How is VOX making the Spanish flag wave again?

An ethnographic study of the fundamental ideology behind the political party VOX

Jozefien Boone

School of Humanities and Digital Sciences

Supervisor: Prof. dr. Ico Maly

Second reader: Prof. dr. Jan-Jaap de Ruiter

June 2020

Preface

This work has been written for the bachelor thesis of Liberal Arts and Sciences at Tilburg

University. The basis for this research stemmed from my passion for Spain and Spanish culture.

This topic is therefore originated during my time abroad in Madrid in the fall of 2019. I would like to thank my supervisor Prof. dr. Ico Maly for his assistance throughout this research.

Abstract

Scope and aims

This research will provide an extensive analysis of the rise of the far-right in Spain. Reading this work will provide an insight into the discourse of the right-wing party embodying this growth, named VOX. It combines different studies of nationalism and therefore gives a clear view of how VOX is imagining national unity in Spain. This analysis is relevant for its thorough investigation into the discourse of VOX which will give us some insight into the fundamental ideology of this political party. Moreover, the issue is very relevant today and the increasing support VOX is gaining will contribute to the significance of this inquiry. This research is aimed at answering the following research question: What can VOX’s discourse teach us about its fundamental ideology and how does the party express these ideals?

Theoretical framework

The data that is analysed is the digital media of VOX in which the party expresses its discourse.

I have performed ethnographic research based on the party’s social media platforms, party programs, and the mainstream media. To investigate the nationalistic principles of VOX’s discourse I have analysed the party’s political discourse through the theoretical framework of nationalism. This means that I have used literature about nationalism to discover the nationalistic character of VOX. This work made use of previous research into right-wing populist parties and approaches nationalism as a socially discursive construct. The theories of

Michael Billig about hot nationalism and Benedict Anderson on imagined nations have guided me in explaining how VOX is constructing its imagined nation. An extensive analysis of

VOX’s identity-forming will follow according to the definition of Benjamin de Cleen. The explanation of how VOX is imagining this rebirth through the revaluation of Spanish historical values will be provided based on Guillaume Faye’s view on the decline of the nation. A final view on VOX’s use of populism to express its discourse towards the population will receive the support of the characteristics of a populist framework as described by Ico Maly. To discover the fundamental ideology behind this discourse, I have used the theories of the anti-

Enlightenment which are the groundwork for this analysis. Combining this fundamental ideology with VOX’s nationalistic discourse will enable me to conclude on the fundamentals of VOX’s ideology.

Digital ethnography

This research is a digital ethnographic case study of the online communication, or discourse, of the Spanish political party VOX. I would like to explain the functioning of ethnography as a way to analyse language in a context that involves a perspective on language and communication. What should be considered is the foundation ethnography has in anthropology.

With anthropology, we mean the construction of empirical-based conclusions about the human world (Howell, 2018). According to the view of Deborah Cameron, who wrote on the study of discourses, we can discover how people view the world they live in by analysing the language they are using. She explains that people’s understandings are shaped by the language they have at hand (Cameron, 2001). This understanding will be performed through ethnographic analysis, which is the approach that gives meaning to the data that is analysed. What follows is that the study of ethnographic data is inductive, deriving theory from empirical data. (Blommaert &

Jie, 2010). More specifically, I followed the approach of digital ethnography, by capturing communicative practices and using discourse analyses. To analyse the discourse of this political party, I have used ethnographic data derived from the social media platforms VOX is using daily and the party programs which are presented on its website. The reason for the use of these sources is my aim to produce real-world knowledge about the discourse and ideology of VOX. During my research, the method of intertextuality which refers to the process of constantly using and citing the words of others has been beneficial. This process of the reproduction of words is a common feature in our everyday life according to Blommaert (2005: 47). Important in constructing this meaning is the preservation of context-meaning, which often fails in the process of data collection. The theory of intertextuality teaches us to look at the initial intention and meaning of words. This theory becomes valuable when we start our investigation in the discourse of a political party.

The second important concept Blommaert describes is entextualisation. This refers to the process of decontextualization of discourses and recontextualizing it again. The discourse receives a new context and consequently a new meaning. As I already mentioned, this research will follow the theory of inductive reasoning and perform a framework based on the material derived from the data. Moreover, a latent approach will be applied in which the assumptions and context that underly the data are studied. This approach will be important in the investigation of VOX’s fundamental ideology. An important feature of the ethnographic discourse of VOX is its use of ‘algorithmic activism’. In this research, we will see that VOX is a populist party, for which media attention is of the utmost importance. In a world where social media is this dominant, it becomes extra hard to stand out. ‘Algorithmic activism’ helps with the spreading of a message. Ico Maly (2019) explains that this is done through interaction with the post, which generates the algorithms on the medium. By causing the algorithms to be triggered, the popularity rankings of the message and consequently those of the messenger are increased. ‘Algorithmic activism’ is part of the digitally mediatized chronotopic communicative and discursive relation of ‘algorithmic populism’, as described by Maly (2019).

He explains that attention to the uptake of messages becomes more important in a world where political discourses are produced not only by politicians, but also by citizens, algorithms, and activists. In chapter 6 of this research, we will see that this communicative relation is of crucial importance for populism and that a populist actor cannot express its discourse without the generation of media uptake. Data collection

The data collection methods I have used are document collection and observation. On the one hand, I have used documented data of the political party to discover its political positions. This documented data consisted mainly of party programs available on its website. The Manifesto

Fundacional, Estatutos, and the 100 medidas de VOX para España have been interesting sources of information. This explains the multitude of times I have cited these sources. On the other hand, I have used the method of observation to analyse VOX’s online communication, which includes the message, image, and style of the party’s discourse. Important for ethnographic research in online data is the immersion in the situation and the experience of the interaction. For four months, I have followed VOX’s official Instagram and Twitter account and checked its YouTube channel regularly, in which I was interested in the posts by VOX and the members of the party. The analysis of these posts provided me with information about

VOX’s ideals. The analysis of this data will provide a more thorough insight into VOX’s communicative practices. Moreover, I have investigated the ‘algorithmic activism’ and studied the uptake of these posts, and analysed VOX’s popularity by looking at likes, shares, and comments to investigate its popular discourse. The data used for this research can be found in the text, accompanied by a clear analysis and link to the theoretical framework. The privacy of individual actors has been kept intact by covering their names. Some of the data like tweets are translated directly by Twitter from Spanish into English. Besides that, I will translate the

Spanish texts into English myself.

Research limitations

A critical aspect should be discussed that could have a negative influence on my research.

Social media provides us with the possibility of collecting huge amounts of data easily.

However, the downside of this data collection method is the possibility of a loss of meaning because of changing contexts. Piia Varis (2014) describes that data can only be understood in its context. Moreover, my research is limited to the screen, which could have prevented me from understanding the complete picture. By investigating the data and by keeping attention to all active platforms, I have aimed to prevent this issue as much as possible.

Keywords: Nation, Nationalism, Spain, anti-Enlightenment, New Right

Table of contents

Preface ...... ii

Abstract ...... iii

Scope and aims ...... iii

Theoretical framework ...... iii

Digital ethnography ...... iv

Data collection ...... vi

Research limitations ...... vi

Table of contents...... viii

Figure list ...... ix

Introduction ...... xi

1. Who is VOX? ...... 1

2. VOX’s brand of nationalism ...... 2

3. Unified nation ...... 5

3.1 The re-construction of a nation ...... 5

3.2 An imagined nation ...... 10

3.3 The decline of the nation ...... 11

4. Unified population ...... 16

4.1 Ingroups ...... 16

4.2 Outgroups ...... 23

5. Unified Spanish values...... 30

5.1 The preservation of Spain’s identity ...... 30 5.2 The rebirth of Spanish history...... 41

6. Framing the implicit discourse ...... 45

6.1. Populism ...... 45

6.2 The Performing of a crisis ...... 52

7. Discussion...... 63

8. Conclusion ...... 65

Bibliography ...... 67

Figure list

Figure 1, Tweet by member VOX ...... 9

Figure 2, Deceiving government ...... 12

Figure 3, Deceiving government...... 12

Figure 4, Depiction of government ...... 13

Figure 5, Fernando Simon, director of the Centre for Coordination of Health Alerts ...... 14

Figure 6, Government resign ...... 14

Figure 7, VOX’s manifestation of Government resign ...... 15

Figure 8, Government resign ...... 16

Figure 9, Against feminism ...... 19

Figure 10, VOX’s stance towards Islam ...... 25

Figure 11, Contrast treatment elderly and immigrants...... 28

Figure 12, Contrast treatment elderly and immigrants...... 29

Figure 13, VOX in Barcelona ...... 35

Figure 14, Catalan protests against VOX anti-independence campaign ...... 36

Figure 15, For Spain. The electoral campaign for the spirit of the Reconquista ...... 43 Figure 16, Visits to the political party’s websites ...... 47

Figure 17, Political party’s followers on Instagram ...... 47

Figure 18, VOX’s Vistalegre campaign ...... 48

Figure 19, Responses to Vistalegre campaign...... 49

Figure 20, Responses to Vistalegre campaign ...... 49

Figure 21, Uptake of Vistalegre campaign ...... 50

Figure 22, Uptake of Vistalegre campaign ...... 50

Figure 23, The decline of the nation expressed by VOX ...... 54

Figure 24, Likes PSOE: 2729 ...... 54

Figure 25, Likes Podemos: 13.821 ...... 55

Figure 26, Caravan for Spain and its liberty! ...... 58

Figure 27, Caravan ...... 59

Figure 28, Broadcast of Abascal during the caravan ...... 59

Figure 29, Manifestation in Barcelona ...... 60

Figure 30, Barcelona is Spanish ...... 60

Figure 31, VOX is propagating its crisis ...... 62

Introduction

Since the constitution of 1978, Spain had known a struggle in waving its national flag. Spanish nationalism is a loaded concept because of its reminiscence to the repressive dictatorship under

General Francisco Franco (Xosé-Manoel Núñez, 2001). After he died in 1975, the discourse of nationalism did not have a place anymore in the public sphere or political debate. The increasing presence of nationalism in other European countries has risen with the growing popularity of the far-right parties in Europe. For a long time, Spain did not move along with this tendency. Now, however, the rise of the right-wing political party VOX is making a change in the Spanish political climate. The party experienced a significant increase in popularity in the year 2018. It claims to represent ‘the voice of the people’. This populist frame and the ideology of the party make VOX part of the far-right movement that is setting foot in the mainstream political climate of Europe. According to Mudde (2019), the far right is a combination of two subgroups; the extreme right¸ which is a rejection of democracy and its sovereign functioning; and the radical right¸ which opposes itself against liberal democracy and its features. Following these ideas, VOX steps in the line of far-right predecessors like the

AFD in Germany and Le Front Nacional in France (Mudde, 2019). By normalizing and mainstreaming its ideology, the rise in popularity of the far-right has happened rather quickly in Spain. VOX expresses a strong emphasis on nationalism and the preservation of national unity. This research will show that the fundamentals of the party’s ideology belong to the anti-

Enlightenment tradition that opposes itself against universal values and manifests itself nowadays in the New Right movement. In VOX’s attempt to hegemonize its ideology, the party is trying to make the Spanish flag wave again. | 1

1. Who is VOX?

VOX is the name of the right-wing political party that was founded by former members of the

Populist Party in 2013. According to its members:

This party was born out of extreme necessity to put institutions at the service

of the Spanish population, in contrast to the current model that puts the

Spaniards at the service of the Politicians (VOX, 2019a).

Already here on the first page of VOX’s website it tries to make statements by opposing the current government, or even against the whole political system in Spain. According to VOX, the nation is declining. The name of one of its position papers, 100 medidas para una España viva (100 measures to promote Spanish life) clarifies the main goal of the party, an increase of wellbeing in Spain for the Spanish population (VOX, 2019c). According to Santiago Abascal, the leader of the right-wing political party VOX in Spain, this can only be realized through cultural and political change after which representation will be given to those who do not feel represented and the existing democracy will be improved (RTVE, 2019). 2018 was the year that signified the rise of this new right-wing movement in Spain because of its success in regional elections in Andalusia. This was also a year after the Catalan independence movement had initiated a referendum for independence from Spain. Meanwhile, the Spanish government had appointed the referendum as illegal and jailed the leaders of this movement. VOX already existed since 2013 but the 11% votes the party gained in the regional elections in Andalusia showed the rising popularity of the party (Gálvez,2018). The country’s political context and

Spain’s constitutional crisis teach us more about this distinct feature of VOX’s electoral success. Considering the year of the party’s rising popularity, this success is related to the

Catalan independence crisis. VOX can be added to the group of Western-European radical right-wing parties, who share similar political positions in a wide range of topics. However, next to opposing same-sex marriage, abortion, and gender quotas VOX also advocates a strong | 2 will on the national unity in Spain. (VOX, 2019c). A study by Turnbull-Dugarte (2019) has shown that voters do not vote for VOX out of political distrust, as is the case for some other

Western-European right-wing parties. The study shows that most VOX voters were previously supporting other right-wing parties like the PP and Ciudadanos. The factor that made them shift to VOX was this party´s nationalistic distinctive feature regarding the unity of the nation.

Especially VOX’s radical stance against Catalan’s independence and its pro-nationalism appeals to many voters (Turnbull-Dugarte, 2019). Its priority for the re-construction of a newly imagined nation is a distinctive feature in the line of right-wing parties. According to VOX, this nation must consist of a Spanish population that embodies the Spanish identity and reintegrates historical Spanish values.

