FLORISTIC INVENTORY OF AN ALTAMAHA RIVER FLOODPLAIN AREA

by

HOLLY HOLLAND LUBER

(Under the Direction of David Giannasi)

A floristic inventory was documented for an Altamaha River floodplain forest and associated upland communities. The study area, located in the lower Altamaha River watershed, includes parts of Bullard Creek Wildlife Management Area and Griffin Ridge

Wildlife Management Area. Information on climate, geology and physiography, hydrology, and human history and disturbance of the study site precedes a discussion of the plant communities. Communities recognized include floodplain forest, flatwoods, sandhills, isolated wetlands, and aquatic. A total of 375 species representing 91 families and 233 genera were collected and appear in an annotated checklist. Five species listed as unusual or of special concern in the state of Georgia occur at the study site. A total of

303 county records for Jeff Davis and Long Counties were collected.

INDEX WORDS: Floristics, Altamaha River, Coastal Plain, Floodplain Forest

FLORISTIC INVENTORY OF AN ALTAMAHA RIVER FLOODPLAIN AREA

by

HOLLY H. LUBER

B.S., Northern Arizona University, 1997

A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

MASTER OF SCIENCE

ATHENS, GEORGIA

2002

 2002

Holly H. Luber

All Rights Reserved

FLORISTIC INVENTORY OF AN ALTAMAHA RIVER FLOODPLAIN AREA

by

HOLLY H. LUBER

Approved:

Major Professor: David Giannasi

Committee: Jim Affolter Rebecca Sharitz

Electronic Version Approved:

Gordhan L. Patel Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia August 2002

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge several people for their support throughout this project. First, I owe the success of this project to my husband, George Luber, who accompanied me on every collecting trip. Every stage of this endeavor would not have been possible without his support, patience, and encouragement.

I would also like to thank Dr. David Giannasi for his suggestions and guidance throughout my graduate study. He helped to keep things simple with the end in sight. I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Jim Affolter and Dr. Rebecca

Sharitz, for their time and suggestions.

I owe a special thanks to Dr. Wilbur Duncan for his help in making plant identifications.

Last, but certainly not least, I would like to thank my friends, Gretel Guest, Elissa

Totin and Lisa Kruse, for their help and support during the most important times.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... iv

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION...... 1

2 SITE DESCRIPTION…………………………………………………………….4

3 HUMAN HISTORY AND DISTURBANCE…………………………………..16

4 METHODS……………………………………………………………………...25

5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 26

6 SUMMARY ...... 39

REFERENCES CITED…………………………………………………………………..40

APPENDICES

A ANNOTATED CHECKLIST OF THE VASCULAR FLORA OF AN

ALTAMAHA RIVER FLOODPLAIN AREA ...... 43

B MAP OF BULLARD CREEK WMA...... 54

C MAP OF GRIFFIN RIDGE WMA ...... 55

D CLIMATE DATA FOR GLENNVILLE, GA ...... 56

E CLIMATE DATA FOR SURRENCY, GA ...... 57

v

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This thesis presents the results of a floristic inventory conducted in two floodplain forests along the Altamaha River. Located in the southeastern Coastal Plain of Georgia, the Altamaha River begins at the confluence of the Oconee and Ocmulgee Rivers near

Hazelhurst, Georgia and flows 137 miles (220 kilometers) southeasterly before draining into the Atlantic Ocean. The Altamaha River watershed is the third largest on the eastern seaboard of the United States and drains 7,760 square miles (19,4000 square kilometers) of Piedmont terrain and 11,520 square miles (28,800 square kilometers) of Coastal Plain, approximately one-quarter of the state (Georgia Department of Natural Resources,

Coastal Resources Division, 1997).

Georgia, the largest state east of the Mississippi River, ranks seventh in vascular plant diversity in the continental United States (Villa-Lobos, 1999). The Altamaha watershed boasts the highest documented number of rare plants, animals, and natural community occurrences in the state of Georgia. Of the approximately 140 rare plants and animals occurring here, 15 are federally listed as threatened or endangered, 17 are state listed and are considered globally rare or imperiled (Georgia Department of Natural

Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997). Four extremely rare plants occur nowhere else in the world but Georgia and have been documented in the Altamaha River corridor.

They are hairy rattleweed (Baptisia arachnifera), Radford’s dicerandra (Dicerandra

1 radfordiana), Georgia plume (Elliottia racemosa), and cutleaf beardtounge (Penstemon dissectus). Among species native to the river basin the most well known and fascinating is Franklinia altamaha, named in honor of Benjamin Franklin. This rare flowering plant was first seen by William Bartram in 1765 and has not been seen in its natural environment since 1803 (Villa-Lobos, 1999).

The incredible biological diversity of the lower Altamaha River watershed is important to both the economic and ecological health of the surrounding area and the state as a whole. The river and its surrounding lands provide critical habitat and food sources needed for the survival of a variety of plants and animals. The ecological value of the river has prompted The Nature Conservancy (TNC) of Georgia to make this area a conservation priority. TNC hails the Altamaha River as one of 75 remaining “Last Great

Places” worldwide (Villa-Lobos, 1999). In 1991, TNC established the Altamaha River

Bioreserve on 1.2 million acres of the lower River Basin (Villa-Lobos, 1999).

Ultimately, The Nature Conservancy would like to protect the entire ecosystem/river corridor as a bioreserve rather than a multitude of small preserves. Intense research, including field inventory, is necessary to understand the diversity and value of the

Altamaha River ecosystem.

The primary purpose of this study is to document the vascular flora occurring in floodplain forests and associated habitats along the Altamaha River. The Altamaha

River is a typical southeastern alluvial river and swamp system (Wharton, 1978). Plant communities found in the study site include floodplain forest, flatwoods, sandhills, and isolated wetlands such as cypress ponds, cypress domes, and bay forest. This study site was selected not only because of its uniqueness and rich history, but also because this

2 area is especially underrepresented in the University of Georgia herbarium collection.

Therefore, this study seeks to provide a better understanding of the diversity of floodplain forest ecosystems along the Altamaha River. A floristic inventory of a unique area such as this will contribute to our knowledge of the flora of Georgia.

The following chapters present the results of this floristic inventory. Chapter 2 describes the study site focusing on its location, climate, soils, physiography and geology, and hydrology. Chapter 3 focuses on the human influences on the Altamaha region with an emphasis on disturbances and modifications of the natural environment throughout history and prehistory. Chapter 4 details the field and herbarium methods used in this study. Chapter 5 presents the results of this floristic inventory, focusing on the description of plant communities found as well as plants of special interest encountered during this research. The discussion section compares this field site with others in the region with respect to diversity of plant species and plant communities. Chapter 6 concludes this thesis with a discussion of the significance of this research for the understanding and preservation of this rich and valuable natural resource.

3

CHAPTER 2

SITE DESCRIPTION

The Study Area

This floristic inventory was conducted in two Georgia Wildlife Management Areas in the Altamaha River watershed. Located in southeastern Georgia, the lower Altamaha

River watershed covers both the Upper and Lower Coastal Plain physiographic provinces

(see Figure 2.1). The Altamaha River’s origins in the southern Piedmont classify it as an alluvial or brown water river. The Altamaha Basin covers an area of 3,234 square miles, all within the state of Georgia (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal

Resources Division, 1997).

Two sites, one at the confluence of the Oconee and Ocmulgee Rivers and one approximately sixty miles, or halfway, downstream, were selected to conduct botanical collections. Both sites were located in Georgia Department of Natural Resources

Wildlife Management Areas (WMA) in the upper portion of the river corridor. The upper river corridor was chosen for the following reasons:

1) Many areas along the river corridor south of the study site are abandoned rice

fields or salt marsh. Hence, species diversity is expected to be low in these areas.

2) The Nature Conservancy (TNC) has purchased several tracts of land along the

river and has recently established the Altamaha Bioreserve in the lower river

4 basin which occupies 1.2 million acres. TNC botanists have already conducted

inventories in the lower Altamaha River.

The study area comprises two floodplain forests and the adjacent upland communities and tributary creeks. These areas are located within Bullard Creek WMA (13,895 acres) and Griffin Ridge WMA (5,616 acres) along the Altamaha River. Bullard Creek WMA is located in Jeff Davis and Appling counties, 6.5 miles north of Hazelhurst, Georgia.

Griffin Ridge WMA is located in Long county, 4.5 miles south of Ludowici, Georgia.

The WMA’s are within the Southern Coastal Plain and Atlantic Coastal Flatwoods Major

Land Resource Areas (Soil Conservation Service, 1975, 1982), and are managed by the state of Georgia under the Department of Natural Resources. As there are other WMA’s on the Altamaha River corridor, Bullard Creek WMA and Griffin Ridge WMA were chosen for the following reasons:

1) Bullard Creek WMA is located at the start of the Altamaha River, at the

confluence of the Oconee and Ocmulgee Rivers. Griffin Ridge WMA is located

approximately halfway downstream, at the end of the upper river corridor.

2) Bullard Creek WMA is located on the south bank of the Altamaha River while

Griffin Ridge WMA is located on the north bank.

3) Bullard Creek WMA is characterized primarily by floodplain forest while Griffin

Ridge is characterized by sandy uplands.

Therefore, these two site locations are intended to compliment one another in habitat composition and provide a more complete floristic inventory (see Appendix B and C).

5 Figure 2.1: The Lower Altamaha River Watershed and Associated Georgia Counties

6 Climate

The climate of the lower Altamaha River watershed is moderate, characterized by

mild winters and hot summers (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal

Resources Division, 1997). Temperatures in the region average 520F (110C) in the

winter, 650F (180C) in spring, 800F (270C) in summer, and 670F (200C) in the fall.

