ISSN: 0840-8114 P Winter 2003,15(1) T HE Social Difference,Justice,and 40 PATHWAYS O a NT t ARIO h J Outdoor Education OURNAL w a

OF O y s UTDOOR E DUCA TION interests. keeping withourmandateand ourreaders’ to refuseanyadvertisement wefeelisnotin Pathways please contactBobHenderson, Co-Chairofthe receive anadvertisinginformation package, services thatmaybeofinteresttoourreaders.To Pathways Our advertisingpolicy: Submission deadlines: or contactaBoardofDirectors’member. please refertotheinsidebackcoverofthisissue about COEOandjoiningtheorganization, Connie Russell.Ifyou’dlikemoreinformation Editorial BoardCo-Chairs,BobHendersonor please directthemtoeitherofthe If youhaveanyquestionsregarding Managing Editor. guidelines forguesteditorsfromRandeeHolmes, issue of If youareinterestedinbeingaguesteditorofan Holmes, ManagingEditor. submission guidelines,pleasecontactRandee be happytohearfromyou.Foracopyofour either awrittenorillustrativenature,wewould you areinterestedinmakingasubmission,of Pathways www.coeo.org Our Websiteaddress: Toronto, ONM3C3C6 1185 EglintonAvenueEast Council ofOutdoorEducatorsOntario Our mailingaddress: Pathways October 15 August 15 June 15 April 15 January 15 CONTRIBUTIONS WELCOME Pathways acceptsadvertisementsforproductsand is alwayslookingforcontributions.If Editorial Board.Wemaintain theright , pleaserequestacopyofour Pathways Pathways , Easter Centra Pas President: Membership: Norther Wester Centra Directo Directo Secretary: Treasurer: Vic Directo (H) 905-628-2527(B)1-888-688-9273(F)705-382-5959 e P (B) 519-534-3687e-mail:[email protected] t P (H) 519-821-3505e-mail:[email protected] (H) 416-253-4998(B)416-394-7530(F)416-394-6298 (H) 905-880-0862(B)416-394-6340 (F)416-394-6344 (H) 705-386-0503(B)705-386-2376(F)705-386-1714 The CouncilofOutdoorEducators n R resident: resident: l R l R n R r AtL r AtL r AtL n /Far egion: egion: egion: egion: (H) 905-877-7732e-mail:[email protected] Ontario BoardofDirectors 309–467 ChamberlainSt.,PeterboroughK9J4L3 N arge: arge: arge: (B) 613-533-6000x77243(F)613-533-6584 Duncan MacArthurHall,Queen’sUniversity, orth (H) 705-386-0175e-mail:[email protected] 2 TanglewoodTerrace,EtobicokeM8Y3P1 20 LinnRd.,R.R.3,CaledonEast L0N1E0 e-mail: [email protected] R e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] 274 ScarboroughRd.,TorontoM4E3M8 (H) 705-876-1243(B)1-877-741-4577 e-mail: [email protected] 608–20 MarilynDr.,GuelphN1H7N2 egion: (H) 519-741-8430(B)519-741-1990 54 InwoodCres.,KitchenerN2M2M1 (H) 905-778-9209(B)905-877-7771 (H) 416-698-4339(B)416-396-6963 (H) 905-797-9640(B)905-797-2721 e-mail: [email protected] 252 CollinsAve.,BradfordL3Z1W4 34 PleasantAve.,DundasL9H3S9 40 HaleDr.,GeorgetownL7G4C4 e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] R.R. 1,CampbellcroftL0A1B0 Box 324,SouthRiverP0A1X0 Box 1339,WiartonN0H2T0 R.R. 1,SouthRiverP0A1X0 e-mail: [email protected] Zabe MacEachren,Ph.D. Mary Gyemi-Shulze Kingston K7L3N6 Bonnie Anderson Brad O’Gorman Linda McKenzie Jackie McMillan Tammy Hand Tal Schacham Lisa Farrows Brian Lisson PattiHuber Glen Hester Deb Diebel Lea Nichols

41 PATHWAYS P Winter 2003,15(1) T Co-Chair: Managing Editor:Randee Holmes Co-Chair: BobHenderson Pathways EditorialBoard (B) 905-525-9140x23573(F)905-523-6011 Faculty ofEducation,LakeheadUniversity HE School ofOutdoorRecreation,Parksand McMaster University,HamiltonL8S4K1 402–173 Stephen Dr.,TorontoM8Y3N5 e-mail: [email protected] Tourism, LakeheadUniversityP7B5E1 955 OliverRd.,ThunderBayP7B5E1 O e-mail: [email protected] (H) 519-925-9424(B)519-925-3913 a Boyne RiverNaturalScienceSchool (B) 416-207-8864 (F)416-207-0467 (B) 807-343-8843(F)807-346-7836 (B) e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] Clare Magee,BarrieMartin, Barb NT 2215 OslerSt.,ReginaS4P1W9 807-343-8049 e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected] McKean andMarkWhitcombe e-mail: [email protected] t ARIO RR #4,ShelburneL0N1S8 h 707 J Friends of Dept. ofKinesiology, – Carolyn Finlayson 124 SpringfieldRd OURNAL (H) 613-747-2682 (F) (R) 306-525-4663 w Ottawa K1M2C8 Connie Russell 807-344-6807 Mike Morris M.J. Barrett Tom Potter Pathways a

OF ., O y s Index toVolume14...... 34 Prospect Point:WrestlingwithDevelopment.……...………...... …33 Reading theTrail:DiversityinAction…………………………………..32 Reading theTrail:ReflectionsandResourcesforTeachingCritically Backpocket: EnvironmentalActivism—WhereDoYouStand?..…..…29 Backpocket: ParkIdentities…………………….………………………...28 Editor’s Logbook…………………………...………………..……....…….2 Columns Designing Adventure:AllforOneandAll………….……………23 Exploring SocialClassinOutdoorEnvironmentalEducation…………20 Queering OutdoorEducation……...... ……………………………16 at OntarioSummerCamps...... …...... ………….9 The RepresentationandAppropriationofIndigenousCultures Innu SupportandtheMythofWilderness...... ……..….....4 Features UTDOOR Henderson, Co-Chair, Requests must be madeinwritingandshould bedirectedtoBob rights reserved. endorsement byCOEOofthe productsorservicesrepresented.All Advertising includedin necessarily reflectthoseofthe Pathways application formisincludedontheinsidebackcoverofthis issueof admittance toworkshops,coursesandconferences.Amembership Membership feesincludeasubscriptionto Educators ofOntario(COEO)anddistributedtoCOEOmembers. Articles in Opinions expressedin Pathways Nicki Crawley Simon Beames John Kudelka Liz Newbery Connie Russell Connie Russell Liz Newbery Kathy HarasandBrianLisson Ingrid Sikorcin Connie Russell,TemaSarick,andJackieKennelly Ty Hamilton Jennie Barron . ispublishedfivetimesayearfortheCouncilofOutdoor E Pathways DUCA Pathways maybereproducedonlywith permission. Pathways Pathways TION Pathways EditorialBoard. shouldnotbeinterpretedas an arethoseoftheauthorsand do not Pathways ’ EditorialBoardorCOEO. Pathways isprinted onrecycledpaper. , aswell ISSN: 0840-8114 1

PATHWAYS .... 31 2 PATHWAYS E ditor’s Logbook that onthelast dayofthecourse,hergroup saying itincorrectly. Faraexpressedherfrustration at thecampfire.Joannestumbled overFara’sname, of mypack,whenIheardashort, brittleexchange I wasbarelywithinearshot,pulling somethingout “classroom” andthemessyprocess oflearning. ever partiallyunderstandthedynamicsoftheir unpredictable ways,andhoweducatorsmayonly how identitiesarelivedincomplexand about muchmorethaneconomicresources, theory, howaccesstooutdoorexperiencesis humbling. Itillustrates,farbetterthanabstract was, forme,enormouslyinstructiveand instructed forwomensurvivorsofviolencethat took placeduringanoutdoorcourseIco- To begin,Iofferastoryfromthefield—onethat obscured intoview. is toexposethesimpleascomplexandbring strange. WhatIhopeweaccomplishinthisissue job ofascienceteacheristomakethefamiliar, education. Aformerprofessoroncesaidthatthe justice, identity,difference,andoutdoor educators whoarewrestlingwithissuesof This issueof and howisthataccessconstructed? travel? Whohasaccesstooutdoorexperiences, education theoryandpopularnotionsofoutdoor and sexualitywoventhroughbothoutdoor understandings aboutrace,class,gender,ability, is thatwearetryingtotransform.How unexamined, theycanworktoreproducewhatit education. Ibelievewhenthesesubtextsareleft explore someofthesubtextsoutdoor In mythinkingandwriting,Ialwaystryto attend graduateschool. conversations withcolleagues,andeventuallyto contradictions ledmetoengageinmanyrich pedagogy andidentitybegantonagme.Those Boreal forest,thecontradictionsinoutdoor In acanoe,outonthelakesandriversof by LizNewbery Social Difference,Justice,andTeachingOutdoors Caution: EducationIsVeryMessy! Pathways drawstogethermany s learn namesunfamiliartothem.Thispatternis Anglo-Saxon namesanddon’toftentakethetimeto in Canadiansociety;peopledon’toftenstumbleover correctly asanindicatorofthepatternprivilege saw theinabilitytohavehernamepronounced women ofcolourinsocietyatlarge.Faraaccurately her discomforttotheparticularsexualizationof sexual commentsmadeduringthetripandrelated of colour.Shehadfeltuncomfortablewithsome “white space”andthatshemightbetheonlywoman trip, knowingthatsuchoutdoortripsareoften had writtenaboutherhesitationincomingonthe affected Fara.Onherpre-tripquestionnaire,Fara series ofeventsrelatedtoraceandculturethathad Having hernamepronouncedwrongwasoneina conflict, yetshealsowantedtoexplainhowfelt. She wasupsetthatshehadbeeninvolvedinthe feelings aroundthetensionofeveningbefore. came totalkWendyandmeaboutherunsettled completely filledout.Farahadhardlysleptand morning. Inowrealizethatthepictureisn’tever wasn’t completelyfilledoutformeuntilthenext I knewtherewasalotgoingon,butthepicture and gospeltuneswitheveryoneelse. out toherandhungwhileIsangCarlySimon few hourstherethatnight;Wendybroughtdinner shore, fiveminutesfromthecampsite.Shespenta under anoldcanoethathadbeenpulledupon fell silentandleftthefirecircle.Wefoundherlater members couldstillnotgethernameright.Joanne s themselves aslesbian,andthat thiswasacourse that overhalfthemembersofourgroupidentified differences insocialclasswithinourgroup,thefact all ofourpre-tripparticipantinformation,thevast hyperconscious of“isms”duringthecourse.Given know thatthis didn’t meantherewasn’tany. but fortunately wewereatleastsmartenough to even possible!Wehadn’tdetected anyovertracism, of oppression.Weweresonaive tothinkthatwas especially committedtocreating anenvironmentfree ymbolic ofonemuchlarger.WendyandIhadbeen pecifically forwomensurvivors ofviolence,wewere a lotaboutthesocialconstruction ofchoice. wonderful, andshelovedit. Andyet,Istillthink and personal.Joannedidchoose toclimb.Itwas rock facebecameametaphor oflimits—societal expectations aresooftenconstructed forus,the framing thattriedtoproblematizetheway the rhetoricof“challengebychoice”anda additional challengesforJoanneandFara.Despite Canadian outdoorsareimaginedcreated The waysinwhichadventureeducationandthe one personpotentiallythreateningtoanother? coming? Whyarecommentsthatseemplayfulto weren’t around.Butstill,couldwehaveseenthis that haddisturbedFaraweremadewhenwe Wendy’s earsseemedbenignandplayful.Those The sexualcommentsthathadreachedmyand acutely theirrepresentationas“sexualizedOther.” regularly censorsthem,andothersfeltquite were marginalizedinaheterosexistworldthat group weresurvivorsofsexualviolence,overhalf complicated becausesomeofthewomenin Clearly, duringthecourse,talkingaboutsexwas easy foranyofus. important learning,forallfourofus.Butitwasn’t differently itmakesthingslook.Itwasgreatand initial discussionaboutprivilege,andhow and talked.Itendedupallright.Webeganan Joanne, Fara,Wendy,andIsatdownunderatree the overalldayhadbeen. was, Ibelieve,inpartrelatedtohowchallenging her fatigue.Herretreattotheshelterofcanoe could havebeenafunctionofherheadinjuryand didn’t pronounceFara’snamecorrectlythatevening exhausting, butalsogood,dayforher.Thatshe limitation. Itwasanemotionallyandphysically terrifying. Itwasperhapsthepossibilityoffacing to her.Yettheprospectofnotclimbingwasalso and beingoffthegroundwasmorethandaunting occasional disorientation.Theprospectofclimbing balancing, difficultyrememberingthings,and head injurythatleftherwithheadaches,difficulty disability. Severalyearsearlier,she’dsuffereda body, withtheunavoidablepresenceofher painfully confrontedwiththelimitationsofher We’d spentthedayrockclimbing,andshe’dbeen The previousdayhadnotbeeneasyforJoanne. the editorialboard. do notnecessarilyreflecttheviews oftheeditoror reviewing articles.Theviewsexpressed inthisissue Aparna MishraTarc,andConnie Russellfor MJ Barrett,JennieBarron,CaraEllingson, the talentedSteveTourneyforartworkandalso York University’sFacultyofEducation.Shethanks McMaster Universityandisadoctoralcandidatein Liz Newberyteachesoutdooreducationat more justly. might dothesethingsmorethoughtfullyand teaching andlivingoutside,thewayswe contribute toanongoingconversationabout voices fromavarietyofperspectives.Ihopewe This issueof • • • • • need themall.Thesestrategiesare current inequitiesofoutdooreducation,andwe There aremanystrategiesforchallengingthe better teachers. are totakeseriouslythebusinessofbecoming identity shouldmattertooutdooreducatorsifwe always ways inoutdoorpedagogy.Isuggestthatidentity physical challenge,identitymattersinvisible disabilities confronttheethosoflearningthrough “white space,”andwhenwomenwith When womenofcolourconfronttheoutdoorsas curriculum andprogramdesign to thinkaboutdifferenceatthelevelof aspects ofoutdoorteachingandlearning while alsoholdingontothepromising to bewillingcriticizeunjustpractices wealth, andability encodes anassumptionofwhiteness, participant, amythicalnormthatoften to challengetheideaofgenericoutdoor adventure, challenge) central ideasinthefield(e.g.,wilderness, to examinethevaluesembeddedinsome outdoor programs) loaning systems,daycare,outreach,urban outdoor activities(e.g.,scholarships,gear to improveeconomicandpracticalaccess matters,andthereforeunderstanding Pathways bringstogetherdivergent Editor’s Logbook

3 PATHWAYS 4 PATHWAYS F eature visit? contemporary Aboriginalstrugglesintheplaceswe environmentalists, connectwithandspeakabout southern, urban,recreationalcanoeists,and My startingpointisthequestion,“Howdowe,as by JennieBarron Innu SupportandtheMythofWilderness the meaningof wildernesshadbeenturned on By theendof19thcentury, Crononwrites, orderly andgood. hours offear.Itwastheantithesis ofallthatwas you wentonlyagainstyourwill, inyourdarkest with theuniverse.Thewildernesswasaplace feeling bewilderedorterrified,hardlyatpeace there, youwouldlikelyhavefoundyourself nothing liketheyaretoday;ifyoufoundyourself Cronon, theconnotationsofwildernesswere as desolate,savage,orawasteland.Accordingto language hadtodowithlandscapesalsodescribed use oftheword“wilderness”inEnglish As lateasthe18thcentury,mostcommon didn’t meantothemwhatitdoesustoday. couldn’t doso;theydidn’twantto,forwilderness “wilderness experience.”Hesaysit’snotthatthey remote cornersoftheplanetlookingfor history, wedonotfindpeoplewanderingaround 250 ideas. AsCrononnotes,ifwelookbackamere American andrelativelyrecentinthehistoryof meaning thatcomestomindisdistinctlyEuro- is tosay,whenweusetheterm“wilderness,” moments inhumanhistory”(1996,p.69).That particular humanculturesatvery human creation—indeed,theofvery apart fromhumanity…isquiteprofoundlya from beingtheoneplaceonearththatstands Wrong Nature,”hearguesthatwilderness,“far Trouble withWilderness;or,GettingBacktothe book environmental historianWilliamCrononinhis outline anargumentgiveninessayby For abriefhistoryofthisculturalmyth,letme the wholenotion,ormyth,ofwilderness. deep lookatsomethingwe yearsinNorthAmericanandEuropean ” Uncommon Ground Togetatthisquestion,firstIwanttotake . Inhisessay,“The oftentakeforgranted:

