis ...... 56 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ...... 58 4

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ...... 64 Research Questions 1 and 2 ...... 65 Research Questions 3 and 4 ...... 68 Implications ...... 70 Limitations of the Current Study ...... 75 Conclusions and Future Research ...... 77 APPENDICIES ...... 80 APPENDIX A: Letter of Cooperation Request Email ...... 80 APPENDIX B: Institutional Approval ...... 80 APPENDIX C: Informed Consent Document ...... 83 APPENDIX D: Recruitment Script ...... 86 APPENDIX E: Instrument Sample Spectra ...... 87 APPENDIX F: Stimulus Presentation Orders ...... 88 APPENDIX G: Data Collection Forms ...... 88 REFERENCES ...... 93

5

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Participant Demographics ...... 59

Table 4.2 Timbre Response Accuracy ...... 61

Table 4.3 Cent Deviation Response Accuracy ...... 62

Table 4.4 Pitch Discrimination Difficulty ...... 63

6

The Effect of Octave and Timbre Combinations on

Undergraduate Band members’ Perception of Pitch

Abstract

by

CLINTON M. STEINBRUNNER

The purpose of this research was to measure the effects of instrument timbre and octave combinations on the accuracy of undergraduate wind band members’ perception of pitch, as well as these variables’ effect on the perceived difficulty of the same task.

Participants (N = 92) from three college bands identified 24 pitch pairs as in-tune or out- of-tune. These pairs consisted of an in-tune stimulus pitch presented in single or combined octaves (clarinet, tuba, clarinet and tuba, clarinet and bass clarinet) followed by an experimental pitch (trombone) with deviations of 0, ±10, or ±15 cents. Participants also responded to the perceived ease and difficulty of assessing pitch related to these combinations. Results indicated that single octave stimulus pitches produced the most accurate responses and were perceived as the easiest condition to hear differences in pitch. Among combined octave stimuli, the dissimilar timbre pairing produced the most accurate results. Further results showed increased accuracy for sharp pitches over flat, and the tuba stimulus over the clarinet stimulus, indicating a possible effect of instrument tone quality on pitch perception in the study. 7

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Music educators have long considered good intonation a vital part of ensemble performances. Performers in concert band settings must adjust their instrument to a standard pitch and continually monitor their intonation in relation to other members and internally. Tuning refers to the specific task of adjusting pitch and falls under the more general term of intonation (Morrison & Fyk, 2002). These procedures have been reinforced by the inclusion of intonation ratings at adjudicated events, both on the individual and large ensemble level. Concert band directors have reported using varying processes and skills to improve students’ ability to tune their instruments (Scherber,

2014). The list of professional literature in trade magazines, books, online articles, and professional development sessions is ever growing, and highlights a continued interest in this subject. While some sources dedicate entire chapters to the concept of intonation

(Lisk, 1991a), other authors have provided entire texts dedicated to the sole subject of intonation (Garofalo, 1996; Jagow, 2012).

Ensemble teachers should seek to guide their students effectively through a complicated landscape of sound and tone variables if they hope to foster improved intonation skills. The ability to tune any note effectively can be affected by each instrument’s acoustical design, temperature variations, physical differences among performers, environment and each performer’s personal ability to hear fine variations in pitch (Garofalo, 1996; Hovey, 1976; Jagow, 2012; Lisk, 1991b). Individual differences in instruments and performers as well as each ensemble’s unique blend of timbres, tone qualities, and octaves can have an effect on the tuning process. These differences interact 8 and compound during the “tuning-up” process that often precedes ensemble rehearsals

(Garofalo, 1996; Jagow, 2012; Lisk, 1991a). These and other factors combine to make tuning a skill that is ever changing and requires constant adaption from students and teachers alike. The overarching term intonation can refer to various procedures and skills

(Morrison & Fyk, 2002), adding to the complexity of discussing the subject.

Under the umbrella term of intonation, “tuning a note” can change meaning depending on the goals at hand. Aside from simply adjusting instruments to a set standard at the beginning of rehearsal, these goals include adjusting embouchures and voicings or employing alternate fingerings to compensate for instrument tendencies, and/or altering individual pitches to bring a chord in tune (Garofalo, 1996; Jagow, 2012). Perhaps principal among all of these activities is the ability for performers to perceive a pitch, whether it is provided by another instrument or an internal concept, and to alter their own pitch to match the reference. When considering the variety of factors that can affect pitch between performers, such as embouchure, instrument, and experience, it stands to reason that the tuning process may be unique to each individual.

Tuning as an Individual Process

The factors affecting intonation, both on the personal and ensemble levels, can lead to each member experiencing the tuning process in a different way. Hovey (1976) commented on the individual nature of intonation in his book outlining school band rehearsal procedures and recommended that students be given time in every rehearsal to hear their own instruments in relation to the rest of the ensemble. Hovey believed that this practice would allow students to gain experience matching their own pitch to the varying octaves and timbres around them. Byo and Schlegel (2016) also found evidence 9 to support the individual nature of intonation through surveying advanced, collegiate wind instrumentalists about the tuning process. Based on their findings, Byo and Schlegel asserted that:

Pedagogically, it is unlikely that an unchanging tuning “routine” often

observed in school ensembles will lead to the versatile ear. Some

combination of fixed (consistent) and variable tuning experience led by

knowledgeable and perceptive teachers/conductors seems appropriate, but

questions of what, how much, and when persist. (p. 355)

Research on variables such as instrument timbre and octave displacement can serve as a precursor to actual performance tasks related to pitch discrimination, the ability to recognize changes in pitch.

Instrument Timbre

Researchers and educators have regarded timbre as an important factor in intonation processes. Lisk (1991) considered the connection between both aspects so important he included intonation as a subsection of timbre in his book outlining rehearsal strategies. Directors and clinicians have made the argument that effective tuning cannot happen until students are able to produce a characteristic tone (Jagow, 2012; South,

2006). However, esearch on the relationships between timbre and intonation has shown mixed results. Ely (1992) found that dissimilar timbral combinations like flute and saxophone increased the accuracy of participants to hear variations in pitch. As a factor in performance, Ely also found that instrumentalists played flatter when matching another instrument timbre, implying greater accuracy at matching pitches with similar timbral combinations. This result stands in contrast to Cummings (2007), who found no like 10 timbre advantage between flutes and violins in the same octave, and to Byo et al. (2011) and Byo and Schlegel (2016), who found no advantage among woodwind instruments in the same octave. The effect of timbre in a wind band is especially changeable, considering the many possible combinations of different instruments. The mechanics by which each wind instrument produces its tone create a particular timbre and range of available pitches. This connection may call into question the possible effects of reference pitch octave.

Ensemble Tuning Procedures and Octave Displacement

The process of “tuning-up” encourages ensemble members to adjust their instruments to match a reference pitch, typically provided by another ensemble member

(Byo, Schlegel, & Clark, 2011). Secondary and collegiate wind band directors have reported this procedure as an important daily practice (Scherber, 2014). Although sources dedicated to wind band intonation recommend various tuning procedures, the concept of tuning from the “bottom-up” is one of the most commonly detailed (Jagow, 2012; Lisk,

1991a; McBeth, 1972; Scherber, 2014). This particular approach begins with a presentation of the tuning pitch from a tuba, encouraging ensemble members to hear and tune to the higher harmonics presented. Lisk (1991) reinforced this concept when he wrote, “All upper pitches must be related to the fundamental…It is the ‘basic law of ensemble pitch.’ Effective balance, blend or intonation cannot be achieved without this understanding” (p. 62). Proponents of tuning from the lowest voice in a band have claimed improvements in balance and blend (Jagow, 2012; Lisk, 1991b; McBeth, 1972).

Jagow summed up the primary justification for this tuning method, stating, “[s]tudents should listen to the lower voices to balance their pitch, as it is easier to match pitch with 11 lower voices than it is with higher voices” (p. 70). This assertion, however, stands in contrast to research that has shown a decrease in tuning accuracy among middle school and high school students who tuned their instruments to a tuba stimulus pitch (Byo et al.,

2011; Scherber, 2014). In both of these studies, participants were more accurate when responding to woodwind instruments that sounded two octaves above the tuba. These tendencies may point to a greater ease at matching higher octaves, although timbre may remain an additional, confounding factor. Additional research related to the effect of stimulus timbres and octaves on the pitch perception of developing musicians may provide information on the effectiveness of traditional tuning practices and inform the development of new ones.

The current study seeks to reveal possible relationships between timbres, octave displacements, and combinations of these two factors on the pitch discrimination accuracy of college musicians. Comparing the accuracy of participant responses between conditions may provide additional insight into the ways that these factors affect intonation in a large ensemble.

Need for the Study

While previous research has shown various effects of octave displacement and timbre on pitch discrimination and performance (Byo et al., 2011; Byo &

Schlegel, 2016; Cummings, 2007; Geringer, MacLeod, & Sasanfar, 2015;

Scherber, 2014), none of the studies included the possible effect of concurrent pitches presented in octaves and varying timbre combinations. Educational resource authors have endorsed tuning strategies that present tuning pitches in octaves with varying timbres. Two examples include Jagow (2012), who 12 recommended using clarinet and tuba as an ensemble tuning pitch, and Lisk

(1991), who proposed using principal players across multiple instrument families.

Aside from exploring the individual conditions of timbre and octave displacement, the possible relationship of these two variables may require further investigation. Byo and Schlegel (2016) acknowledged this relationship, writing:

Two of those demands for high school musicians are stimulus timbre and

octave (Byo et al., 2011). We have yet to fully control for these variables

in a manner that reveals how they may interact with each other and with

the experience and skill level of musicians. (p. 356)

Although Byo et al. (2011) explored these demands through a performance task, the current study represents an initial exploration into students’ abilities to assess and perceive pitch through a pitch comparison task. An additional consideration is the experience level of participants.

Previous research has included participant responses to stimulus pitches with varying octaves and timbres at the middle school (Scherber, 2014), high school (Byo et al., 2011; Scherber, 2014), and collegiate levels (Byo & Schlegel,

2016). Byo and Schlegel (2016) recruited highly-achieving college musicians through the recommendation of applied wind faculty. While researchers have observed differences at the middle school and high school levels (Byo et al.,

2011; Scherber, 2014), stimulus octave and timbre did not affect the responses of advanced collegiate musicians (Byo & Schlegel, 2016). These results suggest that the advanced musicians may have reached a level of expertise that allowed them to navigate changes in octave and timbre without a difference in performance. 13

The current study includes collegiate band members who are primarily non-music majors. This population might assist in avoiding possible ceiling effects while collecting results that are still generalizable to ensembles in the process of developing pitch discrimination and intonation skills. Thus, the current study will include three areas that, when combined, are underexplored in extant research on tuning and pitch perception: octave displacement, timbre combinations, and collegiate participants representing a wider variety of ability level.

14

Purpose and Problems of the Study

With the intent of gaining a deeper understanding of pitch perception among instrumentalists, the purpose of this research was to measure college wind band members’ ability to accurately assess the pitch variance of tones in response to varying stimulus octaves and timbres, presented in isolation and concurrently. A secondary focus was on the students’ perceived difficulty of discriminating pitch in each setting. The specific problems of the study were (a) to determine whether individual or combined stimulus octaves have an effect on instrumentalists’ ability to accurately assess a tone as in tune or out of tune, (b) to determine whether individual or combined stimulus timbres have an effect on instrumentalists’ ability to accurately assess a tone as in tune or out of tune, (c) to determine whether individual or combined stimulus octaves have an effect on instrumentalists’ perceived ability to accurately assess a tone as in tune or out of tune, and (d) to determine whether individual or combined stimulus timbres have an effect on instrumentalists’ perceived ability to assess a tone as in tune or out of tune.

Summary

The current study builds upon previous research related to the effects of instrument timbre and octave displacement on pitch perception (Byo et al., 2011; Byo &

Schlegel, 2016; Scherber, 2014). The author seeks to further previous findings by presenting participants with a range of isolated and concurrent stimulus pitches. This process could lead to an increased understanding of how instrument timbre and octave displacement are related to each other. Additionally, the presentation of concurrent pitches reflects tuning procedures outlined in professional literature (Jagow, 2012; Lisk,

1991b). The next chapter presents the concepts of pitch perception and pitch 15 performance, and features early studies as a guide to the methodologies that appear in extant research. The remainder of the second chapter outlines research related to internal and external factors affecting pitch perception and performance, as well as the instruction of intonation skills. The terminology below will be used throughout this document and serves as a foundation for understanding current and previous research related to pitch perception and performance.