2. VOX’s brand of nationalism

So, VOX distinguishes itself from other political actors by reinstating nationalism in the political debate of Spain. Before going into VOX’s discursive way of hegemonizing national unity, we should attempt to get a better understanding of its brand of nationalism. Since this is

VOX’s distinctive feature, we should view nationalism as an ideology, as argued by Michael

Billig. When ideologies are powerful, they have a naturalizing effect: they operate to make people forget that their world has been historically constructed (Billig, 1995, 37). In the process of remembering history and a nation’ s collective memory, this forgetting plays an important role. Over a hundred years ago, Ernest Renan claimed that forgetting was "a crucial element in the creation of nations" (Renan, 1990: 11, as cited in Billig, 1995). This is solved by a constant implicit reminder of national identity in daily life routine. Nevertheless, explains Billig (1995), this reminding is so plentiful that it goes unnoticed for the conscious mind. “The remembering, not being experienced as remembering, is, in effect, forgotten” (Billig, 1995). Billig calls this state – when the nation and nationalism have become normalized – ‘banal nationalism’. The

World of Nations has become a natural world and we can hardly imagine our lives without it | 3 anymore. The occasional ‘un-waved’ flag and the playing of the hymn during the national holiday are examples of these unnoticed reminders of nationalism in Spain. In contrast, VOX’s eagerness to have a unitary, but administratively decentralized state, one official language, and the preservation of the Spanish values hints at a more conscious reminding of the Spanish national identity. The following quote from a speech by Santiago Abascal about otherness shows that VOX wants the un-waved flag to be waved again:

Or our stained, trampled and spit flag or our flag-waving with pride (VOX España,

2019a).

As we can say, according to VOX, Spain is not there yet, this means that it must re-construct

Spain into a very specific type of nation, one that can be attributed to the nation-state of Spain

(Billig, 1995) and therefore re-entextualizes old-established nationalist tropes. VOX proposes a new form of nationalistic discourse, which makes the party distinct from mainstream political parties that Spain is used to. VOX wants the Spanish population to be proud of the Spanish nation again and appeals to the voters’ nationalistic sentiments. According to Giddens, nationalism appears when daily routines are interrupted and a period of social disruption arises

(Giddens, 1985, p.215, as cited in Billig, 1995). An outbreak of ‘hot’ nationalistic feelings appears and is characterized by dramatic psychology of emotions rather than of routines. Billig

(1995) describes that all nation-states know these moments when ordinary routines are postponed, and attention is given to the nationalistic aspirations of the nation. I will show that

VOX, with its strong emphasis on the national identity, is having an outbreak of hot nationalistic aspirations towards Spain and against everything that is not part of this image.

VOX fills the existing discourses and symbols of Spanish nationalism – think of Bullfighting

- with more radical nationalistic ideas while at the same time ensuring the party is remaining part of the debate. The way they do this is by proposing a new discourse, that of the New Right. | 4

The core New Right ideas promoted are not new but have a very long tradition. The

New Right, Maly (2018b) argues, is the post-war manifestation of the anti-Enlightenment tradition, as advocated by anti-Enlightenment and New Right thinkers. Zeev Sternhell explains that the uprising of anti-Enlightenment thoughts appeared as a reaction to rational, intellectual, and universal thinking during the eighteenth century (Sternhell, 2019). Edmund Burke and

Johan Gottfried Herder initiated this tradition contesting the use of reason to understand the world. They claimed that “men’s vital forces” were killed by Enlightenment thinking, philosophy, and scepticism (Sternhell, 2019: 143). Anti-Enlightenment thinkers are against universal values and believe more in relationships based on historical, cultural, and ethnic differences than on the equality of all individuals. These differences would distinguish nations from each other and would encourage xenophobia as a stimulation force for national identity.’

Alain de Benoist is a well-known New Right thinker and known for his contribution to the radical-right group of GRECE (Groupement de Recherche et d‘Etudes pour la Civilisation

Européenne). Alain de Benoist defines the right as the conviction that the diversity of the world should be celebrated and the relative equalities should be accepted as an inevitable, yet positive consequence. Moreover, he adds that the progressive homogenisation of the world, because of egalitarian ideology, should be considered a negative thing. He treated the ideology of equality as the biggest enemy (De Benoist, 2017). VOX takes the hegemonical value of equality and provides a different meaning, which is a characteristic of the meta-politics often used by New

Right parties. The party uses the principle of equality to advocate equal treatment of its population and no prioritized measures. Meta-politics is what makes the New Right new. Meta- politics was at the heart of the New Right project of Alain de Benoist and GRECE. The perspective of meta-politics has been explained by Alain de Benoist and Charles Champetier in their Manifesto of the French New Right. This perspective is based on the conviction that history is made through human will based on ideas and convictions (Benoist & Champetier, | 5

2000). Meta-politics was according to de Benoist the strategy to bring the ‘true right’ back after

the second World War. Of course, in the post-WWII context, it is very hard to take an anti-

Enlightenment position explicitly. Meta-politics is here a solution that allows parties to keep

the core ideas intact, while at the same time be acceptable in the public sphere. Generally, VOX

uses meta-politics to normalize and hegemonize its idea of a unified nation, consisting of an

exemplary Spanish population and with the need to revalue Spanish historical values.

3. A Unified nation

3.1 The re-construction of a nation

VOX positions itself as the hero that can bring back the national unity that was disrupted by

federalization or political decentralization. This nationalistic feature is what distinguishes VOX

from other parties. Its nationalistic view regarding Spain’s constitutional crisis is, therefore,

not coincidentally, the first point in VOX’s political party program 100 medidas:

Suspension of Catalan autonomy until the unmitigated defeat of the coup and the

purging of civil and criminal responsibilities (VOX, 2019c).

We have already seen that many VOX voters seem at least partially driven by the party’s

stance towards Spain’s territory and its regional autonomies. Which entails abolishing the

structure of a quasi-federal entity and creating a decentralized but still unitary state.

According to VOX ‘El Estado de Las Autonomías’ has failed both economically and in its

function of integrating peripheral nationalism (VOX, 2019b). For VOX it even contributed to

the already existing separatist sentiments. ‘El Estado de Las Autonomías’ refers to the

agreement between the parties representing the Catalan and Basque regions and the left-wing

political parties during the Spanish democratic transition. This agreement tried to combine a

unitary state structure with assigned power to administrative and political divisions, the

‘comunidades autónomas’ (Zamorano, 2014). These are the seventeen partly self-governing | 6 autonomous communities. According to VOX, the responsibility for the decline of the nation lays in the disintegration of the nation and thus in the decision to give power to the autonomous communities:

The Autonomous State has not fulfilled the purposes for which it was conceived, and

its cost has reached alarming proportions. Political decentralization, which has been

pushed to extremes that are dubiously compatible with the Constitution and far from

appeasing the nationalist question in Catalonia and the Basque Country, has

exacerbated centrifugal tensions and has put Spain on the edge of disintegration. Our

autonomous state is politically unmanageable and financially unsustainable

(VOX,2019b).

In VOX’s view, the hegemonic power of Spain has been threatened by political decentralization and separatist movements in the Basque Country and Catalonia. By advocating national unity and therefore the abolishment of the autonomous communities VOX is convincing the voter that this problem can be solved. In the following excerpt of Abascal’s speech one can detect the way he opposes the autonomous division with national unity because, in his view, federalization is a threat to national unity (VOX, 2019b):

Or the autonomous division or the national unity (VOX España, 2019a).

According to VOX, national unity cannot be realized when the autonomous division is still intact. The way VOX envisions this newly constructed unified nation can be seen in the following quote from its founding manifest:

Can a unitary state be as democratic as a composite one and federalization should never

be a threat to national unity and the equality of rights and freedoms of all citizens. A

rigidly homogeneous state is as inadequate for Spain as a state in the process of

disintegration. VOX advocates a strong and efficient state, administratively | 7

decentralized, and capable of accommodating and recognizing the historical and

cultural plurality of our nation (VOX, 2019b).

The abolishment of the autonomous communities is necessary for the realization of an administratively decentralized nation. Because according to VOX, this radical cultural and political change will increase the wellbeing of the Spanish population and is necessary for the realization of a unified nation. Moreover, it uses the principle of equality to support this argument and argue for the ‘equality of rights and freedoms of all’. In the tradition of the

Enlightenment, equality would be used to advocate in favour of universal values, supporting the rights and equal treatment of everyone. Nevertheless, VOX’s implicit communicative practices instrumentalize this idea of equality to normalize a new discourse, that of the New

Right. This means that the notion of equality is used as an instrumentalization technique to advocate for the abolishment of the autonomous communities. Using a meta-political strategy, the party ensures its acceptability in the public sphere. Besides the proposal to abolish the autonomous communities to create a unified state, VOX’s radical character shines through other parts of its party program and is part of its implicit discourse. Many of VOX’s proposals hint at a desire to change the constitution, which according to Castillo (2019) is not an issue but becomes problematic when we look at the wide range of proposals that would require constitutional reforms. Take for instance its desire for judiciary reform to install real independence of political power:

Suppression of the Constitutional Court, its functions will assume a sixth chamber of

the Supreme Court (VOX, 2019c).

This shows that VOX desires a radical change in the current political model. Another example is the second proposal of 100 medidas, which opts for the banning of separatist parties and organisations. This change would also require a change in the Spanish constitution: | 8

The illegalization of the parties, associations or NGOs that pursue the destruction of

the territorial unity of the nation and its sovereignty (VOX, 2019c).

Moreover, in a speech given by Abascal in Vistalegre, the word Constitución (constitution) is not mentioned once, whereas Abascal used the word España (Spain) 69 times. This gives a proper indication of VOX’s priorities and shows how the Spanish nation precedes (Gould,

2019). The quote above shows more evidence for the party’s prioritized stance towards national unity and the sovereignty of the nation. VOX refutes the traditional Enlightenment view of constitutional rights to realize its own goal of nationalism. This is a tendency often found in the New Right tradition, as can be seen in Guillaume Faye’s rejection of Enlightenment democracy. He proposed a democratic system among an ethnically homogenous group of people. Faye stated that the process of decision making can only fully function when people have a unified culture, value, and memory. He advocates for an ‘organic democracy’, which respects both past and future and considers the collective, biological, and cultural identity of its population (Faye, 2011). As can be understood from this view, we should understand the democracy opted by VOX’s discourse in a different meta-political tradition, in which democracy is formed by (the sovereignty of) the nation. This organic notion of the nation can be revealed from the party’s implicit discourse. An example from this discourse is the following tweet, which is currently deleted, by Javier Ortega Smith the secretary-general of the party.

Linking being Spanish and belonging to the Spanish nation to a good physical and mental shape hints at nationalism that is based on blood (Smith, 2020; see figure 1). | 9

Figure 1, Tweet by member VOX

For VOX, the unity of the nation can only be realized once its primacy is acknowledged.

According to the party’s view, this is done by prioritizing the national unity at all cost:

Because the Spanish unity cannot be negotiated, nor discussed, nor dialogued, it is

defended with all the consequences (VOX España, 2018b).

This quote reveals the party’s prioritized stance towards the nation, which is a necessary feature in VOX’s creation of national unity. The citizens are considered as subordinate to the unified nation, contrasting the notion of individualism and following the anti-Enlightenment tradition.

In this view, the individual is considered part of the organic entity of the nation. This means that the relation of an individual to society is compared with a cell has with the body it consists of. The nation is an entity consisting of its own as well as constructed out of different individual parts, which are all subordinate to her (Maly,2018a). This means that the cultural plurality of the nation can only be realized once national unity is acquired. The fundament of all anti-

Enlightenment is the organic group and its greatness. The primacy of the group is the only feature that can decide a nation’s role in history. Individualism and stress on universal human rights are traditionally seen as an attack on that nation. VOX is no exception. The unity and national identity of the Spanish nation is a priority for VOX and should be protected and preserved: | 10

Provide maximum protection for national symbols, especially the flag, the hymn, and

the crown. Aggravation of penalties for offenses and outrages against Spain and its

symbols or emblems. No affront to them should go unpunished (VOX, 2019c).

With the preservation of these national symbols, VOX wants to emphasize the primacy of the

Spanish nation. The dedication VOX expects the population to have towards this nation is compared with the relationship one has with their parents:

If you love your homeland as you love your parents (VOX España, 2016).

According to the anti-Enlightenment tradition, an individual contributes as a member of the family similarly as (s)he contributes to the nation. According to Herder: “Nature raises families, and a people is both a plant and a family, a plant with various branches” (Sternhell, 2019:278).

The individual becomes subjected to the whole of the nation and as part of this organic conception of society. The nation consists of different families that create the culture of that nation, which clarifies the importance of tradition, language, and customs (Sternhell, 2010).

This means that the family embodies the nation and at the same time makes it complete by contributing to it. All these families together, make the nation whole, like a community (Faye,

2011: 2000).

3.2 An imagined nation

In VOX’s expression of ‘hot’ nationalism the party tries to revoke nationalistic sentiments of the Spanish population. VOX’s idea of the construction of a nation is based on Gellner’s view that considers nationalism as a concept of modernity that produces nations (Gellner, 2006).

This normalized belief holds that every nation, consisting of people, deserves to have their nation-state. In this part, I would like to explain how VOX is trying to re-construct its ideal

Spanish nation. Creating a nation as such is defined by Benedict Anderson (1983) as an

“imagined political community”. Most of the members of the community will not know the | 11 other members of the group, however, they can all imagine the sense of the community. The members of the community will feel as if they belong together. Or as Anderson put it: "by the style in which they are imagined" (Anderson, 1983: 16). An important factor that needs to be emphasized is the technique that made this imagination possible. The comprehension of the other members of the community was made available through what Anderson (1983) calls Print

Capitalism. The sixteenth century meant the birth of the industrial printing press and the capitalist enterprise of book-publishing caused a rising interest in the printing, publication, and selling of books. The decline of the Latin language fuelled by the Reformation gave room for the spread and growing popularity of vernaculars. These print-languages, as Anderson (1983) calls them, were according to him the basis for national consciousness.