Average annual temperature is 650F (180C). Rainfall averages 30-50 inches (76 to 127 centimeters) per year, half of which comes from summer thunderstorms (Georgia

Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997).

Although the southeastern Coastal Plain has nearly the highest precipitation in the

Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome, the region also has the highest frequency of heavy downpours (hence higher runoff than absorption), the most rain-free days per year, sandy soils with poor water-holding capacity, and the highest evaporation rates in the east

(Ware et al., 1993).

Climatology data for the years 1998-2000 were obtained from the Southeast

Regional Climate Center. The NOAA Climatological Station at Lumber City, Georgia is the nearest to Bullard Creek WMA. However, annual data for the years 1998-2000 were not available from this station for unknown reasons. Only thirty year averages were available. Annual data for the years 1998-2000 were obtained from a proxy station,

Surrency 2WNW, Georgia. Appendix E shows these data.

The NOAA Climatological Station at Doctortown 1 WSW, Georgia is the nearest to Griffin Ridge WMA. Only data for the thirty year precipitation averages were available. Thirty year temperature averages were not available. Annual data for the

7 years 1998-2000 were obtained from the nearby station, Glennville, Georgia. Appendix

D shows these data.

The years 1999 and 2000 were drought years for the area. Figure 2.2 diagrams precipitation averages for the period of study and 30 year averages. Average precipitation was approximately ten to fifteen inches less than the 30 year average during these years.

Figure 2.2: Precipitation Averages for Glenville, GA and Surrency, GA Weather Stations

Annual Average Precipitation, Glenville, GA and Surrency, GA

60 50 40 30 Glenville Surrency 20 10

Precipitation (inches) 0 1998 1999 2000 30 Year Average Year

(Note: 30 year averages were obtained from stations Doctortown 1 WSW, GA and Lumber City, GA, respectively.)

8 Soils

The Atlantic Coastal Plain is composed of a series of old marine terraces formed when coastlines changed with sea level fluctuations during the Pleistocene and Holocene

Epochs of the Quaternary Period (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal

Resources Division, 1997). Each terrace is at a higher elevation westward towards the

Fall Line. The terraces are covered with an unconsolidated sandy alluvium. The two lower terraces are so poorly drained that much of the area is seasonally saturated (Ware et al., 1993). The most recent deposits are along the floodplains of major rivers and streams.

The soils in the area derive mostly from marine sands, loams and clays deposited during the sea level fluctuations, and more recently, from organic and alluvial sediments from the Piedmont and Upper Coastal Plain (Georgia Department of Natural Resources,

Coastal Resources Division, 1997). The soils of the Southern Coastal Plain are primarily well drained and deep. They have a sandy surface layer and a sandy, fine loamy, or clayey subsoil (Soil Conservation Service, 1975, 1982). There is an abundance of hydric soils which are highly acidic and are subject to leaching most of the time.

Six soil associations are found in the project area. They are Wahee-Coxville,

Troup-Wicksburg, Fuquay-Tifton-Pelham, Tawcaw-Chastain, Kershaw-Rutledge, and

Hydraquents.

The study site at Bullard Creek Wildlife Management Area, Jeff Davis county, has three general soil associations. They are primarily Wahee-Coxville and Troup-

Wicksburg with small patches of Fuquay-Tifton-Pelham. The Wahee-Coxville association occurs on old marine terraces along the Altamaha River. These soils are

9 formed in old alluvium and may receive a thin deposit of fresh soil material each time they are flooded (Soil Conservation Service, 1975). Wahee-Coxville soils have a loamy surface layer and dominantly clayey underlying layers. The Wahee soils make up 55 percent of the association, the Coxville soils make up about 40 percent, and minor soils constitute the rest (Soil Conservation Service, 1975). The Wahee soils derive from loamy marine sediments, and are somewhat poorly drained with slow runoff and permeability. The Coxville soils are formed in thick beds of marine sediments that are dominantly sandy clays and clays (Soil Conservation Service, 1975). They are poorly drained with slow runoff and permeability. The water table is at or near the surface in wet seasons. The Wahee-Coxville association is primarily vegetated with Pinus taeda,

Liquidambar styraciflua, Quercus nigra, Nyssa ogeche, and Carya sp. The understory is

Ilex glabra, Myrica cerifera, and Smilax sp.

The upland habitats are mainly Troup-Wicksburg with interspersed areas of

Fuquay-Tifton-Pelham. These soil associations can be found on ridgetops of sandhills and drainageways. In the Troup-Wicksburg association, the Troup soils make up about

40 percent of the association, the Wicksburg soils about 25 percent, and minor soils the rest (Soil Conservation Service, 1975). This association is sandy to a depth of 2 to 5 feet with loamy to clayey underlying layers. The Troup series formed in unconsolidated sandy and loamy marine sediments on Coastal Plain uplands. The soils in this series are deep, well drained, and moderately permeable with thick sandy surface and subsurface layers and loamy subsoils. The Wicksburg series consists of very deep, well drained, rapidly permeable soils that formed in thick beds of sandy and clayey marine sediments

10 (Soil Conservation Service, 1975). The Troup-Wicksburg association supports a forest composed of Pinus sp. and mixed hardwoods (Quercus sp.).

Areas of Fuquay-Tifton-Pelham association are located as small patches within the Troup-Wicksburg association. The Fuquay soils compose about 35 percent of this association, the Tifton soils about 20 percent, the Pelham soils about 20 percent, and minor soils the rest (Soil Conservation Service, 1975). Soils in the Fuquay-Tifton-

Pelham association have a sandy surface layer and loamy underlying layers and formed in sandy and loamy marine sediments. The Fuquay series consists of very deep, well drained soils. Permeability is moderate in the upper part of the subsoil and slower in the lower part. The Tifton series consists of very deep, well drained soils with moderately slow permeability and medium runoff. The poorly drained Pelham series consists of very deep, moderately permeable soils with slow runoff. Some areas are ponded and others are briefly flooded (Soil Conservation Service, 1975). Vegetation common to this soil association include Pinus taeda, Pinus elliottii, Liquidambar styraciflua, Quercus nigra,

Cornus florida, Ilex sp., and Taxodium distichum.

Three soil associations also make up the study site at Griffin Ridge Wildlife

Management Area, Long county. They are Tawcaw-Chastain, Hydraquents, and

Kershaw-Rutledge. The Tawcaw-Chastain and Hydraquents are both poorly drained soils subject to flooding (Soil Conservation Service, 1982). The Tawcaw-Chastain association makes up the soils on floodplains along the Altamaha River. Tawcaw soils account for 47 percent of the soils in this association, Chastain soils 25 percent, and the remaining 28 percent are soils of minor extent (Soil Conservation Service, 1982). The soils in this association are predominantly clayey throughout. The Tawcaw series

11 consists of very deep, slowly permeable, clayey soils that formed in fluvial sediments.

Areas with this soil association are frequently flooded with a seasonal water table commonly at 18 to 30 inches below the soil surface for six months in winter and early spring. The Chastain series is very similar to the Tawcaw series (Soil Conservation

Service, 1982). Habitats in this soil association support Taxodium sp. and water tolerant hardwoods such as Liquidambar styraciflua and Nyssa aquatica.

The Hydraquents consist of poorly drained soils in ponded backswamps near the

Altamaha River (Soil Conservation Service, 1982). These soils are separated from the

Tawcaw-Chastain soils of the floodplain by the large, sandy ridges that parallel the river which are common in this area. These soils are typically clayey to a depth of 50 inches or more. Hydraquents are well-suited to wetland plants and support mainly Taxodium ascendens, Nyssa ogeche and other water-tolerant shrubs and herbs.

The Kershaw-Rutledge association consists of excessively to very poorly drained soils that are sandy throughout (Soil Conservation Service, 1982). Kershaw soils make up 74 percent of this association with 19 percent Rutledge and 7 percent minor soils. The

Kershaw series consists of very deep, excessively drained, rapidly permeable soils. They formed in thick, sandy deposits. The Rutledge series consists of very deep, very poorly drained soils with rapid permeability. They formed in sandy, unconsolidated, marine sediments. This soil association occupies upland habitats such as sandhills.

Hydrology

The Altamaha River transports an average of 3.2 trillion gallons of water to the

Atlantic Ocean every year, making it the largest river discharge south of the Chesapeake

12 Bay (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997). The

Altamaha River accounts for just over one-sixth (or 18%) of freshwater inputs to the

South Atlantic. The average daily flow of the Altamaha River is 8 billion gallons. The minimum flow is 927 gallons a day and the maximum is 115 billion gallons a day (Soil

Conservation Service, 1975).

The flow of water in the Altamaha River is controlled in some part by two dams on its major tributaries. The Lake Sinclair Dam on the Oconee River was constructed in

1953 and is 148 miles (239 kilometers) above the confluence. The Lloyd Shoals Dam on the Ocmulgee River at Lake Jackson was constructed in 1910 and is 241 miles (389 kilometers) above the confluence (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal

Resources Division, 1997). United States Geological Survey surface water flow data for the Altamaha River were not recorded prior to 1931, so assessing the effects these dams have had on the flow of water in the river is difficult (Georgia Department of Natural

Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997).

Geology and Physiography

The lower Altamaha watershed is within the Vidalia Upland and Coastal Marine

Flatland physiographic region of the Atlantic Coastal Plain Province (Wharton, 1978).

The Coastal Plain is defined as the part of the North American continent underlaid by

Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks and adjacent to the Atlantic and Gulf coasts (Harper 1906).

