Using the Internet to Integrate Thematic and Regional Approaches in Geographic Education*

Philip E. Steinberg, Andy Walter, and Kathleen Sherman-Morris Florida State University Geographers have long debated the superiority of regional versus thematic approaches to geographical analysis and geographic education. While most acknowledge that these two approaches are complementary, the task of implementing both approaches in a single introductory course remains challenging. “Global Change, Local Places,” an Internet-based course offered at Florida State University, attempts to fuse thematic and regional approaches using methodological and pedagogical techniques that emphasize student-centered learning and Internet technologies. Re- sults of a student survey and analysis of student assignments suggest that this format was successful. Students expressed a high level of satisfaction with course content, and, although attainment of skills and knowledge was particularly hard to measure given the structure and goals of the course, students appear to have gained country-speciﬁc knowledge as well as skills in critical analysis using thematic concepts. Key Words: geographic education, globalization, Internet, introductory geography, world regional geography.

Thematic vs. Regional Geographies somewhat short of [a] distinctive geographic fla- vor” (Fenneman 1919, 8; emphasis in original). uppose geography were dead, what Perhaps the debate’s most contentious mo- “S would be left” (Fenneman 1919, 3)? So ment occurred with the Hartshorne-Schaefer begins one of many soul-searching contribu- debate of the early 1950s. Fred Schaefer (1953) tions to a longstanding existential debate within challenged the then-dominant position of U.S. geography regarding the discipline’s sub- Richard Hartshorne’s “chorological” (regional- ject matter and methodological approach(es). synthetic) approach and proposed that the This debate, which pits a “regional” against a main concern of geographical research should “thematic”1 approach to geographical analysis, not be the uniqueness of places, but the gener- waxed and waned during the twentieth century alities of spatial patterns and the laws that gov- and is braided throughout the discipline’s intel- ern them (Hartshorne 1939; Schaefer 1953). lectual history. The “space versus place dispute,” as Bunge Within the “regional” approach, geography (1967, 353) described the debate, flared again is the study of places (or areas or regions) and in the early 1980s with Hart’s (1982) treatise in the unique synthesis of phenomena that consti- support of regional geography and critical re- tutes each individual place. Within the “the- joinders from Golledge and colleagues (1982) matic” approach, the essential objective of geo- and Healey (1983), and again in the late 1980s graphical analysis is to understand systematic in the context of the locality studies debate or general spatial patterns of various phenom- (Cooke 1987; Smith 1987). ena. Nevil Fenneman (1919, 3), who penned Most geographers, including many who par- the introspection above, advocated a regional ticipated directly in the debate, have recog- approach, arguing that true geographical anal- nized that the regional and thematic ap- ysis is “first, last, and always . . . the study of proaches are complementary, and many have areas in their compositeness or complexity.” endeavored to affirm this theoretically, meth- His assessment of the thematic approach led odologically, and pedagogically. It is perhaps him to conclude, “The study of the [spatial] a geographic truism that phenomena that distribution of any one element by itself falls distribute across space shape the character of

* The authors are grateful to Regan Fawley, John Grimes, Rob McGowan, Darren Purcell, and Brian Yates, each of whom helped in developing or teaching the “Global Change, Local Places” course. Additional assistance was provided by Joe Clark, John Flynn, Gerardo Garcia, and Joanna Southerland of FSU’s Office of Distributed and Distance Learning, and Peter Dragovitsch of FSU’s Office of Administrative Information Systems. Thanks also to Jonathan Leib for advice throughout in writing this article. The Professional Geographer, 54(3) 2002, pages 332–348 © Copyright 2002 by Association of American Geographers. Initial submission, June 2001; revised submission, January 2002; final acceptance, January 2002. Published by Blackwell Publishing, 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, and 108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JF, UK.

Using the Internet to Integrate Thematic and Regional Approaches 333 specific places, while, conversely, the processes concerned with the structure and substance of that arise in these places go on to impact geographic education. This is reflected in the broader-scale social and physical processes. division of courses within geography curricula, Massey’s (1984, 1994) work in economic geog- in concerns with the formatting of introduc- raphy and Cox’s (1993) in urban geography, for tory textbooks, and in the debate that has raged instance, demonstrate that while places have in geographic education journals such as the unique dynamics and characteristics, these dy- Journal of Geography and the Journal of Geogra- namics both reflect the spatial unevenness of phy in Higher Education since the era of Hart- larger-scale processes and constitute these pro- shorne-Schaefer over how best to teach geog- cesses. Within geographic education, the Na- raphy. As Halseth and Fondahl (1998) note, if tional Geography Education Standards Project one believes that the heart of geography lies in attempts to incorporate both the regional and the study of the region, then geographic educa- thematic approaches, asserting that while geo- tion should begin with the world regional sur- graphical analysis is rooted in the study of vey course, followed by more advanced courses places, geography is an “integrative discipline” on specific regions that detail how a region’s in which an understanding of place depends various processes intersect in place to forge the on an understanding of spatial patterns and region’s specific character. If one believes that processes (Geography Education Standards the heart of geography lies in thematic analysis, Project 1994). then the entry point into the discipline should We connect this debate over the essential na- be a series of thematic courses (“Introduction ture of geographic inquiry with a parallel ques- to Human Geography,” “Introduction to Phys- tion regarding geographic education: Should ical Geography”), followed by more advanced, the focus of an introductory geography course specialized courses (“Economic Geography,” be an overview of distinct regions or a survey of “Geomorphology,” etc.). analytical geographic themes? In the remain- Each approach has its drawbacks. Students der of this article, we discuss how we attempted who are educated solely through the regional to achieve thematic-regional fusion in a student- approach probably will amass considerable centered environment by employing two Inter- knowledge about specific regions of the net-based devices: on-line, individualized coun- world, but they may lack a conceptual under- try research, and on-line discussion boards on standing of the “why of where” that enables which students posted and commented on one them to predict whether—given a set of place another’s research. In the next section of this characteristics—specific geographic phenom- article, we review a long-standing debate about ena are likely to occur. They also may fail to the foundation of geographic education, and understand the underlying dynamics of social we discuss how others have envisioned a fusion and physical processes that span distinct re- of the regional and thematic perspectives. Fol- gions. As Murphy (1998, 133) notes in his dis- lowing this, we outline the “Global Change, cussion of the College Board’s recent decision Local Places” course. This is followed by a sec- to make the Advanced Placement geography tion in which we evaluate the course’s success in course be in human rather than world re- achieving regional-thematic fusion and a sec- gional geography, “Designing an analytically tion in which we consider how pedagogical grounded human geography course seemed to tools employed in this Internet-based class be more feasible than a world regional geogra- could be applied to more traditional classroom phy course, given the challenge of teaching the settings. In the conclusion, we re-evaluate the latter in a manner that is not encyclopedic.” On course in light of the ongoing tension between the other hand, students who are educated regional and thematic geography. solely through the thematic approach probably will gain a thorough understanding of specific Debating Geographic Pedagogy geographic processes and distributions, but they may lack an ability to appreciate the vari- While Neil Smith (1987, 66) finds the “crude ous interrelated factors that give a specific Hartshornian battle between . . . the unique place its unique character. Throughout this de- and the general . . . [to be] a thoroughly sterile bate (and, in particular, since the early 1980s), debate,” it remains a significant issue for those scholars have argued for a middle ground in