a primitive racial energies,reinventeddirect the trappingsofcivilization, rediscoveredtheir Europeans andeasternersmoved west,and“shed “civilization,” butthewhole processbywhich frontier representednotjust theedgeof America throughthemythof thefrontier: ideal oftheprimitivewasembodiedin(North) 1996, p.76).AccordingtoCronon,thisEuropean return tosimpler,moreprimitiveliving”(Cronon, overly refinedandcivilizedmodernworldwasa belief thatthebestantidotetoillsofan f wilderness intoaquasi-religiousiconderives The secondculturalconstructthathelpedturn sublime landscapes,likegrasslandsorwetlands.) example—as abasisforjudgingandvaluingless begun usingothercriteria—ecologicalcriteria,for national parks.(Itisonlyrecentlythatwehave landscapes, asaremostareasdesignated landscapes inNorthAmericatendtobesublime observes thatthemostpopularandcelebrated thundercloud, thetoweringforests.Cronon mountaintop, inthecanyon,waterfall, was mostlikelytobeencountered:onthe lay justbeneaththesurface,placeswhereGod landscapes werethosewherethesupernatural Immanuel Kant.Accordingtothem,sublime theories ofpeoplelikeEdmundBurkeand The doctrineofthesublimederivedfrom romantic notionsofthesublimeandfrontier. influential andpervasiveculturalconstructs:the How didthathappen?Crononcitestwo become God’sowntemple”(1996,p.72). writes, “Inamerefiftyyears,Satan’shomehad movement toactuallyprotectwilderness.Cronon 20th centuryweseetheemergenceof wilderness parks,andinthefirstdecadeof Yellowstone aredeclaredthefirstAmerican little pieceofheavenonEarth.Yosemiteand starting toseeinthewildspacesontheirmapa This iswhentheNorthAmericanpublic “in wildnessisthepreservationofworld.” its head.ThisiswhenwefindThoreaudeclaring rom theromanticattractiontoprimitivism:“the establishment ofthefirstlarge“wilderness” virgin forests.Andyoumayalso knowthatthe plants inthemiddleofplaces wethinkofas including fire-setting,eventhe domesticationof adaptations ofthelandforhuman uses— learning aboutthehistoryof modificationsand not infact“pristine.”Historiansarejustnow know thatmanyplacesweconsiderpristineare that itisinmanywaysanillusion.Youprobably problem withthemythofpristinewildernessis natural itmustalsobevirtuallypristine.The rooted intheideathatforaplacetobereally “wilderness,” becausethemythofwildernessis canoeists don’tliveintheplaceswecall Now, itisnoaccidentthatwerecreational “emptiness” —itistheplacebeyondfrontier. also beenmademore-or-lesssynonymouswith wilderness hascometobesacred; influences. Byassociationwiththesublime, the productofreligious,historical,andcultural “Wilderness” asweunderstandittodayislargely culturally constructedtheideaofwildernessis. wilderness, ofcourse,istoshowjusthow My reasonforgivingyouallthishistoryof would betoloseourmythoforigin. respective nationalidentities.Tolosewilderness had alsobecomeinseparablyassociatedwithour that is,imbuedwiththepresenceofGod—it century, wildernesshadnotonlybecomesacred— The pointCrononmakesisthatbytheearly20th just asfamiliartoalargenumberofCanadians. with thelandsbeyondfrontierareprobably mystique andthefeelingsoflongingassociated our nationalcharacterandself-image.Butthe the Northhasbeenmorecloselyassociatedwith north morethantothewest,insensethat l In Canada,ofcourse,thefrontiermythlooksa what itmeanttobeAmerican. — becameassociatedwiththeveryessenceof In thisway,thefrontier—thatis,wilderness democracy andnationalcharacter”(1996,p.75). creativity thatwerethesourceofAmerican themselves withavigor,anindependence,and democratic institutions,andtherebyre-infused ittle different.Foronething,thefrontieristo terms oflogging leasesandminingpermits. theirs, butcanbecomefullwhen thoughtofin empty whentheAboriginal people claimitas economic value.”Thesuggestion isthatland contained “immenseforestry reserves…ofgreat emptiness,” butnotedthatit nonetheless Wet’suwet’en traditionalterritoryas“avast McEachern dismissivelydescribedtheGitksan- the Delgamuukwdecision).ChiefJusticeAllan Wet’suwet’en (therulingwaslateroverturnedby example istheoriginalcaseof and madehomesinforthousandsofyears.One people oflandstheyhaveused,travelled,named, been usedhistoricallytodispossessAboriginal discovery andownershipbyEuropeanshave unnamed, unmappedterritory,asplacesawaiting representations ofthewildernessasempty, some wouldsayamountstoracismbecause cruel irony.It’smoreofasleighthandthat This isnotjustamatterofforgetfulnessoreven the fictionofpristinesuppressesthishistory. removal oftheparks’originalinhabitants! parks intheU.S.wasmadepossiblepreciselyby

Gitksan and 2 But Innu Support

5 PATHWAYS Innu Support 6 PATHWAYS In aphrase,romanticprimitivism. human occupationcanthiscontradiction allow? homeland, impliesoccupation. Sowhatkindof imply emptiness,theword“Nitassinan,” meaning fundamental partofthewilderness myth— Frontier.” Wherenotionsofthefrontier—a “Defending EasternNorthAmerica’sLast Nitassinan” andyetdescribedtheirmandateas group: Theycallthemselves“Friendsof inherent intheliteratureofothersupport illuminated inamomentthecontradiction Daniel’s commentwasbriefandtactful,butit are peoplelivinginNitassinan. you maynothaveseenitinthosepictures,there began histalkwithwordstothiseffect:Although Ashini tookhisplaceatthemicrophoneand first cluewhyIfeltsouncomfortable.Daniel self-conscious presentationoftheslides,Igotmy without ascript).Afteroursomewhatstiffand the knowledgeorexperiencetonarrateslides the timeunderstandquitewhy(nordidIhave me greatdiscomforttoread,thoughIdidnotat show camewithapreparedscript,whichgave themselves theFriendsofNitassinan.Theslide Innu supportgroupinVermont,whocall presenting aslideshowpreparedbyanother decided tosetthestageforDaniel’stalkby Daniel AshiniinToronto.Ourgrouphad part inorganizingapublictalkbyInnuleader I learnedthisthehardway.InMay1997,took rights, andhumanrightsingeneral. is highlyrestrictivewhenitcomestoAboriginal problems becausethediscourseof“wilderness” place andthepeopleofLabrador,weruninto try tobringtogetherourconcernsforboththe with afairlandbaseoftheirown.Butwhenwe regain theirhealth,autonomy,andself-reliance, rights andseeNorthernpeopleliketheInnu Aboriginal people.Wewanttosupport to takepartinhealingandreconciliationwith by colonialgovernmentsinourname,andwant recognize theterriblethingsthathavebeendone protect them.Atthesametime,manyofus stunning placeswevisitbycanoe.Wewantto Many ofusarewildernessadvocates.Welovethe So hereiswhereweencounterourcontradiction. I of thecontinuingoccupationlandby ancient tentrings,waspresentedas“theevidence That skull,andthenextslide,whichshowed image ofacaribouskulllefthangingintree. slide #21,andthementionwasindirect,withan Innu andInuitwerenotevenmentioneduntil 73 slidesintheshow,onlysixshowedpeople.The settlers orotherLabradoriansanywhere).Of say (forinstance,theslideshowdidn’tmention through whatthescriptsaid,anditfailedto done throughtheirchoiceofimages,aswell conform toaromanticprimitiveimage.Thiswas massage Innurealityandobjectivessothey Nitassinan —howeverunconsciousto see ampleevidenceofaneffortbytheFriends Sure enough,ifwegobacktotheslideshow, ancestors did100 yearsago.Thisisasilly if Aboriginalpeoplecontinue toliveastheir Aboriginal claimstotheland areonlylegitimate representation isthatitperpetuates theideathat The secondproblemwiththis kindof bitter disappointments. doubly condemned:Highexpectationsproduce overhunt, log,orbuildhydrodams,theyare mistakes. SowhenAboriginalpeoplelitter, honourably thanwedo,andnotmakethesame Aboriginal peopleingeneral,shouldlivemore It createstheexpectationthatInnu,or a pedestalfromwhichitisimpossiblenottofall. romanticization ofrealpeople,putstheInnuon First, thissortofChiefSeattle-ization, major problems. project thosedesiresontotheInnu,itcanleadto they professtosupport.Andwhensupporters on theactualgoalsandrealitiesofthosewhom desires oftheso-calledsupportgroupmorethan papers, butbecauseitisbasedonthedelusional sniffing youth,etc.)weseeonTVandinthe is easilycontradictedbythetragicimages(gas- This isaproblem,notonlybecausethatmessage because theyarepartandparcelofwildEarth. down toonesimplisticmessage:SavetheInnu have evolvedtogether.”Thescriptoverallboiled much apartoftheecosystemasanimals.They And thetextread:“TheInnuandInuitareas nnu andInuit”(asifthatwastheonlyevidence). are thesame,oratleastmoresimilarthanthey it’s tooeasytoassumethatourissuesandgoals Aboriginal-environmental alliancesismorethat groups asallies.No,theproblemwithsuch land, andtheychoosetoworkwithenvironmenta themselves choosetospeakasprotectorsofthe fundamentally incompatible;manyInnu political goalsofenvironmentalistsandInnuare support Innuself-determination.It’snotthatthe their environmentalprioritiesandwishto be whereit’shardestforsupporterstoreconcile and nowayforthemtomakealiving.Thismay people tolivepermanentlyinsideitsboundaries, of wildernessleavespreciselynowhereforreal on “wilderness”insupportworkisthattheidea Perhaps thebiggestproblemwithdiscourse other modernmeans. fact, enabledbyplanes,radios,Ski-Doos,and traditional lifeinthemoderndayisoften, dynamic flow.Moreover,thecontinuationof continuity thatlinkspast,present,andfutureina of athingortechnique,butmoreasthethread learn toseetraditionnotasstasis,orpreservation right oftheInnutoself-determination.Wehave in thenameoffairness,pragmatism,and food. Thisisanideasupportershavetochallenge, hunting territoriesandtakealongstore-bought “traditional” becausetheytakeplanestotheir claiming thattheInnuarenolonger thinking toargueagainstInnulandrightsby opponents oftheInnuhaveusedthisway expectation tohaveofanyethnicgroup.Infact, l environmentalists, recreationalcanoeists,or we visit?Whethercallourselves contemporary Aboriginalstrugglesintheplaces So howdoweconnectwithandspeakof nature, notalienatedfromit. sense oftherebeingaplaceforhumansin discourse ofwilderness,theirwordsconveya country,” or“thebush.”)Incontrasttothe “wilderness,” butratherof“theland,” they, likemostNortherners,tendnottospeakof is differentfromthatofenvironmentalists— the country,or their health,andwayoflife—thatis,in animals areinseparablefromtheirconcernsfor landscape. Theirconcernsforthelandand participants inapeopledandproductive primitives orinnocentsinthewilderness,butas their concernsfortheland,theydosonotas But inmyexperience,whenInnuspeakabout special culturally-rootedrelationshiptotheland. This isnottosaythattheInnudohavea support them. supporters oftencan’tbringthemselvesto socially responsibleways,manyenvironmentalist developments arecarriedoutinecologicallyand in forestry,orbenefitfromamine.Evenifthose best interesttoembarkonjointventures,engage dismayed ifandwhentheInnudecideit’sintheir preserve wildEarthareoftenshockedand seeing Nitassinanasthatlast-chanceplaceto really are.Consequently,thosewhoinsiston nutshimit. prior occupation and reflects andrespectsthe suggesting emptiness, language that,farfrom others, weneedtochoose describing theseplacesfor these stunningplaces.In cast usasvisitors-onlyin roots ofthemyththathas cultural andhistorical “wilderness”; thatis,the the landswecall our ownperspectiveson recognize theoriginsof think weneedto wilderness advocates,I (Notably, Innudiscourse Innu Support

7 PATHWAYS 8

PATHWAYS Innu Support rights, butalso thephilosophicalbasisfor anew existence forenvironmentalism andAboriginal will havefoundnotonlyacomfortable co- of the“wilderness”myth.If wecandothis, transcend thehuman-nature dualismatthebasis to preservewildlandsandspecies, butto This istoday’senvironmental challenge:notjust nature mightactuallylooklike”(1996,p.81). what anethical,sustainable,honourable therefore leaveourselveslittlehopeof humanity andnatureatoppositepoles.We civilization, wereproducethedualismthatsets wilderness asthemeasurewithwhichwejudge writes, “totheextentthatwecelebrate who weareandwherewanttobe.AsCronon inhabit, drivinganever-deeper places asanescapefromthe lead ustofetishizecertaindistantandbeautiful are laudableandimportantgoals.Buttheycanalso conservation andprotection;forthatreasonthese ecological non-humanbenefitstowildlands for afewweeksyear.Certainlytherearesubstantial privileged amonguscanevervisit,andthenonly large tractsofwildlandsthatonlythefewmost most ofthenaturalworld.Itisnotenoughtosave less pristine,sublimeplacesthatmakeup on theplacesthatweourselveslive:thoselocal, all face,ofbringingourlove“wilderness”tobear Aboriginal rights.It’salsoaboutthechallengewe support isnotjustaboutmakingroomfor reconciling ouradvocacyforwildplaceswithInnu In closing,Iwanttonotethatthechallengeof environmentally unsustainablepractices). with thisright(e.g.,iftheyinclude not alwaysfavourallthethingsthataredone Aboriginal righttoself-determination,weneed recognize Aboriginal disagreement. each other,weneedtofeelfreeadmitsome our interestsdonotcoincideorcomplement another’s causetobolsterourown.Finally,where take greatcarenottoappropriate(anddistort) nonetheless distinct.Consequently,weneedto closely alignedandcomplementary,but and ofAboriginalpeoplearedifferent:attimes, recreational canoeists,ofurbanenvironmentalists, We needtoadmitthattheinterestsof continuing useoftheselandsbyAboriginalpeople. For instance,wherewemay titletolandandsupportthe forsaken landswe wedge between

discovering place in Cronon, W.(1996). Reference permitted tocontinuehuntingthere(1996). treaty ontheconditionthatBlackfeetbe which wereoriginallytheirsandcededby on thelandsofGlacierNationalPark, who tothisdayareoftenaccusedof“poaching” 2. CronongivestheexampleofBlackfeet, spoken flavouroftheoriginalpresentation. pronoun, whichIhaveretainedaspartofthe also employedasacasualandverygeneral if s/heisapartofthis“we.”Theterm“we” therefore nowleaveittothereaderdetermine this culturalreadingoftheterm“wilderness.”I term “we”referssimplytoanyorallwhoshare any othercommonbackground,andsoherethe assume thatallreadersofthisarticlesharethis,or urban southernCanada.Idonot,however, Aboriginal andwholive,forthemostpart,in and enthusiastswhoarevirtuallyallnon- audience: self-identifiedwildernesscanoeists “we” originallyreferredtothespeech’sintended 1. Thisarticleisbasedonaspeech.Theterm Notes home. living, wewillbewelcomingourselvesback strive forethical,sustainable,andhonourable view ofhumansasbelongingtothisEarth.Aswe please contactJennie at Symposium inFebruary2001. Forthefulltext, version ofaspeechgivenatthe WildernessCanoeing Quinn. Thisarticleisacondensed andrevised partner, ErikLeslie,andtheir three-year-oldson, friends. ShenowlivesinNelson, BC,withher Kenamu RiverwithseveralInnuandnon-Innu Labrador wasenrichedbypaddlingthetumultuous focusing onInnusupportwork.Herresearchin masters’ degreeinenvironmentalstudies1998, Bay —InnuRightsCoalition.Shecompleteda past activememberoftheToronto-basedVoisey’s Jennie Barronisakeenrecreationalcanoeistand WW Norton&Co. Rethinking theHumanPlaceinNature 718 RadioAve., Nelson,BC,V1L3L3. Uncommon Ground: [email protected] . NewYork: or three common stereotypicalimagesof only superficially. Thismaterialtendsto the 1920sand1930sthat havebeenchanged continue touseprogramsthat weredevelopedin three ofthecampdirectorsI interviewed campers aboutIndigenouscultures. However, material atthecampsinthis studyistoeducate One ofthestatedgoalsforuseIndigenous Camp TraditionsandStereotypes contemporary colonialrealities. ceremonies tobeginaddressinghistoricaland moves beyondstereotypicalimagesandstolen towards educationaboutIndigenousculturethat practices ofcolonialism.Weneedtowork misrepresentation, canbelinkedtowider include culturalappropriationand representations ofIndigenouscultures,which we approachsucheducation.Common need tobecautiousandself-reflectiveabouthow realities oftheplacewenowcallCanada,also about Indigenousculturesandthecolonial dominant cultureurgentlyneedstolearnmore directors offivesummercampprograms.While I conductedsemi-structuredinterviewswiththe Ontario summercamps.Duringthefallof2000, presenting materialonIndigenouspeoplesat the implicationsofdifferentapproachesto Curious tolearnmore,Isetoutstudysomeof Indigenous culturesinoutdooreducation. representation andotherissuesaround think moreextensivelyaboutthepracticesof Algonquin culture.Thisexperiencecausedmeto the entireeventwasalegitimatepartof director insistedtobothstaffandcampersthat classes atMcMasterUniversity.Nevertheless,the learned aboutinmyIndigenousPeoplesStudies oral tradition,butitwasunlikeanythingIhad tell astorybasedontheHaudenausanee(Iroquois) campfire programoneevening.Heproceededto stereotypical PlainsIndiancostumefora camp directordecidedtodressupina I recentlyworkedatasummercampwherethe by TyHamilton Indigenous CulturesatOntarioSummerCamps The RepresentationandAppropriationof F eature promote given tousbythe Nativepeoplesaroundus.” recognize…[the] canoeingheritagethatwas camp’s pole,itspurposewas “certainlyto while hedidnotknowtheprecise historyofhis themed” objectsaroundhis camp. Hestatedthat the totempoleandmuchof theother“Native- camp, expresseduncertainty aboutthehistoryof the totempole.Onedirector,fairlynewtohis phenomenon foundinmanyOntariocampsis origins. Acommonexampleofthis again withoutacknowledgingtheirdistinct art andartifactsofmanyIndigenoussocieties, These campsalsouse“decorations”basedonthe of originsuchasCree,Ojibway,orMohawk. than attributingthenamestoadistinctlanguage their respectivecampsas“aNativeword,”rather Indigenous languagesbyreferringtothenameof The directorsofthesecampsgeneralizedall that perpetuatesthemythofGenericIndian. Three campsinthisstudypresentedmaterial always speakwithonevoice(Snow,1994). recognize thatmembersofaculturewillnot Indigenous cultureisdistincthaveoftenfailedto even individualswhoareawarethateach often groupedtogetherintooneculture.Further, Generic Indian,butIndigenouspeoplesarestill change witheachnewincarnationofthe letter writtenin1493(Berkhofer,1978).Labels Columbus firstcoinedtheterm“losindios”ina one genericgrouphasbeenreproducedsince the ideathatIndigenouspeoplesareessentially Despite thediversityofthesedistinctcultures, North America(Berkhofer,1978). and the2000distinctculturesIndigenousto forms sincethefirstcontactbetweenEuropeans They haveexistedindominantsocietyvarious stereotypes arenotuniquetocampprograms. stereotypes, images,andpreconceptions.Such about Indigenouspeoplesthatgeneratesthese “Indian” intentionallywhenItakeupdiscourse Dying Race,andtheNobleSavage.Iuseterm Indigenous peoples:theGenericIndian,