In its entirety, it extends from the mouth of the Hudson River uninterrupted to the Rio

Grande, and up the Mississippi valley to southern Illinois (Harper, 1906). The Coastal

Plain covers 35,000 square miles of the state of Georgia, constituting three-fifths of the

13 state. This area is referred to as South Georgia. The lower Altamaha River watershed lies over sedimentary rock deposited during the Cenozoic Era in South Georgia (Georgia

Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997).

The Altamaha Grit Formation and wind and water-deposited sands characterize the study area. The Altamaha Grit region marks the middle third of the Coastal Plain of

Georgia, covering approximately 11,000 square miles (Harper, 1906). The Altamaha

Grit is located midway between the fall-line and the coast. Twenty counties are included in the Altamaha Grit region. Its inland and southern boundaries are sharply defined by a change in topography and flora, but the southeastern border is difficult to delineate

(Harper, 1906).

The Altamaha Grit Formation is a multideposit unit, meaning it was deposited in more than one depositional episode (Huddlestun, 1988). The Altamaha Formation in the inner Coastal Plain is probably Miocene in age. The typical Altamaha Formation of the

Altamaha River is probably middle Miocene in age (Huddlestun, 1988). The Altamaha

Formation consists of thin to thick bedded or cross bedded, well-sorted to very poorly sorted, variably feldspathic, sporadically pebbly or gravelly, agrillaceous sand, sandstone, sandy clay, clay and claystone (Huddlestun, 1988). Fine to very coarse quartz sand is the dominant lithic component. The formation is between 100 and 200 feet thick.

Characteristic rock outcrops and low bluffs are thick-bedded, structureless sandstones and claystones. Between western Jeff Davis county and Wayne county, the

Altamaha Grit stands 200 or more feet high, but east of the Ocmulgee River, where lower

Oligocene rocks are harder, the Grit is not as conspicuous (Harper, 1906 and Huddlestun,

14 1988). Another feature of the Altamaha Grit region is the sand-hills which border the swamps of nearly all creeks and rivers (Harper, 1906).

15

CHAPTER 3

HUMAN HISTORY AND DISTURBANCE

When humans first walked into southern Georgia about 8-11,000 years ago,

forests along the rivers were probably open, with rich herbaceous plant communities on

river terraces (Watts, 1971). These early forests were dominated by taxa such as oak,

ironwood, beech and maple (Watts, 1971). By about 5,000 years prior to the arrival of

the first Europeans, longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) forests dominated the southeastern

Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains (Ware et al., 1993). Since humans’ arrival the landscape has been altered in many ways; each wave altering the landscape to suit their cultural and economic needs.

The Prehistoric Period

The region of the Altamaha River basin was first inhabited by people of the

Clovis culture (12,500-9,500 BP). It is thought that the Clovis culture emigrated from

Siberia to the Americas via a land bridge exposed during glaciation. Clovis hunters

(12,000-10,500 BP) and later Paleoindians (10,500-9,500 BP) were hunter-gatherers who traveled in small bands to optimize food procurement (Hudson, 1976). The southeastern landscape at this time has been described as an open park-like mosaic of scrubland, prairies, and savannas, the type of habitat required by megafauna (Edwards and Merrill,

1977).

16 By 5,000 BP a global cooling trend resulted in more stable vegetation communities. The wetlands of the Southeast stabilized at this time, and slowly developed into our present wetland communities (Davis, 1983). Oak and pine became dominant over most of the Southeast (Ware et al., 1993). The increased importance of slash and burn (swidden) agriculture, which relied upon burning to clear plots, coupled with increased populations began to impact the landscape of the Late Archaic Period (5,000-

2,800 BP). Human habitation expanded and intensified during this time. Floodplains were cleared to accommodate growing native settlements. Fire was used to attract and drive game and to clear floodplain vegetation for the cultivation of such plants as squash, gourd, sunflower and chenopodium. Extensive areas of open land surrounded settlements to provide protection from neighboring tribes.

The Mississippian Culture (1,300-400 BP) began to flourish in the Southeast around 1300 BP and continued until the arrival of the Europeans (Hudson, 1976). The cultivation of corn and beans marks the beginning of the Mississippian Culture. Their agricultural practices changed the landscape in the Southeast dramatically. Permanent settlements and population increased as agriculture intensified. Clearing floodplains and upper terraces for agriculture and villages increased as the Mississippian Culture spread

(Hudson, 1976).

Agricultural fields were limited to floodplains because of the availability of rich bottomland soils, tillable soil and annual flooding. A typical village and its surrounding fields usually extended for 4 miles (Williams, 1992). Fields were cleared by girdling trees and burning the area, and ashes were then used as fertilizer (Doolittle, 1992). A

1.25 mile-wide zone that was burned annually for defense buffered the field zone

17 (Williams, 1992). Another 1- to 2.5 mile-wide zone was frequently burned for small game and foraging (Williams, 1992). A large, open grassland for large game animals was maintained nearby by burning. Neighboring villages were probably located within 6 to 25 miles of each other (Williams, 1992).

Mississippian period towns covered hundreds of acres and included a central plaza and one or more large, flat-topped mounds. Large political centers, or chiefdoms, scattered throughout the Southeast oversaw large areas. The population in the Southeast increased dramatically during this period. Chiefdoms competed with each other to secure hunting and agricultural lands to support their growing populations. It is estimated that

1.5 to 2 million people lived in the Southeast by 1500 AD (Dobyns, 1983). In the early

1500’s the Spanish arrived bringing with them diseases that decimated the Native

American populations of the Southeast. By around 1600 AD the Mississippian Culture collapsed (Hudson, 1976).

When the first Europeans arrived in present-day Georgia, during the first half of the 16th century, the landscape was home to more than a dozen distinct Indian chiefdoms scattered all across the state. The Altamaha region was occupied by the Guale along the

Altamaha River and the coast of Georgia from the Ogeechee River to the mouth of the

Altamaha, the Altamaha along the Oconee River, the Ichisi along the Ocmulgee River, and the Mocama south of the Altamaha River to the St. John River (Worth, 2001).

Following the final Spanish evacuation from the Georgia coast in 1684, and from western

Georgia in 1691, the only major surviving Indian groups in Georgia were the Creek and

Cherokee, direct genealogical descendants of the inhabitants of the state’s prehistoric chiefdoms (Worth, 1995).

18

The Historic Period

The landscape that the Europeans first encountered was not undisturbed. Early

European settlers sought out Native American clearings for their farms or used similar techniques of girdling and burning to clear land (Williams, 1992). As the population increased so did the exploitation of natural resources, such as timber and forage. People began to clear large tracks of land to build homes and farms. Early European settlements, like Native American settlements, were established in coastal areas and on broad river terraces accessible by boat and barge. Consequently, riverine forest communities and longleaf pine communities were the first natural vegetation types in the interior South to be heavily impacted by the expansion of European settlement (Ware et al., 1993).

By 1750 the region was fully settled by the British and the swamps of the lower

Altamaha River were cleared for cotton, rice and sugar plantations (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997). The Georgia landscape was increasingly converted from forest to agriculture, dominated by cotton cultivation. Rice was grown in marshes stretching about 30 miles upstream from the coast, where high tides made it possible to flood the rice fields.

From the late 18th century until the early 20th century, extract of resin from pine trees for the naval stores industry changed the longleaf pine forests in the Coastal Plain

(Ware et al., 1993). Naval stores included products produced almost exclusively from longleaf pine such as tar, pitch, rosin, and turpentine (Ware et al., 1993). As longleaf pine forests in the north were exhausted, the turpentining activity continued to move south.

19 Timber production was relatively slow in the early days, from about 1600 to

1700, as it was limited by livestock and local demand. Horses and mules were used to drag the logs to streams where the harvest could then be transported. The Altamaha

River was a primary conveyor from the interior of Georgia. Flatboats called “Oconee boxes” were floated down the river to Darien where they were dismantled and sold as lumber (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997).

By 1880 commercial timber within the vicinity of streams had been removed. Annual lumber production in the South rose from 1.6 billion board feet to 15.4 billion board feet between 1880 and 1920 (Williams, 1992). By 1930 virtually all virgin forest in the South had been logged (Ware et al., 1993).

In the 1830’s steamboats carried cotton, rosin, turpentine, and lumber to Darien for export (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources Division,

1997). Darien was a major port on the eastern seaboard in the early to mid- 1800s. In

1819, the Bank of Darien was the largest in Georgia and the second largest in the United

States second to the Bank of Philadelphia (Georgia Department of Natural Resources,

Coastal Resources Division, 1997). The success of the Bank of Darien was directly related to the resources harvested from the river.

A timber boom lasted briefly after the Civil War. The saw mills turned out large amounts of longleaf yellow pine from the rafts that were floated down the river. By

1925, saw milling operations in Darien ceased because of the lack of large logs and a period of recovery began for the Altamaha River ecosystems (Georgia Department of

Natural Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997).

20 Contemporary

After 1925, land management focused on silviculture, which now dominates the lower Altamaha River watershed. Silviculture practices include clear-cutting of bottomland hardwoods and conversion of frequently inundated freshwater wetlands to infrequently inundated pine plantation wetlands (Georgia Department of Natural

Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997). Approximately 38 percent of the lower watershed has been converted to silviculture plantations and 13 percent to agricultural lands. The primary crops grown are tobacco, corn, cotton and small grains (Soil

Conservation Service, 1975).

Land cover assessment of the lower Altamaha River watershed revealed that of

386,200 hectares (954,300 acres), 121,200 hectares (299,400 acres) or 31% were classified as some type of wetland (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal

Resources Division, 1997). Of that total acreage, 90,600 hectares (223,800 acres) were mapped as natural and 30,600 hectares (75,600 acres) were mapped as anthropogenically disturbed.