334 Volume 54, Number 3, August 2002 geographic education that incorporates both emphasizes predictive laws rather than regional thematic and regional knowledge. In practice, characteristics because the “spatial science” ap- however, this fusion has been difficult to proach is both more technically sound and achieve, and thus much of the debate has been more interesting to students. Hudman (1972, characterized by dueling extremes. 520) urged that the transition to thematic per- Several major shifts in this debate regarding spectives be hastened, noting that thematic ap- approaches to geographic education have oc- proaches “have been seriously overlooked in curred since the “Hartshornian battles” of the the teaching of geography,” leaving students early 1950s. While Hartshorne responded to with the impression that geographic study is Schaefer’s challenge to the regional approach merely “the accumulation of facts concerning a with a thorough and sustained rebuttal (Hart- particular region.” This trend in the geo- shorne 1954, 1955, 1958), by the mid-1960s graphic education literature continued through the thematic approach, practiced as “spatial sci- the end of the 1970s, as Kracht and Boehm ence,” had achieved dominant status within the (1980, 104) argued that a curriculum based on a discipline. The trend within the geographic ed- traditional regional approach does not prepare ucation literature, however, was for articles students “to understand, cope [with], and help stressing the regional approach as the pedagog- resolve” emerging social problems. To the ex- ical core of geography. Writing in the Journal of tent that scholars during the 1970s promoted Geography during the heyday of spatial science, regional courses at all, they touted the value of Steinhauser (1967, 350) maintained a Hart- the region as a laboratory for illustrating the shornian view that teachers and students must thematic concepts that constituted the core of approach geography as the study of “the facts geographic education (Bacon 1979). In this of area from the viewpoint of area rather than role, the regional approach “can serve as the from the viewpoint of phenomena found there.” real world testing ground for theoretic, system- Likewise, while James (1967) acknowledged atic geography” (Walter and Bernard 1973, 19). the merits of both regional and thematic geog- Since the early 1980s, most contributors to raphy, he insisted that geographic education the geographic education literature have urged begin with the regional approach. Otherwise, a middle ground, although they have ap- he argued, students of geography would be- proached that ground from two distinct direc- come detached from the “world they occupy” tions. Some scholars, following the earlier and geography would appear as a “hall of mir- works of Walter and Bernard (1973) and Bacon rors” produced by scientific deductions from (1979), have used the thematic approach as spatial laws. their foundation but have suggested that a re- Two articles published in 1968 signaled a gional component can serve to connect spatial transition in the geographic education litera- concepts and themes to empirical understand- ture. While Kostbade (1968, 12) acknowledged ing of actual places. Taaffe (1985) calls for a re- that the regional approach was useful, he con- vival of the regional concept within a broader tended that pedagogical approaches to geogra- thematic approach to teaching geography. In a phy had put “too much emphasis, of an almost refrain of Walter and Bernard’s view of the re- mystical nature . . . on the regional concept.” As gion as “laboratory,” he (96) argues that spatial he pointed out, regions by themselves do not “ideas make sense only if applied to a place [or “explain things.” Expressing similar concerns, region].” Moreover, he observes that teaching Nostrand (1968) developed a basic model to spatial systems in relation to the region would serve as a guide to help teachers explain what is lead to a much-needed broadening of perspec- relevant about regions. Anticipating theoretical tives on spatial models. Extending this latter developments in the broader intellectual cur- point, DeSouza (1985) argues that the empha- rent, the model conceptualizes a “monistic” ap- sis on spatial analysis in geographic instruction proach in which the region is understood as a had, by the mid-1980s, gone too far. As a result, place produced historically by spatial processes. students were learning of a “skeletal world of After 1968, there was a decided shift toward areas, points, and lines” (DeSouza, 50) that is thematic approaches to teaching geography. devoid of the complexities and specificities of Brown and Hurst (1969) argued that economic social life. In order to bring “the ‘human’ back geography should be taught in a manner that into geography,” DeSouza (50) proposes a

Using the Internet to Integrate Thematic and Regional Approaches 335 structuralist approach that emphasizes the his- haps, are de Blij and Muller (2000), whose text- torical and geographical interplay between book explicitly uses each region to explicate a human agency and the social structures that “systematic” subfield of geography (e.g., urban produce the places in which people live their geography in North America, political geogra- lives. Among textbooks currently used in U.S. phy in Southeast Asia, etc.). Other regional introductory geography courses, this approach textbooks, such as those by Pulsipher (2000) of thematic geography supplemented by re- and Rowntree and colleagues (2000), adopt a gional studies can be found in Fellman, Getis, template of themes that they apply to each re- and Getis (1999), in which each chapter focuses gion, thereby imparting to the student a knowl- on a theme, but also features a number of edge of both regions and themes. Clawson amply illustrated case studies designed to give (2001) takes a somewhat different tack, framing the student a sense of how the theme affects his survey of the world’s regions around the individuals in “real-world” places. leitmotif of “development,” which, in turn, A second group of scholars approaches this facilitates discussion of various themes within middle ground by beginning from the regional the regional portraits. perspective but urging that it can be made The most recent phase of the regional- more insightful by integrating it with the study thematic debate in geographic education in- of thematic topics. Noting the widespread volves a variety of attempts to implement, rather “geographic illiteracy” in the United States de- than merely envision, a middle ground through spite (or perhaps because of ) a pedagogical innovative teaching methods. These include approach that emphasizes the “mastery of geo- techniques that can be achieved in traditional graphic information,” Allen (1989, 53) reviews classrooms, such as case-based and primary a discussion paper published by the Depart- source research, problem-solving, peer assessment of Education and Science in the United ment, and interactive and cooperative learning Kingdom. Although this discussion paper rec- (Libbee 1988; Hertzog and Lieble 1996; Grant ommends that geography be taught through a 1997). A theme of “student-centered” learning region-by-region approach, it suggests that weaves through each of these attempts, sug- this pedagogical format be used primarily for gesting that a regional-thematic middle ground instruction regarding “concepts, principles, can be reached by means of a reconfigured peda- and models of geographic analysis” rather than gogical model. In contrast to traditional teacher- instruction on the unique characteristics of in- centered learning, a student-centered model dividual regions. Likewise, Karan and Mather recasts the instructor-lecturer as a “facilitator” (1986, 96) insist on an approach that begins and activates the role of the student from a with the study of familiar regions but makes passive listener to an engaged investigator, substantial use of spatial “patterns, processes, interpreter, and evaluator, producing thereby and behavior in other geographical settings and a model of learning that is “cooperative,” “col- cultures” to draw out the important features of laborative,” and “interactive.” Hertzog and those (familiar and unfamiliar) regions. Halseth Lieble compare introductory geography courses and Fondahl (1998, 336) also express the need in both of these formats and tentatively con- for regional courses that involve more than a clude that cooperative learning is a more effec- “synthesis of data about places.” In their dis- tive pedagogical approach and more popular cussion of curriculum development at a new among students. Grant and Libbee both specif- university, they (336) examine the merits of ically argue that student-centered learning various regional course outlines and put forth allows the regional and thematic approaches to their idea for a “new regional geography” course be integrated into a single course. Grant, in that emphasizes “recursive relationships be- particular, spells out a “case-method” approach tween general processes and specific places.” that, he (181) argues, brings both “territorial In the U.S., where the world-regions survey knowledges and general principles” into the course remains the dominant vehicle for intro- geographic learning process. Furthermore, ductory geographic instruction (Muller 1995), because it compels students to examine and textbook authors have attempted in various discuss spatial themes in relation to different ways to integrate the thematic approach within places, the case method develops students’ a world regional framework. Most direct, per- capacities for “independent inquiry and critical