9 PATHWAYS Appropriation ofIndigenousCultures 10 PATHWAYS Indian asuncivilized andprimitive.Thisfalse nature, whereas theIgnobleSavagedescribes the Indian aslivingfreeandvirtuous inastateof dichotomy. TheNobleSavage describesthe images serveasoppositeends ofafalse often presenttheNobleSavage image,thetwo Ignoble Savage.Althoughthe campprograms stereotypes suchastheNobleSavageand different setsofcharacteristicsbasedon The figureoftheGenericIndianoftentakeson Savage Dualism The ProblemwiththeNoble/Ignoble different Indigenouspeoplesarecompatible. teaches thatthesongs,stories,andceremoniesof as partofoneCouncilRingalsounfortunately cultural diversity,presentingthesediversecultures information mayteachchildrenaboutIndigenous Ring. Whileprovidingculturalbackground background forthedifferentpiecesofhisCouncil he wascarefultoprovidesomecultural dances, andstories.Onlyonedirectorstatedthat common elementsfeaturedincludepeacepipes, followed bytheOmahaTribalPrayer.Other tradition. ThissupposedlyIroquoisstoryisoften story basedonHaudenausanee(Iroquois)oral reciting “Hiawatha’sDeparture,”aninvented might wearaplains-styleheaddresswhile “chief,” oftenoneoftheseniorstaffmembers, poles, tepees,orpaintingsonlargetarps.The may besurroundedwithobjectssuchastotem presentations bythecampers.Thecampfirearea storytelling, songs,prayers,dances,andoften have muchincommon.Theyinvolve performs thistypeofceremony,CouncilRings themes. Whilenotidenticalateverycampthat that re-enactsappropriatedIndigenouscultural Ring.” TheCouncilRingisessentiallyacampfire once commonlycalledthe“IndianCouncil type ofCouncilRingcampfireprogramthatwas The figureoftheGenericIndianalsoappearsina assume thatallIndigenousculturesarethesame. Indigenous cultures,couldmisleadcampersto these symbolsrepresentthesurrounding Ontario camp,aswelltheincorrectbeliefthat poles. Thedepictionofthesesymbolsatan Indigenous culturesfromOntariocreatetotem one Indigenouscultureapplytoall.Noneofthe can arisewhenweassumethatsymbolsfrom This statementexemplifiestheproblemsthat images, historianDanielFrancisstates: (Francis, 1992).OnSeton’suseofNobleSavage to serveasasuitablerolemodelforchildren figure oftheIndian,inNobleSavageincarnation, the TaylorStattenCamps.Hepromoted much oftheIndigenous-themedmaterialfrom League, wasakeyfigureinthedevelopmentof Ernest ThompsonSeton,founderoftheWoodcraft format thatcontainssomeidenticalelements. Statten model,whileanotherusesasimilar perform CouncilRingprograms, Taylor StattenCamps.Ofthe modern-day CouncilRingsoriginatedwiththe peoples forcampers.Muchofthematerial accurate, realistic,orcomplexpictureofIndigenous understood aspositive,theydonotcreatean stereotype. Whiletheseimagescouldbe images. TheyalsopromotetheNobleSavage feathers, andthesearemorethanGenericIndian “Chiefs” and“MedicineMen”inbuckskin Council Ringsincorporatepopcultureimagesof peoples asmodernIgnobleSavages. may returntoconceptualizingIndigenous cannot meet.Whentheyfailtodoso,campers holds Indigenouspeoplestoastandardthey presented atthesesummercampsonceagain (Berkhofer, 1978).TheNobleSavageimage West andcontinuestodosoinnewincarnations to justifythe“IndianWars”inAmerican in westernNorthAmerica.Thisliteratureserved dislocation andexterminationofNativepeoples Savage stereotypeatthesametimeasphysical dime novelsemergedtoperpetuatetheIgnoble 1973). Itissignificantthatthewesterngenreof arose tojustifytheirextermination(Sheehan, the lossoftheircultures),IgnobleSavageimages “civilization” (aprocessthatwouldhavemeant resisted colonialexpansioninsteadofembracing (Sheehan, 1973).Thus,whenIndigenouspeoples ideal thatIndigenouspeoplescannotachieveit The NobleSavagemythpredictsbehaviourso exist asoneortheotherandnothinginbetween. dichotomy onlyallowsIndigenouspeoplesto (Francis, 1992,p.145). “with allthatis badandcruelleftout” They wantedan Indian,asSetonwrote, youngsters aboutactualNative people. not reallyinterestedinteaching idealized imageoftheIndian. Theywere aware thattheywerepresenting an Seton andthecampleaders were well three campsthat twousethe selecting achiefmaynothavemetthestory’s consisting ofelectedchiefs.Thesemethods Council existsalongsideanimposedBand necessary (Lyons,1992).Today,theConfederacy the chief,andhaspowertoremovehimif communicating thecomplaintsofpeopleto of theclan.Shealsoholdsresponsibility decision mustfirstbeapprovedbytheconsensus chooses whowillbecomeanewchief,andher in theConfederacyCouncil.Aclanmother quite differently.Eachclaninheritscertainoffices Ayonwatha (Hiawatha)originates,arechosen the Haudenausanee,fromwhoseoraltradition Contrary totheCouncilRingstory,newchiefsof and aconnectiontonature. campers, modellingtoughness,independence, stereotypical NobleSavagerolemodelfor 1968). IntheCouncilRing,Hiawathaservesasa night vigiltofurtherprovehisbravery(Eastaugh, this ordealthengoesintothewoodsforanall- mentally toughenoughtosuccessfullycomplete will replacethedepartedchief.Theboywhois must walkonburningemberstodeterminewho model forcampers.Inthestory,young“braves” interviewed believedthatthestoryoffersapositive Departure.” LikeSeton,twoofthedirectorsI are portrayedasNobleSavagesis“Hiawatha’s demonstrates thewaythatIndigenouspeoples One storyfromtheCouncilRingthat stereotypes of the GenericIndian,Noble invention orhas beenalteredtofitthe of thematerialisproduct ofoutright exactly asthey“usedtobedone.”Missingisthe stated thatthecomponentsmaynotbeperformed cultural elementswithinhisCouncilRing,he one directordiscussedthe“authenticity”of when talkingaboutIndigenouspeoples.When Rings bothusedalmostexclusivelythepasttense of thethreedirectorswhosecampsuseCouncil directors’ discussionsoftheCouncilRing.Two The DyingRacemythispervasiveinthecamp signs oftheliving. rather thanculturaladaptationsandchangesas contact stateassignsoftheIndianrace’sdeath perceived anychangesfromanidyllic,pre- contemporary times(Berkhofer,1978).They Europeans thanhowIndigenouspeopleslivein how Indianslivedpriortocontactwith anthropologists havebeenfarmoreinterestedin Indigenous photographers,authors,artists,and that isdoomedtobecomeextinct.Non- peoples isthatthereageneric“Indianrace” Another commonmythaboutIndigenous on hotcoals. mother underminesthemachismoofdancing having thedecisioninhandsofaclan interest” (Eastaugh,1968,p.1).Additionally, original goalof“reachingtothechild’slevel peoples whoidentifythemselvesasChristian mention thelargenumbersofIndigenous peoples whostillperformceremonies,notto acknowledgment thatthereareIndigenous (Frideres, 1993).CostumesfortheCouncilRing are alsobasedonhistoricalclothing.After Appropriation ofIndigenousCultures children aboutIndigenouspeoples, much witnessing thishistoricizationof Indigenous cultures,camperswho know littleaboutIndigenous peoples mightnotunderstandthat use thismaterialtoeducate these culturesstillexist. Information aboutIndigenous peoples incontemporarytimes every campdirectorwasto Though agoalstatedby is notasignificantpart of theseprograms.

11 PATHWAYS Appropriation ofIndigenousCultures 12 PATHWAYS does it does roles ofimaginaryIndians,as discussedabove, status quo”(hooks,1992,p. 22). Play-actingthe in amannerthatreinscribes andmaintainsthe exploitation, and“[this]exploitation willoccur whatever themotive,culturalappropriationis connections tothenaturalworld.However, the intenttoeducatecampersorhelpthemform appropriating aspectsofIndigenousculturewith elements withoutsanction.Campsmaybe appropriation istheadoptionoruseofcultural issue ofculturalappropriation.Cultural Indigenous materialintocampactivities,isthe Indigenous traditions,andtheliberalmixingof Inseparable fromtheseinventedoraltered Camp TraditionsandCulturalAppropriation we callCanada. peoples andtheongoingcolonizationofland consequences forthelivesofrealIndigenous and reinforcementofstereotypesthathavedirect programs canalsobelinkedtotheperpetuation entertainment, andpositiverolemodels,these worthwhile inprovidingcamperswithfun, these campscouldatfirstglanceappear some oftheIndigenous-themedprogrammingat membership inthecolonizingculture.While their culturalheritageandrightsinfavourof encourage orforceIndigenouspeoplestogiveup justifies assimilationistphilosophiesthattryto America. Lastly,themythofaDyingRacealso contemporary realitiesofcolonialisminNorth negative. Suchmythsalsomaskhistoricaland only throughmythsthatareoverlypositiveor relationship withIndigenouspeoplesunderstood North Americanswillbeunabletoforgeanew The Canadiangovernmentandnon-Indigenous expectations. is unrealisticforcolonizingpeoplestoholdsuch to theidealofNobleSavagestereotype,andit Furthermore, Indigenouspeoplescannotliveup Indigenous populationsofNorthAmerica. understanding betweentheIndigenousandnon- generic Indianculturemaintainsriftsin complex; theperceptionthattheyexistwithina peoples. Indigenouspeoplesarediverseand goal ofeducatingcampersaboutIndigenous Savage, andtheDyingRace.Thisundermines nothing tosupportIndigenous peoples,nor provide anaccurate educationabout eagle feathersfor religiouspurposes(Hall, 1992). struggling inthecourtsforyears tolegallyuse conference in1984.Hall’speople hadbeen feathers atanAmericanoutdoor education non-Indigenous maninafull headdressofeagle ceremony” (Hall,1992,p.53) performedbya Cherokee descent,walkedoutofa“socalled McClellen Hall,anoutdooreducatorof Indigenous culturesarestrugglingtoreclaim. colonizing culturesperformceremoniesthat Indigenous individualstowitnesspeoplefrom Not surprisingly,itisdifficultformany remained sacredandholy”(Oles,1992,p.20). leaders havedesecratedthingsthatshould programs, thesewell-intentionedbutmisguided Ceremonies intotheiradventureleadership Oles aptlystates:“ByattemptingtoadoptIndian p. 190).AsoutdooreducationscholarGordon Y-Guide programtouseit”(qtd.inBrash,1982, prayer ofmypeopleanditissacrilegiousforthe an Omahawoman,states:“Thisisareligious appropriation byaYMCAprogram,CorrinaDrum, using theirprayers.Withregardtosuch offended thatpeopleoutsideoftheircultureare (Brash, 1982).ManyOmahapeoplearealso invoking theFourDirections,tobeblasphemous common errors,likemixinguptheorderof cultural contexttobeoffensive.Theyconsider their prayersandceremoniesoutsideof their livesaresacred.Thus,theyfindtheuseof follow theirspiritualitybelievethatallaspectsof Brash statesthatLakotaandDakotapeoplewho cultural appropriationbyyouthprograms,Beatty their cultureandspirituality.Inresponseto have spokenoutagainsttheappropriationof Indigenous cultures.Manypeoples been directlyappropriatedfromvarious (Eastaugh, 1968;Pearse&Taylor,1985)have Pipe ceremonies,andStoneGiantsstory Song, HoopDances,OwlDance,Rabbit Omaha TribalPrayer,Zunicalltocouncil,Seneca are completefabrications,otherssuchasthe While somecomponentsoftheCouncilRings structures ofcolonialsociety(Churchill,1994). actors continuetoparticipateintheoppressive solidarity withtheoppressed,whileplay- Indigenous peoples.Itmerelyprovidesafalse contemporary orhistoricalrealitiesfor peoples inCanada andmentionsthatIndigenous discusses contemporary realitiesforIndigenous situation forNativepeopletoday.” Hethen his camparenotrepresentative ofthe“true also tellsthecampersthat representationsat stereotypes toteachlessons campers.Statten Seton madeupaCouncilRing basedonthese and howhisgrandfatherErnestThompson the 1920sand1930swhencampwasformed, public conceptualizedthefigureofIndianin image.” HealsotalksabouthowtheCanadian cultures atthecamps,including“theNobleSavage Ring, hediscussesthehistoryofIndigenous this isaWhiteCouncilRing.”Beforethe campers: “No,thisisnotanIndianCouncilRing, material as“Whiteman’sbaloney.”Hetells participatory play.”Hereferstomuchofthe that theCouncilisessentiallya“Whiteman’s stories takenfromIndigenouscultures,heinsists (Tike Statten)acknowledgesthatheusessome Indigenous-themed art.WhileTaylorStattenIII the originsofCouncilRing,totempoles,and Statten Campsisthatthestaffnowtriestodiscuss depictions ofIndigenouspeoplesattheTaylor One ofthemostsignificantchangesin Changing CampTraditions Dying Raceandotherstereotypes. peoples, butalsofurtherpromotethemythofa appropriation notonlyfailtohelpIndigenous aspects ofIndigenousculturethrough (Crosby, 1991).Thesecamps’attemptstopreserve change andadapttocontemporarycircumstances for culturalpurenessthatdonotallowacultureto survival ofthe“dead”culturebysettingcriteria dominant cultureconvenientlyignoresthe are thelast“pure”examplesofthatculture.The valuable asdominantsocietyassumesthatthey is commodifiedbecauseitsremnantsbecome “dying” culture.Furthermore,the“dead”culture documents andthusgainsownershipofthe preserving itsownheritage,thedominantculture another cultureisdyingandincapableof culture. Whenthedominantculturedictatesthat a processthatattemptsto“save”aspectsof“dying” “salvage paradigm”(Crosby,1991,p.274).Thisis Tsimpsian scholarMarciaCrosbydescribesasthe kind ofattemptatpreservationiswhatHaida/ hoped tohelppreserveIndigenouscultures.This Indigenous-themed programming,hiscamp One ofthecampdirectorsindicatedthat,through costumes for“Indian Night.”Shealsoremembers when thestaff dressedinfeatherandbuckskin Wanapitei, hasseenpictures from20yearsago Council Ring.RobynMitz,director ofCamp presenting camperswithmaterial similartothe Two othercampsinthestudy movedawayfrom Statten CouncilRingwithoutsuchdiscussion. that othercampscontinuetousetheTaylor for Indigenouspeoples.Itisinterestingtonote about stereotypingandthecontemporaryrealities he framesthecouncilwithanopendiscussion that thebenefitsoutweighpotentialproblemsif Council Ringcontentmuchthought,Stattenfeels has positivemoralmessages.Havinggiventhe the content,whilenotnecessarily“authentic,” also providesadditionalbenefits.Heclaimsthat According toStatten,though,theCouncilRing problematic thanappropriation. entirely invention.Invention,however,isnoless Statten, thecurrentCouncilRingisalmost and stillbeconsideredappropriated.Accordingto how heavilystoriesorceremoniescanbealtered brings upquestionsofculturalappropriationand appropriated orfabricatedmaterial.Thisalso mitigate theethicalissuesinvolvedinpresenting discussion aboutissuesofcolonizationdoesnot Noble Savageimageryfades?Aworthwhile lingers aftertheunderstandingofproblems the chiefinheaddressaroundcampfire be educational.However,Iwonderiftheimageof listen andunderstand,theexperiencemayindeed returned tothecamp.Forthosecamperswho the campers,andforhowmanyyearsthey Council Ringwouldlikelydependontheageof the discussionanditsimplicationsfor the degreetowhichcamperscouldunderstand including theirrelationshiptoCanada.However, contemporary livesofIndigenouspeoples, teach childrenaboutstereotypesandthe opportunity. Hebelievesitoffersachanceto Statten seestheCouncilRingasaneducational the originsandimplicationsofcouncil, Within theframeworkofhisfrankdiscussion relationship withIndigenouspeoples. news anddiscussedthedifficultiesinCanada’s on occasion,talkedaboutsocialissuesfromthe views, anddonotallliveonreserves.Healsohas, peoples comefrommanycultures,have Appropriation ofIndigenousCultures