Approximately 49,000 hectares (121,000 acres) along the floodplain of the

Altamaha River are privately owned (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal

Resources Division, 1997), by 170 different landowners. The largest of these are the

Georgia Department of Natural Resources 12,700 hectares (31,475 acres), Rayonier

Corporation 9,500 hectares (23,590 acres), Union Camp Corporation 3,300 hectares

(8,200 acres), and Georgia-Pacific Corporation 2,300 hectares (5,600 acres). The area remaining is divided among small timber companies, investment companies and private individuals.

21 Within the floodplain, there are approximately 5000 hectares (12,400 acres) of rare ecological communities (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal

Resources Division, 1997). Forty-five percent of this acreage is protected by the state or is Nature Conservancy land, 27% is owned by timber product companies, and the remaining 28% is owned by private landowners (Georgia Department of Natural

Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997).

Disturbance

Probably the greatest threat to the lower Altamaha River watershed is the alteration of habitat due to fragmentation, degradation and destruction. The main source of the destruction of natural habitats is the conversion to silviculture plantations (Georgia

Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997). Habitat disturbance results in the increase of forest edges which leads to increased herbivory and seed predation, increased vulnerability to invasive nonnative species, and microclimate changes that alter species composition (Georgia Department of Natural Resources,

Coastal Resources Division, 1997). The study area has many logging roads. Along the edges of these roads, the forest is often impenetrable due to overgrowth of weeds and shrubs.

The conversion of forests to silviculture plantations also intensifies the practice of fire suppression. Fire suppression allows species composition to change to that of a nonfire adapted community, reducing the occurrence of native species and biodiversity.

Fire was very important in the composition of Coastal Plain forests prior to settlement. Before European settlement, fire in almost all habitat types in the Coastal

22 Plain had a return interval of less than 13 years (Frost, 1998). Upland sites in the lower

Altamaha River watershed were historically dominated by longleaf pine which typically

burned every 1 to 4 years prior to European arrival (Landers, 1991). Fires typically

originated in upland flats and spread to ignite flammable wetlands like marshes during

dry periods (Ware et al., 1993). Fire exclusion has altered the floristic composition of

some areas of the study site. This is the case in open, fire-maintained communities such

as flatwoods and sandhills which have, in some cases, become densely populated in the

understory. The exclusion of Pinus palustris in the study site is due largely to over logging in the early 1900s and fire suppression.

Another threat to Coastal Plain forests is the conversion to agriculture and developed land, the second largest land use in the region next to silviculture plantations

(Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997).

Development of lands in the South has increased from1% in 1900 to 10% in 1990. This is largely the result of migration from small farms to the city and industrialization of the

South (Ware et al., 1993). Although agricultural and land development do not directly effect the study area, hydrology and geomorphology are altered which do impact floodplain forests.

The Georgia Department of Natural Resources created several wildlife openings in both Bullard Creek WMA and Griffin Ridge WMA to attract deer and wild turkey for recreational hunting. These areas have been cleared and planted with Trifolium repens

L., T. incarnatum L., T. pratense L., Sorghum vulgare Persoon, Dactylis glomerata L.,

Lolium perenne L., and Lespedeza sp.

23 Figure 3.1: Landcover of the Altamaha River Watershed

24

CHAPTER 4

METHODS

Vascular plant specimens were collected biweekly beginning September 1998 through November 1998 and from March through November 1999 and 2000. In May of

2000 a canoe trip was taken from Bullard Creek Wildlife Management Area to Griffin

Ridge Wildlife Management Area to collect specimens growing in and along the

Altamaha River. Habitats representative of the study areas were identified and collections were made at these areas during each collection trip. Ecological communities were identified using Wharton (1978), Allard (1990), and by field observation. Voucher specimens were collected, pressed, and identified to species. Voucher specimens for all species are available for reference at the University of Georgia Herbarium (GA).

References used for identification were: Wunderlin (1982), Godfrey and Wooten (1979,

1981), and Radford et al. (1968). Taxonomic nomenclature follows that of the University of Georgia Herbarium. Protected species information was obtained from the Georgia

Department of Natural Resources, Wildlife Resources Division (Patrick et al., 1995).

Information on species distribution was derived from the University of Georgia

Herbarium and Jones and Coile (1988).

25

CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A collection of 375 species of vascular plants has been compiled, representing 92 families and 233 genera. Appendix A is a complete list of the flora collected. A taxonomic summary is shown in Table 5.1. Asteraceae was the largest family with 45 species representing 25 genera. The second largest family was Poaceae with 37 species from 18 genera. Fabaceae followed closely with 34 species from 21 genera. Quercus was the largest genus with 10 species followed by Hypericum with 9 species. A total of

303 species previously undocumented from Jeff Davis and Long Counties was collected during this study.

Table 5.1: Summary of the vascular flora of an Altamaha Floodplain Forest Families Genera Species Pteridophyta 2 2 2 Spermatophyta Gymnospermae 3 3 7 Angiospermae Moncotyledoneae 16 43 85

Dicotyledoneae 71 185 281 Total 92 233 375

The distribution of species within each habitat can be seen in figure 5.1. A description of plant communities and their common taxa is discussed later in this chapter.

The majority of specimens collected during this study occur in the flatwoods ecosystem

26 which represented the largest community in the study area. Floodplain forests in the study site were also abundant and relatively floristically diverse. Sandhills, although relatively abundant in the lower Altamaha River watershed, did not cover as large an area as the flatwoods and floodplain forest systems, and thus had fewer collections. Isolated wetlands represented the smallest area in the study site, but were more floristically diverse than the aquatic system. The aquatic system had the fewest collections for reasons discussed below.

Figure 5.1: Species Distribution Across Habitats

Species Distribution Across Habitats

250

200

150

100

50 Number of Collections 0 Aquatic Flood Plain Flatwoods Sandhills Isolated Wetlands Habitats

27 PROTECTED PLANTS

A number of species are noteworthy as they are listed as either endangered, threatened, or of special concern by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources

(Patrick et al.,1995). They are Sarracenia minor, Helianthus occidentalis, Quercus austrina, Asclepias lanceolata, and Silphium pinnatifidum. Sarrcenia minor

(Sarraceniaceae) is listed as unusual by the state of Georgia (Patrick et al., 1995). It is found in acidic soils of pine flatwoods, wet savannas, and along pond margins. Fire suppression and draining of wetlands have resulted in habitat loss. Although Sarrcenia minor is not rare, it is vulnerable to overcollecting by nurserymen and gardeners (Patrick,

1995). The primary reason it is listed as unusual is to allow regulation of commercial activity and to protect populations on public land (Patrick, 1995).

Helianthus occidentalis (Asteraceae) and Quercus austrina (Fagaceae) are of special concern in the state of Georgia (Patrick et al., 1995). Helianthus occidentalis was collected in a flatwood forest in Jeff Davis County and constitutes a county record.

Quercus austrina, collected in a floodplain forest, was also a county record for Jeff

Davis.

Asclepias lanceolata and Silphium pinnatifidum are on the Georgia plant watch list indicating additional documentation is needed to determine conservation status

(Patrick et al., 1995). Asclepias lanceolata is common in floodplain forests in Jeff Davis

County. Silphium pinnatifidum was found growing in a sandhill community in Long

County. Both are county records.

28 PLANT COMMUNITIES

Floodplain Forest

Floodplain forests and swamps are located in narrow to broad bands along the

Altamaha River. The floodplain forests of the Altamaha River range from 1 to 6 miles wide and 90 miles long (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources

Division, 1997). Although much of the floodplain forest has been harvested within the last 50 years, it is considered the highest quality natural system in the lower Altamaha

River watershed. Floodplain forests are well represented in Bullard Creek Wildlife

Management Area.

The floodplain forest system is characterized by a dense canopy of mixed hardwoods, bald cypress-mixed hardwoods, or mixed hardwoods and pines, and highly acidic soils (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources Division,

1997). Distribution of plant species is determined by the duration and frequency of flooding. For example, Taxodium distichum occurs in areas of more prolonged flooding while mixed hardwood and hardwood-pine occurs in drier sites. Wharton (1978) divides the community into two types, those inundated more than six months per year and those inundated about or less than six months per year. However, throughout the duration of the study, standing water was not seen in this system, although locals reported the entire area of Bullard Creek WMA being flooded in the past.

Dominant overstory taxa in the floodplain forest include Acer rubrum, Betula nigra, Carpinus caroliniana, Carya sp., Chionanthus virginicus, Liquidambar styraciflua, Pinus taeda, Quercus nigra, Quercus laurifolia, Quercus phellos, Taxodium distichum, Ulmus alata, and Ulmus americana. The shrub layer includes Asimina

29 angustifolia, Cephalanthus occidentalis, Cyrilla racemiflora, Ilex decidua, and Ilex opaca. The most common floodplain herbs include Asclepias perennis, Froelichia floridana, Hypericum sp., Monarda punctata, Piriqueta caroliniana, Rhexia sp., and

Ruellia caroliniensis. Dominant vines include Ampelopsis arborea, Apios americana,

Clematis crispa, Campsis radicans, Bignonia capreolata, Passiflora incarnata, and

Trachelospermum difforme.

Sandhill

Sandhills are xeric/subxeric woodlands on ridges parallel to the Altamaha River.

The xeric/subxeric, fire-maintained system is one of the most prevalent in the lower

Altamaha River watershed (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources

Division, 1997). This community is well represented in Griffin Ridge Wildlife

Management Area.