336 Volume 54, Number 3, August 2002 thinking on geographic issues” by encouraging Change, Local Places” (GCLP),2 an upper- them to think both spatially and contextually level, distance-learning course offered by the (Grant, 176). As he notes, “Through the use of Department of Geography at Florida State multiple cases, students learn how to apply University (FSU).3 The course aimed to pro- general concepts to the real world and learn to vide an introduction to topics in human geog- be specific; as a consequence, they become raphy through a sustained focus on the phe- more tentative about applying generalizations nomenon of “globalization,” defined in the across the board” (Grant, 176). course syllabus as “the complex set of processes Paralleling, but entirely distinct from, this lit- that, on the one hand, are bringing the various erature on achieving a fusion of the regional and parts of the world closer together but, on the thematic perspectives, a number of geographers other hand, are exacerbating difference and have written about the potential for using the conflict among and within local societies.” The Internet in geographic instruction (Bullard 1998; course was one of two inaugural courses in a Crampton 1998; Ó Tuathail and McCormack newly formed distance-learning major in Inter- 1998; Wong 1998; Graham and McNeil 1999; disciplinary Social Sciences, which was being Ludwig 1999; Stainfield et al. 2000; Taylor marketed primarily to students who had ob- 2000). Many scholars writing about the Inter- tained associates’ degrees at Florida commu- net have noted that it features interactive qual- nity colleges and were now seeking to complete ities that are conducive to the flexible, self- their final two years on-line. Secondarily, FSU constructed, self-guided process of student- was also promoting the major to nontraditional centered learning. Indeed, as Taylor (15) students who had begun their university educa- observes, the interactivity inherent in Internet tion some time earlier and now were in loca- usage may suggest “an entirely new paradigm tions or family/medical/occupational situations of [Internet-based] education, one centered where they could not easily attend traditional around learners rather than teachers . . . [in classes to complete their degrees. Along with which] the classroom is the world, the teacher is these students from the major’s target popula- the facilitator, multimedia predominates over tions, the course’s enrollees also included a few written texts, and collaborative learning is the traditional students at “nontraditional” loca- norm.” tions (e.g., study-abroad centers) and a small While this idealization of the Internet number of traditional, on-campus students. should be viewed with a critical eye (Ó Tuathail The course was offered via the Blackboard ed- and McCormack 1998; Taylor 2000), it points ucation software package. to the potential contribution that Internet- Because of the anticipated student base, it based technologies might make to pedagogical was assumed that most students would have methods that attempt to integrate the regional had no prior experience with post-secondary- and thematic approaches to geography. Given level geography, and the course thus was de- that student-centered learning has been identi- signed to function simultaneously as an intro- fied as a particularly fruitful pedagogy for achiev- ductory geography course and an upper-level ing regional-thematic fusion in geographic social science course. In fact, of nineteen stu- education, and given that the Internet has been dents who responded to the survey discussed found to be conducive for implementing stu- below, only seven had not taken any geography dent-centered learning, it follows that a course courses; six students had taken one previous ge- that extensively utilizes Internet-based tech- ography course, and six had taken more than nologies could be the ideal vehicle for deliver- one. Of the survey respondents, this was the ing a student-centered course that bridges the first on-line course for nine, the second for four, regional-thematic divide. In the remainder of while the remaining six were distance-learning this article, we discuss our endeavor to meet veterans. this challenge. The course was divided into four four-week units, each of which examined how globaliza- Global Change, Local Places tion was occurring within a distinct thematic area of geography: economic geography, envi- During the fall 2000 semester, the authors of ronmental geography, cultural geography, and this article developed and taught “Global political geography. The focus on globalization