13 PATHWAYS 14 PATHWAYS Appropriation ofIndigenousCultures department atTrentUniversity. maintains connectionswith theNativeStudies about Indigenousissues.The campalso appropriate, andhowtotalk totheircampers and haveongoingdiscussions aboutwhatis with neighbouringIndigenouscommunities, issues together.Theytrytoremainconnected Native lands.Sheandherstaffoftendiscussthese sending groupstotravelthroughandcampon technology. Shealsofeelsambivalentabout campers travelbycanoe,anappropriated She struggleswiththefactthatsheandher remains concernedaboutculturalappropriation. campers. Despitethesepositivesteps,Mitz one oftheircampfiresandsharestorieswiththe trapper fromthelocalareawasgoingtocome to sharestories.Mitzwasexcitedthatonesuch working onthelandwhoaresometimeswilling Wanapitei campershavemetIndigenoustrappers result ofsharing,notunwantedappropriation. other culturethatthechildrenexperienceisa Indigenous communitiesisthatanystoriesor Another benefitofcamperinteractionwith and otheraspectsofcolonialhistory. local Indigenousculturesaswellthefurtrade visiting historicalsitesthataresignificantto also trytoshowamoregenuinehistoryby in theircommunitiesandonland.They for thecamperstomeetIndigenouspeoplesboth canoe trips.Thesetripsprovideanopportunity the campsorinareascampersvisitduring interact withIndigenouspeopleswholivenear provide camperswithopportunitiestomeetand As analternative,thesetwocampsattemptto felt thattheseactivitieswereinappropriate. to “playingCowboysandIndians.”LikeMitz,he camp’s pastshowedactivitiesthatweresimilar director statedthatvideosandpicturesfromhis Indigenous perspectives.Theothercamp’s know about”andthataretoldfromnon- [culture] andteachingstoriesthat[they]don’t generation feellesscomfortable“appropriating that instructorsandcampdirectorsofher activity. Arelativelynewdirector,Mitzbelieves the accuracyorappropriatenessofthis young camper.Asachild,sheneverquestioned attending asimilarprogramwhenshewas their ownuse. Unfortunately,somesummer appropriated aspects ofIndigenouscultures for Non-Indigenous NorthAmericans havealso remain prevalentinpresent-day NorthAmerica. Noble Savage,andDyingRace stereotypes identities andexperiences,the GenericIndian, increasing awarenessofthediversity ofIndigenous of theIndianhavechangedlittle.Despite and thecolonizersofNorthAmerica,stereotypes Since firstcontactbetweenIndigenouspeoples Conclusions to facilitatetheseexperienceswell. with theknowledge,experience,andsensitivity challenging tofindcampstaffandtripleaders of thetripastheyunfold.Itwouldbevery trip, aswellleaddiscussionsabouttheevents with backgroundinformationrelevanttothe the individualtripleaderswhoprovidecampers the responsibilityofthisworkrestsprimarilyon different. InthecasesofcampsIinvestigated, communities fromthesameculturecanbevery peoples liveinurbanareas,andthatdifferent Campers alsoneedtoknowthatmanyIndigenous through aworldviewbasedonstereotypes. their briefencounterwithanIndigenousperson such limitedexperienceandavoidinterpreting campers avoidmakinggeneralizationsbasedon surrounding visitsarecritical.Theyhelpensure Indigenous peoples.Discussionandactivities have asignificantimpactonhowcamperssee facilitation anddebriefingofexperiencescould positive interactionswithIndigenouspeoples, In situationssuchasthese,wellmore only withthetheft. may nowassociatethatparticularcommunity before thetripbecausesomeofthosechildren could havedonemoretotalkaboutstereotyping peoples ingeneral.Shereflectedthatthestaff and campersmadejudgmentsaboutIndigenous an Indigenouspersonstoleit,afewofthestaff happened indowntownToronto.However,since was quicktopointoutthatthiscouldhave during avisittoFirstNationscommunity.Mitz example, oneofthecampers’backpackswasstolen experience withanIndigenousculture.For that fitstereotypesinwhatmightbetheironly be problematic.Camperscanwitnessbehaviours Indigenous individualsforsuchashorttimecan Despite thiscarefulreflection,meeting Brash, B.(1982).The“Y”-Indian Guideand“Y”- Berkhofer, R.(1978). References misrepresent orappropriateIndigenouscultures. and createalternativeprogramstothosethat are limitedonlybyourwillingnesstosearchfor community, andfosterconnectionswithnature about Indigenousrealities,createasenseof The possibilitiesforwaystoeducatecampers than-human world. for usingcrafttoforgeconnectionsthemore- example, haswrittenextensivelyonthepotential appropriation. ZabeMacEachren(2000),for environment isalsopossiblewithoutcultural community. Furthermore,connectiontothe imaginary Indianinhelpingcreateasenseof doubt beaseffectivetheinventedsongsofan songs andjust-for-funcampthatwouldno context bythefacilitator.Likewise,therearefolk particularly iftheyareplacedintheircolonial and manyothersmakefinestorytellingmaterial, Elliot Merrick,ErnestShakleton,AlbertJohnson, replaced withotherstories.Talesofvoyageurs and appropriatedIndigenousstoriescanbe accomplished throughalternativemeans.Invented with nature.Severalofthesegoalscanbe community atthecamp,andtofosterconnections positive role-modelsforyouth,tocreateasenseof also usedIndigenous-themedmaterialtoprovide The campdirectorscitedinthisstudystatedthey Indigenous peoples. moving beyondtheirmythicalunderstandingof non-Indigenous NorthAmericansneedtobegin land-claims negotiationsandAboriginalrights, Indigenous cultures.Giventhecurrentissuesof Indigenous peoplesandshowingrespectfor camps’ goalsofeducatingcampersabout appropriation. Thisisinconsistentwiththe Indigenous peoplesstereotypesandcultural camps inOntariocontinuetoexposechildren Churchill, W.(1994). ( Indian PrincessProgram.In A.B.Hirchfelder to thePresent Images oftheAmericanIndianfromColumbus Genocide inNative NorthAmerica of Children Ed.), American IndianStereotypesin theWorld . London:ScarecrowPress,1982. . NewYork:VintageBooks. The WhiteMan’sIndian: Indians “R”Us:Cultureand . Monroe, throughout this project. Monture andBobHenderson fortheirguidance undergraduate thesis.Hewould liketothankRick This articleisacondensedversion ofhis Ty Hamiltoniscurrentlypursuing aBEdatUBC. Stiffarm, L.A.&Lane,P.Jr.(1992).The Snow, D.R.(1994). Sheehan, B.W.(1973). Pearse, J.,&Taylor,B.(1985). Oles, G.W.A.(1992).“Borrowing”activities MacEachren, Zabe.(2000).Craftingasapracticeof Lyons, O.(1992).Landofthefree,home hooks, b.(1992). Hall, M.(1992).Perspectives:Theusein Frideres, J.(1993). Francis, D.(1992). Eastaugh, W.J.(1968). Crosby, M.(1991).Constructionoftheimaginary Boston: SouthEnd. Genocide, Colonization,andResistance Jaimes (Ed.), question ofAmericanIndiansurvival.InM.A. demography ofNativeNorthAmerica:A Blackwell. Carolina. Indian Jeffersonian PhilanthropyandtheAmerican Thunderbird 15 perspective. from anotherculture:ANativeAmerican’s of EnvironmentalEducation relating tothenaturalworld. American Democracy Brave. InJ.Barreiro(Ed.), the Lines. of ExperientialEducation rituals fromNativeAmericancultures. experiential educationofceremoniesand Prentice-Hall. Contemporary Conflicts Vancouver: Arsenal. Image oftheIndianinCanadianCulture Statten Camps. Talonbooks. Anthology: TheInstitutionalPoliticsofArt Indian. InS.Douglas(Ed.), MN: CommonCourage. Appropriation ofIndigenousCultures (3), 20–23. . ChapelHill:UniversityofNorth . Kitchener,ON:Cober. Journal ofExperientialEducation Black Looks The StateofNativeAmerica: Native PeoplesinCanada: The ImaginaryIndian: The Iroquois Indian CouncilRing Seeds ofExtinction: . Ithaca,NY:Akwekon. . Scarborough,ON: , . Toronto:Between 15 High Abovethe , Indian Rootsof 5, (1), 52–55. Vancouver . Cambridge,MA: Canadian Journal 186–199. . Journal . Taylor . . ,

15 PATHWAYS 16 PATHWAYS F eature by ConnieRussell,TemaSarick,andJackieKennelly Queering OutdoorEducation deviant; thishas beennamed“heteronormativity.” as thenormandothersexual actsclassifiedas Heterosexual reproductivesex becametobeknown developed anddescribedinmedical texts. Soon after,ataxonomyof“sexual species”was appeared intheOxfordEnglish Dictionaryin1901. the word“homosexual”wasin1869,anditfirst Ned Katz(1996)notesthatthefirstpublicuseof new phenomenoninWesternculture.Jonathan preferences forparticularsexualactsisarelatively The classificationofpeoplebasedontheir our sustained interrogationofhowallusconstruct struggles withhomophobiatoamoreseriousand emphasis fromeducating active formoftheworddenoteschanging on actions;inqueerpedagogy,theshiftto also beaverbthatfocusesnotonindividualsbut transexual.” Forothers,however,thewordcan “lesbian, gay,bisexual,transgendered,and noun oradjectiveandactsasashortformfor defiantly reclaimed.Forsome,“queer”signifiesa Commonly usedasapejorative,ithasbeen word “queer”iscontestedandthusproblematic. To begin,itisimportanttorememberthatthe Background research havebeen“heterosexualized.” the waysinwhichourtheories,practices,and education hasbeenoverwhelminglysilentabout Rheingold, 1996),outdoorenvironmental Bradash, 1995;McClintock,1996;Warren& group offeministoutdooreducators(Bell,1996; similar position.Withtheexceptionofasmall 1995, p.151).Thethreeofusfindourselvesina are, well,notgivenanythought”(Britzman, colleagues, questionsofgayandlesbianthought these conversationsisthatformanyofmy another language.Onedifficultythatborders believe herorhisears,itisasifIhadspokenin their surprise:“Itisasifthelistenercannot emerging fieldofqueerpedagogy,sherecounts first heardaboutherworkinwhatwasthenthe When someofDeborahBritzman’scolleagues identities. about queersand their that donotfitthe heterosexualnormare on otheranimalsthatspecifically names The climatehaschangedsomewhat andresearch evidence contrarytotheheterosexistnormwas Indeed, asBruceBaghemi(1999)asserts, activity, theirreportswererarelypublished. did notethepresenceofnon-heterosexual representation isaccurate.Evenwhenresearchers heterosexually monogamous(p.78);neither nuclear families(pp.33,41)andchimpanzeesas wanted toseeandportrayedgorillasasexistingin (1989) writesabouthowresearcherssawwhatthey to “prove”thispoint.Forexample,DonnaHaraway Until recently,researchonotheranimalsseemed the naturalworld. that otherformsofsexualactivitydonotoccurin to theperpetuationofhumanspecies,and reproductive sexisnaturalbecauseitcontributes within Westernsocietyisthatheterosexual what countsasnatural.Adominantnarrative depends uponveryparticularconstructionsof to dopreciselythatbecauseheteronormativity environmental educatorsareinauniqueposition norm. Itisourcontentionthatoutdoor of devaluinganythingperceivedasoutsidethis of thisprocessnormalizingheterosexualityand becomes, then,theidentificationandchallenging One oftheprimarygoalsqueerpedagogy material (p.87). is availableintheoriginalscientific are clearlyawarethatsuchinformation homosexuality, evenwhentheauthors routinely omitanymentionof disconcerting, popularworksonanimals and evenfearhostility.…Equally general climateofignorance,disinterest, remains unpublished,theresultofa of thisinformation,however,simply judgments andcrypticterminology.Most even furtherunderoutdatedvalue and unpublisheddissertations,orburied …often hiddenawayinobscurejournals finally practices indigenous peoples,andqueershasbeenjustified human groupssuchaswomen,blacks, example, historically,exploitationofparticular gender intersectandoppressionsarelinked.For which variousconstructionsofnature,race,and justice havebeenveryinterestedintheways influenced byecofeminismandenvironmental work. Further,environmentaleducators “heterosexualized” issimplyanextensionofthis ideas aboutotheranimalshavebeen humankind. Examiningthewaysinwhichour popular ideaofnatureassolelyaresourcefor has oftencontainedarticlesthatcriticizethe constructions ofnature.Forexample, already focusontheimplicationsofvarious Many environmentalandoutdooreducators Education? What HasThisGottoDowithOutdoor secondary classesanduniversityclasses.) video isanexcellentresourceforsenior recently airedontheDiscoveryChannel.(This (Loyer, Menendez,&Alexandresco,2000)which interview inthedocumentary magazine articlein generated muchmediacoveragesuchasa rightly seenascuttingedgeworkandhas engaging insame-sexbehaviourforpleasureis Paul VaseyonfemaleJapanesemacaques research conductedbyCanadianprimatologist literature (Baghemi,1999).Forexample, appearing inbothacademicandmorepopular a ‘dyke’?” portaging considered guide adeptat ‘gay’ andafemale cooking considered excels atcampsite a maleguidewho “Why, forinstance,is Equinox (Vasey,2000)andan Out InNature Pathways Denise Mitten (1997)describesthetransition of outdoor andadventureeducation. Forexample, Heteronormativity hasbeen activelyenforcedin portaging considereda“dyke”? considered “gay”andafemale guideadeptat is amaleguidewhoexcelsatcampsitecooking socialization canbeexplored.Why,forinstance, “feminine” andheteronormative they canprovideaspacewhereby“masculine”and further reifyinggenderroles,whenwellfacilitated, While suchexercisesarealwaysindangerof facilitate role-playingexerciseinwhich of traditionalgenderroles.Oncanoetrips,they underlying heteronormativityoftheprescription describe anexercisetheyusetodisruptthe Karen WarrenandAlisonRheingold(1996) competent outdoorinstructoristhewhitemale. outdoor educationwherethemodelofa critiques theunderlyingmachoethosofmuch gender roles.Forexample,MarthaBell(1996) the waysinwhichtheyreinforcetraditional practices, generally,needtobere-examinedfor 1995). Othersfeelthatoutdooreducation space toaddresstheiruniqueconcerns(Bradash, need tobeofferedspecificprogramsandasafe participants, andsomearguethatqueeryouth are notalwaysinterpretedinthesamewaybyall recognize thatthenatureexperiencestheyoffer On anotherfront,criticaloutdooreducators Selby, 1995,pp.1 savage, oruncivilized(Bell&Russell,2000; closer tonature,thatisanimalistic,irrational, on thebasisofthesegroupsbeingdeemedtobe issues raised(p.126). astounded bytheirreactionsandthe experience…, studentsareusually students, whenweprocessthe some extremestereotypicactionsbythe gender-bending exerciseusuallycreates supportive andencouraging.Whilethe (playing thefemininerole)istobe paddle outtotheisland.Themen’srole the canoe,tieitontopofvan,and masculine roles)areallowedtohandle …only thewomen(whoareplaying 7 –20). Queering OutdoorEducation genderrole