Definition of Terms

Beats or beating – The pulsations of amplitude that result from two simultaneous pitches differing only slightly in frequency. (Garofalo, 1996; Helmholtz, 1954)

Cent – Unit of measurement for an interval based on frequency ratios. A cent is

1/1200 of an octave. (Jagow, 2012)

Complex tone – A tone containing relatively high amplitude levels of upper harmonics, as in the sawtooth waveform produced by and oboe or violin. (Rossing, 2002)

Discrimination – The ability of an individual to assess and recognize changes in pitch. (Morrison & Fyk, 2002)

Equal temperament – A scale in which twelve equal semitones make up an octave. Each semitone is equal to 100 cents. (Jagow, 2012; Rossing, 2002)

Experimental and stimulus tones – In the current study, the stimulus tone is the initial tone presented in a pitch-pair comparison task. Experimental tones are presented second, and participants compare those pitches to those of the stimulus tones. Stimulus tones consist of varying combinations of instruments timbres and octaves, while experimental tones are presented in a consistent octave and timbre. 16

Hertz (Hz) – A unit of measurement for frequency; the number of vibrations or complete cycles of a sound wave occurring within a second. (Gallagher, 2009)

Intonation – Various skills related to accurate perception or performance of pitch. (Morrison & Fyk, 2002)

Just noticeable difference – The smallest deviation in pitch at which the auditory system perceives two different pitches. (Weber, 1834)

Just temperament – A tuning system in which the adjustment or tempering of intervals is based on harmonic ratios. In this system, the notes in the major triad have frequencies in the ratios of 4:5:6.

Pitch – The frequency of a tone, referring to either pitch classification (e.g., F#) or a specific note (e.g., F#4). (Randel, 2003)

Pitch matching – A musical task in which participants aim to replicate the pitch of a stimulus tone through instruments or pitch producing devices. (Morrison & Fyk,

2002)

Pitch perception – The purely aural process of discriminating pitch, as opposed to performance. (Morrison & Fyk, 2002)

Pythagorean temperament – A tuning system in which the largest possible number of perfect fourths and fifths are present. (Rossing, 2002)

Simple or pure tone – A tone containing relatively low amplitude levels of upper harmonics, as in the sinusoidal (sine) waveform of a flute sound. (Rossing, 2002)

Temperament – A wide range of methods for adjusting or tempering the pure mathematically correct tuning of the notes and intervals in a scale. (Gallagher, 2009)

Timbre – The tonal quality or color of a sound. (Gallagher, 2009) 17

Tuning – To adjust the pitch of an instrument to match a standard frequency or to establish typical intervals. (Gallagher, 2009) 18

CHAPTER 2

Review of Related Literature

Accurate intonation is an important aspect of individual and large group performances. Achieving this task varies depending on a wide range of internal and external factors. Chief among the external factors are variables related to reference pitches, such as timbre and octave displacement. The current study aims to gain additional data on how these two factors affect pitch perception among collegiate instrumentalists through the use of a pitch comparison task. Participants also will respond to questions related to the relative difficulty of comparing tones with varying stimulus timbre and octave combinations. Previous research on pitch discrimination and tuning practices informed the concepts and methods employed in this study. These studies and their resultant discoveries are discussed in detail below.

The following review of literature begins with a brief synopsis of three early studies that serve as a framework for defining pitch perception and pitch performance, and that aid in the contextualization of subsequent research. This introduction is followed by a synthesis of research results that is divided into three main categories. The first of these categories contains studies related to pitch perception, pitch performance, and directional preferences. Research comparing perception and performance tasks also will be examined in light of the current study. The second category contains research reflecting common practices among ensemble directors and individual musicians with regard to tuning systems, intonation training, and thought processes. These practices, coupled with performer descriptions of their personal tuning procedures and experiences, highlight methods that require more research to support anecdotal assertions of 19 effectiveness. The third category contains external conditions that can affect individuals’ ability to perceive and perform pitch accurately. These factors include instrument timbre, tone quality, and octave displacement of stimulus pitches. This chapter concludes with a summary of the most salient aspects related to the current study.

Pitch Perception and Performance

The current body of research on intonation has situated the concept of pitch primarily through perception and performance tasks. Pitch perception is an individual’s ability to discriminate pitch by aurally comparing tones, whereas pitch performance (or pitch matching) results in the actual production of a pitch through the manipulation of a musical instrument (Morrison & Fyk, 2002). For example, a teacher listening for whether two instrumentalists are “in-tune” with each other is engaging in a pitch perception task.

The students, on the other hand, are engaging in pitch performance as they attempt to match their pitch to the other performer. Researchers have worked to isolate and study these two tasks in various ways, which has led to common methodologies. The following section outlines early studies in order to define these methodologies, and to connect them to perception and performance tasks. Detailed results associated with these studies are contained in the remainder of this review of literature.

Geringer (1978) employed both perception and performance processes in his seminal study of 96 randomly selected undergraduate and graduate music students. Each participant performed a mixolydian scale, either by singing or playing a wind or string instrument. Each participant recorded the scale unaccompanied and with a piano accompaniment consisting of the same scale. Following this initial performance, half of the participants performed both of the tasks again after receiving instruction to adjust 20 their pitch to create the most accurate performance. This served as the performance task for the study. The other half of the participants were instructed to utilize a pitch control knob to adjust the pitches of their initial performance to match those of the accompaniment. This procedure served as the perception task, due to the fact that participants simply were altering, rather than actively creating, the comparison tone. For each task, Geringer calculated the absolute deviation from standard pitch to determine perception preferences and performance tendencies.

A perception task similar to Geringer’s (1978) required participants to compare tones and determine whether they were in tune, rather than actively adjusting one pitch with a control knob (Wapnick & Freeman, 1980). In this study of 50 undergraduate music majors, each participant listened to a pair of clarinet tones and identified the second as sharp, flat, or in tune. By presenting comparison tones that were in tune, 12 cents sharp, and 12 cents flat, Wapnick and Freeman were able to compare the accuracy of participants for each condition. Researchers have used these early studies as models to investigate varying aspects of pitch perception and performance, including the pitch variation at which individuals perceive two different pitches. The specific results of these studies are outlined below.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

In order for the auditory system to perceive two different pitches, there must be an appreciable deviation between the two. Weber (1834) defined this point as the just noticeable difference, or JND. Although Weber employed this term with regard to the entire sensory system, auditory and music education researchers have designed studies to gain a sense of where the JND for pitch discrimination lies. 21

One method for determining the JND of pitches has been to test the point at which participants perceive a change in pitch as it gradually increases or decreases in frequency.

Madsen, Edmonson, and Madsen (1969) employed this methodology in their study of students (N = 200), consisting of evenly-sized subgroups of second graders, fifth graders, eighth graders, eleventh graders, college juniors who were non-music majors, college juniors who were music majors, graduate music students, and music faculty. Participants listened to a pitch (F#) that went gradually higher, gradually lower, or stayed the same.

Madsen et al. provided a switch for participants to indicate the point in time that they perceived a difference in pitch. Upon conclusion of the pitch, participants marked on a piece of paper the direction in which they perceived the pitch changing. Average scores showed increased accuracy as participants grew in age and experience. Madsen et al. reviewed the times at which participants indicated a change in pitch and found that the perception of modulated frequency was most accurate at approximately 10 cents.

Another method that researchers have employed to measure JND has been a comparison of two discrete pitches. Bentley (1973) utilized a pitch comparison task to study adults holding degrees and/or professional diplomas in music (n = 130) and advanced music students ranging in age from 11 and 18 (n = 70). Bentley tested participants in large groups using a pre-recorded tape of pitch pairs that decreased in frequency deviation as the test continued. The test also included two items with the same frequencies. Participants responded as to whether the tones displayed upward movement, downward movement, or were the same. After analysis of all data, Bentley found that a difference of approximately 11 cents was the smallest deviation that led to the discrimination of two different pitches in a group testing setting. 22

Researchers also have completed pitch discrimination studies in which participants complete tasks one at a time. Parker (1983) sought to examine the pitch discrimination abilities of violinists, pianists, and trombonists through a pitch comparison task. Participants in Parker’s study consisted of one group containing 15 trombonists and

15 pianists, and a second group consisting of 15 violinists and 15 pianists. Both groups completed the same exercise and contained no overlap in participation. Parker selected seven pitches and used a pure tone generator to create unaltered reference stimuli and 10 comparison tones for each pitch increasing by intervals of 10 cents. Participants listened to a random order of 1-second reference pitches followed by 1-second comparison pitches through headphones as well as four speakers. Two seconds of silence separated each of the pitch pairs in a trial, and 4 seconds of silence separated each trial. Participants indicated on a response sheet whether they perceived the tones as one or two pitches.

Parker found no significant differences between the pianists in each group and the violinists or trombonists. Among all four groups, Parker found that the JND was approximately 20 cents. Unlike Madsen et al. (1969) and Bentley (1973), Parker chose only to utilize comparison pitches that were sharper than the reference stimuli. This may have skewed the results toward a higher JND when considered in conjunction with research that has shown a tendency for participants to demonstrate a greater tolerance for sharp intonation than flat (Geringer, 1978; Geringer et al., 2015; Madsen & Geringer,

1976; Wapnick & Freeman, 1980). This particular concept will be explored later in this chapter.

Testing participant abilities to discriminate pitches presented simultaneously is an avenue of research that more closely relates to tuning procedures experienced by 23 students. Clark (2012) investigated the pitch perception abilities of high school (n = 64) and undergraduate (n = 64) wind instrumentalists using two pitch comparison tasks, one that presented tones sequentially, and one that presented tones simultaneously. Each task utilized two pitches (Bb4 and E4) and presented random pairs with deviations of 0, ±5,

±7.5, and ±10 cents. A synthesizer created each reference pitch and deviation. One second of silence separated tones that were 2 seconds long in the sequential task. In the simultaneous task, the experimental pitch joined the reference pitch after 2 seconds, with both pitches sounding at the same time for 2 seconds. Clark chose to present each task separately to avoid additional difficulty. Participants listened to pitch pairs through headphones and recorded on a response whether the experimental pitch was lower, the same, or higher than the reference tone. Simultaneous pitch presentations resulted in significantly more accurate responses than sequential (p = .0002). Cent deviation also was significantly different (p < .0001), with changes of ±10 and ±7.5 cents more accurately identified than ±5 cents. Pitch pairs with no deviation were identified the least accurately. These results indicated, on average, a JND closer to 10 cents than 5 cents.

Considered as a whole, research related to JND can inform a practical pitch deviation range that is categorized as “in-tune.” Although the technical definition of this term would be two pitches that have the exact same frequency, a broader musical definition incorporates the perception abilities of humans to hear differences in pitch.

Studies involving pitch matching performances tasks have set this threshold at ±5 cents

(Byo et al., 2011; Byo & Schlegel, 2016; Ely, 1992). A more in-depth look at intonation includes a comparison of responses to flat and sharp pitches of the same magnitude.

24

Pitch Perception Preferences and Performance Tendencies

The concept of pitch perception and studies surrounding it have played an important role in music education research. Numerous studies have shown a tendency for undergraduate and graduate musicians to prefer sharp intonation over flat intonation, including the studies used to define pitch perception and performance (Geringer, 1978;

Wapnick & Freeman, 1980). Geringer’s perception task elicited more sharp than flat responses, indicating that participants were less sensitive to, or were more accepting of, sharp intonation. Similarly, participants in Wapnick and Freeman (1980) demonstrated greater accuracy identifying flat pitches over sharp pitches. Participants’ greater ability to identify flat pitches in these two studies were indicative of a preference for sharp intonation. In another early study, Madsen and Geringer (1976) found that 50 undergraduate and graduate music students showed a preference for sharp intonation when listening to detuned recordings of a trumpet with accompaniment. Limitations in the methodology due to poor accompaniment tone quality prompted a follow-up study.

Geringer, Madsen, and Dunnigan (2001) completed this follow-up, in which 150 undergraduate and graduate music students rated in-tune and out-of-tune trumpet performances using a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (very poor intonation) to 7

(excellent intonation). Not only was sharp intonation preferred, but participants assessed flat intonation as more out of tune than sharp when listening to altered trumpet performances with piano accompaniment. Undergraduate and graduate music students (N

= 150) in Geringer, MacLeod, and Sasanfar (2015) also displayed a preference for sharp intonation. Participants in this study rated altered trumpet, violin, and voice performances 25 with piano accompaniment on a scale ranging from 0 (mostly in tune) to 11 (extremely out of tune).

In the previous three studies, participants rated flat performances more harshly than equally sharp performances. However, the speed with which participants actually respond to intonation perception tasks has been another topic of interest for researchers.