Using the Internet to Integrate Thematic and Regional Approaches 337

was chosen because, besides linking the four country, it was expected that a substantial thematic areas, the impact of globalization var- amount of students’ effort in the class would be ies from place to place. The globalization devoted to “surfing” the Web for country- theme thus allowed for a curriculum that fused specific information that related to the week’s the study of themes and contemporary pro- assignment question. The course website in- cesses with the study of distinct places. The cluded tips and helpful links for conducting Internet was utilized to implement certain ped- Web-based country research. agogical devices that facilitated this fusion. Students posted each of their formal post- At the beginning of the course, students ings to their group’s Internet-based discussion were divided into groups of four students. Each board, which was accessible to all members of student was asked to pick one country to follow the group as well as the instructors. While the throughout the semester, with the condition instructors e-mailed grades and comments on that no two students in the same group could each formal posting directly to the posting stu- write about the same country. Additionally, for dent, students complemented their formal each unit, one student in each group was desig- postings with “informal postings,” threaded nated as “discussant.” Since there were four discussions that responded to each other’s students in each group and four units in the formal and informal postings. The unit’s dis- course (economic, environmental, cultural, and cussant was charged with reading the other political geography), each student was to serve students’ formal and informal postings, asking as discussant for one unit. follow-up questions, and generating dis- Each of the four four-week units had a simi- cussion. Nondiscussants in the group had lar structure. The unit began with an introduc- an incentive to respond to the discussant and tory Web page (generally about six screens) as participate in discussions, since they would be well as a RealVideo file that oriented the stu- serving as discussant in another unit and would dent to the topic in question. Following this in- be dependent on participation from other troductory page, links for each of the first three members of the group. weeks of the unit led to assignment pages con- For the fourth week of each unit, the read- taining required readings for the week (one or ings were entirely on-line. Descriptive pages two chapters from the Open University “Shape that synthesized the topics from the previous of the World” textbook series) and a weekly three weeks of the unit were complemented by formal posting assignment for the three non- links to external sites that gave contrasting per- discussants in the group. The formal posting spectives on one or two case studies. Again, assignments called for students to apply the Unit I (Economic Geography) is represen- week’s readings to their country. The assign- tative. Building upon readings from the previ- ment from Week 3 of Unit I (Economic Geog- ous three weeks on topics such as tourism, raphy) is representative: labor migration, the rise of multinational cor- porations, the increased speed of transporta- Chapters 3 and 5 [the required readings for the tion and communications, and the globaliza- week] both consider how the use (or consump- tion of commodity chains, the on-line readings tion) of particular spaces for economic purposes is variously implicated in processes of both eco- focused on two case studies. The first case nomic development and social polarization. Chap- study examined the politics of localized con- ter 3 relates labor migration to growing urban sumption amidst the globalization of produc- inequality while Chapter 5 contemplates the un- tion, with a focus on the campus-based anti- even costs and benefits of tourism to the places sweatshop movement. Locally-generated Web for which travelers are destined. Examine eco- pages explaining the issue were complemented nomic development and/or social polarization with links to Web pages by groups ranging in your country and discuss how the processes from the UN Research Institute for Social De- of labor migration and/or tourism have con- velopment to the and tributed to social inequality in your country. National Catholic Reporter (course website) from the political action organization Global Exchange to the Nike Corporation. The sec- Because these weekly assignments required ond case study focused on the potentials and students to integrate thematic material covered limits of ecotourism, with links pointing to Web in the readings with details specific to their pages of antitourism groups and ecotourism

338 Volume 54, Number 3, August 2002 promoters. At the end of these pages, the three global change that are occurring in today’s nondiscussants in each group were asked the world, with an emphasis on how these changes following questions for their week-four formal are being experienced by individuals and socie- posting assignment: ties in specific places.” Because the class goals focused on critical thinking and research skills Given what you know about globalization, economic geography, and the specifics of your rather than memorization of discrete facts, it country, which would you prioritize as a devel- was difficult to accomplish a quantitative evalu- opment strategy, Export Processing Zone-based ation of student skill acquisition. If one is manufacturing or tourism? How would you concerned with “reconstruction” (as were the structure the industry that you decide to pro- authors) rather than “reproduction” of knowl- mote so as to maximize benefits and minimize edge, the method of assessment should be drawbacks? (course website) qualitative in terms of the “personal meaning” Discussants were given a purposely broad generated by the students (Entwistle 1987, 50). question that would require them to incorpo- Because qualitative assessment is inherently rate material from the nine papers posted dur- subjective, we attempted to temper our subjec- ing the previous three weeks by the three other tivity by conducting our qualitative analysis members of their group, as well as informal within a quantitative, and at least partially discussion board postings from the previous objective, framework: the Structure Of the weeks: Learning Outcome (or SOLO) taxonomy developed by Biggs and Collis (1982). The SOLO How are the three countries of the other mem- taxonomy is a means of classifying the struc- bers of your group responding to an increasingly tural organization of knowledge based on the “global” economy? (course website) Piagetian notion that learners progress through Each student’s grade was derived from the fol- stages that become more abstract as cognitive lowing formula: 60 percent from the student’s ability becomes more sophisticated. It charac- twelve formal postings as nondiscussant; 25 terizes responses at five levels: prestructural, percent from the student’s one formal posting unistructural, multistructural, relational, and as discussant; 6 percent from informal postings extended abstract (Biggs and Collis), and nu- as nondiscussant; 9 percent from informal merous researchers have used the taxonomy to postings as discussant. analyze student essays in an attempt to assess Thus, the GCLP course used Internet the quality of learning in a class (Boulton- technology toward the end of producing an Lewis 1994; Campbell, Smith, and Brooker introductory geography course that fused in- 1998; Tynjala 1998; Leung 2000; Whittle, struction about thematic topics with basic Morgan, and Maltby 2000). knowledge of at least some of the world’s re- To determine whether GCLP was indeed gions. Our aim was to use the resources of the successful in meeting its goals, students’ formal Internet to achieve this elusive fusion. Specifi- postings were submitted to analysis using the cally, we utilized the Internet’s unique proper- SOLO taxonomy. Since the authors did not ties to facilitate two pedagogic techniques: the have the opportunity to compare the results of research capacity of the Web was used to en- the GCLP class to another class run in a more able rapid research on individual countries using traditional way, we subjected postings from primary source documents; and an Internet- week 3 and week 15 to analysis using the SOLO based electronic bulletin board was used to taxonomy to assess cumulative progress. Weeks host seamless and semi-anonymous exchange 3 and 15 were chosen since they represented of papers and ideas among students via peer the first and last typical formal assignments. assessment and nonsupervised discussions. In all, 42 postings were analyzed in terms of their SOLO level, 21 from week 3 and 21 Evaluation of Achieving from week 15 (Table 1).4 The rankings for Thematic-Regional Fusion the two weeks were then compared using the Mann-Whitney U-test. Although the mean The course appeared to be a success in meeting rank for week 15 was indeed found to be its goals, which were stated on the syllabus as higher, this difference was not significant (Z enabling students to interpret “phenomena of .595, p .55).