1. First, a situation arose in which everyone heard about the same news, in a small range

of newspapers, in the same language.

2. Second, besides being connected through printed work with fellow members, people

could also read the work of their ancestors.

This Print-Capitalism enabled the community to be imagined. VOX is actively trying to create national consciousness with the re-construction of its nation but in a very different timeframe and media context. With the use of digital media and Social Media in particular, through which

VOX broadcasts its ideas, the party imagines and tries to (re-) create a specific community, namely as I will show below, a new conservative revolutionary Spanish nation built on traditional values. The strong need for VOX in the recreation of the nation is based on the downfall of the existing nation, caused by the malfunctioning of the current government and the threat of outgroups which will be touched upon first.

3.3 The decline of the nation

As we have seen, is according to VOX the disintegration of the nation the cause of the decline of the nation. In its view, the controlling government, under the rule of the PSOE is responsible | 12 for this disintegration and therefore the decline. With the hashtag #GobiernoDelBulo

{deceiving government} VOX is accusing the government of being deceiving by telling false stories (VOX {vox_es}, 2020: April 9b; see figure 2). By depicting the PSOE as lying and incapable of solving this crisis, VOX stimulates the diminishing trust in the government (VOX

{vox_es}, 2020: April 9a; see figure 3).

Figure 2, Deceiving government

Figure 3, Deceiving government

In different tweets and Instagram posts is VOX emphasizing the malfunctioning of democracy and the economy during the rule of PSOE. Doing so, VOX tries to convince its voters of its party’s ability to save the Spanish people and make Spain a strong unified country again.

Especially during the outbreak of the Covid-19 (which has caused a global pandemic), VOX focuses on denigrating the ruling government. VOX accuses them of malfunctioning during | 13 the outbreak of Covid-19 in Spain. In the tweet in Figure 4, we can see how VOX depicts the wrongdoings of the government (VOX {vox_es}, 2020: March 11).

Figure 4, Depiction of government

Moreover, in the tweet in figure 4, VOX blames the high number of infected people on the government and calls them psychopaths. The tweet continues with a video of Fernando Simon, director of the Centre for Coordination of Health Alerts and Emergencies of the Ministry of

Health. Instead of showing the entire video, VOX shows a part in which he is laughing, insisting on the lack of seriousness of the government. Moreover, figure 5 shows how VOX includes the head of the Health Emergency centre as part of the government (VOX {vox_es},

2020: March 11).

| 14

Figure 5, Fernando Simon, director of the Centre for Coordination of Health Alerts

VOX even goes as far as trying to expel the ruling government from power by organizing a manifestation, in the words of VOX: Join the live show that is prepared to tell you the truth while they lie to you and let’s make the first online demonstration something historic (VOX

{vox_es}, 2020: April 8; see figure 6). VOX uses the hashtag GobiernoDimision {government resign} in arguing against the rule of the current government.

Figure 6, Government resign | 15

Another thing that should be noted about this example is VOX’s emphasis on the 400.000

Spaniards that have joined against the government. VOX appoints itself here as belonging to this group and therefore to ‘the people’. The algorithms on the mediums are generated through interaction with the post and even more than a month later, the use of this hashtag still realizes many likes (83.853), evidential for its long-lasting uptake (VOX {vox_es}, 2020: May 24; see figure 7).

Figure 7, VOX’s manifestation of Government resign

According to Bonilla & Rosa who wrote on hashtag ethnography, hashtags allow users to not simply ‘file’ their comments but to performatively frame what these comments are about

(Bonilla & Rosa, 2015:5). This provides us with the possibility of understanding the context of the ethnographic data we find. Even though some time has passed since the introduction of this hashtag, the meaning remains clear. So, every time the Hashtag GobiernoDimision appears, it refers to the same ideal of VOX, in which the party represents the people in the manifestation against the government. Moreover, the hashtag is also used by individual actors, showing how each of these tweets contributes to the ‘event’ of resistance against the government {against | 16 this useless left-wing government} (Anonymous, 2020a; see figure 8). The term Resistencia

Democratica refers to VOX’s understanding of the ‘organic democracy’ in which democracy is embodied by the nation. The flag in the image clarifies this image of ‘the Spanish nation’ protesting the government.

Figure 8, Government resign

4. A Unified population

After having explained VOX’s imagination of a newly imagined and re-constructed nation, this chapter will analyse the party’s view on the Spanish identity. As we have already seen VOX proposes a new understanding of the notion of democracy. According to VOX, this entity should be equivalent to the organic nation. This chapter will show how VOX envisions the identity of this organic nation and makes a distinction between its in- and outgroups.

4.1 Ingroups

First, a clear explanation will be given on who is part of the Spanish national identity and how this is framed. Inside the ingroup that consists of the Spanish national identity, VOX performs | 17 a specific discourse regarding the notion of equality. For VOX, the family is the basic element of society and should, therefore, be protected (VOX España, 2019b). VOX even depicts the family as having priority before the state and emphasizes the importance of the ‘natural family’:

Creation of a Family Ministry. Promulgation of an organic law of protection of the

natural family that recognizes it as an institution prior to State. We will seek

convergence with the European average regarding family benefits, which is now still

distant (VOX, 2019c).

Moreover, VOX aims to support natality and larger families by offering different kinds of subsidies and promote the ‘traditional’ role of the family:

Strong support for large families and birth in general. Creation of service checks that

subsidize part of family needs such as schoolbooks, and public transportation, etc. Set

bonuses proportional to the number of family members in all kinds of basic supplies

like light or gas or access to cultural assets (VOX, 2019c).

The following passage seems to give a clear picture of VOX’s notion of the national identity of its population and its respect regarding the population:

During the political, electoral and legislative process that lead to this transformation,

VOX will promote those measures and reforms that, within the current regulations at

all times, contribute to the strength and efficiency of the State, to the cohesion of the

Nation and the equality of the rights and liberties of the Spaniards, as well as the

fulfilment of their obligations, throughout the national territory (VOX, 2019b).

Even though this passage stresses the ‘equality of the rights and liberties of the Spaniards’, we have already seen that the traditional radical Enlightenment meaning of equality cannot be found in VOX’s discourse. The party is proposing a different notion of equality, that belongs to the tradition of the New Right. According to this view, the notion of equality refers to the | 18 equal treatment of everyone and opposes the prioritization of certain groups. The strategical use of meta-politics VOX uses to preserve its fundamental ideology while remaining part of the public debate is now used in the party’s imagining of the ideal Spanish population, that of a traditional family. The way VOX is advocating for the equal rights of everyone while at the same time promotes the traditional role of the family is an example of the meta-political character of its discourse. In an interview Abascal expresses the following ideas with regards to how VOX envisions the construction of a marriage:

We believe that the institution of marriage is the unity between a man and a woman and

should be protected (Intereconomiatube, 2019).

During this interview, Abascal alleges that regulation of civil union between a couple of the same sex should be allowed regardless of their sexual relationship. He emphasizes that the state should not interfere in private sexual matters but does make a distinction with the institution of marriage, that should be traditional. This distinction can also be seen in the multitude of measures in the section life and family from the article 100 medidas para la España viva that refer to supporting families financially, socially, and work-related when they have children.

Doing so, VOX advocates for the increase of the traditional Spanish families by making it easier to combine pregnancy with a job, getting enough assistance and receive a benefit for each child (VOX, 2019c). For this party, the nation should consist of a body representative of the Spanish identity as constructed by VOX. Because as we have seen, VOX follows the anti-

Enlightenment tradition of a democracy formed by the nation. So, even though VOX does not state it explicitly in its party program, the party prefers the institution of marriage to be reserved for heterosexuals. VOX implicitly promotes unequal rights by supporting heterosexual families and preventing everyone that is not part of that image from the acquisition of those rights. This claim is supported by its stance against minority groups. Figure 9 is a capture of a video that displays VOX’s negative stance towards feminism showing protesting feminists contrasted | 19 with videos of men and women holding hands. The clips showing protesting women are supported by uncomfortable sounds and are changed into a soft, melancholic song when the image is shifted to videos of the love between a man and a woman. The accompanying text holds:

How wrong are those that are opposing men and women. The #EspañaViva Flag of

Spain breaks with the strike of supremacist feminism. Retweet if you will not

participate in the strike on the 8th of March either (VOX {vox_es},2019: March 7).

Figure 9, Against feminism

VOX refers to international women’s march and calls up people not to participate. The hashtag

#NoHablesEnMiNombre (don’t talk in my name) refers to a manifestation by VOX against this day on the 8th of March. This day is considered by VOX made by and for the extreme left and to impose women what to think, feel, and say (VOX Nerja,2020). This is a very clear example of a minority movement threatening one of VOX’s most important values, that of the traditional

Spanish family. | 20

Following the same tendency, VOX also advocates for the repeal of the law on prevention and comprehensive protection against gender violence. In the party’s view, this law performs prejudices against the sex of the aggressor and should be replaced by a law that respects the presumption of innocence and does not facilitate the massive rain of subsidies to the supremacist feminine associations (Vox Andalucía, 2019). These words have received a lot of demonstrative comments, showing the provocative character of VOX. Traditionally, equality would be used in favour of laws like these, whereas in the view of VOX, equality means the treatment of everyone in the same way and is used in opposition to this law.

Privileging measures go against this idea and VOX’s notion of the prioritization of the nation and national unity. Another example in which argues for the abolishment of a minority law to save the equality of the Spanish population can be seen in the following quote from the document propuestas de VOX para la investidura del president del gobierno de Andalucía:

Repeal of the “Law 8/2017, of December 28, to guarantee the rights, equal treatment

and non-discrimination of LGBT(QI+) people and their families in Andalusia". The

rights of persons of homosexual orientation are already recognized in ordinary laws and

the Constitution. Spain is not a "homophobic" country that needs specials laws. Law

8/2017 attributes unjustified privileges to LGBT(QI+) associations, such as the right to

interfere in education, to have specific organs in the Administration, and to receive

subsidies (Vox Andalucía, 2019).

For VOX, the LGBT(QI+) community is not part of the traditional notion of the family and the party uses the principle of equality to propose a different discourse. According to VOX, providing ‘special’ laws is considered unequal and results in prioritizing certain groups over others. VOX does not allow prioritizing measures for feminist groups or the LGBT(QI+) community because that would threaten the equality of all citizens, but at the same time urges to install prioritization measures to support the traditional Spanish family. This is a common | 21 strategy to hegemonize the New Right discourse. These minority groups are considered part of the Spanish national identity as long as this notion of equality is pursued, and no prioritizing measures are in place. Not only does VOX use the principle of equality to argue against privileging measures of minority groups, but it also advocates for the protection of these groups to support the expulsion of another minority group. Addressing Prime Minister and head of government Pedro Sanchez, Abascal states:

Do you really think you can convince the Spanish that the dozens of illegal immigrants,

the majority of whom are Muslims, have nothing to do with this new type of aggression,

with the increase in aggressions against women, against homosexuals, or with the

mafias of the illegal trade that ruins our little merchants? (VOX España, 2019b).

VOX is claiming to protect women and homosexuals against that dangerous outgroup of

Islamic illegal immigrants. We have already seen that VOX advocates for the abolishment of an LGBT(QI+) law. According to them, Spain is not a homophobic country that needs special laws. For VOX, Spain should consist of ‘traditional’ gender roles and families. However, meanwhile, the party claims to protect the rights of women and homosexuals and views itself as the protector of these groups against illegal immigrants. Doing so, VOX draws a line between both groups, including the women and homosexuals to the ingroup of Spain and excluding the illegal immigrants as a dangerous outgroup. Lynn Berg (1997) explains that this discourse is representative of a new way of politics with minority groups. As we can see in the above example, VOX claims to protect these groups against external violence, that of illegal immigrants. The message is clear, the illegal immigrants are positioned as perpetrators and the women and homosexuals as victims. There is no room left for interpretation and the outgroup could not be more clearly highlighted. The attributes of being Muslim, violent, and immigrant become synonyms and representative of the other, which is perceived as a threat. This outgroup of illegal immigrants is threatening the ingroup, insinuating that every illegal immigrant is | 22 violent. A constant threat situation is created, and this invokes a feeling of fear among the population. Lynn Berg explained that this strategy is common for the far-right in which a double form of threat is created to put two disadvantaged groups in opposition to each other.

First, the violent outgroup labelled as immigrant and Muslim is perceived as a threat to society.

Secondly, the emphasis is put on the threat of this outgroup for the free, emancipated, liberal, and gender-equal society. The threat of illegal immigrants is described as dangerous for minority groups because of sexual violence and discrimination. Doing so, a negative position against this foreign outgroup is legitimized with the alleged protection of minority rights. It creates a sense of inequality inside society that enables us to connect these politics to the Anti-

Enlightenment tradition because in this view, egalitarianism is seen as a threat.

“The French New Right is profoundly opposed to the suppression of differences. It believes that a good system is one that transmits at least as much diversity as it has received.

The true wealth of the world is first and foremost the diversity of its cultures and peoples”

(Benoist,n.d). And according to Herder, the differences between nations are what should be focused on: “It is in the differences that the individual genius of man and cultures is expressed”

(Sternhell, 2009:411). This embracement of difference and identifying egalitarianism as the main enemy is typical for the New Right and equivalent to how VOX is presenting the identity of its imaginary nation, consisting of cultural plurality:

Evolution of the Autonomous State towards an administratively decentralized unitary

State that recognizes and integrates the differential cultural, linguistic facts, legal and

insular characteristics of our country (VOX, 2019b).