17 PATHWAYS 18 PATHWAYS Queering OutdoorEducation challenge more criticallytheobjectivesof gay and gardeningtips,butalso for folkswantingto those lookingfornaturewalks, campingtrips Toronto organizationthatprovides “aspacefor environmentalism. Oneexample isEcoQueers,a outdoor experiencesandwhat countsas expand ourideasofwhatcountsasappropriate Queering outdooreducationalsoforcesusto to proveandexhibittheirmasculinity”(p.244). traditionally beenconsideredanarenaformen outdoors, andoutdooractivitieshave that “theprimaryreasoniswilderness,the outdoor andadventureeducation?”responds asks, “[W]hydoeslesbianbaitinghappenin contexts. MaryMcClintock(1996)rightfully baiting onlyworks,ofcourse,inhomophobic (McClintock, 1996;Mitten,1997).Lesbian the adoptionofmoretraditionalgendernorms to discreditthem,provokedenials,orencourage orientation, arelabelledaslesbiansinaneffort working inthefield,regardlessoftheirsexual example of“lesbianbaiting”wherebywomen remained inthecloset(Mitten,1997).Thisisan surprise thatqueershiredattimeoften lesbians) wouldbehired;itshouldcomeasno concern that“Amazontypes”(codewordfor hiring femalestaff,somemalesexpressed mixed-gender organization.Resistantatfirstto Outward Boundfromanall-malebastiontoa group of25young menandwomenwithsexy combat boots…Coreyjoins the radicalsquad,a pompoms intothemakeshift stirrupsofapair on ablackshirtandredskirt andsticksplastic describe onesuchmalecheerleader: “Coreyputs justice issues.GregoryandDinner (2001) protests aroundbothsocialandenvironmental who havehadagrowingpresenceinpolitical another exampleisthe“RadicalCheerleaders” male gaze”(Fry&Lousley,2001,p.25).Yet subvert overwhelmingbeautypressuresandthe with lesbiansallowseco-grrls“torejectand Adopting auniformmorecommonlyassociated and abandannacoveringherhair”(p.25). complemented byunshavenlegs,nomakeup Co-op clotheswithabackpackandhikingboots, Lousley (2001),“wearsMountainEquipment of aneco-grrl,”accordingtoKimFryandCheryl challenge traditionalgenderroles.The“caricature interested inenvironmentalconcerns,butalso school oruniversityage)whoarenotonly describe youngwomen(usuallyofsecondary Another exampleis“eco-grrls,”alabelusedto to fullyindulgeincapitalistconsumption”(p.35). concerns: “tobegayandmale,thestorygoes,is oblivious tooruninterestedinenvironmental directly challengestereotypessuchasthegayman Such organizations,AndilGosine(2001)asserts, liberation andgaydiscourse”(Gosine,2001,p.36). Britzman, D.(1995).Isthereaqueerpedagogy? Bradash, C.(1995).Therapeuticprogrammingfor Bell, M.(1996).Feministschallenging Bell, A.C.,&Russell,C.L.(2000).Beyondhuman, Baghemi, B.(1999). References environmental educationtheoryandpractice. encourage criticalanalysisofoutdoor will sparknewideas,fosterdialogue,and of heterosexismandsexism.Wehopethispaper for outdooreducatorstochallengethestatusquo nature, queerpedagogyisrifewithpossibilities cultural constructsthroughwhichweview gender normsthatareoppressive,tonoticingthe influence theoutdoorclassroom,tosubverting addressing theheteronormativeassumptionsthat work intheoutdoors.Fromrecognizingand possible waysthatqueerpedagogycanenrichour instead tomakespacespeculateuponafew guidelines forqueeringoutdooreducation,but The intentofthispaperisnottoofferaset Conclusion enthusiast. traditional environmentalactivistoroutdoor None oftheseexamplesfitthestereotype of politicaltheatre”(Gregory&Dinner,2001,p.26). “conservative icon”and“hijacked[it]intoaform legs anddefiantgrins.”Theseyouthhavetakena Fry, K.,&Lousley,C.(2001). Girlsjustwantto Or, stopreadingstraight. Journal ofExperientialEducation education cansupportanat-riskpopulation. gay andlesbianyouth:Howexperiential Kendall Hunt. Education Warren (Ed.), assumptions aboutoutdoorleadership.InK. Canadian JournalofEducation,25 pedagogy andthepoststructuralistturn. beyond words:Anthropocentrism,critical York: St.Martin’sPress. Homosexuality andNaturalDiversity 27 Environmental Thought,Policy andAction have fun—withpolitics. 45 (2), 24–28. (2), 151–165. (pp.141–156).Dubuque,Iowa: Women’s VoicesinExperiential Biological Exuberance:Animal Alternatives Journal: Educational Theory , 18 (3), 188–203. (2), 91–94. . New , , Education, 7, education. J. Kennelly(2002).Queering environmental of thefollowing:C.L.Russell,T.Sarick,& Net Vancouver.Thisarticleisanabridgedversion Jackie KennellyisaprogramcoordinatorwithYouth Brown CollegeandvolunteerswithEcoQueers, Lakehead University,TemaSarickteachesatGeorge Connie RussellteachesintheFacultyofEducationat Warren, K.,&Rheingold,A.(1996).Feminist Vasey, P.(2000).Kamasutraprimates. Selby, D.(1995). Mitten, D.(1997).Inthelight:Sexualdiversity McClintock, M.(1996).Lesbianbatinghurtsall Loyer, B.,Menendez,J.,&Alexandresco,S. Katz, J.N.(1996). Haraway, D.(1989). Gregory, K.,&Dinner,A.(2001).GimmeanR! Gosine, A.(2001).Pinkgreens:Ecoqueers Dubuque, Iowa:KendallHunt. Voices inExperientialEducation critical look.InK.Warren(Ed.), pedagogy andexperientialeducation:A 110 Books. on HumaneEducation Leisurability, 24 and women’soutdoortrips. Dubuque, Iowa:KendallHunt. in ExperientialEducation women. InK.Warren(Ed.), Productions, France, [Video]. (AvailablefromSaintThomas Homosexual BehaviourintheAnimalKingdom (Directors). (2000). New York:Plume. Science Race, andNatureintheWorldofPrimate Policy andAction Alternatives Journal:EnvironmentalThought, 27 Environmental Thought,PolicyandAction organize inToronto. thomas.net (3), 35–36. , 32–33. Canadian JournalofEnvironmental . NewYork:Routledge. 54–66. ) Earthkind: ATeachers’Handbook The InventionofHeterosexuality (4). Queering OutdoorEducation , Primate Visions:Gender, 27 (2), 26. Out InNature: http://www.saint- Alternatives Journal: . London:Trentham (pp.241–250). Women’s Voices Journal of (pp.118–129). Women’s Equinox , , .

19 PATHWAYS 20 PATHWAYS F eature by IngridSikorcin Education Exploring SocialClassinOutdoorEnvironmental the classroom walls?”(Bell,1997,p.133). By with therestofnatureifwefail toventurebeyond recognize andreaffirmourdeep interconnections following question:“Howcan wehopeto wilderness variety.Theyaim toaddressthe the importanceofnatureexperience, oftenofthe a reconnectiontothenaturalworldandespouse education programsoftenworktowardsfostering and manifestations.Traditionalenvironmental Environmental educationhasmanydefinitions outdoor environmentaleducation. assumptions andexploretheirimplicationsfor example, Iwillbegintouncoversomeofthese with theInnerCityOutingsprogramasan intentions asaneducator.Usingmyexperience assumptions; thishasledmetoquestionmyown that surroundssuchgoalsandtheirunderlying have becomeincreasinglyawareofthe“messiness” hope thatsomeoftheseobjectivesareattainable,I environmental attitudesandvalues.WhileIstill developing ecologicalliteracyandfosteringpro- importantly, theyalsoprovideanidealsettingfor allow forteambuildingandskillbuilding.More provide beneficialrecreationalopportunitiesthat environments, andIbelievethatsuchexperiences to experience“wilderness”ornaturalrural All childrendonothavethesameopportunities economic, orsocialbarriers. not otherwisehavethemduetocultural, education opportunitiesforchildrenwhomay goal ofprovidingoutdoorandenvironmental volunteer leaderforaprogramwiththemain Warsaw Caveswith6to13yearolds.Iwasa witnessed thislastsummerduringadayoutingto the thoughtofreturningformoreadventures.I retreating glaciers,notwantingtoleave,elatedat laughed theirwaythroughcrevicesformedby 15 studentscrawled,slithered,climbed,and headlights on,readytoexploretheunknown.The voices astheydescendedintothecool,darkcaves, You couldsensethefearandexcitementintheir “content isinfluenced byandtaughtfrom multicultural environmental educationwhere urban students.Alsogrowing inpopularityis environmental educationin thelivesofher (1999) writesofherattempts toground lived environments.Forexample, Martil-deCastro connect abstractenvironmentalissuestotheir local contextswherestudentsmaybeableto environmental educationhasbeentofocuson One solutiontothemonoculturalismof nature (DiChiro,1996,p.303). community’s perceptionofitsrelationshipwith experiential andhistoricalrealities”thatshapea activists hassoughttoacknowledgethe“specific critical theory,theworkofenvironmentaljustice income communities.Inthespiritandpoliticsof experienced bycommunitiesofcolourandlow- ignoring theenvironmentalinjustices mainstream environmentalorganizationsfor Giovanna DiChiro(1992;1996)hascritiqued to race,class,andgenderasmediatingfactors. the importanceofunderstandingandattending criticized fornotaddressingissuesofpowerand Specifically, manyoftheseprogramshavebeen air andwaterpollution,wasteaccumulation. arable land,unbridleddevelopment,increasesin crises suchasthelossofnaturalhabitatand structures thatcreateandmaintainecological social, political,andeconomicforces rightly critiquedfornotadequatelyaddressingthe environmental educationprogramshavebeen Despite theirwell-meantintentions,many participants. everyone andinterpretedsimilarlybyall assumed thatsuchexperiencesareaccessibleto While natureexperienceisimportant,itoften behaviour willfollow. environmentally-conscious attitudes,values,and the outdoors,itisoftenexpectedorhopedthat providing experientialeducationopportunitiesin This issimplyuntrue(Russell,1999). children andbecause Imustadmitthatnow do same) socioeconomic contextsasmanyof the history locatesmeinsimilar (althoughneverthe issue, particularlybecausemy ownpersonal be renamed.Icontinuetostruggle withthis person whofirstdecidedthat thegroupshould my positionofpowerandprivilege inbeingthe rename thegroup,Ididnotinitiallyacknowledge suggesting thatthechildrenbeonesto consciously addressedtheissueofpowerby children tobelabelledevenfurther.AndwhileI and Ididn’twantanalreadystigmatizedgroupof many negativeconnotationsassociatedwithit, in ourgroup’sname.Theterm“innercity”has contemplate the“privilegedpositions”inherent Even beforethefirstmeetingended,Ibeganto conducting theoutingsforchildrenaged6to13. with twocommunityagenciesinplanningand approximately 20volunteerleadersworking group wasformedinthewinterof1999andhas programs organizedbyvolunteers.TheToronto States andoneinToronto;allarenon-profit and currentlyboasts48groupsintheUnited program wasfoundedin1971SanFrancisco whether physical,social,oreconomic.The who facesometypeofbarriertoparticipation, education opportunitiesforyouthandadults of theSierraClubwhichaimstoprovideoutdoor Inner CityOutings(ICO),anoutreachprogram to practisecriticalenvironmentaleducationwith Over thepastthreeyears,Ihavebeenattempting class, race,andgender. education oftenpay These morecriticalformsofenvironmental form ofactivism(Grant&Littlejohn,2001). with opportunitytoparticipateinanauthentic surroundings andwhichcanprovidestudents students intransformingtheirphysical become anincreasinglypopularmeanstoengage ground naturalizationprojectswhichhave Another exampleisschool (Running Grass,1996). perspectives” multiple cultural close attentiontoissuesof others mayhave manysuchexperiences?And just bepresent insuchwildernesssettings, while opportunity tohike,canoe,star-gaze, swim,or Why isitthatsomeofusmay neverhavethe education narratives,Iamleft withaquestion: perpetuating dominantnature andenvironmental must contend.However,atthe riskof the environmentalissueswithwhichresidents for urbanenvironments,butalsoananalysisof allows fornotonlyexplorationofandaffection environmental educationcurriculum,onethat commitment todevelopingalocalized with andcommendMartil-deCastro’s destinations offeringthem”(1999,p.15).Iagree environment norcantheyaffordtotravel students] cannotaccesssuchsitesintheirurban emphasized as“merefantasies…since[her specific rurallocationsthatarewidely critiqued thetraditionofwildernessoutingsin education inthelivesofherstudents.She argument forgroundingenvironmental I readwithinterestMartil-deCastro’sarticle comparable financialcircumstances. provide similaropportunitiesforchildrenin which inturnhascreatedmeadesiretohelp and lovefornaturalenvironmentswildlife, positive experiences,Idevelopedmyownaffinity made todoso.Throughtheseregularandmostly financial andtemporalsacrificesthathadtobe a fewweekseachsummer,regardlessofthe outdoors andmadeitaprioritytogocampingfor have aparentwholovedspendingtimeinthe low socioeconomicstatus,Iwasfortunateto grew upinapublic-housingcommunityandhad “disadvantaged” and“advantaged.”AlthoughI myself reflectingonmyownpositionsof Throughout thisprogram,Icontinuouslyfound interim name,Children’sSummerOutings.) am inclinedtodoso.(Wefinallydecidedonan knowing thatIdohavethepowertochangeit, not exclusively,consideredderogatoryand resistance Ihaveexperiencedfromtheprogram’s position isevenfurthercomplicatedbythe Knowing thattheterminquestionisoften,if further fuellingmydesiretochangeit! national officeinchangingourgroup’sname, organizer andleader.This have privilegeandpowerasan Exploring SocialClass

21 PATHWAYS 22 PATHWAYS Exploring SocialClass racism andclassism. Unfortunately,itwas not to includeaplenary sessiononenvironmental their nationalconferenceonly afterImadearequest organizers scheduleda“sensitivity workshop”at was resistanttocriticaldialogue. Forinstance, Initially, theICONationalSteering Committee especially fromanorganizational pointofview. more challengingthanIanticipatedwithICO, of environmentalracismandclassismhasbeen Incorporating ruralandurbanoutingsissues point todeconstructingclassismandracism. outing leaderswouldalsobeagoodstarting all beexplored.Lookingatthedemographicsof headwaters), spirituality,andstewardshipcould pollution createdbytakingabustotheriver’s sprawl, sustainabletransportation(includingthe history, rights,racism,development/urban water pollution,animalhabitat,Indigenous between andbeyond.Issuessuchaswatercycles, mouth toitsheadwaters,andeverythingin section ofariverfamiliartoparticipantsatits instance, aseriesofoutingscouldlinkanurban various terrainsandsocialpositions.For education whereconnectionsaremadeacross I wanttobeinvolvedinaformofenvironmental education theoryandpractice. socially andenvironmentallyjustenvironmental with acommitmenttodiverse,grounded,and ourselves, ourtheoriesandpractices, environmental educatorstobecriticalof this, though,whileattendingtothecallfor low-income, andracializedcommunities.Ido expense ofenvironmentalcrisesaffectingurban, “wilderness” andconservationcampaignsatthe environmentalism whichprioritizes at theriskofpromotingdominantform types ofnatureexperiences.Irealizethatdothis some individualsfromengaginginparticular and Iwishtocritiqueasystemwhichprevents disrupting classismisaparticularpriorityforme, ethnicity, amongotherfactors.Thatbeingsaid, with gender,race,sexuality,ability,age,and isolated identitypositionbutonethatintersects I havecometounderstandthatclassisnotan advocate forsimilaropportunitiesallchildren? it notbeingaddressedwithargumentsthatwould considering thisinequalityinexperience,whyis [email protected] travelling inAsia. Shemaybereachedat Studies atYorkUniversityand isteachingand graduate studiesintheFaculty ofEnvironmental Ingrid Sikorciniscurrentlyon leavefromher Russell, C.(1999).Problematizingnature Running Grass.(1996).Thefourstreamsof Bell, A.(1997).Naturalhistoryfromalearner’s References in timeandwitheffort. education, Iremainhopefulthatthiswilloccur more traditionalapproachestoenvironmental projects. WhiletheICOhasyettobreakfreeof such ascommunitygardeningorstewardship environmental educationorjusticeprojects, agencies alreadyengagedinsometypeofurban be toseekoutandnetworkwithchildren’s One solutionIcanenvisiontothisinertiawould has beenlessthansuccessful. local volunteerleaderstoconducturbanoutings systemic problems.Aswell,attemptsto interactions ratherthanthroughaddressing could befixedthroughimprovedinterpersonal down byframingclassismsolelyasanissuethat deemed worthyofaplenaryandwaswatered Martil-de Castro,W.(1999).Grounding Grant, T.,&Littlejohn,G.(2001). Di Chiro,G.(1996).Natureascommunity:The Di Chiro,G.(1992).Definingenvironmental 28, 137. Journal ofExperientialEducation interrelationship ofexperienceandstory. experience inenvironmentaleducation:The Poverty, andtheEnvironment multicultural environmentaleducation. perspective. urban students. environmental educationinthelivesof Toronto: GreenTeacherandNewSociety. Grounds: CreatingHabitatsforLearning Ground justice. InW.Cronon(Ed.), convergence ofenvironmentandsocial politics. justice: Women’svoicesandgrassroots Environmental Education . NewYork:Norton. Socialist Review Canadian Journalof Pathways . , , 22 , 2 11 , 132–144. (4), 92–125. Uncommon (2), 15–7. , GreeningSchool 2 (2/3), 1–2. , 22 encourage (3), 123– . Race, by KathyHarasandBrianLisson Designing Adventure:AllforOneand learning andgrowth (Priest&Gass,1997).Difficult the beliefthatparticipating inadventurepromotes two fundamental beliefs.Ononehand,there is Adventure programdesigns tend tobebasedon Adventure andEducation exciting designthatincludes allindividuals. adventure leaderscanuseto createasingle, education andintroduceprinciplesthat article willexplorethekeypremisesofadventure needs ofallgroupmembers.Incontrast,this identifiable needwhileignoringthediverse in scope,centringoutapersonwithreadily Additionally, suchadaptationsareoftenlimited may conflictwiththosethatbenefitanother. sometimes thechangesmadeforoneindividual background, orsocioeconomicstatus.However, activities basedonage,gender,ability,cultural making separate,individualaccommodationsto Very often,facilitatorstaketheapproachof of anactivityorprogram. options andadaptationsdirectlyintothedesign position tofacilitateinclusionbybuilding (Dattilo, 2002).Adventureleadersareina able tomakevaluablecontributionsthegroup convey thateveryoneiswelcome,respected,and An inclusiveattitudeandaccompanyingactions individuals maybeunintentionallylimited. the meaningfulparticipationofdiverse actually meettheneedsofonlyaminority,and activities createdforasupposednormmay Because individualperceptionsofchallengevary, moderately challengingropescourseactivities. will notevencontemplateparticipatingin associated withadventureexperiences.Others of challengetoachievethelearningandgrowth activities. Someindividualsrequireahighdegree initiatives, andhighlowropescourse established cooperativegames,problem-solving needs ofallparticipantsusingcommon,well- has madeitmoredifficulttoeffectivelymeetthe and culturaldifferencesamonggroupmembers 2000). Thephysical,cognitive,social,affective, ropes courseparticipantshasincreased(Rogers, Over thepastdecade,numberanddiversityof F eature within anadventure activity. significant difference inexpandingopportunities how asingle,small changecanmakea examples ofactivitieswillbe usedtoillustrate layers ofoptions.Intherest of thearticle, meaningful participationthrough multiple designing adventureprograms thatinvite involvement highlightstheimportance of Understanding howchoiceaffectsactive climb orbelay,regardlessofchoice. fits himorher,theindividualwillbeunableto experience. Iftheprogramhasnoharnessthat rock climbedmayeagerlyanticipateahighropes (Roberts &Smith,1999).Anindividualwhohas a participant,andtheavailableresources depend ontheknowledge,skills,andabilitiesof learning andgrowth.Participationcanalso participate, theylimittheirownopportunityfor opposition. Whenindividualschoosenotto about one’sinvolvementcan,however,workin Participation inadventureandmakingchoices beliefs worktogethertopromotelearning. internal motivationtoparticipate,andthesetwo a wayout.Inmanycases,choiceincreasesthe a wayintotheadventureexperienceratherthan options availableforinvolvement,choicebecomes growth (Lisson,2000).Whentherearemultiple take responsibilityfortheirownlearningand about theirinvolvementandempowersthemto Choice allowsparticipantstomakedecisions entered intovoluntarily(Priest&Gass,1997). The secondkeybeliefisthatadventuremustbe learning thatcanbeappliedtoeverydaylife. encourages furtherparticipationthatmayleadto participants developasenseofefficacythat (Rohnke &Butler,1995).Asaresultofsuccess, and challengingtaskisfunengaging (West &Crompton,2001)andattaininganovel although uncertain,isdesignedtobeachievable unpredictable outcomeoftheactivities.Success, unfamiliar environment,perceivedrisk,and Individuals areactivelyengagedbecauseofthe participants’ knowledge,skills,andabilities. and demandingfirst-handexperiencesexpand