Scherber (2014) analyzed response times of 24 middle school and 23 high school students comparing two tones that were presented through a computer. Flat tones elicited faster response times at smaller deviations than did sharp tones, indicating a greater ease at identifying low comparison pitches. As a whole, the aforementioned studies demonstrate that a preference for sharp intonation has been observed through the accuracy of responses to out of tune pitches, perceived severity of pitch deviations, and response times.

In addition to studies that have focused on perception preference, research on actual performance tendencies has helped to create a broader understanding of pitches produced by musicians. Undergraduate and graduate music students (N = 96) in

Geringer’s (1978) scale study performed pitches on average more sharp than flat. Karrick

(1998) found similar results in his study of professional musicians (n = 9) and advanced college students at the graduate and undergraduate level (n = 9). Each participant was asked to record both lines of a duet along with a synthesized recording of the alternate line. Performed pitches were more likely to be sharp than flat in performances of both the upper and lower duet lines. Morrison (2000) designed a similar study with 304 wind instrumentalists ranging in experience from their first year of band instruction to 7 or more years of instruction. Participants recorded a simple melody in unison with a 26 stimulus recording of the same melody. As part of the method, one third of the participants were offered the opportunity to tune their instruments to a single stimulus pitch before beginning. Errors in pitch for melodic recordings as well as initial stimulus pitch tunings were significantly more likely to be sharp than flat (p < .05). In another setting, Cummings (2007) recruited 16 flutists and 16 violinists to perform pitches with unison stimulus pitches and stimulus pitches at specific harmonic intervals. Responses in each scenario were more likely to be sharp than flat. In a final example, middle school students (n = 24) and high school students (n = 23) tuned their instruments in response to stimulus pitches sounded by an oboe, clarinet, and tuba (Scherber, 2014). Although no significant difference was found in pitch direction when tuning to the oboe and clarinet, responses were more likely to be sharp when tuning to the tuba (55%). This result brings into question the effect of instrument timbre and octave on tuning accuracy, which will be discussed later in this chapter. In each of the aforementioned studies, musicians from the middle school to advanced collegiate level displayed a preference for sharp intonation, not only when listening to tones, but also when producing them.

Experience Effect on Pitch Preference and Accuracy

One consideration with regard to pitch preference is the experience level of the musician. Yarbrough, Karrick, and Morrison (1995) and Yarbrough, Morrison, and

Karrick (1997) conducted studies with 197 elementary, middle, and junior high ensemble members (1995) and 113 high school ensemble members (1997). In both studies, participants demonstrated pitch perception by matching an experimental pitch to a stimulus pitch through the use of a pitch control knob. Yarbrough et al. (1995, 1997) tested pitch performance accuracy by detuning each participant’s instrument and asking 27 them to tune to a stimulus pitch. The researchers recorded response pitches from each task and analyzed the absolute cent deviations from the stimulus pitch. Researcher analysis of pitch deviation scores on the performance task showed a consistent decrease as years of experience increased across both studies (Yarbrough, Karrick, & Morrison,

1995; Yarbrough, Morrison, & Karrick, 1997). These results demonstrated an increased tuning ability as students grew in experience. The researchers did note, however, that this result may have been due to a loss of less successful students in the band program

(Yarbrough et al., 1997). Similarly, participants in each study were able to discriminate pitches in the perception task more accurately as their years of experience increased.

Geringer et al. (2001) found similar perception results when comparing high school and college level musicians’ ratings of detuned recordings. Although these results also could have been attributed to the withdrawal of less successful students, a general trend of increased accuracy with additional experience was apparent for performance and perception tasks (Geringer, Madsen, & Dunnigan, 2001).

In more recent research, Byo, Schlegel, and Clark (2011) and Byo and Schlegel

(2016) reinforced previous findings related to playing experience and the ability of musicians to tune their instruments to varying stimuli. The initial study (2011) included

72 high school wind instrumentalists, and the follow-up study included 63 advanced college musicians. Results similar to the two Yarbrough et al. (1995, 1997) studies emerged, as the accuracy of performance increased with experience level. In each pair of studies, less experienced musicians typically played flatter, while experienced musicians typically played sharper (Byo et al., 2011; Byo & Schlegel, 2016; Yarbrough et al., 1995;

1997). Although these trends may show an increased preference for sharp intonation with 28 increased performance level, Yarbrough et al. (1995) noted that physical factors also might contribute to this correlation. The ability to perform wind instruments “at pitch” can be related to embouchure strength, and younger, less experienced musicians simply may lack the physical ability to produce pitches at a consistent level (Yarbrough et al.,

1995). Unlike performance tasks, perception measures did not show an increased preference toward sharp responses as musicians gained experience (Geringer et al., 2001;

Yarbrough et al., 1995; 1997). The incongruity in performance and perception results has prompted debate as to whether meaningful correlations exist between the two activities.

Relationships Between Perception and Performance

While some research has focused solely on the individual aspects of performance

(Byo et al., 2011; Byo & Schlegel, 2016; Duke, 1985; Karrick, 1998; Morrison, 2000) or perception (Geringer et al., 2001; 2015; C. Madsen & Geringer, 1976; Wapnick &

Freeman, 1980) a number of studies have included both, allowing for comparisons between the two (Ballard, 2011; Ely, 1992; Geringer, 1978; Yarbrough et al., 1995;

1997). Of the studies previously discussed, Geringer (1978) and Yarbrough et al. (1995,

1997) each measured pitch perception through the use of a keyboard pitch bend knob, and pitch performance through an instrumental performance task. None of the three studies showed significant correlations between the two tasks. Still, Geringer (1978) found that the perception task was both sharper and less accurate among college music majors, and Yarbrough et al. (1997) found that the performance task was sharper and less accurate among high school wind players. These results may point to a performance ability among college music majors that surpasses pitch perception alone. Ely (1992) studied the ability of 27 flute, clarinet, and alto saxophone music majors to match pitch 29 while performing a melody with recordings of the same three instruments. As a perception task, participants listened to duet recordings and circled numbers corresponding to out of tune note pairs on an answer sheet. There was a low correlation (r

= .073) when comparing this task to the performance task.

In another analysis, Worthy (2000) studied 32 wind instrumentalists from high school band programs and 32 wind instrumentalists from a large state university. Worthy found a low correlation, ranging from -.13 to +.20, between the participants’ ability to match pitch and recognize pitch differences in various tone quality settings. More recently, Ballard (2011) tasked 60 undergraduate wind majors to play, sing, and listen to the Star-Spangled Banner with various accompaniments. No correlations were present between the pitch performance deviations of participant vocal responses, instrumental responses, and abilities to detect out-of-tune notes (p > .05). The lack of correlations in these studies may lend credence to the hypothesis that physical factors related to performing on an instrument may affect general pitch tendencies. One such variance, as

Ballard (2011) hypothesized, was the difference in pitch perception when frequencies were transmitted through bone and air conduction. These findings also could point to different strategies or processes between active tuning of an instrument and passive perception of pitch.

Common Practices

Practices related to the performance, perception, and instruction of pitch relationships can provide context regarding the ways in which musicians negotiate intonation. The following section begins with a discussion surrounding temperament, or the specific frequencies of each tone in a 12-note chromatic scale (Berg & Stork, 1995). 30

This is followed by research on various methods of teaching the concept of intonation and improving pitch discrimination and pitch matching. Finally, an examination of musicians’ responses to various intonation tasks provides individual perspectives to the intonation process.

Temperament

Research on the use of various temperaments has been conducted to determine patterns in the performance of musicians and the preferences of listeners. While the research presented earlier in this chapter focused on the relationship between unison pitches, the concept of temperament relates to a variety of pitches, both melodically and harmonically. Researchers have explored three primary tuning systems: just intonation, based on the consonance of the major triad; Pythagorean intonation, creating the largest possible number of perfect fourths and fifths; and equal temperament, consisting of equally sized half steps (Rossing, 2002).

Research also has shown that wind players have exhibited a preference toward equal temperament during melodic interval performance tasks (Ballard, 2011; Karrick,

1998; Scherber, 2014). In Karrick’s (1998) study, advanced wind instrumentalists at the collegiate (n = 9) and professional levels (n = 9) performed a duet, first by playing the melody with a synthesized harmony line and then the harmony line with a synthesized melody. Karrick analyzed 728 resultant intervals and compared them to equal temperament, just, and Pythagorean tuning systems. Performed intervals showed the least deviation in cents from equal temperament (M = 6.5). Pythagorean tuning produced the second highest deviation (M = 8.7), and just intonation produced the highest deviation (M

= 13.1). Deviation scores produced no significant differences from equal temperament 31 between student and professional participants. Karrick examined the individual intervals produced while performing to a synthesized alternate line, providing no harmonic context to determine temperament. While this method offered insight into typical, individual performance tendencies, it did not assess each musician’s ability to respond and adapt to various temperaments.

In order to gauge the performance tendencies of instrumentalists in various temperaments, harmonic context has been a necessary stimulus. Ballard (2011) asked 60 undergraduate wind instrument majors to perform pitches from the first phrase of the

Star-Spangled Banner, with four different accompaniment scenarios. These accompaniments included equal temperament, just, and Pythagorean tuning systems, as well as no accompaniment. Although a musical introduction was included before each task to provide context for tonality and tuning, participants were unaware of the varying temperaments that were presented. The researcher analyzed all pitches, calculating the mean cent deviations and standard deviations for each accompaniment condition. Ballard found a significant difference between the three tuning conditions (p < .001). Mean and standard deviations for the equal temperament condition were the lowest, with no significant difference when compared to the unaccompanied condition. These results indicated an increased performance level under equal temperament and a tendency to perform in equal temperament, even when unaccompanied. Ballard also included a similar perception task, in which participants listened to performances of the same pitches and intonation conditions with randomly altered melodic tones. Participants then circled notes that they perceived as out of tune. Unlike the performance task, tuning condition did not have a significant effect on participant perception performance (p > 32

.05). These results may point to enculturation in equal-temperament, both through listening to music and performing in equal-temperament settings.

More recently, Scherber (2014) asked 24 middle school and 23 high school students to perform a simple 12-bar melody after tuning their instrument to a stimulus pitch. The focus of this task was on melodic intonation, measuring the interval width of specific melodic intervals in the example. These intervals included the unison, major third, perfect fourth, perfect fifth, octave, and first and last note (also a unison). The cent size of each melodic interval was compared to standards in equal temperament and just intonation. Scherber found a significant interaction between temperament and interval (p

< .05), suggesting that participant responses reflected a specific tuning system. Fourths and fifths showed the least deviation from just intonation, while major thirds deviated the least from equal temperament. Although fourths and fifths showed the smallest deviation, these intervals are only different by 2 cents between equal temperament and just intonation. In addition, each interval larger than a unison was only performed in one direction, which has been shown to affect pitch deviation (Duke, 1985). These considerations of interval size, pitch approach direction, and lack of data on the remaining major intervals, limit the conclusions on temperament that can be drawn from

Scherber’s study. Regardless, this study, in conjunction with Karrick (1998) and Ballard

(2011), provides evidence that differences in temperament are apparent in performance tasks related to simple harmonic intervals, full accompanied settings, and melodic intervals.

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Development of Intonation Skills

Teaching large ensembles how to tune can be approached through a wide range of strategies. The importance of intonation to quality band performances is evident in the publication of trade articles related to the subject (Barnes, 2010; Burch-Press, 2000;

Groeling, 2003). Not only have books devoted entire chapters to the subject (Lisk,

1991b), Jagow (2012) produced a comprehensive text about the many facets of wind instrument intonation. Scherber (2014) found that both secondary school and collegiate band directors considered daily tuning of high importance. Although the directors agreed on the importance of daily tuning, the practices most commonly employed varied among the respondents. For example, while school directors primarily reported using concert F and Bb to tune, collegiate directors reported using concert A, with Bb and F as less common choices. School directors’ preferred tuning note may have been affected by their tendency to use a tuba for the reference pitch, as collegiate directors preferred the oboe.

