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Metafizyka Cierpienia. Od Arystotelesa, Poprzez Myśl Indyjską, Do Myśli

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Metafizyka Cierpienia. Od Arystotelesa, Poprzez Myśl Indyjską, Do Myśli Metafizyka cierpienia PISMA FILOZOFICZNE – TOM CXV W³odzimierz Wilowski Metafizyka cierpienia Od Arystotelesa, poprzez myœl indyjsk¹, do myœli chrzeœcijañskiej UNIWERSYTET IM. ADAMA MICKIEWICZA W POZNANIU WYDAWNICTWO NAUKOWE INSTYTUTU FILOZOFII POZNAÑ 2010 KOLEGIUM WYDAWNICZE Tadeusz Buksiñski (przewodnicz¹cy), Boles³aw Andrzejewski, Barbara Kotowa, Anna Pa³ubicka, Krzysztof Przybyszewski (sekretarz), Jan Such Recenzent prof. dr hab. Edward Jeliñski © Copyright by W³odzimierz Wilowski, 2010 Projekt ok³adki Anna Wilowska Redakcja Izabela Baran ISBN 978-83-7092-107-1 WYDAWNICTWO NAUKOWE INSTYTUTU FILOZOFII UNIWERSYTETU IM. ADAMA MICKIEWICZA W POZNANIU 60-569 Poznañ, ul. Szamarzewskiego 89c, tel. 061 829 22 78, fax 061 829 21 47, e-mail: [email protected] www.staff.amu.edu.pl/~filozof DRUK: Zak³ad Graficzny UAM ul. Wieniawskiego 1, 61-712 Poznañ Spis treœci Zamiast wprowadzenia .......................... 9 Wstêp .................................... 11 1. Poszukuj¹c pojêæ, definicji i sposobów analiz cierpienia w wybranych interpretacjach zachodnich ............. 29 2. Arystoteles. Cierpienie jako z³o przeciwne naturze. Wybrane elementy myœli antycznej na temat cierpienia ........... 44 2.1. Cierpienie jako stan duszy .................... 49 2.2. Przyjemnoœæ i przykroœæ jako reakcja w³adzy zmys³owej i ntelektualnej na dobro i z³o .................. 51 2.3. Cierpienie jako nastêpstwo dzia³añ i po¿¹dañ ........ 52 2.4. Naocznoœæ, litoœæ i oburzenie a cierpienie oraz podatnoœæ na cierpienie ............................ 55 2.5. Co rodzi cierpienie i ból? .................... 57 2.6. Zdolnoœci, trwa³e dyspozycje, namiêtnoœæ a przykroœæ i przyjemnoœæ czy te¿ doskona³oœæ etyczna a przykroœæ i przyjemnoœæ ........................... 58 2.7. Cnota umiaru a przykroœæ .................... 60 3. ¯ycie ludzkie jest cierpieniem. Wybrane elementy myœli indyjskiej ................................ 62 3.1. ród³a i istota cierpienia w Upaniszadach ........... 64 3.1.1. Cierpienie jako z³o przynale¿ne stworzeniom ..... 65 3.1.2. Cierpienie element ¿ycia czy ¿ycie jako cierpienie? . 66 3.1.3. Cierpienie jako ryt inicjacyjny tradycji indyjskiej . 71 3.1.4. Elementy upaniszadowej wizji œwiata. Atman jako Ÿród³o szczêœcia i cierpienia? To, co bez formy, wolne jest od cierpienia ...................... 77 3.2. Wybrane w¹tki poupaniszadowych rozwa¿añ na temat cierpienia ............................. 82 3.2.1. Bhagawadgita o Ÿród³ach cierpienia ........... 82 3.2.2. Inspiracje Protosankhji na temat cierpienia ...... 86 3.2.2.1. Mokszadharma. Cierpienie jako element œwiadomoœci ................... 88 3.2.3. Cierpienie w Sankhjakarika Iœwarakriszny ....... 91 3.2.3.1. Doznawanie cierpienia jako motyw poznania usuwaj¹cych je œrodków ............ 92 3.2.3.2. Siedzib¹ cierpienia jest natura. W³aœciwoœci cierpienia ..................... 93 3.2.3.3. Cierpienie a trzy guny prakriti ......... 97 3.2.3.4. Dyspozycje buddhi (intelektu) a cierpienie . 99 3.2.3.5. Cierpienie w zindywidualizowanych formach istnienia ...................... 