23 PATHWAYS 24 PATHWAYS Designing Adventure ropes coursein safetyandcomfort. diverse individualsareableto accessthehigh participants isthateveryone looksthesameand of usingthisstyleharnessing withall is requiredtopreventinversion. Theadvantages body types,achestandseatharness combination certain peoplearebeingsingledout.Withsome given disparateharnesses,itmayappearthat ropes setting.Whendifferent-sizedpeopleare Social differencescanbemagnifiedinahigh thrown uptothemmayalsobeappropriate. the middleofelement,ortrytocatchaball traverse, ordescendblindfolded,claphandsin experience. Suggestingthatgroupmembersclimb, bored, andwillnotbenefitfromtheadventure some individuals,theywillbeunchallenged, On theotherhand,iftaskistoosimplefor rope bagorcheeringonothergroupmembers. task ratherthanbeinglimitedtoholdingthe to leavethegroundandbeengagedincentral system maybenecessarytoenableparticipants Providing easierclimbingroutesorapulley difficult toaccesshighropeselementsbyclimbing. strength, mobility,orphysicalfitness competition. Inaddition,participantswithlimited time frameasthegoalanddevelopasenseof the elementinaparticularwayorcertain successful, groupmembersmayseecompleting limit tothenumberofpeoplewhocanbe Although thereisnodefinitionofsuccessand psychologically butalsophysicallychallenging. the air.Formanyparticipants,thisisnotonly climbing onobjectssuspended10to15metresin overcome theperceivedriskofwalkingor Goal. participate (Cohen,1993). will oftenexpendlittleeffortandmayfailto individuals whoperceiveatasktobetoodifficult designed tovaluemultipleabilitiesbecause environment surrounding thegoalaswell created bythe directly contributetoaccomplishingthetaskare uncertainty. Theprimaryinteractionsthat task, thatprovideschallenge,risk,and All activitiesrevolvearounda Transforming theAdventureExperience The goalofahighropesexperienceisto . Itiscriticalthatactivitiesbe structure, rules, and goal, scenario orcentral equipment often findit and act inuncommon ways(Rohnke&Butler,1995). by increasingfunandallowing participantsto Effective scenarioscanpromote activeinvolvement leader todevelopanengaging narrative. initiatives, however,oftenrequire theadventure deliberately designedropescourse activitiesand creates itsowninherentcompellingstory.The based adventureprograms,theenvironment first introductiontoanactivity.Inwilderness- reason toparticipateandisoftentheparticipant’s Scenario. competition decreases. Lais, 1999),performancepressureand contribution toachievingthegoal(McAvoy& legitimate functionandmakeavaluable,tangible (Fluegelman, 1976).Becauseallrolesservea simultaneous optionsforinvolvement encouraged sincethereareavarietyof action ismorechaotic,butparticipation group members.Theresultingdecentralized group’s progress,buildthestructure,orevenbelay choose whichitemtoretrieve,coordinatethe members canselectfromanumberofelements, structure. Truechoiceisprovidedbecausegroup of items,ortousethecollecteditemsbuilda group’s goalmaybetocollectacertainnumber of objectssuspendedontheropescourse.The with theretrieval,relocation,orreorganization A highropesmega-initiativecombinesclimbing levels ofengagement. can, however,becreatedsoitprovidesmultiple an elementatatime.Ahighropesexperience individualistic sincethereisonlyonepersonon (Lisson, 2000)andinteractionishighly where everyclimbermustperformsimilartasks high ropeselementsare“allornone”propositions activity isdependsonhowitorganized.Many Structure. the program. range ofparticipantswithrespecttoallfacets facilitate inclusion,itisnecessarytoconsiderthe head coveringwornforreligiousreasons.To worrying whetherahelmetcanbeplacedover trying toputonaharnesswearingskirtor major influenceonparticipation.Justimagine discounted byadventureleaders,butcanhavea Clothing isanothersocialaspectthatmaybe A scenariocancreateacompelling Howactive,exciting,andengagingan equipment. A kite harnessisdesignedtosupport may notbeabletoparticipate withoutspecial Despite avarietyofchoices,some individuals specific highropeselements foraprogram. should alsokeepvarietyinmind whenselecting choice abouttheirparticipation.Adventureleaders are different,thenindividualscantrulymakea from whichtochoose,butalsothesealternatives When therearenotonlyanumberofalternatives abilities ofgroupmembers. constant use—regardlessofthephysical where apulleysystemisavailable,italmostin they accessthecourse.Asaresult,inprograms participants arenotsingledoutbasedonhow these alternativeroutesarenovelandchallenging, accessing thehighropescourse.Becauseallof upright) providesevenmoreoptionsfor (where therungsaresuspendedononecentral traditional ropeladderorafirecracker (Havens, 1992;Rogers,2000).Theadditionofa members onthegroundtotopofcourse can pullthemselvesuporbepulledbygroup high ropescourse.Individualswhocannotclimb increase theavailableactionopportunitiesona prevent participation.Apulleysystemcan action opportunities,oritcanlimitandeven playfulness (Rohnke&Butler,1995)andexpand Equipment. group tasksandskillsaremoreapparent. because parallelsbetweentheactivityandother & Gass,1997),learningmayoccurmorereadily (also knownasanisomorphicapproach)(Priest occurs intheeverydaylivesofgroupmembers activity’s structureornarrativemirrorswhat earth aftercrashingonadistantplanet.Whenan power unitthatallowsthegrouptoreturn clients, collectingscarceresources,orbuildinga scenarios candealwithdeliveringservicesto exceed itsstockholders’expectations.Other to purchaseadditionalresources,gointodebt,or business. Thegroupmayneedtodecideifitwants to collectacertainvalueinorderstart dollar amounts,andthegroupmayberequired different colouredbandannasmayrepresent are exploringatschool.Inamega-initiative, connections betweentheactivityandtopicsthey Using ametaphorcanhelpparticipantsmake Equipment mayinviteplayand the ropescourse withmoreenergyforclimbing. use wheelchairs,walkers,or tireeasilycangetto provide anidealsolution— groupmemberswho environment. Onsometrails, golfcartsmay effective toalterhowpeople moveaboutthe than alteringtheenvironment, itmaybemore moving overunevensurfacesdifficult.Rather wheelchairs havesmallfrontcoastersthatmake affect accessibility(Dattilo,2002).Many itself sincebarriers,terrain,andsurfacefeatures getting totheropescoursecanbeachallengein pose deliberatechallengesbutmayforgetthat Adventure leadersareawarethatropescourses are unabletodealwiththechallengespresented. participation ifindividualsfeeloverwhelmedor unusual environmentcan,however,limit perspective (West&Crompton,2001).An unfamiliar locationsprovidesthemwithanew Environment. difficult ormoreforgiving. challenge forparticipants,makingataskmore facilitators canalterrulestomodifythedegreeof capabilities (Csikszentmihalyi,1975).Similarly, that thechallengesofactivitymatchtheir frequently alterthe“rules”thatdefinesuccessso climbers, mountaineers,andotheradventurers own behaviour(Ellmo&Graser,1995).Rock and allowinggroupmemberstomonitortheir roles, pointingoutproblem-solvingapproaches, Rules. to theeducationaldesign. afterthought, butabsolutelycentral inclusion isnotmerelyan sends themessagethat is expensive,havingit specialized equipment with foam.Although that arenotlined may needhelmets allergies tolatex Participants with upright. themselves cannot keep individuals who required for position andmaybe participants inasitting Rulesreduceambiguitybyclarifying Placing individualsinnoveland Designing Adventure

25 PATHWAYS 26 PATHWAYS Designing Adventure Table 1.Manyvariationscanbeappliedtoadebrisfieldscenario. equipment design variablesof have multiplevariationswithineachofthe We willconcludewithtwosampleactivitiesthat Applying theAdventureDesignFramework experience isofferedinamorefamiliarsetting. people mayparticipatewhentheadventure up, manyofthemareportable.Awidervariety Quick silver presented inbookslike trust exercises,andproblem-solvinginitiatives course. Althoughsomeofthecooperativegames, come toanunfamiliarsettinglikeahighropes Finally, participantsmaysimplybeunwillingto may beonewayofencouragingparticipation. Working uptoamoreawe-inspiringenvironment from whichtojudgethedegreeofchallenge. true whenparticipantshavenopriorexperience or 60-ft.-highburmabridge.Thisisespecially overwhelmed bythethoughtofa450-ft.zipline bigger isbetter.Participants,however,maybe centres believethatwhenitcome Similarly, manycampsandoutdooreducation Environment Rules Equipment Scenario Structure Goal , rules, requireaspecialized,permanentset- and goal, structure,scenario, participants who usewheelchairsorwalkers. space betweenobjects increasesmanoeuverability —somethingtoconsiderwhen thereare A largerareamakesitmoredifficult forguidestocommunicatewiththeirpartners.Leaving can bothvarythechallenge. direction ispossible.Theseverity ofpenaltiesfortouching“debris”andimposingtimelimits Requiring guidestoremainoutside theboundarycreatesachallengebecauseonlyverbal suspended tocreatea3Denvironment. Set mousetrapsinthedebrisfieldcanbeusedtoincreaseperception ofrisk.Itemscanbe Other namesandmetaphorsmaybemoreappropriate. safety) maymakeitinappropriateforindividualswhohaveexperienced traumaorconflict. qualities ofthisactivity(notknowingwheredangerlies,trusting someone toensureyour (Rohnke &Butler,1995)becausetheGulfWarmadethisscenario toorealistic.Theisomorphic Minefield (Rohnke,1984)istheoriginalnameofthisactivity,but it waschangedtoPitfall touch otherscanfullyparticipateasthereisnophysicalcontact. who areuncomfortablebeingblindfoldedneednotselectthisrole. Individualswhomaynot Participants, workinginpairs,haveachoicewhethertheyguideorareblindfolded.People involves thecooperationofentiregroup. retrieve and/orsortadditionalobjectsaddsanotherlevelofcomplexityandengagement having himorhercontactanyprohibitedobjectslyingontheground.Requiringindividualsto The goalistoverballyguideablindfoldedpartnertheothersideofdebrisfieldwithout environment Silver bullets s toropescourses, . SeeTables1 and president ofAdventureworks!AssociatesInc. Outward BoundCanadaandtheowner Director ofProfessionalDevelopmentProgramsat Associates Inc.BrianLissonistheNational and aSeniorConsultantwithAdventureworks! University inRecreation,ParksandTourismSciences Kathy HarasisaPh.D.studentatTexasA&M participation ofallindividualswithasingledesign. when theexperienceinvitesmeaningful potential forlearningandgrowthisenhanced honouring theimportanceofchoice.The leaders topreservetheessenceofadventurewhile engagement, andself-selectionenablesadventure uncertainty andrisk,challengeefficacy,active program design.Rememberingtheimportanceof require deliberateandthoughtfulprinciple-based Exciting andinclusiveadventureexperiences Conclusion multiple participants. activity sothatitbettermeetsthevariedneedsof minor changesmadehavetransformedeach and 2foreachsampleactivity.Incase,the Table 2.Manyvariationscanbeappliedtoaswingropeactivity. McAvoy, L.,& Lais, G.(1999).Programsthat Lisson, B.(2000).Istherechoice inChallengeby Havens, M.D.(1992). Fluegelman, A.(1976). Ellmo, W.,&Graser,J.(1995). Dattilo, J.(2002). Csikszentmihalyi, M.(1975). Cohen, E.G.(1993).Fromtheorytopractice: References Environment Rules Equipment Structure Goal include people withdisabilities.InJ.C. Outdoor Education,12 Choice? Hamilton, MA:ProjectAdventure. Garden City,NY:Doubleday/Dolphin. IA: KendallHunt. programming andgroupinitiatives. activities: Arehabilitationmodelforadventure Venture Publishing. disabilities Responding totherightsofpeoplewith and anxiety Stanford UniversityPress. growth oftheory Theoretical researchprograms:Studiesinthe program. InJ.BergerandM.Zeldich(Eds.), The developmentofanappliedresearch Pathways: OntarioJournalfor (2 . SanFrancisco,CA:Jossey-Bass. nd water totheotherside.Thegoalin“Prouty’sLanding”(Rohnke,1984)is In “NitroCrossing”(Rohnke,1984),thegoalistotransportgroupandanopencontainerof onto a3xplatform.Participantsin from theswingropeincreasesdifficulty. “Do Igo?”provideschoiceonhowfartoswing.Locatingthestartlineandlandingzonefurther challenge andmayimproveplanning. I go?”focusedandcreatesacognitivechallenge.Prohibitingtalkingduringexecutionincreases experience difficulties.Askingrearrangementtooccurintheleastnumberofswingskeeps“Do truly havingdifficultymaybecomefatigued,whilethosewhowanttoswingmorewillpurposely Requiring thatparticipantswhotouchthegroundtryagainisoftenundesirable.Those that itisdifficulttosafelyreachalocation. Knots donotnecessarilymakeiteasiertogriptheropeandmayshortenextent container makesiteasiertotransport,whileafullerismoredifficulttransport. platform becomesmoredifficultasthenumberofparticipantsincreases.Ahandleonwater especially forparticipantswhocannotsupporttheirweight.Allowingcontactonlywiththe A swingropewithaloopinthebottomallowsforeasiercrossingandlessburn, cooperative tasks. embark anddisembarkfromtheswingrope,guidingpeopletocorrectlocationare Swinging isanindividualtask.Developingstrategy,balancingonaplatform,helpingothers themselves inthefourHulaHoopssurroundingswingrope. Inclusiveleisureservices: ed.).StateCollege,PA: (pp.385–415).Stanford,CA: Bridges toaccessibility The newgamesbook (4), 20–21. Beyond boredom Adapted adventure Dubuque, . . “ Do Igo? West, S.T.,&Crompton,J.L. (2001).Programs Rohnke, K.,&Butler,S.(1995). Rohnke, K.(1984). Rogers, D.(2000).Tothetop:Futurechallenge Roberts, C.M.,&Smith,P.R.(1999).Attitudes Priest, S.,&Gass,M.A.(1997). ” (Rohnke&Butler,1995)mustrearrange 113–140. of ParkandRecreation Administration,19 adventure programsonat-risk youth. that work:Areviewoftheimpact of Dubuque, IA:KendallHunt. activities, andaguidetoeffective leadership. Adventure games,initiativeproblems,trust activities initiative problems,adventuregamesandtrust Parks &Recreation,35 courses offeraccesstopersonswithdisabilities. Development &Education, disabilities. and behaviourofchildrentowardpeerswith Human Kinetics. in adventureprogramming PA: VenturePublishing. Programming Miles &S.Priest(Eds.), . Dubuque,IA:KendallHunt. International JournalofDisability, (pp.403–414).StateCollege, Silver bullets:Aguideto (3), 76–85,87. to transportthegroup Adventure

. Champaign,IL: 46 Effective leadership Quicksilver: Designing Adventure (1), 35–50. whoare Journal (2),