Xeric/subxeric woodlands are characterized by open canopy forests on sand ridges parallel to and east of major streams in the Coastal Plain (Wharton, 1978). This habitat is extremely dry with deep, sandy soils, and high fire frequency, usually 1 to 10 years. Longleaf pine is either present or absent in the overstory, and xeric plants such as cactus and yucca occupy the understory (Wharton, 1978).

Dominant overstory taxa include Carya sp., Pinus echinata, Pinus taeda,

Quercus falcata, Quercus laevis, Quercus laurifolia, and Quercus stellata. Common shrubs include Chrysobalanus oblongifolius, Crataegus sp., Rhus copallina, Vaccinium arboreum, and Vaccinium stamineum. The herbaceous understory includes Aristida beyrichiana, Aureolaria sp., Baptisia sp., Cnidoscolus stimulosus, Eriogonum

30 tomentosum, Hypericum gentianoides, Opuntia humifusa, Phlox sp., Polygonella sp.,

Rhynchosia reneformis, Yucca filamentosa, and numerous members of the Asteraceae.

Flatwoods

Flatwoods are pine-dominated woodland communities. These areas form an ecotone between xerophytic woodlands and floodplain forests or swamps. Flatwoods communities vary with water availability, pine species, soil characteristics and fire regime (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997).

This forest is located on flat, poorly drained terrain of the lower Coastal Plain terraces formed during the Pleistocene (Wharton, 1978). Flatwoods are found in both Bullard

Creek WMA and Griffin Ridge WMA.

Flatwoods have suffered the greatest loss of habitat of any other system in the lower Altamaha River watershed (Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal

Resources Division, 1997). This is primarily attributed to alteration of hydrologic patterns due to forestry, agriculture, development, and fire suppression.

This system is highly dependent on fire to reduce competition from hardwoods and promote reproduction of herbaceous plant species. A majority of the remaining flatwoods in the watershed suffer from fire suppression (Georgia Department of Natural

Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997). Historically, flatwoods were relatively open-canopied with little understory between the canopy and shrub layer, but fire suppression has resulted in dense, even-aged stands of pine (Huffman and Judd, 1998).

Fire suppression has also resulted in the presence of shrubs and saw palmetto in the understory, and the invasion of oaks in the drier sites (Huffman and Judd, 1998).

31 Longleaf pine has been replaced by slash pine due to fire exclusion and silviculture plantations.

Dominant overstory taxa in wetter sites include Pinus echinata and Pinus elliottii.

The shrub understory includes Hamamelis virginiana, Ilex glabra, Lyonia lucida,

Serenoa repens, and Vaccinium arboreum. The herb layer includes Dichanthelium sp.,

Hypericum sp., Piriqueta caroliniana, Rhexia sp., Sarracenia minor, Scutellaria integrifolia, Xyris jupicai, and Zephyranthes atamasco.

The drier flatwoods sites have Quercus falcata and Quercus stellata along with

Pinus elliottii. Pinus palustris, longleaf pine, was expected to be present in this habitat, but was not found. The understory inclues Aristida beyrichiana, Crotalaria rotunifolia,

Gaylussacia frondosa, Muhlenbergia capillaris, Myrica cerifera, Rudbeckia hirta,

Sabatia difformis, and Stipa avenacea. Tillandsia usenoides is a common epiphyte.

Isolated Wetlands

Isolated wetlands include cypress ponds, cypress domes, bay forest, and nonriverine swamp forest. These wetlands are located either within the Altamaha River floodplain or upland habitats and occur throughout the study area. Isolated wetlands in the study area are relatively small.

Isolated wetlands vary in species composition according to hydroperiod (Georgia

Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997). Standing water was observed only in cypress domes throughout the duration of the study.

The overstory of cypress ponds and domes, which are located in flatwood and sandhill communities, is dominated by Nyssa aquatica, Pinus elliottii and Taxodium

32 ascendens. Clethra alnifolia, Ilex decidua, Ilex glabra, and Prunus serotina are common shrubs. The herbaceous layer often includes Drosera sp., Eriocaulon decangulare,

Mecardonia acuminata, Mitreola petiolata, Polygonum hydropiperoides, Rhexia sp., and

Sabatia doedecandra.

Bay forests are dominated by Lindera melissifolia, Lindera benzoin, Magnolia virginiana, and Persea palustris. The understory of these wetlands includes

Cephalanthus occidentalis, Cyrilla racemiflora, Lyonia ferruginea, and Lyonia lucida.

Nonriverine swamp forests are similar vegetatively to floodplain forests. These wetlands, however, are isolated and surrounded by drier, upland sites.

Aquatic

This habitat includes the main channel of the Altamaha River. The Altamaha

River has an average depth of 2 meters with isolated deep holes averaging 8.6 meters

(Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997). The

Altamaha is a swift moving river with velocities ranging from 0.22 to 0.44 meters/second

(Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Coastal Resources Division, 1997). It is a wide river (361-820 feet) with a sandy substrate.

Due to the velocity and dark color of the water, little vegetation was found growing in the channel. Bacopa monnieri and Utricularia subulata were the only submerged plants collected. They were growing in shallow water near the river’s bank.

Exposed sand bars near the bank also hoisted several plants. Cyperus compressus,

Cyperus squarrosus, Cyperus surinamensis, Cyperus virens, Elymus virginicus,

33 Fimbristylis vahlii, Ludwigia decurrens, Mollugo verticillata, Paronychia baldwinii, and

Tripsacum dactyloides were all collected on exposed sand bars.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study were compared to the results of six other floristic surveys conducted in the Coastal Plain region or along a river corridor in the Southeastern US.

Figure 5.2 shows the relationship between species diversity and area for the seven floristic studies .

Figure 5.2: Comparison of Floristic Inventories in the Southeastern Coastal Plain, US.

Species Number by Acreage for Selected Sites

1000

800

600 1013

400 726 639 540 200 375 373 Number of Species 312

0 720 Ha. 833 Ha. 924 Ha. 1,600 Ha. 2,916 Ha. 11,300 Ha. 11,686 Ha. Francis Appalachian O'leno State Atlamaha St. Ichuaway Myakka River Beidler Forest River Corridor Park (Tann & River (Luber) Catherines (Hoffman & (Porcher) (Seward) Judd) (Coile & Judd) Jones) Study Site and Area in Hectares

The Francis Beidler Forest is a National Audubon Sanctuary in Four Holes

Swamp, located in the Coastal Plain of South Carolina (Porcher, 1981). Four Holes

34 Swamp is a brown water, swamp-river floodplain system that runs for approximately sixty miles through the Coastal Plain of South Carolina (Porcher, 1981). Major plant communities surveyed in the study were bottomland forest communities of the floodplain, a mixed mesophytic hardwood forest community, and seepage bogs at the base of bluff slopes (Porcher, 1981).

The Floristic Inventory of the Apalachee River Corridor (Seward, 1993) was conducted in the lower Piedmont of Georgia, within the Altamaha River Drainage

System. Although located in the Piedmont, this study was used for comparison because of its location along a river corridor. The study area included the entire length of the

Apalachee River and areas within 100 yards of the River at selected locations. Plant communities along the river were a disturbed rock outcrop, successional oak-hickory forests of former agricultural lands, mixed pine-hardwood forests, and bluff and ravine forests of northern affinities (Seward, 1993).

The inventory of O’Leno State Park and Northeast River Rise State Preserve was conducted in Alachua and Columbia Counties, Florida (Tan and Judd, 1995). The study site is located in the limestone karst topography region of Florida. Communities recognized within the site include mesic hammock with limestone sinks, floodplain forests and swamps, marshes, scrubby flatwoods, xerophytic oak scrub, sandhill, aquatic vegetation of the rivers , ponds and lakes, and old field or ruderal communities (Tan and

Judd, 1995).

St. Catherines Island is a barrier island along the coast of Georgia. The major plant communities on the island include coastal strand vegetation, tidal salt marsh, maritime forest, successional dune vegetation, freshwater marshes, pastures, old fields,

35 Pleistocene sand ridges, poorly drained forests dominated by slash pine and pond pine, and second-growth forests dominated by mixed live oak, pine and hickory (Coile and

Jones, 1988).

The Jones Ecological Research Center (Ichauway) is a remnant longleaf pine/wiregrass ecosystem located in the Coastal Plain of southwestern Georgia (Drew et al., 1998). Longleaf pine ecosystems are extremely species rich with high numbers of rare and endemic species. Eleven habitat types were recognized in the study: mesic riparian forests, wet-mesic longleaf pine forests, xeric longleaf pine forests, mesic live oak depressions, xeric sand live oak depressions, herbaceous depressional wetlands, wooded depressional wetlands, old fields, disturbed areas, and old home sites (Drew et al., 1998).

Myakka River State Park is located in Sarasota and Manatee Counties, Florida in southwestern peninsular Florida (Huffman and Judd, 1998). Current management practices use fire to re-create historic fire patterns and restore fire-dependent plant communities (Huffman and Judd, 1998). Plant communities of Myakka River State Park are dry prairie, pine flatwoods, scrubby flatwoods, oak-palm hammock, mixed hardwood hammock, seasonal ponds and slews, forested wetlands, floodplain marsh and disturbed areas (Huffman and Judd, 1998).

The six study sites used for comparison have many attributes in common with the site of this floristic inventory. Similar habitats and species composition are found within each of the locations. Although species diversity at the Altamaha River study site was much lower than was expected, the comparison with these studies provides several explanations.

36 First, fire is a very important component in ecosystem maintenance and diversity

in southeastern forests. It is thought that upwards of 95% of the upland forests of the

southeastern Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains were once dominated by Pinus palustris

(longleaf pine) and to a lesser extent by Pinus elliottii (slash pine) (Ware et al., 1993).