A smaller number of collegiate directors employed the tuba and clarinet to provide tuning notes. These findings reinforced those of Byo, Schlegel, and Clark (2011), who found that tuba was the most commonly reported instrument among 72 high school wind instrument players. In Scherber’s study, directors tended to use live instruments to provide tuning pitches and employed a “bottom-up” approach (Scherber, 2014). This approach starts with the lowest voice in the ensemble, often the tuba, and then adds sections in an ascending order of instrument tessitura. These findings illustrate how instructors commonly choose to tune at the beginning of a rehearsal, but they do not provide information on how instructors actually teach the skill of tuning. 34

Many articles and books prescribe a specific method for tuning ensembles

(Barnes, 2010; Burch-Press, 2000; Hovey, 1976; Jagow, 2012; Lisk, 1991b; McBeth,

1972; South, 2006); however, research is still being completed on the effectiveness of these techniques. Teacher feedback on student performance is a common occurrence in ensemble settings and provides one avenue for research. In both Yarbrough et al. (1995,

1997) instrument tuning and perception studies, wind instrumentalists ranging in experience from 1 to 7 or more years completed a performance task on their instrument and a perception task using a pitch control knob. Three groups received differing information about their initial pitch in both the performance and perception tasks. The researchers informed the first group that they would probably be sharp and the second group that they would probably be flat. The third group received no information regarding pitch direction. Knowledge of the detuned direction of the participants’ instruments in the performance task and the tuning knob in the perception task did not have a significant effect on participant accuracy (p > .05). These results were consistent across students at the middle school (1995) and high school (1997) levels. Although these studies did not appear to support teacher feedback as an effective educational strategy for addressing pitch direction, additional research could address more frequent and specific instruction.

Directing student attention during the tuning process is another form of teacher instruction that has been employed in large ensemble settings. Morrison (2000) presented

167 high school band students with 5 or more years of instruction with the melodic task of performing a simple, four-bar, melodic line along with a recorded model. Morrison divided the population into three groups, consisting of two experimental groups and one 35 control group. The first experimental group (n = 55) received the opportunity to tune their instruments to a single pitch before performing the melody, the second experimental group (n = 51) received instruction to perform as in-tune as possible, and the control group (n = 61) neither tuned their instruments nor received instruction. Morrison selected four melodic pitches in advance, and analyzed performances to determine whether correlations existed between tuning procedure, researcher provided instructions, and participant accuracy. No significant differences were found between any of the three groups (p > .05). Participants in this study did not show a change in performance when prompted to direct their attention to intonation in general, but other studies have addressed directed attention on more specific aspects of the process.

Directing student attention on certain parts of the tuning process, such as tone rather than pitch, has been an additional topic of research. Worthy’s (2000) timbre study involved high school (n = 32) and college (n = 32) wind instrumentalists who tuned their instruments to stimulus pitches with varying timbres. While some participants attempted to match the pitch of the stimulus, other participants attempted to match the tone. No significant difference was present between those participants who matched the timbre of a tone and those who matched the pitch.

Another method of internalizing pitch requires students to reproduce the pitch through vocalization (e.g., singing, humming) before playing it on their instruments

(Scherber, 2014). Silvey, Nápoles, and Springer (2018) investigated this approach with

72 undergraduate music majors who played wind instruments. Each participant matched the pitch of a pre-recorded oboe after three different pre-tuning conditions, which consisted of singing the pitch, humming the pitch, and maintaining silence. After 36 analyzing cent deviations of each performance, results between the three conditions were non-significant (p = .192). Although singing created the lowest average deviation, there was no significant difference between the two conditions. While some studies have presented snapshots of isolated, short-term instructional techniques (Morrison, 2000;

Silvey, Nápoles, & Springer, 2018; Yarbrough et al., 1995; 1997), other studies have documented the viability of long-term auditory and pitch discrimination training programs.

Participants in longitudinal studies have received increased time to internalize and effectively apply strategies, providing more applicable results to the traditional classroom setting. Platt and Racine (1985) tested the ability of 32 undergraduate students to match a stimulus pitch through the use of a potentiometer dial connected to a computer. This dial allowed participants to alter the pitch of an experimental tone until it matched the pitch of a preceding stimulus tone. Platt and Racine divided the participants into three groups: novice musicians with less than 1 year of experience (n = 14), musicians with 4 or more years of experience who did not regularly tune an instrument (n = 9), and musicians with

4 or more years of experience who regularly tuned and instrument (n = 9). All participants completed a pre-test, four additional training sessions, and a post-test. During the training sessions, half of the participants received feedback in the form of an on- screen visual graph while the other half did not. Results showed that participants exhibited increased abilities to discriminate pitch by more accurately matching the stimulus tone. This was especially true among the inexperienced musician group. A second experiment in the study revealed that inexperienced participants (n = 24) who received feedback improved their performance significantly compared to those who did 37 not receive feedback (p = .035). This significance applied only to the comparison of complex tones, or those tones that contained harmonics. These results stand in contrast to the lack of significance found regarding feedback in Yarbrough et al.’s (1995, 1997) single test experiments. Although Platt and Racine were able to show participant improvement, the individual, computer-based training sessions do not generalize readily to the typical ensemble-based classroom.

Approaching intonation instruction on a broader scale, Scherber (2014) constructed a large group intonation unit based on professional literature, and tested its effectiveness among 24 middle school students and 23 middle school students. Two middle schools and two high schools served matched samples with one experimental and one control group at each level. As a pre-test, each participant completed a computer- based pitch comparison test, a pitch matching performance task, and a melodic performance task. The intonation unit lasted 6 weeks and contained the topics of beatless tuning, vocalization, interval recognition and reproduction, unison melodies, electronic tuner user, large-group tuning procedures, and ensemble balance. Following the 6-week instructional period, all participants completed a post-test that mirrored the tasks of the pre-test. Results of pre- and post-tests were non-significant (p > .05), although minimal improvement was shown among experimental participants. Future research spanning a longer period of instruction and a narrower scope of instructional techniques may provide more applicable results. Aside from research that has focused on one specific technique or process among groups of players, additional value could be found in exploring the concept of intonation from a more individual perspective. This approach could allow 38 researchers to highlight the unique differences in student performers, and their varying approaches to the tuning process.

Musician Perceptions of Tuning Practices

Although research has shown commonalities in ensemble tuning practices such as reference instrument and pitch (Byo et al., 2011; Scherber, 2014), musicians’ perceived difficulty of this processes may shed light on misconceptions of some ensemble members. Byo et al. (2011) asked high school wind instrumentalists to complete a pitch matching performance task with three different stimulus timbres. These timbres included the oboe, clarinet, and flute, each playing a Bb4, and the tuba playing a Bb2. Although the tuba timbre elicited responses with the greatest pitch deviation, participants rated it the easiest tuning timbre in a follow-up question. This inconsistency in perceived ease and performance accuracy may have been a result of process familiarity, as 82% of the same group of students also responded that their band typically tuned to the tuba. This perception, however, disappeared among advanced college musicians (N = 63) in a follow-up study, where students cited tuba as both the easiest and hardest instrument to which to tune (Byo & Schlegel, 2016). Unlike Byo’s (2011) initial study with high school students, there was no significant difference in pitch-matching accuracy among advanced college students (2016), regardless of the instrument that supplied the reference pitch.

This result may have been due to the high level of expertise that participants already had gained tuning their instruments in various conditions. These responses reflect external aspects of stimulus timbre, but do not provide insight on the individual strategies that students employ during an intonation task. 39

The internal thought processes of individuals during tuning tasks is another valuable way to add context to current research on tuning procedures. Byo and Schlegel

(2016) collected survey information from 63 advanced college students and categorized their responses to gain an understanding of students’ discrete thought processes. The first prompt asked participants to “describe how you know you are out of tune” (Byo &

Schlegel, p. 354). Participants most commonly reported relying on various strategies consisting of beat experience, timbre experience, visceral experience, and feel experience. Student responses suggested that pitch discrimination while playing a wind instrument was not only a mental endeavor, but that it employed various modes of experience. The second prompt asked participants to “describe the strategies you use to get in tune” (Byo & Schlegel, p. 354). When describing personal strategies for bringing their instruments in tune, students reported the use of two main tactics. The first tactic was beat elimination, which consisted of listening for a reduction in “beats” resulting from sound waves that were out of tune, or that interfered with one another. The second tactic was the implementation of varying comparative strategies, where participants continually adjusted their own pitch, sometimes to extremes, to compare various self- produced tones to the static tuning note. This use of comparative strategies may have been directly related to the experiences that participants described when deciding whether a pitch was in tune; however, Byo and Schlegel did not collect adequate information to confirm a relationship. The variety of responses related to the ease of tuning to specific stimuli (Byo et al., 2011; Scherber, 2014) and approaches to tuning a pitch (Byo &

Schlegel, 2016) suggest that individuals do not always engage with intonation in identical ways. In addition, musicians’ perceptions may not align consistently with end results. 40

Despite this, many participants mentioned timbre both in responses related to deciding whether a pitch was in tune, and to the strategies they used to tune a note (Byo &

Schlegel, 2016). This observation may indicate a link between this aspect of music and pitch, although the two concepts can be individually isolated and altered.

External Stimulus Pitch Factors

The perception of pitch can be affected by a number of factors outside of the note that is produced. Instrument timbre is one of these considerations and can be observed in the various types of instruments in concert band settings. Tone quality adds another layer of distinction on top of timbre. Researchers have explored the effect of characteristic and poor tone qualities as well as bright and dark tone qualities. Additionally, instruments producing tones with similar timbres and tone qualities can be distinguished through different performance octaves. All three of these considerations are present in large ensemble tuning procedures, which can complicate the process for students. The following section includes a discussion of these influential variables.

Instrument Timbre

Similar to the tone quality of a pitch, timbre also has been shown to have a considerable effect on the perception and performance of matching tones. Initial studies focused on the difference between simple tones, those containing a fundamental pitch only, and complex tones, those that consist of a fundamental pitch with added harmonics

(Platt & Racine, 1985). Platt and Racine (1985) found that musicians and non-musicians ranging in age from 22 to 40 (N = 12) adjusted pitches more accurately through the use of a potentiometer when they were comparing similar tone types. In addition, participants perceived complex tones as more sharp than simple tones. The effects of complex tone 41 presentation became apparent even when only the first harmonic was presented with the fundamental. These findings are germane to the study of instruments, as all acoustic instruments produce tones with harmonics (Helmholtz, 1954). Platt and Racine only tested the perception of participants, but additional studies have included performance aspects as well.

Research concerning pitch discrimination and performance related to timbre has shown differences between the two tasks. In Ely (1992), undergraduate and graduate instrumental music majors (N = 27) performed duets with pre-recorded alternate lines of varying timbres. Ely then presented these recordings as a perception task, in which participants circled out-of-tune harmonic pitches. Participants were more accurate at discerning pitch in duets with differing instruments. In contrast, the instrument providing the second part of the duet had no particular effect on those same students’ pitch performance. Musicians in the same study tended to play flatter when matching a different instrument timbre. Cummings (2007) analyzed the pitches that college flutists (n

= 16) and violinists (n = 16) performed in response to flute and violin timbres in varying harmonic conditions. Similar to Ely, Cummings found no like timbre advantage in performance accuracy. With regard to the perception of specific instrument timbres,

Geringer et al. (2015) found significant differences in accompanied contexts (p < .001).

Specifically, participants consistently heard mis-tuned trumpet notes flatter than either violin or soprano. The researchers also observed an effect of vocal generosity, as there was a much greater tolerance for mis-tunings in the voice sample than the two instrumental recordings. These results once again reinforced the effect of timbre on perception tasks. In contrast to Geringer et al. (2015), no significant differences were 42 found in pitch matching accuracy between woodwind instruments in the same octave

(Byo et al., 2011; Byo & Schlegel, 2016; Scherber, 2014). The latest of these studies

(Byo & Schlegel, 2016) replaced the clarinet stimulus with a tuner-created pitch in the same octave, which once again created no significant difference. Byo et al. (2011), Byo and Schlegel (2016), and Scherber (2014) each included tuba as a stimulus timbre in their studies, sounding two octaves below the woodwind timbres. The tuba stimulus timbre produced the least accurate responses among high school students (Byo et al., 2011) and middle school and high school students (Scherber, 2014). While Byo et al. (2011) found statistical significance when comparing the accuracy of responses to the tuba timbre and woodwind timbres (p = .0004), Scherber (2014) found none. Results in the aforementioned timbre studies may point to an effect of presentation octave, a factor that will be addressed later in this section. Much like researchers who have investigated responses to various wind instruments timbres, other researchers have investigated responses to varying tone qualities produced by the same instrument.