By stressing the importance of cultural pluralism, its discourse expresses the concept of differentialist anti-racism (De Benoist, 2017). In acknowledging and embracing difference instead of arguing against it, ‘the universal’ is restored. According to them, differences are the very substance of social life. This cultural plurality of Spain is considered as an essential | 23 characteristic of the Spanish nation and the administratively decentralized but unified nation- state is imagined as the instrument to accomplish the wellbeing of the Spanish nation.

4.2 Outgroups

As we will see, this triumph of differences by VOX is limited to those belonging to the Spanish identity. The party desires a social order where every citizen has their place while excluding any foreign features (Vicente, 2019). This means that inside the Spanish nation diversity is accepted as long as it is the diversity of its people and culture. Multiculturalism consisting of cultures that do not adhere to the ethnocultural identity of Spain cannot be part of VOX’s constructed nation. The group of illegal immigrants can be appointed as an outgroup VOX is opposing to and that does not have a place in VOX’s imagination of its Spanish identity. This sense of belonging VOX is aiming at, can only persist once there is knowledge of where one does not belong. To define ‘our own national identity’, nationalists can use the creation of outgroups to identify what they are not. A nation can only be constructed once there is a distinction between nations (De Cleen, 2017). Outgroups are constructed which enables the ingroup to form a distinct, personalized feature that characterizes this nation. Through this constructed differentiation nationalists can create in-groups on the one hand and out-groups on the other hand. These distinctive characteristics are formed according to how William Graham

Sumner (1906) explained the way members of a group relate to each other. If a group, and therefore also a nation, has common features or imagines having common features which they share, these features can then be used to distinguish from other groups. This is how a distinction between in and outgroups is constructed which makes a solid basis for nationalism.

Nevertheless, as I have explained, the concept of nation-states has been taken for granted. Therefore, the different out-groups have become a status quo and accepted in the world of nations (Billig, 1995). How every nation relates to one another is internationally acknowledged and does not need an explicit formulation. However, once this implicitness is | 24 revealed the strength of the nation can be shown. VOX holds a strong opposing view towards outgroups, with which it breaks away from this status-quo and is revealing its implicitness. In one of Santiago Abascal’s speeches about the discourse of VOX it becomes clear how the party is positioning itself against outgroups:

But we are installed in common sense and reality. We know we cannot please everyone.

And that is why we see that there is a progressive consensus on the one hand, and on

the other hand, there is VOX. Because of that, if we dare to say: or them, or us; or el

Estado de las autonomías or pensions; or the Spanish first or the illegal immigrants

(VOX España, 2019a).

VOX needs to establish the identity of the Spanish nation and that of the other. With the formation of outgroups, VOX can define everything that is not part of this identity and simultaneously create its own. By creating and holding on to a negative feeling towards outgroups, ethnocentrism is created which stimulates the stability inside the in-group. The term ethnocentrism signifies a strong sense of superiority of one’s group and looks down upon the out-groups. By opposing itself against an outgroup, or outgroups, VOX establishes its own identity and constructs the identity of their Spanish nation. As already pointed out at the very beginning of this chapter, VOX views itself as the saviour of the Spanish people need.

According to VOX, the party was born out of necessity to serve the population of Spain (VOX,

2019a). To make this story trustworthy, the members of VOX are forced to clarify from whom exactly the Spanish people must be saved. This is where the party opposes itself against the outgroup of illegal immigrants, which are seen as a threat to the nation’s unity. The following excerpt from Santiago Abascal’s speech O ellos o Nosotros (or them or us) shows that the cultural plurality VOX has in mind is very exclusive. VOX provides the voter with a choice, which is between VOX or the outgroups he mentions. | 25

Or a multicultural Europe or a Europe proud of its Christian roots (VOX España,

2019a).

Here, Abascal makes the voter choose between a Europe that is consisting of multiple non-

European cultures, or a Europe that is predominantly Christian. The Spanish nation is thus clearly imagined as a European and Christian nation, part of a transnational civilization.

Moreover, the following tweet shows a clear stance towards a multicultural society in which different cultures live together in co-existence. The video shows how a car drives into a bar and the door gets molested. The Islamic words that are shouted make clear to which specific group VOX is opposing (VOX, 2020, January 9; see figure 10).

Figure 10, VOX’s stance towards Islam

From the same speech given by Santiago Abascal, we can detect an aversion to non-Christian traditions. In his speech, he lets the voter choose between:

Or our traditions, or the Feast of the lamb.

The feast of the Lamb or Eid al-Adha means the Feast of the Sacrifice and celebrates the Islamic story of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son. The belief holds that Abraham was rewarded by God for this obedience by letting him sacrifice a lamb instead of his son. During the Feast of the Lamb, a lamb must be sacrificed according to tradition (López, Planet,& | 26

Hunter,2002). Many Muslims living in Spain celebrate this festivity every year. VOX opposes this tradition with ‘our traditions’, insinuating that Muslim traditions are not part of the Spanish values and culture. Moreover, the party again urges its voters to choose, which means that a vote for VOX means the exclusion of Muslim traditions. Abascal points out that there are neighbourhoods in Europe where women cannot go out alone and cannot dress like they would want to. This refers to the strict clothing rules in Islamic law, which VOX opposes against:

Close fundamentalist mosques. Expulsion of imams who propagate fundamentalism,

contempt for women, or the jihad (VOX, 2019c).

He goes on by saying that the ‘violations in herd’ happened in Spain as well. Abascal refers here to the sexual assaults on women by men from African and Arab descent in Cologne (The

Guardian, 2016). He uses this event in another European country to alarm the Spanish population for what would happen, in the view of VOX, if a lenient approach towards illegal immigration and Islam is taken. By providing a negative example of the specific outgroup,

VOX clarifies what will not be a part of its Spanish nation. VOX advocates for a strong protection of its land from foreign features by securing the borders, which becomes clear when we look at the following quote:

Strengthen our borders. Lift an impassable wall in Ceuta and Melilla. Give the police

and the Armed Forces all the material and human resources so that they can take care

of our borders with total efficiency, along with the corresponding legal protection

(VOX, 2019c).

The fence that divides Morocco from Spain is situated in Ceuta and Melilla and often used by illegal immigrants to cross the border to Spain. Ceuta and Melilla are two autonomous cities on the African land. According to VOX, this fence should be enforced to halt the entrance of illegal immigrants to the Spanish mainland. Or rather the Spanish homeland, as the leader of | 27

VOX Santiago Abascal prefers to call Spain in a video in which he talks about the topic of migration. He explains that his homeland is like a house for him and that therefore the families of the Spanish nation should be protected. Talking about the national police and the Guarda

Civil he says:

Those are the ones that protect the doors of our house (VOX España, 2018a).

We have already seen how the notion of family is connected to the nation. By emphasizing the protection of the Spanish family of which the Spanish nation consists, VOX connects the family to the Spanish soil. The unity of the Spanish nation is founded on the existence of traditional families on the mainland. For VOX, the family is the basic element of society and should, therefore, be protected (VOX España, 2019b). The protection of borders and doors to keep out everything that is not part of the Spanish identity hints at a notion of nationalism that is based on soil. Together with the conclusion we already made on the organic notion of nationalism,

VOX bases its conception of the nation on the traditional idea of blood and soil.

As described by Faye in his book Why we fight:” The notion of people, like that of blood or identity, is incomprehensible without a notion of ‘land’” (Faye, 2011). These words emphasize the importance of the Spanish soil for the protection of the Spanish country. In keeping the Spanish country safe, VOX wants to ensure the security of the Spanish family. By linking the protection of the Spanish soil to the danger of illegal immigration, VOX aims at protecting its homeland while excluding this foreign feature. This shows that VOX’s use of the term cultural plurality is in line with the meta-political strategy of the New Right. The party advocates for an administratively decentralized nation consisting of cultural pluralism while at the same time excluding foreign features that are not part of the Spanish identity. This identity is based on the notion of blood, referring to the organic entity of a nation and on the notion of soil, protecting the borders and doors of the Spanish homeland. This organic notion is emphasized when an explicit distinction is made between those that belong to the ingroup of | 28 the Spanish nation (Spanish elderly) and those that belong to the threatening outgroup (illegal immigrants)( VOX, 2020: April 12; see figure 11). By contrasting the luxurious residences in which arriving immigrants reside against the lack of attention for older people in elderly residences, VOX aims at showing who is part of its ingroup. It highlights what these older generations have done for the Spanish nation in opposition to these illegal immigrants, who belong to the outgroup. VOX accentuates the failure in measurements by the ruling government and blames them to follow a solidarity principle based on the Enlightenment notion of equality.

VOX follows the anti-Enlightenment tradition that considers the nation as “a vast solidarity, constituted by the sentiment of the sacrifices one has made and of those one is yet prepared to make” (Renan&Howard,2018:261). By emphasizing the good deeds of this elderly, VOX hints at the organic idea of a nation in which all parts are connected and dependent on each other.

This means that everyone has duties to fulfil toward its ancestors, those who have laid down the fundament of the nation (Maly,2012). Therefore, we can assume that VOX would prioritize the help of those parts of the Spanish nation (VOX, 2020: April 9c; see figure 12).

Figure 11, Contrast treatment elderly and immigrants

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Figure 12, Contrast treatment elderly and immigrants

The following words by Santiago Abascal during a political debate about the migration flow gives us a more detailed description of the specifics dangers of the outgroup as viewed by

VOX:

The immigration avalanche also creates serious security, economic, and co-existence

problems (VOX España, 2019b).

This is an example of a typical reactionist argument that is used to argue against immigration.

The ‘jeopardy thesis’ explains that different ethnic and cultural communities threaten the basic values that are held by western culture (Blommaert, Verschueren, 1993). By using a term like

‘avalanche’, reference is made with a natural disaster, emphasizing the dramatic and horrifying notion of immigration. The following measure by VOX with regards to illegal immigrants shows again how VOX is thinking about illegal immigrants in the Spanish country (La Razón,

2019).

End the call effect: any immigrant who has entered illegally in Spain will be unable, for

life, to legalize his situation and therefore to receive any kind of help from the

administration.

With the call effect is meant the relaxation attitude by the government of prime minister Pedro

Sanchéz with regards to illegal immigrants (VOX,2020a). It refers to the possibilities of | 30 legalization offered by the regulatory process, which according to VOX attracts illegal immigrants to Spain. In VOX’s view, the call effect should be abolished, and a stricter rule should apply which will result in fewer immigrants trying to enter the Spanish country.

Therefore, the party advocates the deportation of all illegal immigrants to their country of origin (VOX, 2019c). This way, the unity of the national identity is held intact by proposing a strict control on those who want to belong to the constructed Spanish nation and want to acquire Spanish nationality. The following tweet shows the party’s radical stance toward immigrants. VOX wants to have different laws for immigrants who perform a crime:

The deportation of immigrants who are legally in Spanish territory but who have

relapsed in the commission of minor crimes or have committed a serious crime (VOX,

2019c).

5. Unified Spanish values

5.1 The preservation of Spain’s identity

Important for the creation of a unified nation is the reintegration and conservation of national historical values so that the national identity of Spain can be preserved. One of the most important values for VOX is the Spanish language. First of all, VOX sees the Spanish language, with which it means Castilian Spanish, as a tool to bring unity and create one central state.

According to Billig (1995), the triumph of national languages and the suppression of co- languages would be beneficial in the construction of nationhood. This was done during the

Franco regime when all co-official languages were forbidden. VOX follows a different discourse, where Castilian Spanish is still considered as the main language but in which the party allows citizens the freedom to decide for themselves which language they speak:

| 31

Guarantee the possibility to be educated in Spanish in the entire country. Spanish must

be seen as the obligatory language and the co-official languages as options. Parents

should have the choice to decide in which language they want their children to be

educated (VOX,2019c).

The primacy of Castilian Spanish becomes clearer in the following quote, in which Castilian

Spanish is assumed to be the obligatory language. The language level for the acquisition of nationality implicates Castilian Spanish to be the national language. In its regulations with regards to immigration and the requirement of Spanish nationality, VOX’s party program states the following:

Raise the requirement in language level, taxation, and integration for the acquisition of

nationality (VOX, 2019c).

Citizens have the option to choose which language they speak, as long as Castilian Spanish is spoken by everyone and considered the obligatory language. The other languages are accepted if they are subordinate to the main language, Castilian Spanish. VOX follows the notion of languages common for the anti-Enlightenment. We have seen that this tradition advocates for the triumph of differences. According to Herder, these differences become clear through the expression of language. Language is passed on with each generation, according to Herder:

“difference (between peoples) right next to each other can be explained just as naturally as the unity of the familial language in one nation” (Herder, 1772). VOX’s emphasis on the national Castilian language as superior goes hand in hand with this line of thinking. We have already seen that VOX allows the co-official languages to be spoken if the primacy of Castilian

Spanish is acknowledged as the main language. Moreover, its desire to expand the knowledge of Spanish on an international level shows that VOX is trying to show its national values through this language. In the words of VOX: | 32

No administration or individual can belittle the common language of all, Spanish. Or

discriminate against her. We must strictly comply with the constitutional mandate that

all Spaniards have the right to use Spanish, and the duty to know it. Removing the

requirement of knowledge of the co-official languages in access to the public service in

such a way as to avoid any kind of discrimination (VOX, 2019c).

The primacy of Spanish, with which it means Castilian Spanish, is emphasized and proposed to be used as a unifying binding factor. In the view of VOX, discrimination is prevented once

Castilian Spanish is considered the main language. Or as Sternhell put it, the national language is of key importance for anti-Enlightenment nationalists: according to them “it is by cultivating its national language that a people can emerge from a state of barbarism” (Sternhell,2019:299).