27 PATHWAYS 28 PATHWAYS B ackpocket is likefortheperson/creature listedontheir explore theparkalone,imagining whatthepark park wherestudentsareasked tospreadoutand secret. Asagroup,theclasstravels toanearby classroom. Theyareaskedto keepthisidentity Students aregivenanidentitypriortoleavingthe Procedure: raccoon, earthworm,gartersnake,etc. dove), robin,monarchbutterfly,squirrel,dog, kentucky bluegrass,dandelion,pigeon(rock homeless person,humanchild,sugarmapletree, and Recreationgroundskeeper,businessperson, Toronto, forexample,thesecouldinclude:Parks and thatexamplesfityourlocalcontext.In enough identitiesforeachmemberoftheclass, Procedure sectionbelow).Makesureyouhave questions oneachpieceofpaper(seethe grades, youmayalsowanttoincludethefive (See listbelowforexamples.)Foryounger Identities arewrittenonseparatepiecesofpaper. Resources: park. At least30minutes,dependinguponaccesstoa Time Needed: • • • Purpose: the initialinspirationforthisactivity. indebted toAnneBell,whoprovidedmewith schoolyard ifnoparksareeasilyaccessible.Iam with youngergradesandcanbeconductedinthe students. Itcouldalsobeeasilymodifiedforuse with secondarystudentsaswelluniversity This isanactivityI’veusedwithgreatsuccess by ConnieRussell Park Identities people’s needs. To increaseawarenessofothercreatures’or perspectives ofaplace. identity influencesperceptionsand park ornaturalarea;thatis,howone’s To understandthe“socialconstruction”ofa another creature/person. To provideanopportunitytoimaginelifeas Lakehead University. Critical PedagogyintheFaculty ofEducationat Connie RussellteachesOutdoor Educationand particular ecosystem. etc.) betweenthevariouscreaturesinthat relationships (e.g.,predator-prey,sharedhabitat, activity whichhelpsstudentsidentifythe Another potentialfollow-upisa“woollyweb” others aboutthatplace. story thatperson/creaturewouldliketotell of theirassignedperson/creature,focusingona students areaskedtowritefromtheperspective consider acreativewritingexercisewhere As afollow-uptothisactivity,youmightwant Extensions: on theenvironmentandothercreatures. species; pesticideuse;cars;andhumanimpacts certain speciesaspests;nativeversusnon-native values ofdifferentparkusers;demonization arise mayincludethefollowing:conflicting revealed orattheendofactivity.Issuesthat Discussion canensueaftereachidentityis they are. identity sothatotherstudentscanguesswho provide clues(asincharades)abouttheir activity incorporatesdramabyaskingstudentsto answer thequestions.Afunvariationofthis a circleand,onebyone,identifythemselvesand After 10minutesorso,studentsareaskedtoform • • • • • following questions: asked toanswerthe piece ofpaper.Theyare What doothersthinkofyou? What problemsdoyoufacehere? Why doyouliveorcomehere? Do youlivehere?Ifnot,howdoget mean toyou? What doesthisspace groups ofstudents.Youwill need totailorthese photocopied andplacedinenvelopes forsmall can eitherbereadaloudorthat canbe You willneedalistofexamples ofactivismthat Resources: 30 minutes Time Needed: • • • • Purpose: creative journaltoassistwiththisprocess. delve deeper.Hammondsuggestskeepinga root problems,andwhatchangesarerequiredto such actionwasnecessary,whetheritaddressed have theopportunitytocriticallyreflectonwhy Learning “from”actionentailsthatstudents and evaluateaneffectiveproject”(1996,p.68). project wherestudents“select,plan,implement, learning “through”actionbyparticipatinginareal Hammond recommendsthatagoodnextstepis students learnskillsandstrategiesforactivism. playing, andpresentationsbyactiviststohelp suggests usingcasestudies,simulations,role- would calleducating“about”action;healso an exampleofwhatWilliamHammond(1996) we usedwhale-focusedexamples.Thisactivityis elementary studentswhowerestudyingwhales, workshop withAnneBellandRachelPlotkinfor forestry practicesand,once,whenconductinga Bay, I’veoftenhighlightedactivismaround or curriculumtheme.Forexample,inThunder and Igenerallytailorittofocusonalocalissue elementary, secondary,anduniversitystudents, David Selby(1995).I’veadapteditforusewith This isanintroductoryactivityIborrowedfrom by ConnieRussell Environmental Activism—WhereDoYouStand? B To exploretheroleofactivismincitizenship. choices. To understandtherationalebehindothers’ of ethics. to one’sowninterests,personality,andcode To reflectonformsofactivismmostsuited environmental and/orcommunityactivism. To identifyavarietyofforms ackpocket may bedifficultforagroupto reachaconsensus, they areaskedtosettheirown parameters.It standard? to/forwhom?when? where?—but meaning ofacceptable/effective —bywhat the two.Studentsmayaskfor clarificationofthe the pointatwhichtheywoulddrawalinebetween effective/ineffective continuumandtoidentify along eithertheacceptable/unacceptableor They areaskedtoplaceeachstatementsomewhere envelope ofstatementsexamplesactivism. of twoorthree,andeachgroupisgivenan Variation 2: mindedness isessentialinthisvariation.) poor. Atoneofemotionalsafetyandopen- well insituationswherethegroupdynamicsare of takingastandpublicly,anditdoesnotwork want tostandneartheirfriendsorwhoarewary works lesswellwithelementarystudentswhomay location onthecontinuum.(Note:Thisvariation standing oppositethemtheirrationalefor Students arethenaskedtosharewiththeperson asking thetwopeopleonend-pointstomeet). you canaskthelinetofoldoveronitself,by until thetwohalvesarefacingoneanother(or group tostepforwardandthenmovesideways can splitthelineintwo,askingonehalfof statement evokesawiderangeofresponses,you and/or effectiveandineffective.Whena continuum betweenacceptableandunacceptable place themselvesinalinealonganimaginary examples ofactivismandstudentsareaskedto out inasingleline.Theteacherreadsaloud area wheretheentireclasscanspreadthemselves Variation 1: Procedure: appropriate foryoungergrades. university level,butwhichmaynotbe generate gooddiscussionatthesecondaryand examples ofillegalformsactivismwhich sample listbelow,I’veusedanumberof ensure thattheyareage-appropriate.Inthe examples tofityourcontextandcurriculum Thiscanbedoneoutsideorinan Students areaskedtoformgroups

29 PATHWAYS 30 PATHWAYS Backpocket logging mountapeaceful Sit-down Protest— (for secondarystudents) Sample ExamplesofActivism appropriate toallsituationsmayalsofollow. on acontinuumanddrawinghardfastlines discussion onthedifficultyofplacingexamples well asrationalesforthosechoices.Further, on thesimilaritiesanddifferencesinchoices,as In bothvariations,plenarydiscussioncanfocus conversation. ineffective, asthiscanleadtoaninteresting criteria withonethathasusedeffective/ that hasusedacceptable/unacceptableastheir and contrasttheirresults.Trytopaironegroup its line,twogroupsareaskedtojoincompare potential outcome.Aftereachgrouphasdrawn and studentsshouldbeencouragedtoacceptthat sides ofeachsheet. or sheusesonlyrecycledpaper andusesboth lifestyle andconsumerchanges; forexample,he Personal Change— using unsustainableloggingpractices. sugar inthegastanksoftrucksacompany Ecotage — standards. the companyhasbeenviolatingenvironmental the officeofaloggingcompanytofindproofthat Break-in — protest toprovincialMembersofParliament. logging inaprovincialparkwritelettersof Letters — Natural Resourcestopressfornewlegislation. Environment andkeypeopleintheMinistryof Parliament tomeettheMinisterof concerned aboutloggingpracticesvisits Lobby — entrance toaloggingroad. A representativeoforganizations A networkofpeopleopposedto A groupofenvironmentalistsputs A groupofindividualsbreakinto Opponents ofclear-cut An individualmakes sit-down protestatthe Education — the words“ANIMALKILLERS”inbrightred. practices spray-paintacompanybuildingwith Slogans — Lakehead University. Critical Pedagogy intheFacultyofEducation at Connie RussellteachesOutdoor Educationand Selby, D.(1995). Hammond, W.(1996).Educatingforaction:A References school environmentalissues,suchaspaperwaste. create anenvironmentalclubthatwilladdress Community Organizing— tougher legislation. demonstration atParliamenttodemandnew, opening ofasitetologgingjoinanorganized Demonstration — matter. park officialsiftheyshareconcernaboutthe the park.Thegroupaskspeopletocomplain and handsoutinformationaboutloggingwithin motorists astheyenteralocalprovincialpark Picketing — in theplant,causingittoclosefortwohours. station toreportthattheyhaveplantedabomb of alocalpulpandpaperplantphonesradio Bomb Hoax— indigenous treesinapreviouslyloggedarea. Restoration — demanding moresustainableloggingpractices. organizations obtainsignaturesforapetition Petition — about theirconcerns. and televisionstations,visitschoolstotalk articles forthelocalpaper,appearonradio Trent, UK:TrenthamBooks. Handbook onHumaneEducation Teacher action inenvironmentaleducation. framework forthinkingabouttheplaceof , 50,6–14. Members oflocalenvironmental Opponents ofunsustainablelogging A groupofenvironmentalistsstops Local environmentalistswrite A groupopposedtothepractices A groupvolunteerstoplant EarthKind: ATeachers’ People opposedtotherecent Students help . Stoke-on- Green by LizNewbery Reflections andResourcesforTeachingCritically The NESAActivitiesHandbook forNative Teaching forDiversityandSocialJustice: Global Teacher,Learner. this topicwithintheCOEOcommunity. contribution towardstheongoingsharingabout and doingofeducation.Thefollowinglistis sharing ourfavouriteresourcesforthethinking That said,Ialsothinkit’simportanttocontinue than thebiggestarmfulofmostperfectactivities. I believe,willleadtomorewide-reachingchange Thinking deeplyaboutourselvesandourteaching, inevitable imperfectionsofourteachingpractices. put onefootinfrontoftheother,despite the willingnesstobewrongwhilecontinuing constant reflectiononourpracticecoupledwith the mostusefultoolsforeducatorsmaybea convinced thatinsteadofrecipesandchecklists, there issimplynorecipeforcriticalpedagogy!Iam process. Althoughitwouldbeinfinitelyeasier, towards justiceisanongoingandincomplete outdoor leader.”Justiceisarelation,andteaching cannot magicallyarriveatbeing“asociallyjust “right” roadsforthiswork,andaneducator learning, andsocialjustice.Therearenoeasyor my thinkingaboutthemessinessofteaching, wrong,” andthathasbeenastrangeguidepostin passionately awarethatyoucouldbecompletely dian marino(1998)oncesaid,“Alwaysbe teachers todo, coveringsubjectsfrom 25 simulation gamesand/orexercisesfor Vancouver: Tillacum Library.Consistsof by DonSawyerandHoward Green.1984. and MulticulturalClassrooms. suitable forhighschoolageand older. anti-semitism, andheterosexism. More specific issueslikeracism,ableism,classism, over 200pagesofcurriculumdesignaround variety oftheoreticalframeworksfollowedby New York:Routledge.Beginsstronglywitha Adams, LeeAnneBell,andPatGriffin.1997. A Sourcebook. same authors,and the GlobalClassroomVol.1&2 explores globaleducationtheory.Seealso issues, trust,andcommunitybuilding.Also activities onsocialjusticeandenvironmental ideas, simulationgames,anddiscussion friendly. Containsdozensofcurriculum and Stoughton.Aclassicveryuser- Pike andDavidSelby.1988.London:Hodder R eading theTrail EditedbyMaurianne Earthkind bySelby. ByGraham Compiled bythe In sending someof theresourceslistedhereher way. thank JennieBarron andConnieRussellfor University’s Faculty ofEducation.Shewould liketo Liz Newberyisadoctoralcandidate inYork the cultureofresistance. marino, d.1998. Reference “Why doesn’tthisfeelempowering?”byE. The JournalofLeisurability. Radical Teacher. Rethinking Globalization:Teachingfor World Studies8–13:ATeacher The CaringClassroom:UsingAdventureto dialogue, voice,andsilenceintheclassroom. readable articlesonthecomplexitiesof highly recommendedtheoreticalbut pedagogy chapters in voice in‘Liberatory’education”byM.Orner, Ellsworth and“Interruptingcallsforstudent www.lin.ca/leisurability.htm recreation andsocialdifference.Availableat journal thatoftenhasthemeissueson practice andthepoliticsofeducation. The magazinefocusesoncriticalteaching journal onthetheoryandpracticeofteaching. thoughtful book. Bigelow andBobPeterson.Aninspiring, Justice inanUnjustWorld. acting forchange. conflict, cultures, activities on York: By SimonFisher&DavidHicks.1985.New activities. curriculum ideasandrelevantadventure out byProjectAdventurecontainingpractical Curricula. Persons withDisabilitiesinAdventure to Accessibility:APrimerforIncluding By WilliamKreidlerandLisaFurlay. Activity GuideforSchool-AgePrograms. in Peacemaking:AConflictResolution and Beyond. Create CommunityintheClassroom life. to colonialism,culturalsymbols,andreserve prejudice, andcross-culturalunderstanding cooperation, communication,inclusion, Oliver &Boyd.Includes80innovative , Feminisms andcritical

By MarkHavens.Threebooksput 1992. NewYork:Routledge.Two themes suchasglobalawareness, ByLaurieFrank. Wild garden:Art,educationand Afeministandanti-racist wealth andpoverty, Toronto: BetweentheLines. . An online ’ By Bill s Handbook. Adventures Bridges

31 PATHWAYS 32 PATHWAYS R eading theTrail followed byworksheets,initiatives,closing or awkwardlytouchy-feely.Theseessaysare The writingisnatural,neverclumsilyacademic succinct pointintheir“ConcludingThoughts.” the next,andeachtopicisbroughttoaclear and sectionsflowsmoothlyfromonepointto diversity issues.Concise,thoughtfulparagraphs Chappelle andBigman,withHillyer,understand essays arewhereonefirstgraspshowwell (e.g., BuildingAllies,GroupIdentities).These articulate andeffectiveintroductiontothetopic Each ofthebook’s13chaptersbeginswithan discrimination, prejudice,andbias. seeking todiscusswithyouththeissuesof is acompleteresourceofproventoolsforthose Action and sincerity.Mostimportantly, and homophobia,treatingeachwithintelligence Among othertopics,itdiscussesracism,sexism, explore anddiscussissuesofhumandiversity.” place fortheparticipantsinyourprogramto working withyouth“createasafeandcomfortable with FrancescaHillyer,aimstohelpthose This book,bySharonChappelleandLisaBigman, none were,well,as (games withliveanimalsanyone?).Butalmost original, andtheoddbookwasactuallyabitscary were good.SomequiteAfew books onactivities,games,andleadership.Many Over myyearsinthisfield,Ihavereadalotof Project Adventure.ISBN0-536-01175-3. Activities toExploreIssuesofDiversitywithMiddleSchoolandHighAgeYouth. Sharon Chappelle&LisaBigman,withFrancescaHillyer. Review byJohnKudelka Diversity inAction isnotmerelyalistofactivitiesandrules,it smart as activities, journaling subject. Storiesand readings oneach ideas, andsuggested Diversity inAction vignettes are Diversity in plentiful, asare favourite (my particular quotations experiential . Adventureworks! Associates,Inc. John Kudelkais aseniorconsultantwith different ethnicgroups,religions, andcultures. to thoseworkingcreateunderstanding between divides. building positiverelationshipsthatcrosssocietal globe havehighlightedtheimportanceof Recent eventswithinCanadaandacrossthe have thoughtoforfeltsecuretotry. adventure learningtoolsinwaysIwouldnever issues intoastraightforwardcurriculumusing experience, haveeffectivelyframedcomplex and Bigman,withHillyer,usingtheirextensive program exploringissuesofdiversity.Chappelle new activities,butasatooltocreateanentire Diversity inAction intended outcomes.However,thevalueof books underothernamesorwithdifferent portion ofthebook’sactivitiesdoappearinother Experienced practitionerswillnoticethatagood this bookveryapproachableandeasytoread. headings andtitlesonunclutteredpagesmake pages ofunremarkabletext.Instead,clear gimmicky margindoodlesorgraphicsendless sharp layout.Onedoesnotwadethrough just inthevastnessofmaterial,itisalsoits But thestrengthofthisbookasaresourceisnot In all,thebookcontainsmorethan100activities. resources. processing tools,videos,Internetsites,andother detailing fictionandnon-fictionbooks,adventure The bookcloseswithextensiveappendices accompanied bysuggesteddebriefingquestions. utilize experientiallearning,andeachactivityis learning process,thereisasectiononhowto For thoselessfamiliarwiththeadventure being about thewisdomofbehavinglike Diversity inAction:UsingAdventure Diversity inAction isnotasanencyclopediaof willbeavaluabletool 1998. geese). gaping atthe surrounded by 50villagersstandingstilland common scenesliketheRaleigh groupbeing and inoffensivetoourhosts. Theironyliesin we aredoingthis,evermindful ofbeingsensitive sneak apeekathow90%ofthe worldlive,and At somelevel,allofushavecome herewantingto for ouruniqueandmemorableexperience? then leavearepaintedschoolbywayofpayment powerful educationalexperienceontheirturf,and exchange forustocomeAfricaandhavea I supposetheultimatequestionis:Isitafair because weneeditall? give themanyfood,orapen,waterbottle, What dotheythinkwhenwetellthemcan’t around takingphotosandlisteningtoWalkmans. with foodandequipmentthenwander when thevolunteersappearwithavanloaded positive? Whatisgoingthroughthelocals’heads that agroupof12hasonthehostcommunityall schools, trailsinnationalparks—istheinfluence charities leavebehind—ventilatedpitlatrines, ongoing research).Besidesthelegacythat grown fromtheirexpeditionisoneaspectofmy questions ofif,how,andwhytheyhavepersonally better peopleforhavinghadthisexperience.(The I feelcertainthatinsomeway,thevolunteersare premise, anyway. daily toilofvillagelifeinAfrica.That’sthe self-confidence whiletheygetaglimpseintothe perhaps gainingsomeproblem-solvingskillsand themselves, and“discovertheirfullpotential”— to Africa,helpthoseinfargreaterneedthan On onehand,itseemssimple.Volunteerscome West Africa. reconcile myorganization’spresenceinrural in theworldofdevelopment,Istruggleto thought itwasthatsimple.Now,stillaneophyte thing, right?Threemonthsbeforewritingthis,I nation doingserviceprojectsshouldbeagood British youthspending10weeksinadeveloping by SimonBeames Balance BetweenGiveandTake Wrestling withDevelopment—Searchingforthe P rospect Point obrunis astheyperform themost www.raleighinternational.org experience. (Formoreinformation, see trying tomakesenseoftheoverseas expedition Simon BeameswritesfromWest Africa,whereheis and learnfromit,ratherthannotcomeatall.” inside abouthavingtoomuch,andcopewithit, to come—definitelyandfeelthosefeelings As one20-year-oldvolunteertoldme,“It’sbetter hosts —learnandgrow.ThatiswhatIbelieve. come. Becausethatishowweall—visitorsand we candothistoourbestability,thenmust imbalances ofpower,money,andopportunity.If do itresponsibly,sensitivetoissuesthatsurround to takeagroupthedevelopingworld,wemust everyday whencampinginruralAfrica.Ifwechoose the socialandculturalissuesthatareinyourface because onedoesnotthenhavetowrestlewith people hikingandclimbinginWales?Certainly, developing nationandinsteadtooktheyoung Would itbeeasierifwedidn’tcometoa means bothsidesgiveandtake. Exchange, Isuppose,isthekeyword,becauseit going tochurch.It’sallpartofthatculturalexchange. trying localfood,teachingschoollessons,and interaction offthebuildingsite:soccermatches, examples ofthehumanspiritevidentin village, onecannotdenythemultitudeofpositive of WesternersattachingthemselvestoaGhanaian In termsofthesecondary,lesstangibleinfluences them, clotheorgivethemelectronicgoods. partners onworthwhileserviceprojects,notfeed quickly. WeareheretoworkalongsideourAfrican still getbuiltwithoutus,thoughprobablynotas not goingtochangetheworld.Thelatrineswould that ourpresencehereisagoodthing.No,weare As theexpeditiondrawstoaclose,Ihaveresolved bucket-washing, sleeping,andgoingtothetoilet. banal, day-to-dayritualsofcooking,eating, ).