103 3.2.4. Cierpienie w Jogasutrach Patañd¿alego ......... 105 3.2.4.1. Po raz kolejny wszystko jest cierpieniem . 108 3.2.4.2. Doznanie przyjemnoœci oraz przykroœci jako przejawy cierpienia ............. 110 3.2.4.3. Cierpienie jako element traktatu medycznego i Jogasutr Patañd¿alego ............. 115 3.2.4.4. Cierpienie jako symptom rozproszenia œwiadomoœci ................... 117 3.2.4.5. Cierpienie jako skutek piêciocz³onowej niewiedzy (awidja) albo uci¹¿liwoœci (kleœa) .. 119 3.2.4.6. S³aboœæ myœli a krzywda i cierpienie ..... 124 3.2.5. Buddyjska nauka o cierpieniu .............. 125 3.2.5.1. Czy buddyzm jest jedynie teori¹ i praktyk¹ usuwania cierpienia? .............. 131 3.2.5.2. Co warunkuje cierpienie? ............ 132 3.2.5.3. Cierpienie w dwunastu ogniwach prawa wspó³zale¿nego powstawania a bhawaczakra (ko³o ¿ycia) .................... 136 3.2.5.4. Cztery Szlachetne Prawdy o cierpieniu .... 141 3.2.5.5. Cierpienie jako element ¿ycia prenatalnego . 146 3.2.5.6. Dwie prawdy o cierpieniu Nagard¿uny .... 147 3.2.5.7. Intencja przebudzenia, przebudzenie oraz pomoc wszystkim ¿ywym stworzeniom w pokonaniu cierpienia. Idea³ bodhisattwy Œantidewy ..................... 153 4. Wybrane elementy chrzeœcijañskiej nauki o sensie cierpienia i w³aœciwym zachowaniu siê wobec niego ............. 160 4.1. Starotestamentowe usprawiedliwienie cierpienia ...... 161 4.1.1. Jak odczuwa siê cierpienie? Cierpienie jako doœwiadczany ból wewnêtrzny .... 165 4.1.2. G³ówne przyczyny cierpienia albo poszukuj¹c jego najwy¿szego przejawu w ksiêgach Starego Testamentu . 169 4.1.3. Czy œmieræ wywo³uje najwiêksze cierpienie? ..... 182 4.1.4. Jeszcze raz o starotestamentowych przyczynach cierpienia i œmierci .................... 186 4.1.5. Tajemnica cierpienia a przypadek Hioba. Poszukuj¹c zrozumienia niezrozumianego? ............. 187 4.1.6. Cztery Pieœni o Cierpieniu S³ugi Jahwe ......... 195 4.2. Oczyszczaj¹ce cierpienie mi³osiernej mi³oœci boga. Cierpienie w Nowym Testamencie ............... 198 4.2.1. Zbawczy sens cierpienia. Cierpienie Chrystusowe . 200 4.2.2. Cierpienie Chrystusa ................... 202 4.2.2.1. Mi³oœæ jako Ÿród³o cierpienia Jezusa – Ogrójec . 206 4.2.2.2. Cierpienie na Golgocie ............. 210 4.2.3. Cierpienie z Chrystusem ................. 214 4.2.4. Oczyszczaj¹ce cierpienie apokaliptyczne ........ 218 5. Kilka uwag o metafizyce cierpienia ................. 221 Spis rysunków ............................... 233 Wybór tekstów Ÿród³owych ....................... 235 Indeks osób ................................. 239 Wybrana biblografia ............................ 243 Zamiast wprowadzenia Podejmuj¹c temat cierpienia, powinno siê to robiæ z uwa¿noœci¹, powag¹ i skromnoœci¹. Zawsze przy omawianiu cierpienia zderza siê ze sob¹ s³owo i milczenie. Cierpieniu daje siê wyraz milczeniem. Po milczeniu przychodzi jednak czas tak¿e na s³owo, ale na ogó³ tych, którzy s¹ przera¿eni cierpieniem, mimo ¿e byli tylko jego œwiadkami. Choæ potrafimy wskazywaæ na ró¿ne rodzaje cierpienia, na jego przyczyny, powody, Ÿród³a, poszukuj¹c nieustannie ci¹gle to no- wych „lekarstw” na przyt³umienie lub zabicie tego dra¿liwego do- znania czy raczej doœwiadczenia cz³owieka, ka¿dego cz³owieka, za- wsze zdaje siê ono umykaæ, aby pojawiæ siê na nowo. Ludzie, którzy cierpieli