Longleaf pine ecosystems are characterized by frequent (1 to 10 year return interval) fires that maintain an open, savanna-like appearance and an extremely species rich herbaceous groundcover (Drew et al., 1998). Both species are now greatly outnumbered by Pinus taeda (loblolly pine). Fire-maintained communities such as sandhills and flatwoods have been altered by fire exclusion. The absence of fire has made it possible for species favored by mesic conditions to invade and shade out the typical plant species of these communities. For example, longleaf pine is either rare or absent in the study site.

Ericaceous shrubs, saw palmetto and oak have invaded flatwood systems. This has resulted in dense, impenetrable understories in some areas.

Second, many of the sites used for comparison are managed to maintain or restore the original ecosystem condition. This is especially the case for the Francis Beidler

Forest and Ichauway. In the Francis Beidler Forest, an 1800-acre section of original growth forest prompted the Nature Conservancy and the National Audubon Society to purchase the area plus a 1700-acre buffer zone in 1970 (Porcher, 1981). Since then the area has been very carefully managed. The public is not allowed to enter the Sanctuary except via a boardwalk or managed canoe trips in order to maintain the integrity of the site. Field trips are for scientific purposes only and scientific studies must be approved by the Sanctuary manager.

37 The Jones Ecological Research Center Preserve (Ichauway) is currently managed for applied ecosystem research and to enhance long-term ecological values (Drew et al.,

1998). Land use history and past management practices on Ichauway have discouraged the introduction of non-native plant species. Additionally between 4 and 6 thousand hectares are prescription burned annually (Drew et al., 1998). Management practices at

Myakka River State Park also strive to maintain and restore plant communities. Fire, both lightening-ignited and prescribed, is being used to re-create historic fire patterns and restore fire-dependent plant communities. Control of introduced plant and animal communities is also a management priority (Huffman and Judd, 1998). On the other hand, a majority of the land in Bullard Creek WMA and Griffin Ridge WMA is being managed for silviculture and wildlife, including wildlife planting areas.

Third, silviculture plantations are common in the study site, resulting in even- aged stands of pine and homogenous habitats. Fire suppression, utilized to protect the pine plantations, contributes to the low diversity of species. Logging roads to access and harvest timber are throughout the study site, resulting in habitat disturbance and fragmentation. Silviculture plantations were not reported in any of the studies used for comparison.

Another possible explanation for the paucity of species is drought. As is indicated in Figure 2.2, 1999 and 2000 were drought years for the study area. The lack of available water could have prohibited the growth of species adapted to moist conditions.

38

CHAPTER 6

SUMMARY

From 1998 to 2000, a total of 758 vascular plant specimens, totaling 375 plant species, were collected in an Altamaha River floodplain forest and its associated habitats.

Of the 375 species, 303 were county records for Jeff Davis or Long county. Sarracenia minor, Helianthus occidentalis, Quercus austrina, Asclepias lanceolata, and Silphium pinnatifidum, all plants of special concern in the state of Georgia, occur in the study area.

A variety of plant communities are found within or adjacent to the floodplain of the

Altamaha River, each with its own composition of species.

The results of this inventory were compared to those of six other sites in the

Southeast. Although species diversity appears to be low, the paucity of species may be explained by several factors. Among these are fire suppression in fire-maintained plant communities, management practices not focused on ecosystem maintenance or restoration, degradation and fragmentation of habitat due to silviculture plantations, and drought.

The Altamaha River watershed faces many threats such as the destruction of natural communities or organisms and alteration of habitat due to fragmentation, degradation and destruction. Further investigation of the Altamaha River corridor is necessary to guarantee its protection.

39

REFERENCES CITED

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Davis, M. B. 1983. Holocene History of the Eastern United States. In H. E. Wright, Jr. (ed.), Late Quaternary Environments of the United States. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN.

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Doolittle, W. E. 1992. Agriculture in North America on the eve of contact: A reassessment. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 82: 386-401.

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Edwards, R. L., and A.S Merrill. 1977. A reconstruction of the Continental Shelf areas of eastern North America for the times 9,500 BP and 12,000 BP. Archaeology of Eastern North America: Eastern States Archaeology Federation. 62(1):1-43.

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Godfrey, R. K., and J.W. Wooten. 1981. Aquatic Plants of Southeastern United States: Dicotyledons. University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA.

40

Harper, R. M. 1906. A phytogeographical sketch of the Altamaha Grit region of the Coastal Plain of Georgia. Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci. 17:1-414.

Huddlestun, P. F. 1988. A Revision of the Lithostratigraphic Units of the Coastal Plain of Georgia. Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Environmental Protection Division, Georgia Geologic Survey.

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Huffman, J. M., and W.S. Judd. 1998. Vascular Flora of Myakka River State Park, Sarasota and Manatee Counties, Florida. Castanea. 63(1):25-50.

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Tan, B. H., and W.S. Judd. 1995. A Floristic Inventory of O' leno State Park and Northeast River State Preserve, Alachua and Columbia Counties, Florida. Castanea. 60(2):141-165.

41 Villa-Lobos, J. 1999. The Mighty Altamaha: Saving an American Wilderness. Plant Talk(17):22-25.

Ware, S., C. Frost, and P.D. Doerr. 1993. Southern Mixed Hardwood Forest: The Former Longleaf Pine Forest, p. 447-493. In W. H. Martin, S.G. Boyce and A.C. Echternacht (ed.), Biodiversity of the Southeastern United States: Lowland Terrestrial Communities. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

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42 APPENDIX A

ANNOTATED CHECKLIST OF THE VASCULAR FLORA OF AN ALTAMAHA RIVER FLOODPLAIN AREA

The list is grouped into Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms. The

Angiosperms are grouped into Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. Within each of these groups taxa are arranged alphabetically by families, genera, and species. JD denotes a county record for Jeff Davis County, Georgia. L denotes a county record for Long

County, Georgia. SC marks plants of special concern.

Appendix A: Annotated Checklist of the Vascular Flora

PTERIDOPHYTES

SCHIZAEACEAE Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw.

WOODSIACEAE Onoclea sensibilis L.

GYMNOSPERMS CUPRESSACEAE Juniperus virginiana L., JD Taxodium ascendens Brongn., L Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich., JD, L

PINACEAE Pinus echinata Mill., L Pinus elliottii Engelm., L Pinus taeda L., JD Pinus virginiana Miller, JD

ANGIOSPERMS MONOCOTS/LILIOPSIDA AGAVACEAE Nolina georgiana Michaux. , JD Yucca filamentosa L., JD

43 AMARYLLIDACEAE Allium cuthbertii Small Hymenocallis crassifolia Herb., L Zephyranthes atamasco (L.) Herbert, JD

ARECACEAE Serenoa repens (Bartram) Small

BROMELIACEAE Tillandsia useneoides L.

COMMELINIACEAE Commelina erecta L., JD Tradescantia hirsutiflora Bush., JD

CYPERACEAE Bulbostylis capillaris (L.) C.B. Clarke, JD Bulbostylis ciliatifolia (Ell.) Fern. Bulbostylis warei (Torr.) C.B. Blake, JD Carex absolutescens Schw. Carex glaucescens Elliott, JD Carex intumescens Rudge, L Carex joorii L.H. Bailey Carex tenax Chapman. Carex vulpinoidea Michx., JD Cyperus compressus L., JD Cyperus squarrosus L. Cyperus surinamensis Rottb., JD Cyperus virens Michx., JD, L Fimbristylis vahlii (Lam.) Link, JD Rhynchospora elliottii A. Dietr., JD Rhynchospora inexpansa (Michx.) Vahl., JD Rhynchospora megalocarpa A. Gary Scirpus cyperinus (L.) Kunth., JD Scleria triglomerata Michx., L

ERIOCAULACEAE Eriocaulon compressum Lam., JD, L Eriocaulon decangulare L., JD

HAEMODORACEAE Lachnanthes caroliniana (Lam.) Dandy

IRIDACEAE Sisyrinchium mucronatum Michx., JD

JUNCACEAE Juncus dichotomus Elliott, JD Juncus marginatus Rostk. var. biflora (Ell.) Wood, JD Juncus marginatus Rostkovius Juncus polycephalus Michx., JD

POACEAE Agrostis hyemalis (Walter) Britton et al., JD Andropogon gerardii Vitman, L Andropogon ternarius Michx., L

44 Andropogon virginicus L. var. virginicus Aristida beyrichiana Trin. & Rupr. Aristida oligantha Michx., L Avena fatua L., JD Briza minor L., JD Cenchrus incertus M.A. Curtis, L Chasmanthium latifolium (Michx.) Yates, JD, L Chasmanthium laxium (L.) Yates var. sessiliflorum (Poir.) Wipff & S.D. Jones, JD, L Dichanthelium aciculare (Desv. Ex Poir.) Gould & Clark Dichanthelium acuminatum (Sw.) Gould & Clark Dichanthelium commutatum (Schult.) Gould Dichanthelium dichotomum (L.) Gould var. dichotomum Dichanthelium dichotomum (L.) Gould var. ensifolium (Baldw. Ex Ell.) Gould & Clark Dichanthelium linearifolium (Scribu.) Gould Dichanthelium scoparium (Lamarck) Gould Dichanthelium sphaerocarpon (Elliott) Gould Elymus virginicus L., JD, L Erianthus giganteus (Walter) P. Beauv., JD Muhlenbergia capillaris (Lam.) Trin. var. capillaris Muhlenbergia expansa (D.C.) Trin., L Panicum anceps Michx. Panicum hians Elliott Paspalum boscianum Flugge, JD Paspalum dilatatum Poir. Paspalum notatum Flugge var. saurae Parodi, L Paspalum plicatulum Michx., JD Paspalum praecox Walter, L Paspalum urvillei Steud., JD Setaria corrugata (Elliott) Schult., JD, L Sporobolus junceus (Michaux.) Kunth., L Stipa avenaceae L., JD Tridens flavus (L.) Hitchc. var. chapmanii (Small) Shinners, JD Tripsacum dactyloides (L.) L.