Moreover, we have already seen the party’s stance towards the constitution and its urge for the abolishment of certain rights. However, here VOX emphasises the importance of constitutional mandates that encompass the rights of the Spanish population. The way VOX frames its stance towards constitutional mandates in support of its view regarding a unified language is part of its meta-political discourse. Doing so, the party hides its implicit stance towards the constitution and can frame its stance as supportive of the rights of the Spanish population.

Another example can be read in the same position paper about the preservation of the Spanish language.

Give recognition to the Spanish language on an international level and conform to its

importance as the second most spoken language in the world. Starting with the EU

(VOX, 2019c).

So according to VOX, not only should the Spanish language be recognized in Spain, but the importance of this language should also be acknowledged on an international level. Which | 33 shows the importance of the international dimension of VOX’s discourse. This international dimension is also shown in Abascal’s speech about honour and virtues and the respect and gratitude for the elderly, in which he emphasizes the importance of heritage and history (VOX

España, 2016). This speech is ended with the slogan: “hacer España grande otra vez”, copying

Trump’s famous phrase: “Make America Great Again”. Referring to this internationally known phrase shows the international orientation of VOX’s nationalism. In seeking support for its claims, the party looks for other nationalistic actors across borders. This proves the international and border crossing character of the anti-Enlightenment tradition.

The partial acceptance of co-official languages is part of VOX’s recognition of the regional cultures as part of the Spanish nation. Whereas VOX excludes foreign features based on blood and soil nationalism, the party accepts Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country as part of the Spanish nation. In VOX’s creation of a unified nation, it follows the definition Ernest

Gellner gives to nationalism: ‘Nationalism is not the awakening of nations to self- consciousness: it invents nations where they do not exist (Gellner, 2006: 6. As cited in

Anderson, 1983). The difficulty in the creation of one united Spanish nation as well as considering the regional cultures is described by Requejo (2005) as the primary and secondary sense in the definition of the word ‘nation’. This primary sense of the word nation implies four different identities: that of Spanish, Basque, Galician, and Catalan. With which is meant that having the nationality of one of those four, implies a distinction from the other three. Requejo

(2005) calls this the hidden nationality, which refers to: “the multinational nature of the Spanish reality” (Requejo, 2005:69). In this understanding, these four nationalities are regarded as equal and not subordinate to the Spanish nationality. The secondary sense of the term nation implies the incorporation of all Spanish citizens in its definition of Spain as a ‘nation of nations.’ If we take this definition, these ‘nations’ refer to Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque country, accepting them but making them subordinate to the Spanish nation. This secondary sense of | 34 the word nation is preferred by nationalistic groups, and thus also VOX, with the emphasis on the nation as superior to the sub-nationalities. Using this definition, one emphasizes the importance of national unity and tries to ignore these other ‘nations’. One could argue that this is created from an ‘unreal state nationalism’ {..} that hinders the recognition and self- government of the minority nations in the primary sense’(Requejo, 2005:70). Nevertheless, this is how VOX envisions the cultural plurality in the Spanish nation. It imagines its nation as a ‘melting pot’ in which different cultures (Catalan, Basque, and Galician) are accepted as being Spanish par excellence. Being Basque, Galician, or Catalan are discursively framed as being consistent with the ideas of the dominant Spanish culture (Mack,1994). They are even framed as being ‘typically’ Spanish. The consideration of nations as sociocultural constructs and attaching identity to it is something characteristic for different New Right movements

(Traverso,2019). Countries like Italy and France acknowledged this national identity already and now it is time for Spain to re-construct its nation. We have already seen that VOX allows a specific group to be accepted in its nation, following a limited form of cultural plurality, and adhering to the anti- Enlightenment tradition of nationalism based on blood and soil. Besides,

VOX also imagines its nation to encompass Christian, ethnocultural characteristics. The use of the words Hispanidad (Spanishness) and arraigo (Rootedness) index us these features and provides us with a better understanding of how VOX envisions its nation (Gould,2019). A concrete example is a visit of Santiago Abascal to Catalonia to celebrate el Día de la

Hispanidad, or rather Día de la fiesta Nacional on the 12th of October in which the Spanish population celebrates Columbus’ discovery of America. The name of this festivity has officially been changed and the term Hispanidad is removed from the title because of neo- colonialist connotations (Llobet, 2003). For many people, this title brings up negative feelings about the Spanish occupation of America in 1492 and the way the indigenous people were treated. By changing the name, all reference to the colonialist occupation was removed. | 35

Nevertheless, the day still carries a negative connotation and restarts the discussions when it is celebrated each year. VOX continues to call this day ‘Día de la Hispanidad’ and on a visit during this day to Barcelona Abascal spoke the following words:

This 12th of October we have come together in Barcelona to tell our fellow Catalan

countrymen that they are not alone in their defence of Spanish unity and the liberty of

their land, punished by separatist manipulation (VOX, 2016).

So, VOX’s continuous use of the word Hispanidad on the 12th of October shows how the commemoration of history is considered more important than the neo-colonialist connotations.

Or more in particular, that this discourse on history that stresses the great Spanish empire is something that should be maintained, instead of being ashamed of. Moreover, the party uses the celebration of this day to include ‘their fellow Catalan countrymen’ as part of this Spanish unity. In Santiago Abascal’s tweet, he commemorates the capital of Catalonia as the capital of

Hispanidad by saying:Today in Barcelona, capital of #Hispanidad, together with our colleagues of VOX in Catalonia #VivaEspaña (VOX {vox_es}, 2015: October 21; see figure 13).

Figure 13, VOX in Barcelona | 36

In this Tweet, Abascal reframes the meaning of Barcelona. It is not presented as the capital of

Catalonia, the centre of Catalan separatism, but from ‘La Hispadidad’. Instead of addressing the Catalan separatists as enemies, he ignores the Catalan problem and takes Catalonia as part of the Spanish unity. Doing so, VOX takes Barcelona out of the nationalistic discourse of

Catalonia and places it in the centre of a Spanish national narrative. Such an entextualization as described by Blommaert (2015) is an act of power. By decontextualizing Barcelona and integrated it into a Spanish nationalist discourse, Barcelona gets a new meaning ( recontextualization). Taking Barcelona out of the context of Catalonia and placing it in the discourse of a strong national Spain where Hispanidad is thriving is a powerful political act.

The new meaning of Barcelona as the capital of this Hispanidad stresses the importance VOX gives to Barcelona and its people, while at the same time it attacks the independence movement.

Cultural plurality is accepted, yet is preceded by the importance of national unity. A reaction to one of VOX’s anti-Catalan independence campaigns in Barcelona can be seen in figure 14

(Applebaum,2019). The protests in which Abascal denies Catalonia to be a nation and advocates for its belonging to Spain fuels many reactive and even violent responses.

Figure 14, Catalan protests against VOX anti-independence campaign

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By emphasizing this Spanishness VOX is making clear of which people its nation should consist. The term Hispanidad is used to refer to the shared patrimony and aimed at a certain pride in Spanish values, history, and culture (Humblebaek,2015). According to Diffie (1943), the term Hispanidad is used as a privileging feature that favours those with a Hispanic background and should not be confused with the term Hispanismo (Panhispanism). Which is aimed at the social, economic, and political cooperation of the Spanish-speaking countries.

Influenced by liberal ideas of the Enlightenment, the latter has been used primarily to create unity in the countries of Hispanic America. This liberal movement rejected the traditional

Spanish values yet praised the liberalism in Spanish history (Diffie, 1943: 458). Even though

Hispanidad does not refer to intercontinental cooperation, it does relate to a unified character between Spain and Spanish America. Ramiro do Maeztu (1932), ambassador for Argentina during the Second Spanish Republic, described that Hispanidad is what connects these different geographical regions. The term refers to their shared values focused on language and

Catholicism. Moreover, it refers to a certain identity or as Zacarías de Vizcarra referred to it;

“it expresses the set of qualities that distinguish peoples of Hispanic descent and culture from the rest of the world” (Vizcarra, 1944). Which is also what we detect in VOX’s discourse; it mainly focuses on the Spanish values and unity when talking about strengthening Hispanidad:

Promote a patronage law, so that individuals and companies can participate in cultural

creation, increase the tax deduction of contributions as well as of the restoration and

protection of the extensive national cultural heritage. To promote the cultural level of

grounding, folkloric manifestations, and traditions of Spain and its towns within the

perspective of Hispanidad (VOX,2019c).

So, by using the term Hispanidad, VOX tries to create its nation consisting of this exclusionary culture of traditional Spanish and Roman Catholic heritage. This term was also part of the revaluation of the Spanish values and history during the fascist regime of Francisco Franco. | 38

The Consejo de la Hispanidad was created in 1940 under the rule of Franco to realize

Hispanidad (Diffie,1943). This change would be realized by a reinterpretation of history, with its emphasis on the Catholic religion and escaping the ‘evils’ of the Renaissance and

Reformation (Diffie,1943: 460). The continuing use of this word by VOX despite its history shows the importance the party attributes to this term. We have seen that VOX makes use of the term Hispanidad to clarify the values of the nation VOX is envisioning. Moreover, by revaluing Spain’s values, historical heritage, and traditions it constructs this nation. This emphasis on the preservation of Spanish values is common for the New Right tradition.

According to Maly (2018), the ethnopluralism of nations should stay intact and differences between nations should be aimed at. For VOX, one of those defining characteristics that define the Spanish nation is bullfighting.

Promote a law for the protection of bullfighting, as part of the Spanish cultural heritage

(VOX, 2019).

One of the most stereotypical images of a Spanish tradition, the bullfighting, is hereby acknowledged by VOX as belonging to its national heritage. According to the party, it is part of the Spanish cultural heritage and should be preserved. With this view, VOX takes the same position as the constitutional court that has turned down a ban on bullfighting since this would be part of Spanish cultural heritage (BBC, 2016). Catalonia banned this law because it would not be compatible with Catalan tradition. By emphasizing the importance of bullfighting for the Spanish unity, VOX expresses itself against the independence of a separate Catalonia, with its own traditions. This means that the importance bullfighting receives for the preservation of

Spanish values becomes an act against the constitutional crisis. The preservation of these traditional symbols and historical values defines the nation VOX is trying to construct and is the final feature in VOX’s discourse for the realization of national unity. According to its party program VOX wants to initiate: | 39

A comprehensive plan for the knowledge, dissemination, and protection of national

identity. And of Spain's contribution to civilization and universal history, with special

attention to the exploits of our national heroes (VOX, 2019c).

The national values and heritage should be preserved and held intact by the revaluation of history and national heroes. The Enlightenment thought of universalism is understood by anti-

Enlightenment thinkers as destructive of the nation. According to the view of the New Right:

“the unity of a nation’s history cannot be established based on natural law and no civilization has the right to impose its model on others” (Benoist & Champetier, 2000). In the following quote, VOX expresses this historical pluralism:

Immediate repeal of the Historical Memory Law. No parliament is legitimized to define

our past or exclude those Spanish people that follow different definitions. The past

cannot be used to divide us. On the contrary, we must jointly honour all those who,

from different historical perspectives, fought for Spain (VOX, 2019c).

The Historical Memory Law refers to the principle that recognizes all the victims of the Spanish

Civil War, on both sides. Moreover, the law condemns the Franco regime and provides certain rights for victims and descendants of both the Civil War and the following dictatorship. In executing this law, authorities are required to remove any signs or symbols on public spaces that commemorates or glorifies the Franco regime (Guilat, 2016). The fact that VOX advocates for the withdrawal of this law remind us of Renan’s ideas where forgetting plays an important role in the creation of nations. Ernest Renan was an anti-Enlightenment thinker (Sternhell,

2010; Maly, 2012) and expressed his nationalistic sentiments in his text: Qu’est-ce qu’une nation? According to him, violent acts are often necessary to create political formation and therefore brutality cannot be avoided when one desires unity. He criticises historical studies for focusing too much on historical error (Renan&Howard,2018). VOX claims the same idea by | 40 saying that no one has the right to define Spanish history. Instead of remembering the victims as done in the Historical Memory Law, VOX advocates for the commemoration of those who fought for the Spanish nation, because according to Renan: “shared suffering unites more than does joy” (Renan&Howard,2018:10). The exhumation of general Fransisco Franco by the

PSOE last year is judged by VOX as an excuse to:

Destroy the reconciliation of the Spanish people and rewrite history and delegitimize

the monarchy (VOX España, 2019a).

During this speech, Abascal continues by saying that some Spaniards have grandparents that fought on the republican side in the Spanish civil war and some have family that fought on the opposite side. He says that no one wants to be forced to condemn their grandparents, because they all love Spain and they all like reconciliation. So, this supports the idea that no culture can be judged from one single criterion. In the view of VOX, with the Historical Memory Law is the government guilty of telling the population what to believe. According to Ivan Espinosa de los Monteros, VOX’s vice-secretary of international relations:

Europe is what it is, thanks to Spain. Thanks to our contribution, ever since the Middle

Ages, of stopping the spread of Islam, history matters and we shouldn’t be afraid of that

(Ghiles, 2019).

This is interesting because VOX emphasizes its belonging to Europe and uses a European dimension to argue for its nationalism. This strong focus on the European entity is a characteristic of the New Right. According to VOX’s view, Europe will remake itself by recognizing its historical cultures: “thus permitting all inhabitants to rediscover their common origins” (Benoist & Champetier, 2000). Nevertheless, they argue against a European nation and this remaking is meant for individual nations.