Using the Internet to Integrate Thematic and Regional Approaches 339

Table 1 SOLO Taxonomy Rankings Week 3 Week 15 SOLO Level General Description Indicator of Level in GCLP Posting Postings Postings Prestructural Irrelevant response, does not Does not answer question or writes 00 address the question only about personal experience Unistructural Generalizes only in terms of Reaches conclusion only through one 31 one aspect, or lists facts point, or lists facts about countries without linking them much like an encyclopedia Multistructural Generalizes through a few Makes several points to reach a 57 unrelated points conclusion, but does not integrate these points Relational Detects and discusses Uses several different points 13 11 relationships between together to build and strengthen points and how they relate argument and discusses to central meaning relationship between them Extended abstract Generalizes outside of the Generalizes outside of student’s 0 2 current topic or to a new country to other countries, area, reaches a higher problems, or other units in the level of abstraction class

While these results prevent the authors from ing them to new and different material. In light offering statistical evidence of an improvement of these drawbacks of the SOLO taxonomy, in the quality of student response from the be- and considering that it is always difficult to ginning of the class to the end, one should note identify a statistically significant correlation the following points. Although the SOLO tax- when n 21 for each category, we view our onomy is an attempt to create an objective finding of a lack of statistically significant means of assessing qualitative learning, the improvement among students with some skep- scoring of responses remains essentially subjec- ticism, especially in light of the subjective tive. Even with the criteria firmly established impression held strongly by students and in- prior to the scoring process, it was difficult in structors that there was substantial improve- some instances to distinguish between one ment in the quality of student knowledge and level and the next. In other instances, postings critical skills as reflected in their postings over that were included together in the same SOLO the course of the semester (discussed below). level did appear to be qualitatively different, To delve further into these questions, we even though the nature or degree of that differ- complemented our analysis of student postings ence was not enough to merit placement of the with a survey designed to determine students’ response in the next SOLO level. attitudes toward the course, its Internet-based Also, while the SOLO taxonomy may have pedagogical techniques, and the manner in been the best choice to assess the postings for which it fused studies in regional and thematic improvement after the fact, the taxonomy is geography. Approximately two weeks before the best utilized as a means of evaluation when its end of the semester, FSU’s Office of Administra- objectives are made clear to the students in the tive Information Systems sent an e-mail to all assignment. In this case, students’ actual post- students enrolled in the class, advising them that ing grades were based on a different scale that an evaluation website had been created by the was made available to them on the course web- instructors. Students were asked to go to the site.5 In addition, since the questions in weeks 3 website, enter a personal key number, and fill and 15 were not the same, using the same gen- out a survey so that the instructors could gather eral framework to score each week may not data for an article that they were writing about have been as valid as if the questions had been the class. The personal key number maintained the same. However, while asking the same anonymity while barring access to nonstudents question in weeks 3 and 15 may have offered a and insuring that no student could complete the better opportunity to gauge student improve- survey more than once. By the end of the semes- ment for this analysis, realistically, we believed ter, 19 of 27 students actively participating6 in that the students’ time was better spent expos- the class (70 percent) had completed the survey.7

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Although there may have been a slight bias in lem of lack of attentiveness from her/his teach- which students responded to the survey, stu- ing assistant, but none mentioned any problems dents expressed a high level of satisfaction with with the substantive material covered. the course’s scope and content. Student com- Given that the most active component of the plaints about the course focused primarily on course for the students was their writing of the the workload (Group C in Table 2) and second- formal postings and that these postings in- arily on structural issues associated with some of volved individual research and writing on their the pedagogical techniques (Group B in Table personal countries, it is not surprising that the 2), but very few expressed any reservations with student experience centered around research- the course’s substance (Group A). When asked ing and writing about one’s personal country. in the free-response section what they liked least Asked to evaluate the statement “I learned a lot about the class, eleven students mentioned struc- about my personal country” [Q11.1], seventeen tural issues (e.g., problems with lack of partici- respondents said this statement was very true, pation in their discussions, little variation in two said it was somewhat true, and none said assignment questions, lack of communication that it was not at all true. Students’ assertions with the class as a whole), six mentioned prob- that they learned about thematic issues were al- lems with the workload (concerning its quantity most as frequent as their assertions that they and/or difﬁculty), and one mentioned a prob- learned about their personal country (Table 3).

Table 2 Responses to the Question: “To the Extent That You Did Not Like This Class, How Important Were Each of the Following in Making This a Bad Class?” Very Somewhat Not at All Important Important Important A. Responses concerning substance of class: “Subject matter was boring or useless” [Q14.8] 0 3 15 “Class tried to cover too much” [Q14.9] 2a 710 “Class was too specific” [Q14.10] 2a 314 “I would have learned more about individual places and countries from a class 2214 that focused on teaching about all the places of the world rather than one that centered around specific topics (e.g., economic geography) and the phenomenon of globalization” [Q14.11] “I would have learned more about topics like economic geography or 4510 globalization through a class that focused on these topics rather than having to spend so much time researching one specific country throughout the semester” [Q14.12] AVERAGE SCORES FOR GROUP A (PROBLEMS WITH SUBSTANCE) 2 4 12.6 B. Responses concerning structure of class: “I found Web-based learning to be impersonal” [Q14.1] 1 4 14 “I had to keep track of weekly assignments, which was difficult since there 3214 were no regular class meetings” [Q14.2] “I found group-based discussions to be frustrating because not all students 5104 participated” [Q14.3] “Portions of the reading were on-line, and I found it difficult to read text from 1612 the computer screen” [Q14.6] “Technical problems made the class difficult, and/or the [software] system 1513 was confusing” [Q14.7] “The [instructors] should have played a stronger role in structuring or leading 5104 discussions on the discussion board” [Q14.13] “There should have been some discussions or interaction that involved the 2512 entire class and not just the few other people in my group” [Q14.15] AVERAGE SCORES FOR GROUP B (PROBLEMS WITH STRUCTURE) 2.6 6 10.4 C. Responses concerning the class workload: “There was too much writing” [Q14.4] 7 7 5 “There was too much reading” [Q14.5] 3 7 9 “The off-line readings (the ‘Shape of the World’ textbook series) were too 3610 difficult” [Q14.14] AVERAGE SCORES FOR GROUP C (PROBLEMS WITH WORKLOAD) 4.3 6.7 8 a The same two respondents gave strong afﬁrmative responses both to the charge that the class was too broad and to the charge that it was too speciﬁc. This implies that these two students had a general disagreement with the subject matter, rather than holding a position that the course would have been better if its scope had been either broader or narrower.