SMILACACEAE Smilax auriculata Walter Smilax smallii Morong, JD

XYRIDACEAE Xyris jupicai Rich.

DICOTS/MAGNOLIOPSIDA ACANTHACEAE Dyschoriste humistrata (Michx.) Kuntze Ruellia caroliniensis (J.F. Gmel) Steud. , JD, L

ACERACEAE Acer rubrum L., JD

AIZOACEAE Mollugo verticillata L., JD

AMARANTHACEAE Froelichia floridana (Nutt.) Moq., JD

45 ANACARDIACEAE Rhus copallinum L., JD

ANNONACEAE Asimina angustifolia Raf., L

APIACEAE Apium leptophyllum (Persoon) F. Mueller Eryngium yuccifolium Michx., JD Spermolepis divaricata (Walter) Raf., JD Thaspium trifoliatum (L.) A. Gray, JD

APOCYNACEAE Amsonia ciliata Walter Trachelospermum difforme (Walter) A. Gray, L

AQUIFOLIACEAE Ilex decidua Walter var. decidua, JD Ilex glabra (L.) A. Gray Ilex opaca Aiton., L

ASCLEPIADACEAE Asclepias amplexicaulis Smith, L Asclepias lanceolata Walter, JD, SC Asclepias perennis Walter, JD Asclepias tuberosa L. Asclepias verticillata L.

ASTERACEAE Ambrosia artemisiifolia L., JD Aster dumosus L., JD,L Aster laterifolius (L.) Britton, JD Berlandiera pumila (Michx.) Nutt. Chrysopsis gossypina (Michx.) Elliott subsp. gossypina, JD Conyza canadensis (L.) var. pusilla (Nutt.) Cronquist, JD Coreopsis gladiata Walter, JD,L Coreopsis lanceolata L., JD Elephantopus elatus Bertol., JD Erigeron strigosus Muhl. ex Willd., JD Erigeron vernus (L.) T. & G. Eupatorium cuneifolium Willd Eupatorium hyssopifolium L., JD Eupatorium leucolepis (DC) Torr. & A. Gray, JD Eupatorium semiserratum DC., JD Eupatorium serotinum Michx., JD Euthamia tenuifolia (Pursh) Greene, JD Gnaphalium obtusifolium L., L Gnaphalium purpureum L., JD Haplopappus divaricatus (Nuttall) Gray Helenium amarum (Raf.) H. Rock, JD, L Helenium flexulosum Raf., JD Helianthus hirsutus Raf., JD Helianthus occidentalis Riddell, JD, SC Heterotheca subaxillaris (Lam.) Britton & Rusby, JD Hypochaeris brasiliensis (Less.) Hook. & Arn. var. tweedii (Hook. & Arn.) Baker, JD Iva microcephala Nutt., JD

46 Krigia cespitosa (Raf.) K.L. Chambers, JD Krigia virginica (L.) Willd., JD Liatris spicata (L.) Willd. var. vesinosa (Nuttall) Gaiser., JD Liatris tenuifolia Nuttall var. tenuifolia, L Pityopsis aspera (Shuttlew. ex Small) Small, JD Pityopsis graminifolia (Michx.) Nutt. Pluchea rosea Godfrey, JD Pterocaulon pycnostachyum (Michx.) Elliott Rudbeckia hirta L., JD Silphium compositum Michaux. var. compositum, JD Silphium pinnatifidum Ell., L, SC Solidago canadensis L., JD Solidago erecta Pursh., JD Solidago gigantea Aiton, JD Solidago laevenworthii T. & G., JD Vernonia augustifolia Michx., JD Vernonia gigantea (Walter) Tvel., JD

BETULACEAE Betula nigra L., JD Carpinus caroliniana Walter, JD, L

BIGNONIACEAE Bignonia capreolata L. Campsis radicans (L.) Seeman , JD Catalpa bignonioides Walter, JD

BORAGINACEAE Heliotropium amplexicaule Vahl., L

BRASSICACEAE Brassica rapa L. Cardamine parviflora L., JD Lepidium virginicum L., JD Warea cunefolia (Muhl. Ex Nutt.) Nutt., L

BUDDLEJACEAE Polypremum procumbens L., JD

CACTACEAE Opuntia humifusa (Raf.) Raf., L

CAMPANULACEAE Lobelia amoena Michx., JD Lobelia glandulosa Walt., L Triodanis perfoliata (L.) Nieuwl., JD Wahlenbergia marginata (Thunb.) A. DC., JD

CAPPARACEAE Polanisia tenuifolia Torr. & A. Gray

CAPRIFOLIACEAE Lonicera japonica Thunb., JD Lonicera sempervirens L., JD Viburnum obovatum Walter

47 CARYOPHYLLACEAE Paronychia baldwinii (Torr. & A. Gray) Fenzl ex Walp., JD Paronychia herniarioides (Michx.) Nutt., L

CISTACEAE Helianthemum carolinianum (Walter) Michx., JD Helianthemum rosmarinifolium Pursh., JD Lechea mucronata Raf.

CLETHRACEAE Clethra alnifolia L.

CLUSIACEAE Hypericum brachyphyllum (Spach.) Steud., JD Hypericum cistifolium Lam. Hypericum crux-andreae (L.) Crantz, JD Hypericum galioides Lam., JD Hypericum gentianoides (L.) Britton et al., JD, L Hypericum hypericoides (L.) Crantz., JD Hypericum mutilum L. Hypericum pseudomaculatum Bush., JD Hypericum suffruticosum W.P. Adams & N. Robson

CONVOLVULACEAE Bonamia humistrata (Walter) Gray, L Ipomoea hederifolia L., JD Ipomoea pandurata (L.) G. Meyer, JD Jacquemontia tamnifolia (L.) Griseb., JD Stylisma humistrata (Walter) Chapm., JD

CORNACEAE Cornus asperifolia Michx., JD Cornus florida L.

CYRILLACEAE Cyrilla racemiflora L., JD

DROSERACEAE Drosera capillaris Poir., L Drosera intermedia Hayne, L

ERICACEAE Gaylussacia frondosa (L.) Torr. & A. Gray ex Torr. var. fronosa, L Lyonia ferruginea (Walter) Nutt., JD Lyonia lucida (Lam.) K. Koch Vaccinium tenellum Aiton., JD Vaccinium arboreum Marshall Vaccinium corymbosum L. Vaccinium elliottii Chapman. Vaccinium stamineum L., JD

EUPHORBIACEAE Cnidoscolus stimulosus (Michaux) Engelm & Gray, JD, L Croton argyranthemus Michx., L Croton glandulosus L. var. glandulosus, JD Crotonopsis linearis Michaux., L

48 Euphorbia discoidalis Chapm., JD Phyllanthus caroliniensis Walter Stillingia sylvatica L.

FABACEAE Albizia julibrissin Durazz., JD, L Amorpha fruiticosa L., JD Apios americana Medik., JD Baptisia alba (L.) Vent., JD Baptisia albescens Small Baptisia perfoliata (L.) R. Br. Cercis canadensis L., L Chamaecrista nictitans (L.) Moench. var. nictitans Clitoria mariana L., JD Crotalaria rotundifolia J.F. Gmel., L Galactia regularis (L.) BSP., L Galactia volubilis (L.) Britton., JD Gleditsia aquatica Marshall, L Lathyrus palustris L., L Lespedeza bicolor Turez., JD Lespedeza cuneata (Dumont) G. Don, JD, L Lespedeza intermedia (Watson) Britton, L Lespedeza procumbens Michaux., L Lespedeza repens (L.) W.P.C. Barton, JD Lespedeza violacea (L.) Pers., L Lespedeza virginica (L.) Britton, JD Lupinus perennis L., JD Mimosa microphylla Dry. Pediomelum canescens (Michx.) Rydb., L Rhynchosia reniformis DC., L Rhynchosia tomentosa (L.) Hook. & Arn., JD Schrankia microphylla (Solander ex Smith) Macbride, JD Sesbania punicea (Lav.) Benth., L Strophostyles umbellata (Muhl. Ex. Willd.) Britton, L Tephrosia florida (F. Dietr.) CE Wood, JD Tephrosia spicata (Walter) Torr. & A. Gray, JD Tephrosia virginiana Pers., JD Trifolium carolinianum Michx., JD Wisteria frutescens (L.) Poir.

FAGACEAE Quercus austrina Small, JD, SC Quercus falcata Michx., JD Quercus geminata Small Quercus laevis Walter Quercus laurifolia Michx. Quercus marilandica Munchh. Quercus nigra L. Quercus phellos L. Quercus stellata Wangenh., JD Quercus virginiana Miller, L

GENTIANACEAE Sabatia difformis (L.) Druce Sabatia dodecandra (L.) Britton et al.