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5.2 The rebirth of Spanish history

VOX’s idea of the re-construction of a new nation is based on the downfall of the existing nation, caused by the malfunctioning of the current government. This reminds us of Guillaume

Faye’s thoughts concerning the decline of Europe. Faye was equally to Alain de Benoist an important thinker for the GRECE movement. In the line of thinking of the anti-Enlightenment tradition, he explained that the roots of this decline lays in the universal conceptions of equality and individualism. According to Faye: “Enlightenment is the reason that Europe is now the sick man of the world”. (Faye,2011) That is the moment when Faye invokes the need for a

‘reconquest’, in the name of ‘the people’ and ‘our identity’. What needs to be reconquered is

“the organic democracy, deeply rooted in the European tradition” (Faye,2011). This sense of revocation of the past aligns with Griffin’s view on rebirth. According to him, combining the acknowledgement of decline and crisis with the advocation for a rebirth is something characteristic for fascist actors” (Griffin, 2008). The foundation for this rebirth are the myths of a nation’s history and the objective should always be geared towards the future. This necessity of rebirth is what Griffin calls ‘the palingenetic creed’ (Griffin, 2008). VOX’s urge for the re-construction of the nation shows how the party’s discourse fits this necessity of rebirth. Part of this re-construction is the revival of Spanish history and pride of national heroes which can also be seen in the usage of the word Reconquista by VOX. To understand this term, it is necessary to give a historical overview.

The year 711 marked the beginning of the long-lasting geographical struggle between the Muslims and the Christians in the Iberian Peninsula. In this year, the Muslim supremacy started when Berbers took over the land from the Visigoths. This newly established rule lasted until the fall of the Umuyyad caliphate in Córdoba in the year 1031. Only the north of what is now Spain remained clear from Muslim rule and was governed by Christian counts or kings.

The decline of the Caliphate was an opportunity for Christians to move further south and | 42 conquer lands that belonged to the Muslims. The conquest of Granada in 1492 by the Catholic

Kings Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille has defined history and Spanish pride until today. At least according to those who consider the Spanish Reconquista (Reconquest) literally as the long-deserved victory where the Spanish conquistadores (conquerors) regained their land. This idea of a long-deserved history derived from the self-proclamation of the Christians to be the Visigoth’s heirs and consequently have the right to own the land (O'Callaghan, 2004).

The term Reconquista is thus referring to the war to reconquer the lands in the Iberian Peninsula and to expulse the present Muslims. When talking about a concept like this, it is important to consider the fact that it has evolved throughout history, and with it, its meaning has developed.

The investigation of whether this has been a real Reconquest or not has been the question for many historians but not the matter of my research.

What is important for now is the meaning VOX gives to the term when using it in its discourse. For this party, the term Reconquista still refers to the heroic victory of the Christian against the Muslims. So, for the members of VOX, it is clear what is meant with the term

Reconquista. The party refers to this term when it speaks of a strong united Spain that once fought against these Muslim rulers. When referring to this part of Spanish history, VOX speaks of the pride of its ancestors and a desire to return to their values. In the campaign

#espiritucovadonga initiated by VOX in 2019, the commemoration of Spanish history was the central theme (El Comercio, 2019; see figure 18). Within particular the battle of Covadonga, that is believed to be the cradle of the Reconquista and the beginning of the destruction of the

Muslim empire. As explained by Boyd (2002) the story of the battle according to written chronicles goes that the warrior Don Pelayo battled Muslim troops. The alleged victory of this story has become crucial In the Spanish, Christian tradition and a myth about the cradle of the

Reconquista started here. Alfonso I was the first one commemorating this battle and the image of Our Lady of Covadonga. The municipality of Covadonga is still the place where this battle | 43 is commemorated, and VOX even initiated a campaign ‘for the spirit of the Reconquista’

(Confidencial, 2019; see figure 15). During this commemoration, Abascal spoke to his followers at this specific place and told them not to be ashamed of the deed of its ancestors, yet rather feel pride and consider them as an example. Moreover, he proclaimed to use these ancestors as a guide, on how to fight and how to resist. In doing this in the alleged cradle of

Spain where the conquistadores had their first victory against the Muslim rulers, he approves and applauds the expulsion of Muslims to create a strong Spanish state (VOX España, 2015).

Figure 15, For Spain. The electoral campaign for the spirit of the Reconquista

A year before this campaign he already made a statement with a video where he rides a horse through deserted country land. With this video, he wanted to broadcast the message that: The

Reconquista starts in the lands of Andalusia (Abascal,2018). Another way VOX refers to more glorifying times and aims at a revival is by using the term ‘plus ultra’. It is a reversal of the original term: ‘non plus ultra’ {nothing further beyond}. The meaning of the term refers to the motto of Spain as originated by Charles I. The metaphorical meaning hints at striving for excellence and taking risks (Rosenthal, 1971). So, this term Reconquista refers on the one hand to an important part of Spanish history, which according to VOX should be relived. And on the other hand, to this New Right notion of rebirth. Using this term, VOX gives the voters the feeling that they are part of a huge patriotic movement. | 44

VOX’s urge to revalue the Reconquista and its strong sense of nation-building allude to the definition of generic fascism opted by Griffin. According to Griffin: “Fascism is a political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutations is a palingenetic form of populist ultra- nationalism (2008:186).” Ultra-nationalism refers to the urge to create a sense of common destiny and identity, of which racial history is part. VOX’s emphasis on tradition and the revaluation of its national history is in line with this notion of rebirth. By using the term

‘fascism’ to describe VOX’s ideology, I do not refer to the Francoist or historical territorial regime. Fascism is a transnational and transhistorical concept, which means that the term survives in different countries, but also ages. Nevertheless, what should be noted about the ideology of fascism is that it takes a different form each time, and in each place. The fascism of Nazi Germany was not the same as the regime in Spain until 1975. This research argues in favour of the idea that VOX is propagating a new kind of fascism. Enzo Traverso has explained that fascism arising in the twenty-first century will take a different form and can be called Post-

Fascism. He claims that the term fascism does the opposite of clarifying the current tendencies because of its historical connotations (Traverso,2019).

Post-Fascism derives from the original fascist basis but has transformed thanks to the unstable and contradicting ideologies of the twenty-first century. It should not be confused with the term neo-fascism, which focuses on regenerating the classical form of fascism. We should be aware of labelling and running the chance of overlooking important features. The values of post-fascist parties differ from those of their predecessors and embody a feeling of anti-politics.

The protection of national identities, their economy, and the restoration of national sovereignty are characteristics for what Traverso called the impolitical character of post-fascism. This character refers to the reactive approach towards the political system and advocates for the interference of values into politics again. VOX’s Reconquista campaign is aimed at the | 45 revaluation of historical values and fits perfectly in the anti-politics of the post-fascist movement. Vicente Rubio-Pueyo has explained the emergence of Post-Fascism further by claiming it to be “a series of adaptations of historical forms of Fascism and Ultra-Conservatism and its discursive elements (Nation, People, etc) to the economic, social, pollical and cultural landscape of Neoliberal Globalization” (Rubio-Pueyo, 2019:28). VOX’s urge for national rebirth and the revaluation of historical roots shows the party’s belonging to this movement.

6. Framing the implicit discourse

6.1. Populism

After having explained VOX’s nationalistic discourse, that belongs to the anti-Enlightenment tradition and aims at re-construction a unified state, this chapter will identify VOX as a populist actor. What should be noted about populism is that it is not a newly invented phenomenon or something inherently bad. For VOX, the use of populism is used to express its explicit discourse and frame its implicit ideology as ‘the voice of the people’. The claim to be speaking in the name of the people is something common for populist actors (Maly,2018b). According to Vilches (2019), VOX adopts this populist style to advocate its nationalism, which is based on the ideology of the anti-Enlightenment tradition. In studying the discourse of VOX, this is precisely what this party is expressing:

VOX is the voice of a living Spain (VOX, 2019a).

‘VOX’ is the literal translation of voice in Spanish, which means that its political discourse can be found in the name of the party: the expression of the voice. Moreover, the party program states that the common sense of the Spaniards is represented by VOX:

VOX is the party of common sense (VOX,2019a).

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Stating to represent the common sense of the population, VOX claims to know what the

Spanish population thinks and wants. The populist claims to give voice to and represent those citizens at home:

VOX is the party that gives voice to what millions of Spaniards think in their homes

(VOX,2019a).

VOX refers to the ordinary Spaniard that wants to be heard. Moreover, it claims to know the needs and desires of the population:

We are the Spain that does not need to look in the newspaper to know what the

fashionable speech is (VOX,2019a).

According to Benjamin de Cleen, populism has always been a concept related to nationalism.

Nevertheless, whereas nationalism is concerned with the nation, the focus points of populism are ‘the people’ and ‘the elite’. Populism claims to represent the large majority of ‘the people’ against the illegitimate minority of ‘the elite’ (De Cleen, 2017). Doing so, it claims to represent the will of these people. According to Maly (2018), populism is best understood and studied not just as a frame, style, or thin ideology, but as ‘a communicative relation’. It is not enough for populists to speak a populist discourse; they should also generate media uptake. Uptake of

‘the people’ results in the legitimization of the claim by populist parties to express ‘the voice of the people’. The following headline is from the newspaper El Español that speaks of VOX as a populist party and even of a populist wave: “El momento populista de VOX”

(Vilches,2019). They compare the objective of VOX with that of Podemos who both can be appointed as populist parties. According to this article:

VOX’s conservative nationalism is as victimizing as it is counter-attacking or reactive,

which can easily be fitted in with the populist style (Vilches,2019).

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Moreover, in Figure 16 we see how many visitors every party has on its website. This proves once again that VOX is approaching its followers and voters through media and the internet.

Figure 16, Visits to the political party’s websites

This shows the uptake of VOX’s discourse in the mainstream media. However, currently, this uptake is often produced by social media and the populist relies on their voters, followers, protesters, and likes (Maly, 2018b). As we can see in Figure 17, VOX is the forerunner on social media with being the first political party on Instagram and having the most followers

(Alonso, 2018).

Figure 17, Political party’s followers on Instagram

A beneficiary factor of social media is that the uptake and responses become visible for the populist actor. The actors that are operating on these media reproduce the political discourse of VOX. An example of VOX’s way to represent the Spanish population and broadcast its ideas | 48 is the speech in the Vistalegre and its publicity. This is an arena in Madrid where Santiago

Abascal held multiple speeches. The second one was in October last year and its popularity received much media attention. During this speech in October 2019, Abascal addressed the audience as ‘fellow countrymen’ and told the people that the fundaments of the nation are based on common sense, effort, merit, and honour (VOX España, 2019b). In this speech, Abascal claims to represent the people and VOX uses social media to raise the attention for this speech.

Figure 18 shows VOX’s advertisement for its upcoming speech and emphasized a welcoming attitude because of free entrance and the expansion of seats (VOX {vox_es}, 2019: October 2).

Remarkable about the videos advertising for his speech is the depiction of an arena full of people enthusiastically cheering and applauding for Abascal.

Figure 18, VOX’s Vistalegre campaign

Such media reporting co-construct the claim of VOX to speak in name of the people. Such success, when broadcasted contributes to their ‘popularity’ and the popularity of their discourse. The discourse on the voice of the people naturalizes the ideology of the party. Figure

19 shows how VOX is using rhetorical phrases to attract voters’ attention. By saying: {With

VOX, Spain forever}, the party gives a sense of security to the population. According to this | 49 post, VOX does not agree with influencing and wants to represent a patriotic majority. The responses after the speech can be seen in Figure 14 and the reactions are twofold, on the one hand supporting VOX by someone repeating the abbreviation of Spain {ESESES} and on the other hand negative of its discourse {what a fear and anguish really} (VOX {vox_es),2019:

October 7). Figure 20 shows more positive responses {it was amazing; Proud of VOX, thank you for existing, you are the best politicians we have at the moment}.

Figure 19, Responses to Vistalegre campaign.

Figure 20, Responses to Vistalegre campaign

The term ‘Vistalegreplusultra’ has even become a popular hashtag to refer to Abascal’s speech.

In the post visible in figure 21 someone writes: {Today, more than 15.000 Spaniards in | 50

Vistalegre with VOX and Santiago Abascal!!! A Living Spain} (Anonymous, 2019a). The reactions are supportive: {ESESES} {and all those millions that could not make it today for various reasons} {Olee}. Figure 21 shows another use of this hashtag and the picture referring to the slogan of VOX “no hables en mi nombre” (don’t talk in my name) which we have already seen in an earlier example regarding women’s rights (Anonymous, 2019b). A critical reaction to this post states: {if a few years ago some women (suffragettes) would not have spoken in your name and in the name of all women, you would not have the opportunity to vote today}.

Figure 21, Uptake of Vistalegre campaign

Figure 22, Uptake of Vistalegre campaign

As we can see in the examples, VOX receives both positive and negative responses to its discourse. Nevertheless, both contribute to the spreading of the message and the increase in its | 51 popularity. So, we have seen that a populist actor wants to represent the people and says to be speaking in their name. When defining a populist, one should realize that populism cannot be seen as an ideology but rather a label to be acquired that can help distribute and normalize extreme (and less extreme ideologies). According to Ico Maly, the acquisition of this label and the construction of a populist depends on a great part of the role of the (digital) media (Maly,

2019). We have seen that populism can be referred to as a communicative relation, according to Maly, this is a relationship between different human and algorithmic actors (Maly, 2019).

The role media plays should be considered in our categorization of populism. If we follow this view of populism, a populist actor is dependent on the frame they find themselves in.