Tone Quality

Educators and conductors often have cited tone quality as being vital to the intonation process (Jagow, 2012; Lisk, 1991a; South, 2006). The belief that accurate tuning exercises cannot be completed unless a characteristic tone is presented on the instrument often underpins this claim (South, 2006). Researchers have explored both the ability of musicians to perceive good tone quality versus poor tone quality, and the influence of tone quality on the perception and performance of pitch (Geringer et al.,

2001; C. Madsen & Geringer, 1976). Madsen and Geringer (1976) investigated these concepts by asking undergraduate and graduate music students to respond to recordings 43 of a professional trumpet performer. Two recordings were selected by a panel of music faculty to represent good and poor tone quality. These recordings did not deviate in intonation more than ±2 cents from equal temperament. The first task presented each recording in isolation, while the second task presented combinations of good and poor tone quality, with synthesized organ accompaniments altered to 25 cents flat, 50 cents sharp, and in-tune. While all participants were able to distinguish between good and poor tone quality in unaccompanied examples, data did not indicate the same ability to do so in accompanied contexts. Geringer et al. (2001) completed a follow-up study in which they more carefully monitored the pitch of the trumpet recordings, changed the accompaniment to a synthesized piano, altered the pitch of trumpet recordings rather than accompaniments, and included instrumentalists at the high school (n = 60) and collegiate

(n = 60) levels. The results of this follow-up examination contradicted the initial study’s findings, as all participants were able to identify good and poor tone quality in both the unaccompanied and accompanied settings. Participants in both studies demonstrated an overall preference for good tone quality in all conditions. In the follow-up study, tone quality was found to have a significant effect on intonation ratings (p < .001).

Conversely, intonation conditions in the same study had a significant effect on tone quality ratings (p < .001). Geringer et al. argued that the difference in results for the follow-up study were due to changes in the stimuli. In analyzing the trumpet recordings used for these studies, the researchers noted that the primary difference was an underrepresentation of upper level harmonics in the poor tone quality recording. In addition to explaining the difference between good and poor tone qualities, the harmonic make-up of tones also has allowed researchers to define bright and dark tone qualities. 44

Researchers have found that musicians’ perception of certain tones as bright or dark has an effect on both the perception and performance of pitch (Geringer & Worthy,

1999; Wapnick & Freeman, 1980; Worthy, 2000). Geringer and Worthy (1999) employed the use of a spectrogram to define dark tones as those that emphasize lower harmonic frequencies, bright tones as those that emphasize upper frequencies, and standard tones as a more even distribution of harmonics. In the same study, 36 undergraduate music majors, 36 college students, and 44 high school students listened to 24 tone pairs with varying tone qualities and pitch discrepancies. Participants rated the tone quality and intonation of each tone pair using a 5-point Likert-type scale. Researchers found a significant effect of tone quality on intonation ratings (p < .0001). In general, brighter stimuli elicited sharper response, and darker stimuli elicited flatter responses. Participants also displayed a tendency to rate dark stimulus tones more harshly than bright tones.

Worthy (2000) investigated the effect of timbre on both perception and performance among wind instrumentalists at the collegiate (n = 32) and high school (n =

32) levels. Similar to Geringer and Worthy (1999), participants compared pitch pairs and rated the second pitch on tone quality and intonation using a 5-point Likert-type scale.

This served as the perception task. As a performance task, each participant attempted to match stimulus pitches consisting of bright, dark, and standard tone qualities on their own instrument. Worthy found a significant difference in pitch deviations with regard to stimulus tone quality in both the perception (p < .001) and performance tasks (p < .001).

Participants perceived and produced sharper responses when listening to or matching the pitch of a bright tone, and flatter responses when listening to or matching the pitch of a dark tone. Low correlations ranging from -.13 to +.20 were present between subjects’ 45 ratings on the perception and pitch deviation tasks. The observed trend of timbre and tone quality to affect the perception and performance of pitch supports the often cited importance of producing a characteristic tone when tuning (Garofalo, 1996; Jagow, 2012;

Lisk, 1991b; South, 2006). Existing research related to timbre and pitch perception has dealt primarily with stimulus tones consisting of one timbre, although students are often asked to tune in a setting where multiple timbres and octaves sound at the same time.

Octave Displacement

Within the concert band setting, instruments of varying tessituras present pitches across as many as five or six octaves, requiring performers to negotiate octave displacements on a regular basis. This can be observed in the practice of a “bottom-up” tuning procedure reported by band directors (Scherber, 2014). In this procedure, the tuba, or lowest voice in the ensemble, provides the pitch to which all other instruments tune. In studies of high school students (Byo et al., 2011) and high school and middle school students (Scherber, 2014), participants performed with the greatest pitch deviation when responding to a tuba stimulus tone. This tone sounded two octaves below the three other woodwind tones in the study. Despite this, participants in Byo et al. (2011) reported tuba as the most common instrument used to provide the tuning pitch in their high school ensembles. Collegiate musicians did not perform significantly better when responding to woodwind or tuba stimulus timbres, indicating that they may have already achieved an optimal performance level at responding to a wide range of timbres and octave displacements (Byo & Schlegel, 2016). Although Byo et al. (2011) reported pitch deviations that were significantly different when comparing woodwind and tuba stimulus tones (p < .0004), Byo and Schlegel (2016) stated that, “We have yet to fully control for 46 those variables in a manner that reveals how they may interact with each other and with the experience and skill level of musicians” (p. 356). When taken into consideration with studies that showed no correlation between instrument tone color and performance on pitch matching exercises (Worthy, 2000), the effect of octave displacement remains a viable course of inquiry.

Summary

Researchers have studied many factors related to the perception and performance of pitch. Although tuning can be seen as an individual task, it often takes place in the large ensemble setting (Byo et al., 2011; Byo & Schlegel, 2016; Scherber, 2014).

External factors in this environment, including multiple timbres and octaves, complicate the perception of pitch in the band context. Current studies have approached the effects of timbre and octave displacement on middle school, high school, and college musicians, but only through using isolated stimulus pitches. This approach makes it difficult to discern individual effects, as previous studies that involved woodwind and tuba stimulus timbres did not isolate each of these variables (Byo et al., 2011; Byo & Schlegel, 2016;

Scherber, 2014). By presenting stimulus tones of varying timbres and octaves both concurrently and in isolation, the current study seeks to gain further insight into these variables. Finally, the most recently studied populations included middle school and high school band members (Byo et al., 2011; Scherber, 2014) as well as advanced college musicians (Byo & Schlegel, 2016). Collecting data on the pitch perception of undergraduate music majors and non-majors can provide data on a less frequently studied population.

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CHAPTER 3

Methodology

The current study highlighted the ability of college musicians to discriminate pitch in varying octave and timbre combinations. Previous research has focused on these concepts through the use of tasks employing single octave and single timbre stimulus tones (Byo et al., 2011; Byo & Schlegel, 2016; Cummings, 2007; Ely, 1992; Geringer et al., 2001; Scherber, 2014). These studies, however, did not address the possible effect of two, simultaneous stimulus tones with differing octaves and timbres on perception accuracy. Researchers also have employed the use of pitch-pair comparison tasks to investigate many aspects of pitch perception (Geringer & Worthy, 1999; Scherber, 2014;

Wapnick & Freeman, 1980; Worthy, 2000), which have yielded promising results. Thus, the design of the current study employs a pitch-pair comparison task to determine the possible effect of simultaneous stimulus tones on the perception of pitch.

Purpose and Problems of the Study

With the intent of gaining a deeper understanding of pitch perception among instrumentalists, the purpose of this research was to measure college wind band members’ ability to accurately assess the pitch variance of tones in response to varying stimulus octaves and timbres, presented in isolation and concurrently. A secondary focus was on the students’ perceived difficulty of discriminating pitch in each setting. The specific problems of the study were (a) to determine whether individual or combined stimulus octaves have an effect on instrumentalists’ ability to accurately assess a tone as in tune or out of tune, (b) to determine whether individual or combined stimulus timbres have an effect on instrumentalists’ ability to accurately assess a tone as in tune or out of 48 tune, (c) to determine whether individual or combined stimulus octaves have an effect on instrumentalists’ perceived ability to accurately assess a tone as in tune or out of tune, and (d) to determine whether individual or combined stimulus timbres have an effect on instrumentalists’ perceived ability to assess a tone as in tune or out of tune.

Participants

Participants (N = 92) in this study consisted of undergraduate music majors (n =

31) and non-music majors (n = 61) from three university band programs in the

Midwestern United States. Two band programs were situated within private, liberal arts universities, and one band program was situated within a private, research university.

Ensembles in the current study were similar in size, ranging from 40-70 members, and employed participants from university concert bands that consisted of both music majors and non-music majors. This population was chosen to prevent possible ceiling effects such as those found in Byo et al. (2016) and, potentially, to provide results that could be transferable to developing ensembles at the high school and middle school levels.

Consent

The primary investigator requested letters of cooperation from each participating university via email (see Appendix A). When the letters were received, approval was sought from the primary university’s oversight committee. Once approval was granted

(see Appendix B), the primary investigator contacted the band directors at three universities to request official participation. The primary investigator provided all students over the age of 18 with a letter of consent (see Appendix C), provided a verbal explanation of the study (see Appendix D), and answered any questions immediately, prior to data collection. No ensemble members were younger than 18 years of age. In 49 addition, graduate students and community members were excluded from participation in this study.

Instrument Development

Stimulus Creation

A researcher-designed stimulus was created that employed original and open- source sound files. Some researchers have chosen to create custom samples of live instruments (Byo et al., 2011; Scherber, 2014), while others have utilized pre-existing instrument sample libraries (Geringer & Worthy, 1999; Worthy, 2000) for use in experimentation. Given the scope and nature of the current study, selecting pre-existing sound samples was the most efficient means of collecting data related to authentic instrument recordings. The University of Iowa Electronic Music Studios (Fritts, n.d.) provides free, unrestricted, professionally-recorded instrument samples from which stimulus and experimental tones were drawn. Staff at the University of Iowa Electronic

Music Studios recorded these instrument samples in an anechoic chamber utilizing a

Neumann KM 84 cardioid condenser microphone. These recordings were edited and sequenced to provide comparison pitch pairs with varying timbre and octave combinations.

The four instrument tones that were drawn from the University of Iowa Electronic

Music Studios were clarinet, bass clarinet, trombone, and tuba. Specifically, clarinet and tuba samples served as stimulus timbres due to their frequent utilization in ensemble tuning research (Byo et al., 2011; Byo & Schlegel, 2016; Scherber, 2014). For the purposes of this study, bass clarinet samples will be used to compare pitches presented in octaves using instruments of similar and dissimilar timbres. The trombone served as the 50 experimental timbre, due to the fact that its range typically falls between that of the clarinet and tuba. In addition, the trombone presented a harmonic middle ground, with fewer upper harmonics than the clarinet and more than the tuba (see Appendix E).

Experimental tones not in the octave of either stimulus tone prevented same-octave pitch recall on participant responses. Six chromatic pitches were randomly selected within a comfortable range for each stimulus and experimental pitch to reduce experimental fatigue, pitch memory, and tonality. Pitches included E4, F#4, G4, G#4, A4 and C5 on clarinet; E2, F#2, G2, G#2, A2, C3 on tuba and bass clarinet; and E3, F#3, G3, G#3, A3, and C4 on trombone.

Individual fluctuations between recorded samples related to pitch, amplitude, and length necessitated additional editing to reduce possible effects on the results. All audio manipulation in the current study was completed using Logic Pro X (“Logic Pro X,”

2017). Each sample was pitch-corrected using Logic Pro X within one cent to ensure that the attack, body, and decay of each note maintained a consistent pitch level. Sample volumes were normalized to -20db to increase consistency, while presenting a minimal change from the original recorded level. Sample envelopes were shortened or lengthened as needed using Logic Pro X’s time shift feature to ensure an exact length of 2 seconds.

Clark (2012) found that high school and college participants identified out-of-tune pitches at ±7.5 and ±10 cents more accurately than at ±0 and ±5 cents in a paired comparison task using pitches in the same octave. The current study employed experimental pitches with increased magnitude differentials of -10, -15, +10, and +15 cents. The increased magnitudes were a result of pilot testing, which revealed deviations of ±7.5 and ±10 cents may be too small due to the octave displacement between reference 51 and experimental pitches. Previous research utilized a 5-cent threshold for “in-tune,” although these tasks either presented both pitches concurrently or in the same octave when in an asynchronous arrangement (Byo et al., 2011; Byo & Schlegel, 2016; Clark,

2012; Ely, 1992). Experimental pitch variations were created utilizing Logix Pro X’s (X) pitch shift feature. Resulting experimental tones netted five different trombone samples for each pitch used in the study, inclusive of an unaltered version.