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Table 3 Responses to Various Questions about Education in Topical Areas Very Somewhat Not at Tru e Tru e All True Evaluate statement: “I learned a lot about my personal country” [Q11.1] 17 2 0 Evaluate statement: “I learned about the phenomenon of globalization, what’s causing 16 3 0 it, and how it is impacting different places in different ways” [Q11.3] Evaluate statement: “I learned about the topics of economic, environmental, cultural, 15 4 0 and political geography” [Q11.4]

Although students’ research and writing fo- the high ranking that they gave to the “Shape cused on country studies and the epiphenom- of the World” series, the most thematic and ena of globalization, all but two students iden- least regionally-oriented of the various materi- tified the central focus of the course as als encountered during the course. The read- thematic, concerning either the four subject- ings from this series were ranked second only themes of geography or the all-embracing to independent on-line research in importance topic of globalization. Only two students said for writing formal postings [Q20.1]. that the focus was epiphenomena of globaliza- Given that the course attempted to combine tion, and none said that it was a survey of coun- two seemingly disparate ends (a survey of world tries (Table 4). Likewise, students were asked regions and a survey of geographic themes how important various subjects covered in the in the context of globalization), we inquired class were in making the class a positive experi- whether, from the student’s perspective, one of ence. Although learning about one’s country these ends was seen as interfering with the and others’ countries were rated highly, learn- other. Survey data reveal that few students per- ing about forces of globalization was rated even ceived this as a problem, although there was a higher (Table 5). As one student noted in the little more concern that the regional compo- free-response section of the survey when asked nent interfered with the thematic than the other what (s)he most liked about the course: way around (Table 6). Tellingly, of the four The course really stimulated me to think about students who mentioned learning about their issues I had not dealt with before. I gained a bet- individual countries when answering the free- ter understanding of what is going on in the response question asking what they liked most world economically and politically, and why. about the course, three stressed that they en- Or, as another student noted: joyed country research because they found it to be such an effective route to thematic learning: Great Class, thoroughly enjoyed the experience! Learned so much about topics I rarely thought It never felt like I was learning “useless” infor- about on such a global level. mation because I chose the country I would research for the semester. I felt I gained a far The significance given by students to the topi- greater appreciation for the far reaching effects cal component of the course is also reflected in of globilization [sic], etc, through the study of a single nation rather than absorbing statistics and Table 4 Responses to Question Identifying information about several nations. Central Theme of Class I appreciated most the structure of the course. Q12: Which of the following would you describe as having Specifically, I like the fact that I read material been the central theme of this class? and then applied it to a specific country. For me a. To learn about some of the world’s countries—0 learning is more than reading information . . . it’s b. To learn about economic, environmental, cultural, application of that material. By forcing us to ap- and political geography—4 ply the information, not only did we have to un- c. To learn about globalization and its impact on derstand it, or come to understand it, we had to different places—9 research a part of the world of which (especially d. To learn about how economic, environmental, cultural, and political geography intersect in different for me) we weren’t particularly knowledgable places—4 [sic]. I learned a tremendous amount, in terms of e. To learn about issues associated with globalization, both detail and overall concepts. I feel that I also such as desertification, migration, tourism, financial have a much better understanding of the field of integration, etc.—2 geography.

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Table 5 Selected Responses to the Question: “To the Extent That You Liked This Class, How Important Were Each of the Following in Making This a Good Class?” Very Somewhat Not at All Responses Concerning Substance of Class Important Important Important “I had a chance to learn about pressing global issues and contemporary global 10 7 2 change” [Q13.3] “I had a chance to learn about various places in the world” [Q13.7] 7 12 0 “I had a chance to find out a lot about one country” [Q13.2] 5 11 3

[I liked most] the interesting perspective created those of the other students in the group, which by studying the same contry [sic] all semester. It were the goals that we had established for the allowed me to focus on the theories and issues discussant unit. Responses to questions con- more indepth [sic]. cerning knowledge gained as discussant were While the course generally was successful in positive (Table 8), but they were less so than the meeting its goals of instruction in thematic and responses to questions that inquired about regional geography so as to generate an inte- whether one had learned about one’s own grated understanding of global processes that country, the phenomenon of globalization, or operate both across space and in place, there the discrete topics of economic, environmen- are areas where it could have been more effec- tal, cultural, and political geography (Table 3). tive. One of our concerns in constructing the Likewise, just as the structure whereby each course was that students learn about not just student concentrated on one speciﬁc country their own personal country but also the coun- may have limited students’ ability to compare tries of the other three students in their group, across countries and identify how global pro- as this would both increase their knowledge of cesses impacted distinct places, the thematic distinct regions and give them a comparative division of the course may have limited stu- perspective from which to understand how dents’ ability to recognize that this division of global-scale processes have differential impacts human geographic processes into four discrete around the world. Since the unit in which a stu- areas was merely a heuristic device and that, if dent served as discussant was the one in which one truly were to understand how globalization (s)he most directly engaged the other students’ is impacting various parts of the world in dif- countries and synthesized their experiences, we ferent ways, one would need to understand not were pleased to learn that students found that only the processes of economic, environmen- the unit in which they served as discussant was tal, cultural, and political geography, but also at least as educational as the three units in how these four subject areas impact each other. which they served as nondiscussant (Table 7). When asked to evaluate the statement “I Despite the relative importance of the discus- learned about how the four topics . . . impact sant units, however, the course was only par- each other,” twelve students said that this state- tially successful in leading students to learn ment was very true, ﬁve said it was somewhat about countries other than their own and to true, and two said it was not at all true [Q11.5]. make connections between their country and These numbers, like those in response to the

Table 6 Selected Responses to the Question: “To the Extent That You Did Not Like This Class, How Important Were Each of the Following in Making This a Bad Class?” Very Somewhat Not at All Responses Concerning Dual Agenda of Class Important Important Important “I would have learned more about individual places and countries from a 2214 class that focused on teaching about all the places of the world rather than one that centered around specific topics (e.g., economic geography) and the phenomenon of globalization” [Q14.11] “I would have learned more about topics like economic geography or 4 5 10 globalization through a class that focused on these topics rather than having to spend so much time researching one specific country throughout the semester” [Q14.12]