Characteristics of this framework are described by Maly in the following five points:

The first point is the claim to be speaking in the voice of the people as opposed to the elite. VOX claims to know very well what the population desires and what it should do to speak in the name of the people. At the beginning of this chapter, we have already seen Abascal’s claim to represent a patriotic majority during his speech in the Vistalegre palace.

Moreover, the name of the party refers to the voice of the Spanish population it is representing. In supporting the claim to be speaking in the name of the people, the populist actor claims to know the wants and needs of the population. Which is the second point in the populist framework, in which VOX claims to represent the common sense of the Spanish population.

To make his claim heard, the populist actor depends on the framing of the (mainstream) media, which is the third point. The news about VOX in newspapers and articles contribute to the framing of VOX as a populist actor.

The fourth point in the populist framework is the infrastructure that brings the message from the populist to the people on the one hand and gathers information about the audience on the other hand. As already mentioned before, the media uptake is crucial in the construction of | 52 a populist actor. The continuous use of social media to approach its voters shows that VOX is making clever use of its infrastructure to convey its messages. Besides being the party that has made the most growth in the year 2018, VOX also appeals to many young people. Its depiction of the world as black and white appeals to many voters, but especially the younger generation.

Antonia Alonso, author of Spanish newspaper El Paìs describes that the strategy in broadcasting short videos with one message results in increasing popularity (Alonso, 2018).

The last point shows how this infrastructure must make sure that the legitimacy of ‘the people’ is acknowledged to the populist. A populist cannot express ‘the voice of the people’ if the people do not acknowledge him(her). The populist constructs himself as a leader for the people and claims to be raising their voice. Nevertheless, without the support of the population, the populist does not have a ground to stand on, which makes their relation mutual dependent.

The uptake of the population should be realized in the form of likes, voters, and shares, of which VOX’s Vistalegre campaign is a clear example.

Having presented these examples shows how VOX is using the media for its communicative discourse. Besides claiming to be speaking in the name of the people and generate media uptake, there is another way VOX gets the voters’ attention. It uses a crisis to gain popular attention, which is something characteristic for right-wing political actors. Making use of this social media as a political battlefield by mobilizing in the framework of algorithmic populism, the party is dependent on its followers to spread the news.

6.2 The Performing of a crisis

As I just pointed out, often right-wing Political actors try to make their claim more legitimate by asserting that the nation is threatened by a ‘crisis’. I would like to consult the model by

Moffit in establishing the contemporary crisis VOX finds itself in. According to Moffitt

(2014:198) “crisis and populism are inherently connected in the sense that populist parties often feel endangered by a crisis”. Another author, Laclau, even states that populism cannot appear | 53 without the presence of a crisis. (Laclau, 1977:191, as cited in Moffit, 2014). Crises are the breaking of discourses, opening the possibility for counter-discourses to emerge. This can be related to the theory of hot nationalism VOX is performing, in which the status quo is interrupted, and opportunities arise to remind the population of its nationalism. Moreover, what should be pointed out is that a crisis is not just something external to populism. The crisis becomes part of the populistic discourse. Before crisis comes failure, which becomes perceived and analysed during the moment of crisis. According to Colin Hay who wrote on the construction of crises: “Failure provides the structural preconditions for a perceived crisis”

(Hay, 1996:322). Furthermore, Moffit claims a crisis only becomes a crisis when it is perceived as a crisis (Moffit,2014:197). According to Moffit, one can distinguish six different steps that can be used by a populist actor to perform a crisis, which enables us to establish how VOX is performing its perceived crisis.

(1) The first step is identity failure which refers to the focus put on a certain failure. For

VOX this is the demise of the nation, caused by the malfunctioning government and maybe even more important the separatist movements. The latter have prevented Spain from becoming a unified central state. In Figure 23 can be seen how VOX is advertising an important event by making use of this identity failure, which can be read in the accompanying text:

11 months ago, we met at Vistalegre ready to defend and strengthen Spain, our

homeland. Until then, the progressive dictatorship thought that the Spanish had

surrendered and that we were going to allow the Nation to break, that our children

would be indoctrinated, that we are confronted by men and women, that they would

fiscally plunder us to sustain their state of autonomy, to hand over our sovereignty to

Brussels and the globalists (VOX {vox_es}, 2019: September 6). | 54

Figure 23, The decline of the nation expressed by VOX

VOX describes the decline of the nation and blames the ‘progressive dictatorship’ for handing over power to globalist powers. This post is ended with an invitation for everyone to its speech on the 6th of October to defend Spain and its unity, its sovereignty, its borders, its families, its roots, its freedom from the progressive dictatorship of the other parties. Interesting about this post is the number of likes it receives in comparison to posts of different political parties. The number of likes VOX receives for its post is significantly higher than that of for example the

PSOE or PODEMOS (PSOE, 2020: May 9) & (Podemos: 2020, May 14; see figure 24&25).

Figure 24, Likes PSOE: 2729

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Figure 25, Likes Podemos: 13.821

(2) The next step is the elevation to the level of crisis by linking it into a wider framework and adding a temporal dimension. During this step, the perceived failure is linked with other failures and re-untextualized into a broader framework. VOX does this by adding the failure of the refugee crisis. We have already discussed VOX’s discourse concerning immigration and its stance towards it. A video posted by VOX on YouTube clarifies the party’s opinion on immigration and the protection of the Spanish borders. In this video, it is stated that illegal immigration has led to the entrance of terrorists in Spain. Therefore, VOX claims this immigration to be a threat to the safety in Spain and urging to support the national police and

Guarda Civil. Moreover, by ending the video with the following sentence VOX claims that these immigrants are not part of the Spain VOX has in mind:

We want Spain to remain feeling like Spain. We want secure borders (VOX España,

2018).

These immigrants are not part of the nation VOX is constructing, yet rather are used to define what this nation is not (VOX España, 2018). This means that the entry of immigrants is seen as a threat to the image of Spain VOX is trying to pursue. Besides, the current outbreak of

Covid-19 has given an extra opportunity for VOX to win the trust of the population. According to Maly (2020), who wrote on the reaction of the far-right on the outbreak of Covid-19, the | 56 political exploitation pandemic currently happening is a way to use a crisis to get attention.

VOX uses this crisis to emphasize the malfunctioning of the government. VOX has initiated ten measurements in its party program to, according to its view, save the health and the economy of the Spanish population (VOX,2020b). This program includes ten emergency measures to solve this crisis. With these measures, VOX attempts to ensure the availability of tests to secure the health of the population and a production plan to support businesses and companies. Furthermore, the importance of national unity stays intact during this crisis:

Dismissal of any autonomous authority that attacks the principle of national solidarity

hindering the response to the pandemic and in general of any authority that has shown

its negligence, passivity, or disability in this crisis (VOX,2020b).

(3) Frame ‘the people’ vs. those responsible for the crisis is the third step Moffit describes. This distinction is made to identify those who can be blamed for the failure and those that are considered the victims and should be saved. In the speech Abascal holds in the

Vistalegre palace, he clarifies who the enemies are:

We want the power to protect the Spanish people from their enemies. Of the enemies

of the unity who want to break our homeland, of the enemies of freedom who want to

impose on the progressive gags, of the enemies of equality who defend autonomous

privileges and of the enemies of our sovereignty who from their global positions

dissolve the existence of Spain in a multicultural magma. All these enemies today are

also the apostles of hatred who roar from the political tribunes and from the tribunes of

communication mediums that the PP has given to the progressives who have insulted

Spain and who preach hate against everything that resits against the progressive

dictatorship (VOX España, 2019a). | 57

VOX makes clear that the unity of Spain is threatened by enemies who are responsible for the crisis of the nation. The Spanish population is the victim and should be protected and saved.

This means that the Spanish population is considered the victim of the rupture of the nation caused by the enemies of this nation. Moreover, the following excerpt from a speech by Javier

Ortega Smith, Secretary-General of VOX, shows that the party elevates itself above the responsible current politicians. It blames these politicians to be in politics as corrupt actors with solely political interests:

And if we decide to be much better than them and show that it is possible to be in

politics without being corrupt. And to show that one can be in politics for defending

honest ideals and defending the high sights that a nation has and not the miserable

interests of a political party (VOX España, 2019c).

(4) Step four includes the use of media to propagate performance, which is not as straightforward as one might think in a media-saturated age. This means that populist actors are obliged to invent new ways of getting attention. An example through which VOX performs its sense of crisis is media events. We have already seen an example in VOX’s Vistalegre’s speech and the campaign to reach the audience. Another example of VOX’s attempt to get the public attention is by its online manifestations against the governments as we already have seen in the section on outgroups. By organizing this campaign and initiating the hashtag

#gobiernodelbulo, VOX tried to diminish the trust in the ruling government and convince the voter to listen to VOX. Besides, the organized caravan used to propagate its discontent against the government is another way VOX beneficially uses this media. Not only is VOX successful in propagating popularity by getting media attention, but we also see that VOX uses this media attention for practical results. On social media, VOX has summoned to a national caravan ‘for

Spain and its liberty’ (VOX {vox_es),2020: May 12; see figure 26). | 58

Figure 26, Caravan for Spain and its liberty!

This protest is against the State of Abuse and critical of the current situation. This advertisement has reached the mainstream media who announced this protest:

Also in Madrid, the government has greenlighted a “protest on wheels” called by the

far-right party Vox for Saturday. Party officials have asked anti-government

demonstrators to show up in their private vehicles rather than on foot to respect social-

distancing rules. The decision to allow the protest was taken after favourable reports

were issued by state legal advisors, by the National Police and by regional health

authorities, who did not see a risk of transmission. The protest will begin at noon in

Plaza de Cibeles and continue down Paseo de Recoletos, Plaza de Colón, Goya street,

Serrano street, and Puerta de Alcalá. (El País, 2020).

Here the crisis of the Coronavirus and the government’s malfunctioning with regards to solving it is used to get attention. VOX calls the population up for a national manifestation against the political elite. The post almost received 30.000 likes and figure 27 shows the positive reactions this idea brought about: {Things are as they are: a success of the #CaravanaGobiernoDimisión organized by VOX. It does not only cover the Castellana in Madrid, but also the Puerta de

Alcalá for example. They have dressed Madrid with Spain!} (Anonymous, 2020b). This uptake of this campaign shows the algorithmic populism that contributes to the popularity of this | 59 manifestation. The fact that VOX succeeds in realizing a campaign against the government using a media campaign, shows the party’s ability to appeal to the voter through media.

Figure 27, Caravan

Moreover, by making sure the Spanish population could hear a speech by Santiago Abascal during the manifestation, VOX continued to make use of its infrastructure (VOX {vox_es},

2020: May 23; see figure 28).

Figure 28, Broadcast of Abascal during the caravan

The manifestation has also reached Barcelona (VOX {vox_es}, 2020: May 23; see figure 29).

One of the reactions of this post even referred to Catalonia belonging to Spain, referring to | 60

VOX’s stance towards the constitutional crisis and Catalonia’s belonging to the Spanish identity. (see figure 30).

Figure 29, Manifestation in Barcelona

Figure 30, Barcelona is Spanish

(5). Present simple solutions and strong leadership is the fifth step by which the populist actors try to perform the crisis. After having described the crisis and appointed the ones who are responsible for it, it is time to show the people who will save them. For VOX, the solution lays in the defence of the following three concepts; a living, free, and brave Spain.

Our project is summarized in the defence of Spain, the family, and the Spanish life; in

reducing the size of the state, guaranteeing equality between the Spanish, and expelling

the Government from your private life. We are the Spain that does not need to look at

polls or read a newspaper to know what the fashionable discourse is. Our speech is born

from our convictions, regardless of whether they are more or less popular. In short,

VOX is the party of a living Spain, free and brave (VOX, 2019a). | 61

Its reference to a living Spain (España Viva) refers to the continuation of the battle the Spanish ancestors have fought. With this, VOX means the commemoration of history and the preservation of traditional values (VOX España, n.d). A free Spain refers to the absence of a corrupt media, and the freedom for everyone to think, speak, or feel what they desire (VOX,

2019a). And finally, the visualization of a brave Spain is clarified in the following speech by

Javier Ortega Smith, secretary-general of VOX:

Thanks to all those brave Spaniards, we get together and defend our own and if we

decide to take the future of the nation and we win the game to those who care neither

for the nation nor its future(VOX España, 2019c).

Smith emphasizes the pride of the Spanish population that deserves to be part of a nation in which national identity and unity is preserved. The party claims to know exactly what the people want and position itself as being distinct from mainstream politics and promise change.

Which can be realized by performing simple solutions. These solutions are summarized in the

100 medidas:

VOX presents the 100 urgent measures of VOX for Spain attending to the problems

that most concern the Spanish: the unity of Spain, high taxes, the security of our

borders, and the curtailing of freedoms. (VOX,2019c).

According to VOX, unity will be restored by the suppression of the autonomous communities, because these communities are now the biggest threat to national unity and sovereignty. The needs of the middle class need to be put before the interests of NGOs, lobbies, or oligarchies.

Taxes on agriculture, rent, and on wealth and inheritance should be reduced. Borders should be strengthened, and the national police and army need to receive proper material and human resources to protect the borders. The curtailing of freedoms will be realized by security against | 62 terrorists, ending subsidies for political parties, and the reform of the judiciary for real independence of political power (VOX, 2019c).

(6) Finally, the actors must continue to propagate crisis, by keeping the attention and focus on performing the crisis. One must constantly react to what is happening every day and

VOX mainly does this via its social media platforms. Maly (2019) has shown that the more response a tweet brings about, the more chance it must be seen by a higher amount of people.