A stimulus presentation order was created so that direct repetition of stimulus types, specific pitches, and experimental tone variations were avoided. The stimuli presentation order was (a) clarinet, (b) clarinet and bass clarinet, (c) tuba, and (d) clarinet and tuba. Order alternation of both octave conditions (single and layered) and timbre combinations (similar and dissimilar) were presented a total of six times, resulting in 24 pitch pairings. The primary investigator assigned pitches to ensure equal representation among each timbre combination. No two pitches occurred consecutively, minimizing the effect of pitch memory. Similarly, pitch variations of 0, 0, -10, -15, +10, and +15 cents were assigned to each stimulus timbre and pitch, with minimal immediate repetition of each condition. This order was presented to half of the first two participating ensembles

(Group A, n = 47) and in reverse order to the remaining half of these ensembles (Group

B, n = 45) (see appendix F). Researcher error resulted in one additional deviation of -10 cents and no deviation of -15 cents for the combined stimulus timbre of clarinet and bass clarinet in both orders. Participants in the third ensemble were low in number (n = 5), and were only presented with the Group B order. This decision was made to balance the overall number of Group A and Group B participants. The use of two presentation orders served as an attempt to ameliorate order effect. 52

The primary investigator used Logic Pro X (2017) to organize and layer stimulus recordings into two single-tracks, one forward and one backward. Pitch-pairing timings mirrored Clark (2012) and included 2-second-long stimulus and experimental pitches, separated by 1 second of silence. A 5-second delay separated each pair of pitches, during which time participants indicated their responses on a corresponding response sheet. Each pairing was preceded by a recorded, verbal announcement of the upcoming pair number.

Data Collection Instrument

Each participant received an investigator-designed response sheet to record responses to the pitch-comparison task, perceived task difficulty, and demographic information (see Appendix G). A check box at the beginning of the form offered participants the option to indicate non-participation in the study. Participants selected responses to the perception task by checking in-tune (Y) or out-of-tune (N) for each of the

24 pitch pairs. Response items regarding perceived task difficulty were similar to those in

Byo et al. (2011): “In the instrument pairings you heard today, which instrument or grouping of instruments do you believe made it the easiest to hear the trombone as in- tune?” and “In the instrument pairings you heard today, which instrument or grouping of instruments do you believe made it the most difficult to hear the trombone as in-tune?”

The response sheet included the option for participants to indicate that they perceived no difference in their ability to hear the trombone pitch as in-tune with regard to reference pitch instrument.

Pilot Testing

Prior to the main study, five graduate music education students and one music education professor completed a content validity study using the stimulus sequences. 53

Each of the participants held an undergraduate degree in music, reflecting advanced pitch perception training. The content validity group was split into two groups of three, with each listening to either the initial or reverse stimulus order. The primary investigator requested feedback specific to sample audio quality, consistency among individual pitches and timbres, difficulty of the task, response form ease of use, and appropriateness for undergraduate instrumentalists.

Responses to the pilot test were similar between both order groups, suggesting that the recordings differed only by order; however, both order groups recommended three adjustments. First, pilot test participants suggested that the overall task may be too difficult due to small variations in in-tune and out-of-tune pitches. This consensus led the primary investigator to raise the experimental pitch differences from ±7 and ±10 cents to

±10 and ±15 cents. Second, a line was added on the response sheet for each example pairing in order to make it clear that participants should not respond to these examples.

Third, an example was added to the verbal instructions to clarify the various possible reference pitch instrument combinations.

Procedures

The current study’s procedures were similar for each of the three data collection locations. The primary investigator informed directors of all procedures and needs for the study in advance. Directors had the opportunity to discuss details and ask questions through email or phone call. Data were collected at all three sites during the ensemble’s regular rehearsal time and in the regular rehearsal room. Data collection took place during the academic semester for all three sites. Participants in the first location were recruited before their final spring concert, and participants in the second and third sites 54 were recruited after their final spring concert. On the day of data collection, each rehearsal space was pre-set with the typical arrangement of chairs and stands for rehearsal. At the first two sites, the primary investigator placed two informed consent forms, one response sheet, and a pen on each stand, alternating forms for groups A and B.

All participants at the third site received forms for group B and were not split into two groups due to low number of participants (n = 5). Unforeseen circumstances at the third site caused a loss in planned rehearsal time and prevented testing during a time with an existing expectation of attendance. Consent forms and response sheets for Group A were printed on white paper, and consent forms and response sheets for Group B were printed on cream paper. Students entered the rehearsal room at each location without taking out instruments and sat in their typical seats. After all students were in their seats, the primary investigator read a description of the current study to the ensemble and requested participation from all members in the ensemble (see Appendix D). Ensemble members were then directed to read the informed consent form and offered the chance to ask questions in front of the ensemble or privately. Those members who choose not to participate remained in the room and checked the appropriate box on their response sheet.

Graduate students and community members were dismissed from the room until the conclusion of the study.

At the first two sites, the pre-placed forms on each music stand randomly divided ensemble members into two groups. Although forms were place face down on each stand to prevent early reading, paper color was used to indicate which group each ensemble member had been assigned to. The first group of participants (Group A at the first two sites and Group B at the third site) remained in the ensemble rehearsal room to complete 55 the perception task. The second group (Group B at the first two sites only) walked to a pre-determined, acoustically-isolated area of the building in order to prevent students from hearing the stimulus recording for Group A. When exiting the room, participants left their response sheets on their music stands. The ensemble director accompanied group B at the first site and remain in the alternate location until the completion of the study. Ensemble directors for the second and third sites were not present during any portion of the study to protect student participation anonymity. The primary investigator then read the following instructions to each of the participants in Group A (Group B at the third site):

You are about to be presented with 24 pitch combinations. The first pitch you

hear will be an in-tune reference pitch. Reference pitches will be provided by

individual and combined recordings of clarinet, bass clarinet, and tuba. For

example, you may hear a clarinet alone, or a clarinet and tuba together. The

second pitch you hear will be provided every time by a trombone and may be

sharp, flat, or in-tune when compared with the reference pitch. You will be asked

to mark on your paper if the trombone is in-tune or out-of-tune in comparison to

the first pitch. Both pitches will sound for 2 seconds, with 1 second of silence in

between. Each pitch pair will only be played once, and you will have 5 seconds to

respond on your sheet. Each grouping will be proceeded by a recorded

announcement of the upcoming item number. Two in-tune example pairings will

be presented before the first actual question. The experiment will last less than 5

minutes total. Are there any questions? 56

At each school site, the stimulus recording was played from the researcher’s computer, a mid-2014, 13.3” MacBook pro. Two Creative Reference multimedia monitors (CR3) were provided by the researcher for use at each location, with the computer and speakers set to full volume across all tests. Participants recorded responses to the discrimination task as well as the demographic and perception questions using pencil and paper. The primary investigator provided pencils for any participants who required one.

Once Group A at the first two sites and Group B at the third site completed the pitch discrimination task, the primary investigator asked participants to answer the remaining questions and demographic information on their response sheets and return them with their consent forms. The study concluded at the third site once all participants had returned response sheets and consent forms. Group A and Group B switched locations at the first two sites once all forms for Group A had been returned. Group B then underwent the same procedures as Group A, only with the reverse stimulus order track. Once all participants in Group B returned their response sheets and consent forms,

Group A returned to the rehearsal room. The primary investigator offered all participants the opportunity to ask questions about the study after all response and consent forms had been collected.

Analysis

All responses provided were coded for the use in statistical analysis. Participant responses to pitch comparison items were entered into Microsoft Excel (2016) and the

“find and replace” feature was used to identify correct and incorrect responses. Incorrect responses to the pitch pair task were coded as incorrect (0) or correct (1). Five response 57 forms were then randomly selected and coded by hand to verify accuracy. Data related to institution, year in college, music major, instrument, diagnosis of hearing loss, and selections for easiest and most difficult timbres were entered into the spreadsheet using numerical codes. Demographic information was tallied to provide an overview of the participant population. Accuracy averages related to the pitch comparison task were calculated for each timbre combination, cent deviation, presentation order, instrument voice group, and individual participant. The average scores of participants that indicated a diagnosis of hearing loss were found to be at or above the average of all participants and were therefore included in analysis.

Calculated averages were used to run correlations between each timbre combination and the between-subject factors of stimulus order, institution, instrument voice group, and status as a music major. No significant differences were found for any of the factors, resulting in the analysis of all data as a single population. Accuracy percentages for each timbre combination and cent deviation were analyzed using the Chi- square “Goodness-of-fit” test to determine the significance of responses to each variable.

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CHAPTER 4

Results

The purpose of this study was to measure the ability of undergraduate band members to accurately assess pitch when presented in individual and combined stimulus timbres as well as individual and combined stimulus octaves. A secondary focus was on the students’ perceived difficulty of discriminating pitch in each setting. Participants (N =

93) from three universities completed a listening exercise consisting of 24 tone pairs containing an in-tune reference pitch and experimental test tone. One response form was excluded from inclusion, due to unclear markings on the response sheet. This resulted in a final participant count of 92. Reference pitches were presented using varying timbres and octave combinations (clarinet, tuba, clarinet and bass clarinet, and clarinet and tuba).

Participants heard each reference timbre a total of six times throughout the listening exercise. A comparison tone, played by a trombone, followed each reference pitch and deviated by 0, ±10, or ±15 cents. Participants responded as to whether they perceived each pitch pair as in-tune or out-of-tune using an answer sheet. Following the perception task, participants indicated which timbre they believed made it the easiest and most difficult to hear the comparison (trombone) tone as in-tune. Participants at the first two universities were assigned randomly to one of two groups. Group A listened to an initial presentation order, while group B listened to a reverse presentation order. Participants at the third university only listened to the reverse order due to a low number of participants and the ability to provide a more even number of responses between the two presentation orders. A p value of < .05 for statistical significance was set a priori. 59

Responses to the pitch pair task were coded as either incorrect (0) or correct (1), and averages were calculated for each timbre and cent deviation. The average scores of participants that indicated a diagnosis of hearing loss were found to be at or above the average of all participants and were therefore included in analysis. A series of initial correlations were calculated to determine whether presentation order, institution, status as a music major, or instrument voice group produced significant differences with regard to timbre accuracies. Table 4.1 below presents an overview of participant demographics.

Table 4.1 Participant Demographics University 1 University 2a University 3 Total Total Participants 33 54 5 92 Year 1 11 22 2 35 2 8 15 1 24 3 4 11 1 16 4 10 5 1 16 Major Music major 12 17 2 31 Non-music 21 37 3 61 major Instrument Group Soprano 16 26 4 46 Tenor 9 17 1 27 Bass 2 4 0 6 Percussion 6 7 0 13 aOne participant chose not to indicate year, resulting in 53 responses in that section.

No significant difference was found between the presentation orders of Group A

(n = 47) and Group B (n = 45). A correlation was calculated between the first and second universities only, due to the low number of participants at the third university. No significant difference was found between the first two sites (p = .1). The responses of 60 non-music majors and music majors also were not significantly different (p = .0646).

Participant responses were divided into four voice groups, depending on their primary instrument. The soprano group consisted of flute, oboe, clarinet, alto saxophone, and trumpet; the tenor group consisted of tenor saxophone, bassoon, horn, trombone, and euphonium; the bass group consisted of bass clarinet, baritone saxophone, and tuba; and the final group included all percussionists. No significant differences were found based on instrument group. All participants were treated as one group in the remaining analysis due to lack of significance in all of the aforementioned variables.

Total correct and incorrect responses for each timbre condition were tallied from all participants and analyzed using a Chi-square “Goodness-of-fit” test. Expected proportions were .5 for each response option (correct or incorrect) in a specific condition.

Total number of responses for each timbre can be found below in Table 4.2. Results from the tuba trials were the only ones that resulted in significant differences, X2 (1, N = 552)

= 16.7, p < .001. Tuba reference timbres also elicited the highest percentage of correct responses (58.70%), followed by clarinet (53.26%), clarinet and tuba (52.72%), and clarinet and bass clarinet (46.56%). Clarinet and bass clarinet was the only reference timbre combination that resulted in more inaccurate responses than accurate responses, although the results were not statistically significant. When considering all responses as a whole, participants accurately assessed pitch 52.81% of the time.

61

Table 4.2 Timbre Response Accuracy Timbrea Correct Incorrect Percent Correct χ 2 Clarinet 294 258 53.26 2.35 Tuba 324 228 58.70* 16.7 Clarinet & Bass Clarinet 257 295 46.56 2.62 Clarinet & Tuba 291 261 52.72 1.63 Note. df = 1 for all calculations. Expected proportions are .5 for correct and incorrect responses. an = 552 *p < .001

Correct and incorrect responses to each of the five experimental pitch deviations were tallied and analyzed for significance using the Chi-square “Goodness-of-fit” test.