Using the Internet to Integrate Thematic and Regional Approaches 343

Table 7 Responses to Question Regarding was successful. When asked to consider the sig- Educational Value of Discussant Role nificance of twelve characteristics of the course Q22: Do you feel that you learned more in the unit in which in making it a positive experience, students you were discussant or in the units in which you were gave their second highest over-all ranking to not discussant? the fact that the course was centered around a. I learned much more in the unit in which I was discussant—4 small groups [Q13.6]. Nine students said that b. I learned somewhat more in the unit in which I was the small group format was very important in discussant—2 making the course a positive experience, eight c. I learned about the same in all units—10 d. I learned somewhat more in the units in which I was said it was somewhat important, and only two not discussant—3 said that it was not at all important (the only e. I learned much more in the units in which I was not characteristic that ranked even higher in im- discussant—0 portance was that the course freed the student from having to be at a certain place and time for class sessions). All nineteen students re- questions about learning about countries be- sponded “somewhat true” or “very true” to the sides one’s own (Table 8), are quite high, but statement: “Discussions with fellow classmates again they are somewhat lower than the re- allowed me to see how other countries also face sponses given when students were asked the problems/issues facing my country, even if whether they had learned about their personal in different ways” [Q11.8]. This suggests that country, the individual thematic topics, or the the exchange of informal and formal postings concept of globalization (Table 3). in small groups played a crucial role in expand- ing students’ expertise beyond their one coun- Achieving Regional-Thematic Fusion try to the other countries being studied in their with and without the Internet group, so that they could make broad-ranging analyses of globalization and its varying im- Given the apparent success of the course, two pacts around the world. questions arise regarding its applicability to These findings lead to the question of non-Internet contexts: Would the techniques whether small-group interaction would have have achieved similar results if employed as been just as effective if the four-student groups Internet-based supplements to a classroom- had met in person. Results here are mixed. On based course; and could they be employed the one hand, students generally reported that without any structured use of the Internet at the Internet environment made them feel more all? In this section, we briefly consider these comfortable commenting on their colleagues’ questions with reference to the two ways in papers and having their colleagues comment- which “Global Change, Local Places” utilized ing on their papers than would have been the the Internet: as a forum for small groups to ex- case in a regular classroom (Table 9). Most stu- change and comment on papers, and as a vehi- dents also reported that the Internet-based cle for conducting country-specific research. small-group format allowed for thought-out Participation in small groups played a crucial responses not possible in spontaneous class- role in the course. Indeed, from the students’ room conversation [Q13.11] and that the perspective, the entire course took place within format created more opportunities for one- a group of four students. Survey results reveal on-one communication between student and in- that, in general, this small-group interaction structor than would have occurred in a regular

Table 8 Responses to Questions about Knowledge Gained as Discussant Very Somewhat Not at Tru e Tru e All True Evaluate statement: “I learned a lot about the countries of the others in my group” 7102 [Q11.2] Evaluate statement: “Discussions with fellow classmates allowed me to see how 5 14 0 other countries also face the problems/issues facing my country, even if in different ways” [Q11.8]

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Table 9 Effect of the Internet on Comfort Levels Much Somewhat About the Somewhat Much More in More in Same as in More in More in Internet Internet Regular Regular Regular Class Class Class Class Class “Compared with a classroom situation, how 6 5521 comfortable were you about commenting on, responding to, and critiquing your colleagues’ postings?” [Q2] “Compared with a classroom situation, how 6 7 5 0 1 comfortable were you with the fact that your colleagues were reading your postings and, at times, commenting on and critiquing them?” [Q3] classroom [Q13.5]. For each of these features, culture, environment, and economy?) played a nine students considered the feature very im- crucial role in the course, forming the basis for portant in making the course a “good experi- weekly nondiscussant formal postings (which, ence,” six considered it somewhat important, in turn, constituted 60 percent of a student’s and four said that it was not at all important. grade). Material for answering such questions On the other hand, when asked to compare might be found in non-Web sources, but it was actual levels of participation with that in a tra- assumed that this material would be more ac- ditional classroom, students’ responses were cessible over the Web, especially in the context fairly evenly distributed across all possible an- of an Internet-based course wherein students swers (Table 10). It seems plausible that while were already actively engaged in a computer the majority of students found the Internet to environment. Internet-based course material be a “safer” environment than the classroom, provided extensive advice in conducting coun- for most students the relative “safety” of the try-based Web research and it was anticipated classroom had little impact on the degree of that this would constitute a large percentage of participation. This hypothesis is supported by student effort in the course. Not surprisingly, the small number of students (six out of nine- seventeen of nineteen students reported that teen) who felt that the relative “safety” of the they could not have composed their formal Internet played a very important role making postings without the use of independent Web the class a positive experience [Q13.4]. research (the other two students reported that Turning to the other use of the Internet, they regularly engaged in independent Web re- Web-based country research, we see that the search but that material from this research importance of the Internet again is mixed. In- rarely was incorporated into their postings) dividual country research in which students [Q20.6]. Surprisingly, however, nine students used the Web to research speciﬁc questions reported that they also could not have writ- (e.g., how is tourism impacting your country’s ten their formal postings without additional

Table 10 Effect of the Internet on Reported Participation Levels Much Somewhat About the Somewhat Much More in More in Same as in More in More in Internet Internet Regular Regular Regular Class Class Class Class Class “Overall, do you feel that your level of participation 4 3552 in the informal postings was higher or lower than the level of participation that you would have had in discussions taking place in a regular classroom?” [Q4] “Overall, do you feel that the level of participation by 2 6 4 4 3 other members of your group in the informal postings was higher or lower than the level of participation that they would have had in discussions in a regular classroom?” [Q5] Using the Internet to Integrate Thematic and Regional Approaches 345