This again underlines the importance of uptake and interaction. This interaction is not only important to legitimize the populist discourse, but it is also important in becoming visible and to have reach. Maly coined the activism interaction to trigger algorithms and further a political goal: algorithmic populism. The ‘algorithmic populist’ needs popular posts to make his claim and uses the functioning of algorithms to spread its message. A new type of activism is created, called ‘Algorithmic activism’, which contributes to the way a message is spread. The more interaction with a post, the more the algorithms are triggered which eventually increases the chances for the message to be seen. VOX is currently using the outbreak of Covid-19 as a way to expel the current government and get more popular support. Currently, the Spanish population is demonstrating against their government and VOX uses this to get more support

(VOX, 2020, May 18a&b; see figure 31). This means that VOX is emphasizing its populist discourse by performing a crisis. By claiming the nation is in a crisis, its call for a new political order, or ‘rebirth’, gets more value.

Figure 31, VOX is propagating its crisis | 63

7. Discussion

After having performed a thorough analysis of VOX’s nationalistic discourse, this research has found the fundamentals of VOX’s ideology. Arguing for the construction of a unified Spanish nation, its discourse is underlined by the foundations of the anti-Enlightenment tradition. VOX frames its discourse using the communication technique of meta-politics, ensuring that its views remain acceptable in the public sphere. This meta-political character of VOX is based on the strategic evolutions in the twenty-first century promoted by the New Right and its ideology fits the anti-Enlightenment tradition. In general, VOX aims to construct a unified nation, which it aims to achieve by the reconstruction of a nation, the redefinition of national identity and the reintegration of historical Spanish values. This research has explained these three steps and explained its underlying ideology.

First, to realize the re-construction of the nation, the abolishment of the autonomous communities is seen as necessary because according to VOX national unity and a federalized nation do not go together. In supporting this argument, VOX uses the principle of equality to propose the discourse of the New Right. The party claims to realize equality for its population and uses this as an argument against federalization because VOX does not accept privileging measures. With the abolishment of these autonomous communities, VOX envisions Spain to be an administratively decentralized state consisting of an organically organized nation. This organic nation embodies democracy as understood by VOX, in which nationalism is based on blood. The individual is part of a bigger entity and should be considered subordinate to the nation, contrasting the Enlightenment notion of individualism. Only then, national unity in a newly constructed nation can be realized. The necessity for VOX in re-construction a unified nation is the decline of the nation, caused by the controlling government. Which according to

VOX are deceiving the population. | 64

Second, the imagined unified nation VOX is envisioning should consist of a population that is embodying the Spanish identity. In expressing this national identity, VOX distinguishes between ingroups and outgroups. Those who are part of this ingroup belong to this imagined identity and VOX argues from the perspective of equality to propose its ideal population. The party claims to advocate for the equal treatment of everyone. However, this research has shown

VOX’s use of its meta-political discourse to hegemonize the idea of traditional Spanish families while at the same time abolish laws that would provide ‘special’ laws for minority groups. In emphasizing the inclusion of these minority groups to the Spanish identity, VOX opposes this group to the outgroup of illegal immigrants, that is not part of this identity. This can be linked to the tradition of the anti-Enlightenment because it creates a sense of inequality in society in which differences should be celebrated. VOX emphasizes the protection of the Spanish borders to keep this outgroup outside the nation, which hints at a classical notion of nationalism based on soil.

Third, the final point that embodies VOX’s discourse aimed at constructing a unified nation is the reintegration and preservation of Spanish values. The first point is the importance of language, which according to the anti-Enlightenment tradition is natural in a unified nation.

VOX sees Castilian Spanish as the primary language in the Spanish nation, with the acceptance of sub-regional languages as subordinate to it. In VOX’s attempt to reintegrate and preserve

Spanish values, the party refers to its ethnocultural and Christian features. The revaluation of these ideals is aimed at constructing national unity by reintegrating pride for the Spanish nation’s traditions and heritage. Doing so in the context of Catalonia, VOX clarifies again the scope of the Spanish culture and takes Catalonia as part of the Spanish unity. VOX refers to the notion of historical plurality according to the anti-Enlightenment tradition by claiming that no one but the Spanish have the right to define Spanish history. Therefore, the view of VOX expresses the need for a rebirth of Spanish historical values. This research has shown that this | 65 necessity of rebirth fits the ‘palingenetic creed’ described by Griffin common for fascist actors.

VOX’s urge for the re-establishment of national unity, constructed by a newly constituted nation, a hegemonic national identity, and the reintegration of Spanish values hint at the post- fascist attitude of VOX. VOX’s populist attitude frames these radical ideas as ‘the voice of the people’ and the party claims to be representing the common sense. With the performance of a crisis, the populist emphasizes the legitimation of its populist claim. This means that the label of being a populist actor hides VOX’s implicit discourse.

In connection VOX’s urge for the construction of a unified nation to the tradition of the anti-Enlightenment we can conclude that VOX is belonging to the New Right movement. The idea that universal Enlightenment values could jeopardize the unity of the nation is the reason for these actors to oppose these views. The opposition is framed in the anti-Enlightenment tradition and is based on the notion of organicism or organic nationalism (Maly,2018a). So

VOX’s nationalistic character and strive for unity in the Spanish nation is the reason for its belonging to the anti-Enlightenment. These findings of VOX’s fundamental ideology will be relevant for further research on VOX or right-wing parties.

8. Conclusion

This research has taught us that VOX’s discourse is aimed at the creation of a unified Spanish nation based on the foundation of the anti-Enlightenment. VOX seemingly speaks in name of the people, the constitution, equality, and freedom. The party sounds right-wing but has polished its discourse. At first glance, the party seems to have appropriated the discourse of

Enlightenment and democracy. But as we have already seen, its populism and general discourse have a meta-political character, with which VOX masks its ideology. Its meta-political ideology aims to reach a hegemony of the traditionalist, right-wing ideology. These radical ideas are framed by its populist claim to be speaking ‘in the name of the people’. VOX is | 66 positioning itself against individualism, migration, egalitarianism, and socialism – key values of the anti-Enlightenment tradition – and fighting for the traditional homogenous nation, the traditional family and gender roles, while adopting a democratic discourse. Taking the national traditions and institutions as a basis to perform a new future. This new future is the existence of a unified Spanish nation which the party tries to aim by re-constructing a nation that consists of a Spanish population and in which historical Spanish values are reintegrated. Overall, with the implicit hegemonization of the New-Right discourse, VOX is silently waving the Spanish flag again.

| 67

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nuestros compañeros de #VOX en #Cataluña #VivaEspaña {Tweet} Retrieved May 24

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y4eNLVQwf5w

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nzYd4Hsh2qw

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VOX {vox_es}. (2019a, March 7 ) ¡Qué equivocados están los que quieren enfrentar a

hombres y mujeres! La #EspañaViva Flag of Spain rompe con la huelga del feminismo

supremacista. Public address loudspeaker RT si tú tampoco participarás en la huelga del

#8M {Tweet} Retrieved May 24 from

https://twitter.com/vox_es/status/1103728303192580101 Screenshot by author

VOX {vox_es). (2019, September 6)Con VOX, ¡España siempre!No nos conformamos con

influir. Queremos representar a una mayoría patriótica. #EspañaSiempre

VistalegrePlusUltra.{Instagram post} Retrieved from:

https://www.instagram.com/p/B3U_fM9Bl7e/. Screenshot by author

| 77

VOX {vox_es}. (2019, October 2) “Ampliamos aforo sin necesidad de entrada! Palacio de

Vistalegre. 12.00 horas. Domingo 6 de octubre. Menciona a los amigos y familiares que

quirers que te acompañen. Difunde para que las personas que no tienen entrada sepan

que también podrán acceder hasta completar aforo.” {Instagram post} Retrieved May

29 from Instagram.com. Screenshot by author

VOX España (2019b. Oktober 6). Discurso de Santiago Abascal en Vistalegre Plus Ultra.

Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zDOvL1CDZeo

VOX {vox_es). (2019, October 7). Vistalegre 2019 PLUS ULTRA  ¡Lo que hemos vivido

hasta ahora es solo el principio. Juntos iremos más allá! ¡Difunde y el martes reserva tu

entrada! {Instagram post} Retrieved from:

https://www.instagram.com/p/B2E3ZR2IXm1/. Screenshot by author

VOX España (2019a. October 7). O ellos o nosotros. Retrieved from:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L95ilYuqrSU

VOX España (2019c, October 19). Javier Ortega Smith en Cuenca con la España valiente

[Video file]. Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OyEv50GHy3c

VOX España (n.d) Los partidos dicen que este lunes comienza el curso político. Para

nosotros la batalla continúa #EspañaViva. {Video file} Retrieved from:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IqToJ4IGW_

VOX (2020a). El Gobierno dispara el efecto llamada al permitir cobrar el ingreso mínimo

vital a inmigrantes ilegales [document on website]. Retrieved from

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permitir-cobrar-el-ingreso-minimo-vital-a-inmigrantes-ilegales-20200602

VOX (2020b). Programa Protejamos España. Retrieved from:

https://www.voxespana.es/programa-protejamos-espana | 78

VOX {vox_barcelona}. (2020, January 9). Modelo multicultural, de convivencia, de

integración... eso es lo que nos venden los políticos que gobiernan y los

subvencionados.Pero la realidad es otra: violencia y ajustes de cuentas en Artigues -

Sant Adrià. Sólo con #MANODURA cambiaremos esto.{Tweet} Retrieved April 30

from https://twitter.com/vox_barcelona/status/1215364319040458752. Screenshot by

author

VOX {vox_es}. (2020, March 11). Han mentido sobre la gravedad del Coronavirus. No han

tomado medidas de contención en nuestras fronteras. Ya hay 47 meurtos en España y

más de 2000 infectados. Y encima se ríen a carcajadas. Nos gobiernan psicópatas.

{Tweet} Retrieved March 11 from

https://twitter.com/vox_es/status/1237713824154816512. Screenshot by author

VOX {vox_es}. (2020, March 13) “Marruecos moviliza a sus efectivos y bloquea por tierra,

mar y aire cualquier conexión con España. Es el momento para devolverles a todos los

ilegales que proceden de Marruecos que disfrutan de la sandad pública española que

ahora está colapsada. {Instagram post} Retrieved April 18 from instagram.com .

Screenshot by author.

VOX {vox_es}. (2020, April 8) Más de 400.000 españoles se han unido en directo a la

#ManifestaciónGobiernoDimisión. Un éxito sin precedentes que demuestra el clamor

social ante las mentiras y negligencias del Gobierno de Pedro Sánchez y Pablo Iglesias.

{Tweet} Retrieved April 18 from

https://twitter.com/vox_es/status/1247958995186397184. Screenshot by author.

VOX {vox_es}. (2020, April 9c) La generación qu elevantó España y que salvo a muchas

familias durante la última crisis ecoómica ahora está muriendo en soledad. Hacinada en

residencias de ancianos o sin posibilidad de acceder a respiradores. Merecen que se | 79

sepa la verdad. #GobiernoDelBulo {Tweet} Retrieved April 18 from

https://twitter.com/vox_es/status/1248159398914031618 Screenshot by author.

VOX {vox_es}. (2020, April 9a) María Jesús Montero: “María Jesús Montero: "España está

preparada para el coronavirus".” #Gobiernodelbulo {Tweet} Retrieved April 18 from

https://twitter.com/vox_es/status/1248156577443598336. Screenshot by author.

VOX {vox_es}. (2020, April 9b) No vamos a dar ni un paso atrás en nuestra defense de la

libertad y la verdad. La izquierda está acostumbrada a imponer su falso relato y que el

resto de los politcos miren hacia otro lado y asiestan con la cabeza. eso se acabó con

VOX. #GobiernoDelBulo {Tweet} Retrieved April 18 from

https://twitter.com/vox_es/status/1248160428041142273. Screenshot by author

VOX {vox_es}. (2020, April 12) Cuántos españoles han recibido en sus casas,

individualizados, esos paquetes de mascarillas, guantes y geles de protección que el

Gobierno regala a los inmigrantes ilegales alojados en hoteles? ¿Cuántos ancianos han

muerto en Residencias por carecer de protección? {Tweet} Retrieved April 18 from

https://twitter.com/Jorgebuxade/status/1249492288113442816. Screenshot by author.

VOX. [vox_es]. (2020, May 12). ¡Caravana por España y su libertad! Los españoles tienen

derecho a manifestarse de forma segura y cumpliendo los protocolos sanitarios

¡Difunde! Frente al Estado de Abuso, el 23 de mayo queremos que comience

[Instagram Post]. Retrieved from https://www.instagram.com/p/CAGP87cKPmC/.

Screenshot by author

VOX {vox_es). (2020, May 18a). España Viva, ahora más que nunca! {Instagram story).

Screenshot by author | 80

VOX {vox_es}. (2020, May 23) “Durante la caravana #FaseLibertad podrás escuchar el

discurso de @santi_abascal desde tu coche. ” {Instagram post} Retrieved from

https://www.instagram.com/p/CAgJsNJKus_/. Screenshot by author

VOX {vox_es}. (2020, May 23) “Que ruja Barcelona! ” {Instagram post} Retrieved from

https://www.instagram.com/p/CAiCAA3J-GU/. Screenshot by author

VOX {vox_es}. (2020, May 24) “Con vuestros coches habéis demostrado que amar a España

no es una cuestión de clases. La Patria es de quién la defiende, ya sea desde un Maserati

o desde un 600  #EspañaViva #CaravanaFaseLibertad #GobiernoDimisión

#Caravana23m #VOX” {Instagram post} Retrieved May 23 from

https://www.instagram.com/p/CAkqRT9qH-S/. Screenshot by author

VOX Nerja {VOX Nerja}. (2020, March 4). No hables en mi nombre! [Facebook post].

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