Although an equal number of sharp, flat, and in-tune pitches were presented for each timbre, researcher error resulted in one extra deviation of -10 cents and no deviation of -

15 cents for the clarinet and bass clarinet timbre combination. This error resulted in an unequal number of responses to deviations of -10 and -15 cents. A summary of responses by deviation can be found below in Table 4.3. Significance was found for all deviations except for +10 cents. The highest percentage of correct responses was found for those experimental pitches with a deviation of +15 cents (69.29%), X2 (1, N = 368) = 54.79, p

< .001. Pitch pairs with no deviation resulted in the next highest percentage of correct responses (62.36%), X2 (1, N = 736) = 45.01, p < .001. Although not statistically significant, +10 cent deviations had the next highest accuracy (54.62%) (p = .085).

Experimental pitches that were either sharp or in-tune resulted in more correct responses than incorrect responses, while flat deviations in pitch resulted in primarily inaccurate responses. Pitch deviations of -15% had the second lowest accuracy (36.23%), X2 (1, N = 62

276) = 20.93, p < .001, and pitch deviations of -10 cents had the lowest accuracy

(32.82%), X2 (1, N = 460) = 54.27, p < .001.

Table 4.3 Cent Deviation Response Accuracy Correct Incorrect Percent χ 2 Responses Responses Correct -15 cents (n = 276) 100 176 36.23* 20.93 -10 cents (n = 460) 151 309 32.83* 54.27 0 cents (n = 736) 459 277 62.36* 45.01 +10 cents (n = 368) 201 167 54.62 3.14 +15 cents (n = 368) 255 113 69.29* 54.79 Note. df = 1 for all calculations. Expected proportions are .5 for correct and incorrect responses. *p < .001

After completing the pitch pair perception task, each participant indicated on their response form which timbre they believed made it the easiest and most difficult to hear the experimental tone as in-tune or out-of-tune. The response form also provided participants the opportunity to indicate no perceived difference. An even distribution between all responses would have resulted in a response rate of 20% for each of the five options. Table 4.4 below contains a summary of the collected data. Although most individuals only chose one option, two participants indicated two instruments or groupings as the easiest, and one participant indicated two instruments or groupings as the most difficult. In addition, one participant selected two instruments or groupings for both easiest and most difficult. The two most commonly selected timbres for ease of pitch perception were clarinet (38.94%) and tuba (24.21%). These timbres align with the percentages of correct responses on the perception task, which were the highest for clarinet (25.21%) and tuba (27.78%). Participants selected clarinet and tuba (35.1%) and 63 clarinet and bass clarinet (29.78%) as the two most difficult timbres to hear as in-tune.

These two timbres also had the two lowest percentages of correct responses, garnering

24.95% and 22.04%, respectively. Approximately 10% of participants reported “no difference” between timbres with regard to perceived ease and difficulty of the task.

Table 4.4 Pitch Discrimination Difficulty Participant Reported Easiest Most difficult Correct responses

(N = 95)a (N = 94)a (N = 1,166) Clarinet % 38.94 12.63 25.21 n 37 12 294 Tuba % 24.21 12.76 27.78 n 23 12 324 Clarinet & Bass Clarinet % 13.68 29.78 22.04 n 13 28 257 Clarinet & Tuba % 12.63 35.1 24.95 n 12 33 291 No difference % 10.52 9.57 n 10 9 aThe Ns do not equal the total number of participants (N = 92), because one participant rated clarinet and tuba easiest; one participant rated tuba, and clarinet and bass clarinet easiest; one participant rated tuba, and clarinet and tuba easiest; one participant rated clarinet and, clarinet and bass clarinet most difficult; and one participant rated clarinet and bass clarinet, and bass clarinet and tuba most difficult. 64

CHAPTER 5

Discussion

The purpose of the study was to measure the effects of instrument timbre and octave combinations on the accuracy of undergraduate wind band members perception of pitch as well as these variables’ effect on the perceived difficulty of the same task. The specific problems of the study were (a) to determine whether individual or combined stimulus octaves have an effect on instrumentalists’ ability to accurately assess a tone as in tune or out of tune, (b) to determine whether individual or combined stimulus timbres have an effect on instrumentalists’ ability to accurately assess a tone as in tune or out of tune, (c) to determine whether individual or combined stimulus octaves have an effect on instrumentalists’ perceived ability to accurately assess a tone as in tune or out of tune, and (d) to determine whether individual or combined stimulus octaves have an effect on instrumentalists’ perceived ability to assess a tone as in tune or out of tune.

Participants in the study responded to 24 pitch pairs with stimulus tones of varying timbres (clarinet, tuba, clarinet and tuba, clarinet and bass clarinet) and an experimental tone (trombone) that was either in-tune or out-of-tune with the stimulus tone. Following this portion of the study, participants indicated which timbres or combinations of timbres they believed made it the easiest and most difficult to hear pitch pairs as in-tune. Results indicated possible effects of timbre and octave combinations on both the accuracy of participant responses and the perceived difficulty of the task.

The discussion of results from the current study and their relationship to previous research begins with two sections. The first section explores research questions one and two, while the second section explores research questions three and four. The research 65 questions are presented in pairs due to similarity of question types and overlapping of data related to answering each question. A single implications section, informed by the results of all four research questions, follows this discussion. Lastly, the limitations of the current study are presented followed by general conclusions and suggestions for future research.

Research Questions 1 and 2

The first research question aimed to clarify the possible effects of individual and combined stimulus octaves on instrumentalists’ ability to accurately perceive pitch. A slight trend can be observed in the results of this study, in that the two timbres with the highest percentage of correct answers were the clarinet (53.26%) and tuba (58.70%).

Each of these timbres sounded in their own octave. The two timbre combinations of clarinet and bass clarinet (46.56%) and clarinet and tuba (52.72%) received the lowest percentage of correct answers. Although both individual octave presentations received the highest percentage of correct answers, the clarinet, and clarinet and tuba accuracies only differed by .54%. The greatest accuracy difference was between the single octave tuba timbre and combined timbres of clarinet and bass clarinet. These stimuli elicited a difference of 12.14% and included tuba, the only stimulus timbre that reached statistical significance (p < .001).

Previous research featuring high school and middle school band members who tuned their instruments to varying stimulus timbres and octaves indicated that tuba provided the least accurate responses (Byo et al., 2011; Scherber, 2014), but a similar study of advanced college musicians revealed no significant difference (Byo & Schlegel,

2016). The current study, consisting of a wide range of undergraduate band members, 66 showed that tuba elicited the most accurate responses among all timbre conditions. The presence of a single, most accurate stimulus suggests that undergraduate band members, on average, may still be developing intonation skills. The presence of tuba as the most accurate stimulus in the current study and least accurate in previous research could be due to a difference in task. Participants in Byo et al. (2011) and Scherber (2014) completed a pitch matching performance task, while participants in the current study completed a pitch pair perception task. Previous research also has shown a low correlation between similar perception and performance tasks (Ballard, 2011; Ely, 1992; Geringer & Worthy,

1999; Yarbrough et al., 1995, 1997). Performance tasks typically include pitches being performed concurrently, while the current study presented pitches in an asynchronous manner. While it would appear that the single presentation of octaves produced more accurate results, timbre also appeared to play an important role in participants’ ability to assess pitch pairs accurately.

The second research question was related to the first research question due to the inherent tessitura and timbre properties of specific instruments, but considered the effect of varying timbres in isolation and combination. The only timbre that reached statistical significance in the current study was the tuba, which also had the highest percentage of correct responses (58.7%). This was followed by the clarinet (53.26%), which both sounds in a higher octave and has a different timbre. Combining the clarinet and tuba timbres resulted in the third highest accuracy of responses (52.72%), differing from the tuba alone by 5.98% and the clarinet alone by .54%. The only stimulus that resulted in more incorrect responses than correct responses was the clarinet and bass clarinet combination (46.56%), which was comprised of two similar timbres. Averages indicate 67 that individual timbres may be heard most accurately, followed by combined timbres that are dissimilar, and combined timbres that are similar. These findings should be considered cautiously, however, due to the presence of significance for only one condition (tuba alone). Previous research related to instrument timbre and tone quality may provide additional insight into the trends observed.

The trombone timbre chosen for the experimental pitches may have had an effect on the accuracy of results in the current study. The increased accuracy of responses to the tuba over the clarinet may demonstrate an advantage for stimulus and experimental tones that have similar timbres, as Platt and Racine (1985) found. Similarly, the combined stimulus containing a clarinet and tuba produced more accurate response than did clarinet and bass clarinet together. These findings differed from Ely (1992) and Cummings

(2007), who found no like timbre advantage in perception and performance tasks, respectively. The tone quality of instrument samples used may help to explain further this divergence from previous research.

Shared tone qualities between the tuba and trombone samples may have increased the accuracy of responses when the tuba sample was included as a reference pitch.

Previous researchers investigated the role of tone quality in pitch perception and found that dark tones typically were perceived as flatter, and bright tones as sharper (Geringer

& Worthy, 1999; Wapnick & Freeman, 1980; Worthy, 2000). If participants in the current study consistently heard the trombone and tuba sample tones as brighter than those of the clarinet and bass clarinet, the difference in tone quality between the clarinet and trombone samples could have resulted in less accurate responses. 68

Although not part of the current study’s questions, an analysis of pitch deviation accuracy may provide insight into the results related to timbre and tone quality. Previous research has indicated that individuals tend to perceive flat tones as more out of tune than sharp tones of the same deviation (Geringer, 1978; Geringer et al., 2015; Madsen &

Geringer, 1976; Wapnick & Freeman, 1980). Similarly, studies focused on actual performance have shown a tendency for musicians to perform more flat than sharp (Byo

& Schlegel, 2016; Cummings, 2007; Karrick, 1998; Morrison, 2000). Experimental tones in the current study with flat deviations resulted in a majority of incorrect responses, while in-tune and sharp tones resulted in a majority of accurate responses. Although some studies have indicated no preference for sharp or flat intonation in perception (Geringer et al., 2001) and performance (Byo et al., 2011), no known research has shown a tendency toward hearing flat tones as more in-tune than sharp tones. For this reason, results of the current study may point to a bright experimental tone that counteracted the out-of-tune perception of flat pitches and exaggerated that of sharp pitches.

Research Questions 3 and 4

The third research question dealt with the effect of octave combinations on the perceived difficulty of the pitch discrimination task. Participants in this study reported the single octave presentations of clarinet (38.94%) and tuba (24.21%) as the easiest to determine pitch. Participants selected the combined octaves of clarinet and bass clarinet

(29.78%) and clarinet and tuba (35.1%) as the most difficult stimuli to perceive pitch.

This perception of increased difficulty for combined octaves aligned with the percentages of accurate responses. Single octave presentations accounted for 52.99% of accurate responses, while multiple octave presentations accounted for 46.99% of accurate 69 responses. Participant perceptions related to timbre within each octave setting (alone or combined), revealed discrepancies in perception and actual performance.

The fourth research question addressed participant’s perceived ease of discriminating pitch with regard to individual and combined stimulus timbres. Although participants rated clarinet (38.94%) as the easiest timbre and tuba (24.21%) as the second easiest, tuba received the highest percentage of accurate responses (27.78%), followed by the clarinet (25.21%). It is important to note that all three ensembles in this study tuned from either a clarinet or an oboe. Participants’ familiarity with these timbres and octave may have led to an increased selection of clarinet as the easiest timbre. In previous research, high school participants in Byo et al. (2011) reported the tuba as the easiest instrument to which to tune, and advanced college participants in Byo and Schlegel

(2016) reported the tuba as both the easiest and most difficult instrument to which to tune. In contrast to these perceptions, participants in both studies performed least accurately when tuning to the tuba. In these two previous studies, three woodwind timbres, sounding two octaves higher, provided comparison responses to the tuba. In the current study, undergraduate musicians more frequently cited clarinet as the easiest timbre when comparing two pitches, but on average performed more accurately when the tuba provided the stimulus pitch. Although the percentage of correct responses was small between the clarinet and the tuba (2.57%), a pattern of misidentifying which timbre provided the most accurate result was present, consistent with Byo et al. (2011).

Similar to single octave perceptions, student responses to combined timbres differed from the actual results. Although the greatest number of participants rated the dissimilar timbre combination of clarinet and tuba as most difficult, that particular 70 combination produced a higher percentage of correct responses (24.95%) than the similar timbre combination of clarinet and bass clarinet (22.04%). Participants showed a clear preference for single octave presentations over combined presentations. A lower preference for dissimilar timbre combinations was apparent among combined octaves.