49 HAMAMELIDACEAE Hamamelis virginiana L. Liquidambar styraciflua L., JD, L

JUGLANDACEAE Carya cordiformis (Wangenh.) K. Koch, L Carya glabra (Mill.) Sweet Carya tomentosa (Poir.) Nutt., JD

LAMIACEAE Dicerandra linearifolia (Elliott) Dicerandra odoratissima Harper Lamium amplexicaule L., L Monarda punctata L., JD Pycnanthemum floidanum E. Grant & Epling, JD Salvia lyrata L. Scutellaria integrifolia L., JD Scutellaria parvula Michx., JD Stachys floridana Shuttlew. ex Benth. Stachys hyssopifolia Michx.var. ambigua Gray Trichostema dichotomum L., JD

LAURACEAE Lindera benzoin (L.) Blume, L Lindera melissifolia (Walter) Blume, JD Persea palustris (Raf.) Sarg.

LENTIBULARIACEAE Utricularia subulata L., L

LINACEAE Linum sulcatum Riddell, JD

LOGANIACEAE Gelsemium sempervirens (L.) W.T. Aiton Mitreola petiolata (J.F. Gmel.) Torr. & A. Gray Polypremum procumbens L., JD Spigelia marilandica L., JD

LYTHRACEAE Cuphea carthagenensis (Jacq.) J.F. Macbr.

MAGNOLIACEAE Magnolia virginiana L.

MALVACEAE Hibiscus aculeatus Walter Hibiscus moschentos L., JD Modiola caroliniana (L.) G. Don.

MELASTOMATACEAE Rhexia alifanus Walter, L Rhexia mariana L., JD Rhexia virginica L., L

50 MORACEAE Morus rubra L., JD

MYRICACEAE Myrica cerifera L.

NYSSACEAE Nyssa aquatica L. Nyssa ogeche W. Bartram ex Marshall

OLEACEAE Chionanthus virginicus L., JD Osmanthus americus (L.) Benth. & Hookf. ex A. Gray, L

ONAGRACEAE Ludwigia decurrens Walter, JD Oenothera fruiticosa L., JD Oenothera lacinata Hill.

OXALIDACEAE Oxalis corniculata L., JD Oxalis dillenii Jacquin., JD, L

PASSIFLORACEAE Passiflora incarnanta L.

PHYTOLACCACEAE Passiflora incarnanta L., L

PLANTAGINACEAE Plantago aristata Michx., JD Plantago virginica L., JD

POLEMONIACEAE Phlox amoena Sims, JD Phlox glaberrima L., JD Phlox nivalis Lodd. Ex Sweet, JD

POLYGALACEAE Polygala lutea L.

POLYGONACEAE Eriogonum tomentosum Michaux. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Fagopyrum sagittatum Gilbert, JD, L Polygonella gracilis Meisn. Polygonum hydropiperoides Michx., JD Rumex hastatulus Baldwin, JD

PRIMULACEAE Lysimachia lanceolata Walter var. lanceolata, JD

RANUNCULACEAE Clematis crispa L., JD

51 ROSACEAE Agrimonia microcarpa Wallr., JD Amelanchier arborea (Michx. F.) Fernald, JD Chrysobalanus oblongifolius Michaux. Crataegus aestivalis (Walter) Torr. & A. Gray Crataegus flava Aiton Crataegus viridus L. Prunus angustifolia Marshall Prunus injucunda Small Prunus serotina Ehrh. var. serotina, JD Prunus umbellata Ell., JD Rosa carolina L., JD Rosa palustris Marshall, JD Rubus cuneifolius Pursh

RUBIACEAE Cephalanthus occidentalis L., JD Diodia teres Walter, JD, L Diodia virginiana L. Galium pilosum Aiton, JD Houstonia procumbens (J.F. Gmelin.) Standley, L Houstonia pusilla Schoepf., JD Richardia brasiliensis Gomes., L

SALICACEAE Salix humilis Marshall, L Salix nigra Marshall, JD

SAPOTACEAE Sideroxylon lycioides L.

SARRACENIACEAE Sarracenia minor Walter

SAXIFRAGACEAE Itea virginica L., L

SCROPHULARIACEAE Agalinus linifolia (Nutt.) Britton, JD Agalinus fasciculata (Ell.) Raf., JD Agalinus setacea (J.F. Gmel.) Raf., L Agalinus tenuifolia (Vahl.) Raf., JD Aureolaria pedicularia (L.) Raf., L Aureolaria virginica (L.) Pennell, JD Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell Dasistoma macrophylla (Nuttall) Raf., JD Linaria canadensis (L.) Chaz., JD Mecardonia acuminata (Walter) Small subsp. acuminata Micranthemum umbrosum (J.F. Gmel.) S.F. Blake, JD Penstemon australis Small, JD Seymeria pectinata Pursh., L

SOLANACEAE Solanum americanum Mill., JD Solanum carolinense L.

52 STYRACACEAE Halesia diptera J. Ellis, L

SYMPLOCACEAE Symplocos tinctoria (L.) L'Her., L

TURNERACEAE Piriqueta caroliniana (Walter) Urb., JD

ULMACEAE Celtis laevigata Willd. Ulmus alata Michaux., JD, L Ulmus americana L., JD

VERBENACEAE Callicarpa americana L., JD Glandularia canadensis (L.) Nutt. Glandularia pulchella (Sweet.) Tronc. Verbena brasiliensis Vell., JD Verbena officinalis L. subsp. halei (Small) SC Barber, L Verbena officinalis L. subsp. officinalis Verbena rigida Spreng., JD

VIOLACEAE Viola lanceolata L., JD Viola primulifolia L., L Viola sororia Willd., JD

VITACEAE Ampelopsis arborea (L.) Koehne, JD, L Vitis cinerea (Engelm.) Engelm. Ex Millardet var. floridana Munson Vitis rotundifolia Michx., L

53 APPENDIX B MAP OF BULLARD CREEK WMA

54 APPENDIX C MAP OF GRIFFIN RIDGE WMA

55 APPENDIX D

CLIMATE DATA FOR GLENVILLE, GA

(closest station to Doctortown 1 WSA, GA)

1998 1999 2000 30 Year Avg (Doctortown 1 WSA, GA) Temp. Temp. Precip Temp. Temp. Precip. Temp. Temp. Precip Temp. Temp. Precip Max Min (in.) Max Min (in.) Max Min (in.) Max Min (in.) (0F) (0F) (0F) (0F) (0F) (0F) (0F) (0F) Jan. 64.4 42.7 6.7 65.8 39.5 4.4 59.6 37.2 3.5 ND ND 4.4 Feb. 63.7 43.3 8.7 66.4 41 1.5 67.7 39.5 1.6 ND ND 3.8 March 66.8 44.7 4.5 70.5 41.4 1.1 74.1 47.9 3.7 ND ND 4.1 April 76.1 53.6 4.1 82.3 57.6 0.6 76 49.5 2.1 ND ND 3.4 May 87.2 64.4 3.1 85 59.5 1.2 88.4 63.5 0.8 ND ND 3.8 June 96.2 70.9 2.7 89.1 67.2 8.8 92.1 67.8 3.7 ND ND 4.9 July 95.2 73.5 2.5 91.6 72.5 6.9 94.8 70.3 2.9 ND ND 5.8 Aug. 91.5 71.3 6.8 95.1 72.5 3.8 91.3 70.1 5.5 ND ND 6.0 Sept. 87 68.6 9.4 85.3 64.6 5.5 82.8 65.7 4.8 ND ND 4.2 Oct. 80 58.1 1.2 77.2 56.5 2.7 78.4 52.2 0.1 ND ND 3.1 Nov. 73.7 52.2 0.3 73 48.1 1.4 69.3 43.5 2.2 ND ND 2.8 Dec. 66.4 45.3 2.2 62 37.7 1.9 55 32.5 3.2 ND ND 3.6 Annual Precip 52.2 39.8 33.9 49.8

56 APPENDIX E

CLIMATE DATE FOR SURRENCY, GA (closest station to Lumber City, GA)

1998 1999 2000 30 Year Avg. (Lumber City) Temp. Temp. Precip Temp. Temp. Precip. Temp. Temp. Precip Temp. Temp. Precip Max Min (in.) Max Min (in.) Max Min (in.) Max Min (in.) (0F) (0F) (0F) (0F) (0F) (0F) (0F) (0F) Jan. 63.7 42.8 6.2 66.5 40.3 4.2 60.8 38.7 3.6 60.1 35.4 4.8 Feb. 64.5 43.5 7.1 68 40.3 1.9 69.1 37.7 2.0 64.2 37.7 3.9 March 68.6 44.5 6.3 72.6 41.2 1.3 76.5 45.3 5.1 71.4 44.2 4.1 April 77.6 52.9 2.4 83.8 57.6 1.0 76.4 47.4 2.5 78.6 50.6 3.1 May 88.4 61.8 0.9 86 57.2 0.8 88.6 61 0.6 85.1 58.2 2.7 June 97.4 69.2 0.7 89.1 66.1 9.6 91.2 65.6 2.9 90.2 65.7 3.9 July ------91.8 71.6 6.1 94.1 67.4 4.1 92.7 69.6 5.7 Aug. 92.8 68.8 6.1 93.6 70.9 3.2 91.4 67.8 1.7 91.2 69.1 5.1 Sept. 87.2 67 10.4 86.9 63.4 5.3 85.2 65.1 7.0 87.2 63.8 3.7 Oct. 80.8 55.1 1.0 79 55.6 1.2 80.8 48.8 0.3 79.9 53.5 2.6 Nov. 73.6 51.2 0.2 71.2 47.4 1.2 69.9 43.7 2.5 69.1 43.0 3.3 Dec. 66.4 44.9 2.2 62.5 33.7 1.8 57.2 33.7 3.2 63.6 37.8 3.9 Annual Precip 43.4 37.5 35.4 78.0 52.6 46.8

57