lub cierpi¹, s¹ inni, jakby uwa¿niejsi, bar- dziej czuli, m¹drzejsi. T¹ m¹droœci¹ praktyczn¹, która potrafi prze- widywaæ, która ma wspó³czucie, zrozumienie i która siê nie spieszy. Cz³owiek, który cierpi, potrzebuje zrozumienia, uwagi, jakby oczekiwa³ towarzystwa w przejœciu do innego wymiaru. Wie, ¿e ostatecznie bêdzie w nim sam. W samotnoœci zaœ nadzieja zdaje siê byæ cen¹ jego przetrwania. Cz³owiek cierpi¹cy potrzebuje pomocy. Nie potrzebuje wyjaœ- niania ani analiz. Potrzebuje jednak tak¿e zrozumienia sensu w³as- nego cierpienia. Cierpienie wydaje siê byæ z³em przeciwstawnym naturze, lecz w naturze zdaje siê te¿ byæ zawarte, jako moc jej przekszta³cania. Cierpienie jest zawsze niepowtarzalne, indywidualne i dotyka samej g³êbi cz³owieczeñstwa. S³owami mo¿na staraæ siê opisywaæ tylko zewnêtrzne jego aspek- ty, jego g³êbi doœwiadcza siê samemu. Autor Wstêp Tytu³ ksi¹¿ki Metafizyka cierpienia. Od Arystotelesa, poprzez myœl in- dyjsk¹, do myœli chrzeœcijañskiej wymaga krótkiego omówienia. Pierw- sza czêœæ tytu³u mo¿e nieœæ pytanie, w jakim sensie mo¿na u¿ywaæ pojêcia metafizyka cierpienia. Podtytu³ natomiast wskazuje na za- kres jego interpretacji w kontekœcie pogl¹dów wziêtych z ró¿nych kultur czy cywilizacji. S¹ one na tyle odmienne, ¿e pojawiæ siê mo¿e w zwi¹zku z tym kolejne pytanie dotycz¹ce mo¿liwoœci dialogu po- miêdzy przedstawicielami odmiennych kultur czy tak¿e religii. Mo¿- liwoœci, która ujawnia siê równie¿ ze wzglêdu na zagadnienie cier- pienia. Pokrótce zastanówmy siê nad tymi zagadnieniami. Analizuj¹c myœl filozoficzn¹ œwiata zachodniego i wschodniego, trudno odnaleŸæ jakieœ jedno syntetyczne czy mo¿e tak¿e eklektycz- ne pojêcie metafizyki w³aœciwe dla jednego z tych œwiatów albo wspólne jednoczeœnie dla obu. Podobnie nie³atwo zgodziæ siê z tez¹, ¿e to jedynie Kartezjañska nauka o tym, co niematerialne czy Bergsonow- skie swoiste poznanie, co rzeczywiste w samym sobie odzwierciedlaj¹, czym jest metafizyka. Czy mo¿na zatem poszukiwaæ podstaw meta- fizyki cierpienia podobnie jak metafizyki moralnoœci czy metafizyki z³a albo metafizyki œmierci? Takie pytanie dla ludzi zapoznanych z filo- zofi¹ wydaje siê zgo³a niepotrzebne, bo oczywistoœæ zestawienia metafizyki z cierpieniem, z³em czy œmierci¹ jest jednoznaczna. Dzie- je siê tak choæby ze wzglêdu na poszukiwanie w takim kontekœcie istoty z³a, œmierci czy cierpienia. Jednak gdy mowa o metafizyce cier- pienia, mo¿na oczywiœcie siêgn¹æ do inspiracji klasycznych, wska- zuj¹c na pojêcie µåôÜ ôÜ öõóéêÜ. Oczywiœcie Arystoteles ani nie wy- myœli³ pojêcia metafizyka, ani nie wspomina³ o metafizyce cierpienia, z³a, œmierci czy moralnoœci. Przynajmniej nie czyni³ tego wprost, odnosz¹c siê do zestawieñ takich pojêæ. Tytu³ metafizyka prawdopodobnie po œmierci Arystotelesa wymyœli³ Andronikos z Rodos. Arystoteles na okreœlenie wiedzy, która siê za nim kryje, u¿ywa³ miêdzy innymi terminu filozofia pierwsza. Co jednak wydaje siê wa¿ne, zbiór pism zawieraj¹cych rozwa¿ania Arystotelesa, nazwany póŸniej Metafizyk¹, zawiera kilka cennych wskazówek 12 Wstêp pozwalaj¹cych na uzasadnienie pojêcia metafizyka cierpienia,aza- tem ostatecznie tak¿e tytu³u ksi¹¿ki. W ksiêdze Gamma (IV) Metafi- zyki interpretuje siê j¹ jako naukê, która bada Byt jako taki
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