Table 11 Responses to the Question: “Which within it should learn from the historical devel- of the Following Statements Best Describes Your opment of their discipline and not “go over- Experience Finding Information about Your Country on the Web?” [Q9] board [one way or the other] . . . and foreclose the possibility of a middle ground.” Likewise, a. There wasn’t enough English-language information on my country—1 while usually favoring one approach over the b. There was plenty of English-language information on my other, most writers on geographic education country, but I had trouble finding material that related to have asserted the need to consistently evaluate the topics that I was required to address in my formal postings—7 the pedagogical contributions of both regional c. There seemed to be about the right amount of English- and thematic geography. As Grant (1997) sug- language information on my country on the Web—10 gests, for geography students, the route to crit- d. There was too much English-language information on ical thinking runs over a middle ground that my country on the Web and I had trouble sorting through it all—1 blends both space and place. Yet while many would agree that regional and thematic geography are “essentially complementary” approaches (Libbee 1988, 9), the task of integrat- off-line research, although this never had been ing them into a single course continues to pose intended by the instructors. Only five students a challenge for geographic educators. reported having done no independent research The need for a new paradigm of geographic off-line. This suggests that perhaps some stu- education that fuses the thematic with the re- dents did have trouble finding material relevant gional is particularly evident in the call for a to some questions on the Web, a finding sup- new area-studies paradigm. Efforts such as the ported by responses to a question concerning Ford Foundation’s Crossing Borders project students’ Web research experiences (Table 11). seek to revive area studies by working within Our findings thus suggest that while the In- the regional geography tradition, recognizing ternet helped to facilitate individualized stu- that integrative understanding of a place is cru- dent research projects and small groups in cial for critical analysis of society. At the same which students exchanged and commented on time, however, this initiative recognizes that each other’s papers, both of these uses of the the notion of static, self-contained areas is itself Internet also could have been implemented in a being questioned and, in order to undertake a traditional classroom setting. Small-group in- new wave of area-studies research and teach- teraction on the Internet appears to have ing, the regional perspective must be merged increased student comfort but not student par- with one that focuses on the ongoing processes ticipation. And while most students found by which individual places (and the connec- Web-based country research helpful, it also left tions between them) are produced (Ford Foun- many students still seeking non-Web-based dation 1999). sources of information. The greatest contribu- With “Global Change, Local Places,” we tion of implementing these two Internet-based approached this challenge through an intro- resources, in the context of an Internet-based ductory geography course, and the survey data distance-learning course, is that these activities indicate that by most measures the course was became the course rather than merely becoming successful in meeting its goals. The course built supplements to classroom activities. However, on the strengths of the regional approach, im- a creative instructor should be able to adapt el- parting important empirical knowledge about ements of this course to a classroom context. specific places to students while also giving them a sense of how processes converge with Conclusion varying effects to construct distinct places. Si- multaneously, it built on the strengths of the We conclude this article by revisiting our quest thematic approach, helping students gain an for an elusive fusion of regional and thematic analytical understanding of some of the core perspectives in geographical analysis and, more processes that, through their differential im- specifically, geographic education. When Smith pact on place, shape and continually reshape (1987, 66) described the regional-thematic de- the world. Finally, the Internet aspect of the class, bate in geography as “sterile,” he wanted to while not crucial, facilitated our efforts to pro- make the point that geographers embroiled duce a student-centered learning environment 346 Volume 54, Number 3, August 2002 within which students could meet our ambi- ductory human geography through core concepts. tious objectives. Our experience with “Global Journal of Geography 78:152–56. Change, Local Places” suggests that new in- Biggs, John, and Kevin Collis. 1982. Evaluating the structional technologies can be mobilized to quality of learning: The SOLO Taxonomy. New York: Academic Press. meet an old—but elusive—goal: a comprehen- Blackboard 5 Learning System. Blackboard Inc., sive introductory course wherein students de- Washington, DC. velop a basic knowledge of both regional and Boulton-Lewis, Gillian. 1994. Tertiary students’ thematic geography. knowledge of their own learning and a SOLO taxonomy. Higher Education 28:387–402. Brown, Robert, and Michael Hurst. 1969. Recent Notes change in economic geography. Journal of Geogra- phy 68:41–45. 1 The “thematic” approach is alternately known as Bullard, Joanna. 1998. Raising awareness of Local the “topical” or “systematic” approach. Through- Agenda 21: The use of Internet resources. Journal out this article, we maintain the term “thematic.” of Geography in Higher Education 22:201–10. 2 This class was in no way associated with the Associ- Bunge, William. 1967. Theoretical geography. In In- ation of American Geographers’ Global Change in troduction to geography: Selected readings, ed. Fred E. Local Places project, which is known by the same Dohrs and Lawrence Sommers, 346–57. New abbreviation. York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company. 3 The syllabus for GCLP is available on the World Campbell, Jennifer, David Smith, and Ross Brooker. Wide Web at http://gea1000-04.fa99.fsu.edu/ syll2000.html (last accessed 29 March 2002). 1998. From conception to performance: How un- 4 The number of formal postings analyzed in either dergraduate students conceptualize and construct week was smaller than the number of students in the essays. Higher Education 36:449–69. class because, for any given unit, one-quarter of the Clawson, David. 2001. World regional geography: A de- students were serving as discussant and were not velopment approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pren- submitting regular postings. tice Hall. 5 The grading guide shown to students is available Cooke, Philip. 1987. Clinical inference and geo- on the World Wide Web at http://gea1000-04. graphic theory. Antipode 19:407–16. fa99.fsu.edu/gradguid.html (last accessed 29 March Cox, Kevin. 1993. The local and the global in the 2002). new urban politics: A critical view. Environment 6 Because of administrative difficulties, several stu- and Planning A 11:433–48. dents who had dropped the course were not re- Crampton, Jeremy. 1998. A regional geography class moved from the official roster. Nonetheless, these in a distributed learning environment. Journal of students effectively were not participating in the Geography in Higher Education 22:417–23. course, and thus the number of actively participat- de Blij, H. J., and Peter Muller. 2000. Geography: ing students (27) is used as the base from which we Realms, regions, and concepts 2000. New York: John calculate the response rate. Wiley and Sons. 7 This survey was administered in addition to the DeSouza, Anthony. 1985. The incompleteness of standard evaluation instrument used for all classes spatial separatism. Journal of Geography 84:50. in Florida’s State University System. For a few ques- Entwistle, Noel. 1987. tions, 18 instead of 19 because of incomplete re- Understanding classroom learn- n London: Hodder and Stoughton. sponses. The entire survey, and a tally of responses, ing. can be found at http://www.fsu.edu/~geog/phil/ Fellmann, Jerome, Arthur Getis, and Judith Getis. gclpsurvey.html (last accessed 29 March 2002). 1999. Human geography: Landscapes of human activ- Question numbers in brackets refer to questions on ities. Boston: McGraw-Hill. the survey, which may be referenced on the survey Fenneman, Nevil. 1919. The circumference of geog- website. All survey data presented in this article are raphy. Annals of the Association of American Geogra- from this survey, except for the responses to free- phers 9:3–11. response questions, which are from the statewide Ford Foundation. 1999. Crossing borders: Revitalizing course evaluation instrument. area studies. New York: Ford Foundation. http:// www.fordfound.org/publications/recent_articles/ docs/crossingborders.pdf (last accessed 29 March Literature Cited 2002). Geography Education Standards Project. 1994. Ge- Allen, Rodney. 1989. 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In Proceedings of the NAWEB 2000 International Con- ANDY WALTER is a doctoral candidate in the De- ference on Web-based Learning, 127–41. Fredericton: partment of Geography, Florida State University, University of New Brunswick. Tallahassee, FL 32306-2190. E-mail: naw2161@ Wong, David. 1998. Creating a Web-based elec- garnet.acns.fsu.edu. His research interests include tronic reserve library for teaching world regional hunger and poverty, the political economy of agro- geography. Journal of Geography in Higher Educa- food, and labor geography. tion 22:257–62.

PHILIP E. STEINBERG is an Assistant Professor KATHLEEN SHERMAN-MORRIS is a doctoral in the Department of Geography, Florida State Uni- candidate in the Department of Geography, Florida versity, Tallahassee, FL 32306-2190. E-mail: psteinbe@ State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306-2190. E-mail: coss.fsu.edu. His research interests include the polit- [email protected]. Her research inter- ical geography of spaces of mobility, with an empha- ests include hazards, mass media, and environmental sis on the world-ocean and cyberspace. perception.