The relationship of these preferences to the percentage of correct responses should be considered carefully, however, as the most (tuba) and least (clarinet and bass clarinet) accurate timbres differed by only 5.74%

Implications

The results of the current study provide implications for educators who wish to increase their students’ pitch perception accuracy and pitch matching abilities. When considering all responses as a whole, participants accurately perceived pitches as in-tune or out-of-tune 52.81% of the time. As a subgroup, pitch pairs that did not contain any change resulted in an accuracy rate of 62.36%. These results seem to indicate that developing college band students still require training to improve their pitch perception.

This room for growth also was evident in participant responses to the perceived difficulty of each grouping. Participant responses in this study mirrored performance accuracy with regard to the easiest and most difficult octave presentations, but not within the subgroups of single and combined stimuli. Although students may believe that they hear and perform pitch most accurately in response to a specific instrument, this may not be the case always. In light of the current study and previous research, teachers can consider isolating the various aspects of intonation, including octave, timbre, and tone quality, in much the same way current practices separate skills such as articulation, rhythm, and technical facility. Classroom activities and practical applications are discussed below. 71

Of primary consideration is the presence of multiple octave and timbre combinations that occur in wind band repertoire. If students perceive single octave and combined octaves differently, a routine for intonation training could be considered that presents a wide variety of combinations to which ensemble members can listen and adapt.

For example, instructors could choose instrumentalists in varying octaves to provide a reference pitch for ensemble tuning. Although previous research suggests that tuning to the soprano octave provides the most accurate responses for high school and middle school students, (Byo et al., 2011; Scherber, 2014), tuning to pitches in the tenor or bass ranges could help familiarize students with varying scenarios found in band repertoire.

Instructors may wish to follow these exercises with a soprano tuning note, so that students can compare the way they perceive pitch in each condition.

A similar tuning exercise could be utilized with regard to instrument timbre. In the current study, similar and dissimilar timbre groupings provided different responses, suggesting that various timbre combinations may be beneficial to developing pitch perception. In this regard, instructors of developing ensembles who consistently present a tuning pitch at the beginning of rehearsal using the same instrument could consider different options as a way to expose students to a wide variety of tuning conditions. As an example of similar timbres, a trio of saxophone voices could present the tuning pitch during the warm-up process for a week. This could be followed the next week by a trio of dissimilar instrument timbres, such as tuba, bassoon, and flute. This process could be made even more practical through an analysis of repertoire that is currently being rehearsed and a subsequent adaption of the warm-up routine. Similar to the use of scale, rhythmic, and articulation exercises that relate to new concepts in a piece of music, 72 tuning exercises could isolate the unique octave and timbre combinations of difficult passages. The process of tuning from a single instrument, however, may remain the most accurate method of tuning an entire ensemble at the beginning of rehearsal.

In addition to daily exercises that require students to tune in varying conditions, instructor feedback is imperative. Without such feedback, incorrect student pitch perceptions could lead to a pattern of assessing pitch inaccurately at the middle school, high school, and collegiate levels. Directors can plan to provide regular feedback, even if rehearsal time limits them from doing so for each ensemble member during every rehearsal. One way of approaching this task would be to divide the ensemble by section, and then divide the sections between each day of the week. After the initial tuning process, each student in that day’s target section could play the tuning pitch and receive specific feedback in terms of cents sharp or flat. Electronic tuners with contact pick-ups also could be assigned on a weekly, rotating basis so that each student in an ensemble receives periodic feedback throughout the year. This would allow students to compare their own perception of pitch with the measurement of the tuner. The use of these strategies, combined with intentional tuning conditions, may help to inform and improve intonation accuracy among ensemble members.

Instructors of developing ensembles such as middle school, high school, and collegiate bands might want to keep tone quality and timbre in mind when working toward increased intonation skills in their students. A focus on producing a consistent and characteristic tone quality could help to alleviate interference when tuning in the ensemble setting. Although the importance of tone quality can be stressed, it is unlikely that every member of a developing ensemble will produce such a tone consistently. To 73 help students understand the effect that tone quality has on pitch, directors could present examples of bright, dark, and characteristic tone qualities. This could be accomplished by watching an electronic tuner to ensure that pitch does not change, while performing the same pitch using various tone qualities and asking students to evaluate them. Following the discussion of tone quality, the teacher could lead a discussion about which notes may have sounded flatter or sharper. Student peer-evaluation also can be an effective technique for addressing the issue of tone quality. All of the students in a section could perform the same pitch, followed by an informal discussion of which tones sounded the brightest, darkest, sharpest, and flattest. By watching a tuner and making note of variations in pitch, the instructor can guide such discussions with a knowledge of actual deviations in pitch. After being introduced to these topics, student leaders could facilitate small-group sectionals, allowing for each member of the ensemble to be directly engaged in the concept, reducing the amount of time needed during full ensemble rehearsals, and promoting student leadership.

Although auditory examples provide an immediately relevant way to engage with pitch, timbre, and tone quality, visual representations also can help students conceptualize these ideas. A basic way to counteract the effect of changing timbres and tone qualities may be the occasional use of electronic tuners. By receiving a visual representation of their pitch, individuals can begin to discern the difference between their perception of the stimulus’s pitch and tone quality. Overuse of such devices, however, could result in dependence and a decrease in pitch discrimination growth. A more interactive activity could employ spectrograms of varying instruments alongside the audio files that were analyzed to create them. These presentations can help students to recognize the role of 74 harmonics in timbre and tone quality. Once this relationship is understood, a real-time spectrum analyzer could be projected in front of the classroom. Each student then could be challenged to produce a bright tone and a dark tone without changing the fundamental pitch. The real-time feedback that the spectrum analyzer presents with regard to both pitch and harmonics could help students begin to discern each quality and how they are interconnected more accurately.

The method through which students consume music outside of the ensemble classroom also can be considered when planning for pitch instruction. Cell phones and streaming music services have quickly become a primary way that individuals listen to music. Digital audio presentations can include some type of compression, which reduces the overall richness of the sound. Most frequently, upper harmonics are removed from the audio file to reduce its size. The presence of a full spectrum of sound in the band classroom differs from this, and may lead to a change in pitch perception. Spectrograms from audio files that have and have not been compressed could help students visualize the differences in sound and guide a discussion regarding the effects on pitch and timbre.

The unequal perception of sharp and flat pitch among ensemble members is another area that can be addressed in the classroom. Pitch preferences in one direction or another may stem from tuning trends heard in popular music that employ pitch as an expressive element. Pitch manipulation through auto-tuning software has become increasingly common in the production of music, resulting in a less authentic presentation of pitches than previously heard in acoustic recordings. Engaging with pitch in various modes may help students to overcome potential biases developed through recordings.

One such method is to draw students’ attention to the beats that are present in out-of-tune 75 notes. By aiming to reduce the beats in the sound, focus can be drawn specifically to the intonation of the notes and away from external factors such as timbre or tone quality.

Pitch bending exercises can promote understanding of this process by emphasizing the presence of beats, drawing the musician’s attention, and then working to reduce the beats.

Pitch also can be internalized through the use of humming or singing. On an individual basis, this exercise may be useful for students who have not yet developed the embouchure or support to play with consistent pitch on their instrument. When tuning in a large group setting, singing or humming can serve as a way to internalize the standard pitch before it is disrupted by the playing of other ensemble members.

The instruction of pitch perception and tuning is a multi-faceted and complex topic. Musicians must learn to navigate changes in octave, timbre, and tone quality in various combinations. In addition, personal biases may be developed by listening to music that has been altered in the production stage and through compression. Although it is important to address each of these concerns individually so that students understand their role in pitch perception, students should be given ample opportunity to navigate them all at once. Opportunities to hear, perform, and visualize sound can inform students through multiple modes of engagement. Finally, consistent and reliable feedback from teachers, peers, or electronic tuners is paramount in order for students to better understand their individual perception of pitch and any misconceptions tied to it.

Limitations of the Current Study

There are several limitations to the current study. The first of these limitations is the overall sample size as well as the disparity in participants between each university.

Due to unforeseen circumstances with regard to student availability and scheduling, the 76 participant count at the third university was too small to be included in calculations as a separate entity. A larger sample size at this university would have increased the overall power of calculations.

As mentioned in the analysis section of this study, researcher error resulted in an unequal representation of pitch deviations for the timbre combination of clarinet and bass clarinet. Rather than consisting of one deviation each of -10 and -15 cents, an additional deviation of -10 cents was included in place of -15 cents. Results were calculated as normal despite this inconsistency. The accuracy of responses across all samples with deviations of -10 and -15 differed by only 3.4%, suggesting only a small difference in timbre accuracy calculations.

The sound samples used in this study also may have limited the results. As noted earlier, the tone quality between brass and woodwind instruments may have differed enough to affect the final results. Editing these files to a consistent length and pitch level across attack, body, and decay also may have had an effect on participant perceptions.

Participants at the first two sites commented informally after the study that the use of synthesized tones increased the difficulty of perceiving pitch differences. This perception may have stemmed from tones lacking a typical change in pitch between the attack, body, and decay for the instrument.

The limited amount of statistically significant results with regard to response accuracy by timbre limits the conclusions that can be drawn from this study. Although responses to the tuba timbre did reach significance (p < .001), the accuracy of responses for all timbres did not deviate more than 9% from and expected guessing rate of 50%.

This may have been the result of experimental pitches that were bright in quality, 77 skewing the perception of flat deviations toward in-tune. Although pitch deviations were increased after the pilot study, a wider range of deviations also may have produced more significant results. Although previous research has indicated a just noticeable difference of approximately 10 cents (Bentley, 1973; Clark, 2012; Madsen, Edmonson, & Madsen,

1969; Parker, 1983), other factors including octave displacement and the asynchronous presentation of pitches in the current study may have increased the difficulty. Participants also completed the study by listening to speakers in rehearsal spaces with exterior doors and small amounts of noise pollution.

Conclusions and Future Research

Although the aforementioned limitations must be considered, the results of the current study reflect the numerous factors and complicated nature of pitch perception. As

Morrison and Fyk (2002) defined, intonation consists of a number of skills related to the accurate perception and performance of pitch (p. 183). If educators hope to increase student abilities in this area effectively, it is not only important to consider factors such as octave, timbre, and tone quality, but the ways in which these traits interact with each other. In addition, music educators should keep in mind that student perceptions of their abilities may not align with their actual performance. By providing wide and varying experiences with pitch under different conditions, teachers can provide their students with the best opportunity possible to increase their perception of pitch. The focus of this study on a wide range of undergraduate musicians also reinforces the notion that pitch perception is an ongoing process that develops over time. Collegiate ensembles with diverse ability levels may benefit from occasional intonation exercises like those suggested above. 78

Future research could explore further the effect of stimulus timbre and octave combinations on students’ pitch perception and performance. Altering the method of the current study so that stimulus pitches and experimental pitches overlap could provide a worthwhile comparison to the current results. The pitch matching studies of Byo et al.

(2011), Scherber (2014), and Byo and Schlegel (2016) also could be adapted to include stimulus pitches similar to those of this study. This treatment might produce results that are more directly related to ensemble members’ experience tuning in a large ensemble.

Future research also could include a director questionnaire that collects information about typical tuning procedures and the reasoning for them. Results from such a questionnaire could provide a picture of current practices and provide context for student responses.

Although not an expansion of the current study, increased attention on just noticeable difference in various conditions could provide a new opportunity for research.

The effect of octave displacement and pitch presentation timing on just noticeable difference in pitch deviation remains a relatively unexplored topic. The current body of research has broached this concept utilizing various techniques, although Clark (2012) may be the only known researcher who has attempted to explore how just noticeable difference might change depending on presentation factors. While Clark considered simultaneous and sequential tone pairs alongside similar and dissimilar timbre combinations, octave displacement remains notably absent. Additional research in this area that presents various pitch deviations, octave displacements, and simultaneous as well as sequential tones, could help to define how each of these differences affect the point at which individuals begin to hear two different pitches. The importance of accurate 79 intonation to a quality performance, combined with the complex nature of pitch perception, continues to provide ample avenues for future research.

80

APPENDIX A

LETTER OF COOPERATION REQUEST EMAIL

APPENDIX B 81

INSTITUTIONAL APPROVAL

82

83

APPENDIX C

INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENT

84

85

86

APPENDIX D

RECRUITMENT SCRIPT

87

APPENDIX E

INSTRUMENT SAMPLE SPECTRA

Clarinet – G4

Trombone – G3

Tuba – G2

Spectra produced with Praat audio analysis software (Boersma & Weenink, 2018) 88

APPENDIX F

STIMULUS PRESENTATION ORDERS

89

APPENDIX G

DATA COLLECTION FORMS

90

91

92

93

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