33 PATHWAYS 34 PATHWAYS I ndex Barrett, M.J. Beames, Simon. Barrett, M.J. Burton, John. Birchard, Clarke. Bicevskis, Rob. Berryman, Tom. Beames, Simon. Beames, Simon. Beames, Simon. Barrett, M.J. Andrews, Tom. Volume 14 Outline. Interdisciplinary Studies,MinistryofEducation, Autumn, 2002,Vol.14No.5,p.Secondary Deconstruction. Friluftsliv, Danger,OutdoorEducation, Summer, 2002,Vol.14No.3,p.36,General North WestTerritories. Memories, OutdoorEducationCentre,Research, Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,pp.18–20,General Faculty ofEducation, Partner. Secondary StudentTeachers, Interdisciplinary, Autumn, 2002,Vol.14No.5, pp.13–15 Teachers andInterdisciplinary Programs Environmental Projects. Opportunities, Retired,Outdoor Educators, Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.19–20,General Retirement Outdoor Education,Science,Awareness. Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,p.8–10,General Education, Morality,Technology. Environmental Issues,Values,Outdoor Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,pp.27–29,General Feature Nature, EducationandEnvironmentalLiteracy Jargon, Exclusion,EducationalResearch. Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,p.21,General With That? Outdoor Education,PolicyDecisions,Government. Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,p.11,General Macaroni andCheeseExperience Expeditions, Overseas,ExperientialEducation. Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,p.35,General Resources. Action Project,Integrated,Environment,Local, Autumn, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.25–26,General Community ActionProjects Update Paradigm Shift,Activity,Kuhn. Autumn, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.21–22,General Experience . . Feature Challenging Paradigms:AWholeBody Resources forSupportingStudent .

Interdisciplinary StudiesCurriculum . Prospect Point Dispelling theMyths:Student Feature Backpocket Symbiosis The LandisLikeaBook Jargon Deconstructed The BlackBox Lessons FromOutsidetheZoo: Friluftsliv: WouldYouLikeFries Cutbacks, Credibility,andthe What’s Next?OpportunitiesAfter . . . . Symbiosis . . . Prospect Point Backpocket . . Prospect Point . Prospect Point . Feature . . Feature ...... Conover, Garrett. Card, Clive. Dahle, Borge. Clayton, Glenda. Card, Clive. Drake, SusanM. Dawson, Stephanie. Dallman, Jennifer. Cheskey, Ted. Card, Clive. Cain, Jim. Cusack, Andrew. Driediger, Ric. Reptiles, Endangered,Awareness,Workshops. Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,p.24,General Field Observatory Education. Conference, Workshop,Tobermory,Outdoor Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,p.34,General Facilitators Friluftsliv, Risk,Self-realization. Summer, 2002,Vol.14No.3,pp.22–24,General Bird Observatory,Volunteers,Conservation. Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,p.11,General Activities, Free. Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,p.34,General Educators LeadtheWay? Integrated Curriculum:CanEnvironmental Outdoor Centre,Education,Solo,Safety. Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,pp.30–31,General and Deep Outdoor Centre,Memories,NaturalEnvironment. Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,p.26,General County Norway, Leisure,Youth,Culture,Friluftsliv. Summer, 2002,Vol.14No.3,pp.15–16,General in AdditiontoFriluftsliv Brigade Returnsafter50Days Workshops, Registration,Tobermory. Summer, 2002,Vol.14No.3,pp.32–33,General Conference, OutdoorEducation,Touchstone. Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,p.10,General Poetry. Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,p.32,General Stories, Imagination,Explanation. General Conference, 2002,Vol.14No. 5,pp.23–24, Standardized Testing. Reform, Integrated,GlobalEducation, Autumn, 2002,Vol.14No.5,p.20,General . . Raccoon Circles:AHandbookfor Feature A LookBack The Gathering2002 . The Gathering2002 . Feature Friluftsliv Creating BestGuessStories A VisittotheBrucePeninsulaBird . Tracking The Gathering The InternationalReemergenceof The BenefitofExperiencingRisk Reptiles NeedYourHelp! Camp Photos:TheGirls’Canoe . Memories fromNorthumberland The WoodsAreLovely,Dark . . . . Voices fromNorway The Gathering . Beyond OurBorders Feature . . . . Opening theDoor The Gathering The Gathering . . . Backpocket

. In the . . . . . Herfurth, Jillian. Henderson, Bob. Elrick, Mike. Dunning, Alison. Hood, Liz. Herfurth, Jillian. Herfurth, Jillian. Henderson, Ryan. Halpern, Judy. Faarland, Nils. Ericsson, Gunilla. Dyment, Janet,LeeWatsonandBethKuiper. Placement, Environment,IntegratedProgram. Autumn, 2002,Vol.14No.5,p.16,Secondary on IntegratedPrograms and OutdoorLifeII Education, Workshops,Schoolyards. Magic, Storytelling,Literature,Environmental Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,pp.13–16,General Field Sweden UseOutdoorEducation? Landscape, Stories. Wilderness, OutdoorEducators,Heritage,Cabin, Summer, 2002,Vol.14No.3,pp.11–14,General Provincial Park the WendellK.BeckwithSiteinWabakimi Reflection. Outdoor Centre,Teaching,Integrated Programs, Autumn, 2002,Vol.14No.5, pp. 33–35,General Science. Tabletop Waterfall,Activity,Environmental Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,pp.22–23,General Backpocket Interview. General Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.25–26, Interview. Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,p.12,General Keepers oftheTrail Friluftsliv, OutdoorEducation,Translation. Summer, 2002,Vol.14No.3,pp.25–26,General Friluftsliv, Nature,Norway,Tradition,Definition. Summer, 2002,Vol.14No.3,pp.18–19,General Outdoor Education,Sweden,Teachers,Research. School Summer, 2002,Vol.14No.3,pp.6–10,Primary Connections, IntegratedProgram,Unit. Autumn, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.23–24,General Teaching theStoriedLandscape:ACaseStudyof Perception, OutdoorEducation. Ecopsychology, Nature,Unconscious,Self, General Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.27–31, . Dragonfly Days There’s NoPlaceLikeHome . Defining Friluftsliv Where IstheMagicOutThere? Clare Magee Finding ourEcopsychology An InterviewwithConnieRussell Making aTabletopWaterfall Lessons fromNorway:Language . Why doSomeTeachersin A StudentTeacher’sPerspective Feature . . Wild Words . . . Feature Prospect Point . Keepers oftheTrail . Voices fromNorway . .

Feature . . Backpocket . . Feature

. In the . . . . . Horwood, Bert. MacMillan, Michael. Linney, Grant. Leew, Ted. Larson, Doug. Kozak, StanandChristineBretherick. Klassen, Aynsley. Jensen, Aage. Horwood, Bert. Leirhaug, PetterErik. Leckie, Linda. Hood, LizandJulieMacMillan. and Fumbling! on CurriculumIntegration:ACaseStudy Community, Environment. Interdisciplinary, OutdoorEducation,Burnout, Autumn, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.17–19,Secondary Interdisciplinary ProgramsinOntario Excellent Adventure:ExploringtheDiversityof Outdoor School, Environmentalism,Confidence. Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,pp. 6–7,General the CreditRiver Education, Awareness,Immersion. David Suzuki,EducationSystem, Ministryof Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,pp.32–35,General Interview, Friluftsliv. Summer, 2002,Vol.14No.3,pp.16–17,General Voices fromNorway Map, String,Activity,Algonquin,Canoe. Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,pp.28–29,General Backpocket “Urban CliffHypothesis Literature, Art,EnvironmentalEducation. Subject Integration,Science,Children’s Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,pp.25–27,General Component Vital EnvironmentalEducationProgram Outdoor Education,Passion. Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,p.33,General Point Friluftsliv, Wisdom,Children,Nature. Summer, 2002,Vol.14No.3,pp.20–21,General Integrated, Interdisciplinary,Curriculum. Autumn, 2002,Vol.14No.5,p.4,General Feature Student Quotations,Wonder. Outdoor Education,Curriculum,Integration, Autumn, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.6–12,Secondary Outdoor Education,Responsibility,Expedition. Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,pp.24–25,General Feature Restoration. Rock Outcrop,Evolution,Cliff,Ecology,Urban, General Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.16–18, . . . Boondoggles andOutdoorEducation . The ValueandNecessityofTumbling The AlgonquinMappingActivity . The PuzzlingImplicationsofthe Other SupportiveVoices The InfluenceofOutdoorEducation In theField The PersistenceofaGoodIdea

Emerging FromtheBog Voices fromNorway . Feature . Formative Momentsalong Understanding Friluftsliv . . .” Feature Liz andJulie’s . . Visual Arts:A . . Feature . Feature . Prospect Feature ...... Index

35 PATHWAYS 36 PATHWAYS Index Milliken, Peter. Root, Emily. O'Neill, Carolyn. No Author. McKenzie, Marcia. Root, Emily. Root, Emily. Robson, Tomiko. Pye, Robert. Pierre, Elise. Oberndorfer, Erica. Maher, Nels. Magee, Clare. Student Awareness,Instructors. Outward Bound,Courses,ResearchStudy, Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,pp.4–8,General Conference, Traditional,Equipment,WinterTravel. Summer, 2002,Vol.14No.3,pp.27–28,General Green Roofs,Germany,Schools,Education. Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,pp.9–11,General Feature Canadian, Outdoors,Canoe,OutdoorEducation. Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,p.36,General Ferns, BruceTrail. Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,p.12,General The Gathering Programs, InnerCityYouth. Canadians, Disconnected,Environment, Outdoor Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,pp. 21–23,General Inner CityOut-trippingCentre Experiential, Tradition. Campers, OutdoorCentre,Celebrations, Summer, 2002,Vol.14No.3,pp.30–31,General In theField Environmental Education,EcoSchools. Ecological Literacy,Departmentof Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,pp.30–31,General Board 2001 Club. Outdoor Program,ConservationProjects,Youth, Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,p.17,General Reflection, Trip,Learning,Life. Autumn, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.27–30,Secondary Reflection Outdoor Education. Ecosystem, BehaviouralEthic,Disconnected, Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,pp.12–13,General Crown Land,Committee. Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,p.33,General Committee Process: ImplicationsforPractice Campfire, Participation,Planning,Community. Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.21–22,General . . Beyond OurBorders . In theField The HaliburtonHighlandsWaterTrails Go…Get Outdoors! . “Beyond theWalls”Classof1999:A Toronto ParksandRecreation: The . Summer CircleandTheSchoolHouse Greening theTorontoDistrictSchool InTheField Ferns oftheUpperBrucePeninsula . Campfire Programs Tracking . Canada’s NaturalLegacy A SenseofPlace The SnowWalkers’Rendezvous Research ontheOutwardBound Greening fromtheTopDown . . . .

In theField . . . In theField Feature Backpocket . Feature . Feature ...... Student Voices. Sharpe, Sandee. Wheeliker, Heather. Urberg, Ingrid. Russell, Connie. Russell, Connie. Russell, ConnieandAynsleyKlassen. Education atLakehead University. Tourism, andaresearch assistantintheFacultyof a studentintheSchoolofOutdoor Recreation,Parksand Thanks toNickiCrawleywhocompiled thisindex.Nickiis White, Graham. Whitcombe, MarkandMaryGyemi-Schulze. Wallace, Sue. Thomson, Gareth. Environment, Meaning. Experiential Learning,OutdoorEducation, Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.7–9,General Task Force Climate Change,Teaching. Book Review,KyotoProtocol,Action-Projects, Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,p.20,General Schools TackleGlobalWarming Curriculum HotOffthePresses Programs Bibliography Memory, OutdoorEducation,Immersion. Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,pp.14–15,General Feature Submission totheEducationEqualityTaskForce Education ExperiencesLastaLifetime Children. Environmental Education,Outdoors,Reflection, Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,pp.4–5,General Outdoor EducationExperience Disciplines Ministry ofEducation. Interdisciplinary Studies,Model,Curriculum, Spring, 2002,Vol.14No.2,p.32,General Bibliography, IntegratedPrograms. Autumn, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.31–32,Secondary Programs, Curriculum,Grassroots,Funding. Outdoor Education,Network,Environment, Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.4–6,General Feature Award, Youth,Scotland,Partnerships. Conference, 2002,Vol.14No.5,pp.13–15,General Outdoor Education,Environment,Experience. Winter, 2002,Vol.14No.1,pp.16–17,General Conference, Wilderness,Meaning,Language. Summer, 2002,Vol.14No.3,p.29,General Student. Integrated Program,Environment,Reflection, Autumn, 2002,Vol.14No.5,p.36,Secondary Prospect Point . . . . I AMRABBIT:ReflectionsonmyFirst Feature In theField A Wild(er)nessDialogueAcross . Teaching AboutClimateChange:Cool Student VoicesfromtheESP The JohnMuirAward Letter totheEducationEquality Ministry InterdisciplinaryStudies Immerse MyChildren—Please Outdoor andEnvironmental . . . Reading theTrail . . . Feature Reading theTrail Intersections . Integrated Feature . . Feature . . COEO ...... 38 PATHWAYS Fax () Telephone Home() Town/City Street Address Name: (Mr./Mrs./Ms/Miss) o o o o o Western (WE) Northern (NO) Far North(FN) Eastern (EA) Central (CE) county inwhichtheylive. Each memberofCOEOwillbeassignedtoaregion oftheprovinceaccordingto United Statesorderspleaseadd$4.00 $ Family $62.00 Regular $50.00 Subscription to Renewal Please sendthisformwithachequeormoneyorderpayableto: COEO MembershipisfromSeptember1—August31ofanygivenyear Educators ofOntario) Supporting Member(MembershipplusdonationtoCouncilofOutdoor The CouncilofOutdoorEducatorsOntario Council ofOutdoorEducatorsOntario 1185 EglintonAve.East,Toronto,ONM3C3C6 Pathways Wellington, Waterloo,Perth, Oxford,Brant,Haldimand-Norfolk Essex, Kent,Elgin,Lambton, Middlesex,Huron,Bruce,Grey,Dufferin, Parry Sound,Nipissing, Muskoka, Haliburton,NorthBay River, Timiskaming Patricia, Kenora,Thunder Bay,Algoma,Cochrane,Sudbury,Rainy Dundas, Glengarry Grenville, Ottawa-Canton,Lanark,Prescott,Russell, Stormont, Edward, Renfrew,LennoxandAddington,Frontenac, Leeds, Victoria, Durham,Peterborough,Northumberland, Hastings,Prince Simcoe, MetroToronto Niagara South,Lincoln,Hamilton-Wentworth,Halton, Peel,York, o o o Membership ApplicationForm Subscription $48.00 Student $30.00 New Member (Availabletolibrariesandresourcecentresonly) Type ofMembership (Please Print) E-mail Business () Province International Orderspleaseadd$10.00 Postal Code

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39 PATHWAYS