THE LAND OF ENKI IN THE ISLAMIC ERA

Pearls, Palms, and Religious Identity in

This book presents the results of an archaeological research project completed in Bahrain which had as its primary aims the investigation of the, as yet little understood, period between approximately the sixth and thirteenth centuries AD. The results, including sections by specialist contributors, are presented in detail and lavishly illustrated. Technologies such as pearl diving and pottery manufacture, as well as animal keeping and butchery, are all considered.

However this volume provides much more than merely a presentation of archaeological evidence from Bahrain; the role of trade and commerce in creating the complex history manifest in the Persian Gulf region is considered in detail, and this is in tum set within the context of the wider-world beyond: the Indian Ocean, sub-Saharan Africa, and the Red Sea for example.

Religious and other identities, such as ethnicity and gender, are also considered in detail with relation to the archaeological and other available sources of data - historical, anthropological, and ethnographic. The growth and impact of the Carmathians, the evolution of Shi'ah identity, the significance of Indian and African populations are all evaluated.

The Land ofEnki will be invaluable for anyone interested in the Medieval Islamic World, in Bahrain and the Persian Gulf and its archaeology and history. It will also be essential for anyone concerned with the creation of identity as manifest in material culture, and in the relationship between archaeology and history.

Timothy Insoll is Professor of Archaeology at the School of Art History and Archaeology of the University of Manchester. He has conducted fieldwork, besides in Bahrain, in Ghana, Mali, India, Eritrea, Uganda, and the UK. His previous books include Islam, Archaeology and History: The Gao Region, Mali (1996), The Archaeology of Islam (1999), Urbanism, Archaeology and Trade (2000), The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa (2003), Archaeology, Ritual, Religion (2004), as well as the edited volumes Case Studies in Archaeology and World Religion (1999), and Archaeology and World Religion (2001). www.keganpaul.com Qalat' ai-Bahrain '.~::.·.·:···: .... / (Bahrain Fort) ' :· ·: ...... ·.· ...... :=!f... .,l Barbar Bilad~·~ al-Qadim:P:i.,····. .. · .=:.:: . • '.0 A ali ~ i . ~ ...· THE ARABIAN GULF

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BAHRAIN

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Fig. 1.1 Map ofBahrain THE LAND OF ENKI IN THE ISLAMIC ERA

Pearls, Palms, and Religious Identity in Bahrain

TIMOTHY INSOLL

~~ ~~o~~~~n~~~up LONDON AND NEW YORK First published in 2005 by Kegan Paul Limited

This edition first published in 2010 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

©Timothy Insoll, 2005

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN I 0: 0-7103-0960-0 (hbk) ISBN 13: 9780-7103-0960-0 (hbk)

Publisher's Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality ofthis reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original copies may be apparent. The publisher has made every effort to contact original copyright holders and would welcome correspondence from those they have been unable to trace. This volume is dedicated to Shaikh Salman bin Hamad Al-Khalifa, Crown Prince and Commander in Chief of the Bahrain Defence Force

CONTENTS

List ofillustrations xi

Acknowledgements xxv

1. Introduction (Timothy Insoll) 1

2. Survey and settlement (Timothy Insoll) 19

3. Stratigraphy and architecture (Timothy Insoll) 53

4. The pottery (Robert Carter) 107

5. The faunal and botanical remains 193

Part 1. The mammal, bird, reptile, and mollusc remains from Bilad al-Qadim (Ian Smith) 193

Part 2. Ecofactual analysis of the soil samples (Eden Hutchins) 232

Part 3. The fish bones (Mark Beech) 240

6. Agriculture, diet, and the social role of food (Timothy Insoll) 253

7. The glass vessel fragments, bracelets, beads, pendants, and spindle whorls (Timothy Insoll) 281

8. The coins and other metalwork (Timothy Insoll) 303

9. The Miscellaneous finds (Timothy Insoll) 319

10. Trade, exchange, and related processes (Timothy Insoll) 341 11. Religious and social identity (Timothy Insoll) 359

12. Conclusions (Timothy Insoll) 387

Appendices 397

Appendix 3 .1. Pottery periods and contexts by unit (Timothy Insoll) 397

Appendix 4.1. Ware descriptions (Robert Carter) 401

Appendix 4.2. Common ware types (Robert Carter) 425

Appendix 4.3. Supplementary pottery tables and charts (Robert Carter) 436

Appendix 5.1[1]. General Key to mammal measurements (Ian Smith) 451

Appendix 5.1[2]. Fusion data (Ian Smith) 453

Appendix 5.1[3]. Quantification data (Ian Smith) 455

Appendix 5.1[4]. List ofthe molluscs and authors quantified in Table 5.1[10] (Ian Smith) 456

Appendix 5.1[5]. Mollusc reference key- groups (Ian Smith) 457

Appendix 5.2. The non-marine mollusc identification key (Eden Hutchins) 459

Appendix 5.3. Fish bone data tables (Mark Beech) 463

Appendix 7 .1. Catalogue of glass vessel fragments (Timothy Insoll) 480

Appendix 7 .2. Glass samples analysed (Julian Henderson) · · 483

Appendix 7.3. Catalogue of glass bracelet fragments (Timothy Insoll) 485

vm Appendix 7 .4. Catalogue of glass kohl applicator fragments (Timothy Insoll) 489

Appendix 7.5. Catalogue ofbeads and pendants (Timothy Insoll) 490

Appendix 7.6. Results ofXRD analysis of selected beads etc. (Sharon Fraser) 497

Appendix 8 .1. Catalogue of lead coins/weights and associated debris (Timothy Insoll) 500

Appendix 8.2. Catalogue of metalwork (Timothy Insoll) 502

Appendix 8.3. Results of the Analytical Study of the Metalworking Debris (Maria Kostoglou) 507

Appendix 9 .1. Comments on the sherds with Script (Paulo Farias) 514

Appendix 9 .2. Report and catalogue of lithics (Elizabeth Healey) 516

Appendix 9.3. Catalogue of soft-stone vessel fragments (Timothy Insoll) 523

References 527

Index 567

Contributors 577

Arabic Summary

lX

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURES

Frontispiece. Map of Bahrain

1.1. The Al-Khamis from the air ( archives)

2.1. The Al- and the adjacent areas mentioned (after Bahrain Sheet 55, 1: 10,000, Ministry of Housing, Kingdom of Bahrain)

2.2. The 'epicentre' of Bilad al-Qadim (after Bahrain Sheets 55-42-A and 55-42-B, 1:1000, Ministry of Housing, Kingdom of Bahrain)

2.3. Shaikh Isa's plantation (photo T.Insoll)

2.4. Sluice re-using masonry in Shaikh Isa's plantation (photo T.Insoll)

2.5. Irrigation channel in a garden adjacent to Qala'at al-Bahrain (photo T.Insoll)

2.6. The pool at Abu Zaydan (photo T.Insoll)

2.7. Re-used altar in the Abu Zaydan column (photo T.Insoll)

2.8. Sketch of the statue fragment from Bilad al-Qadim (after Durand 1880: 192)

2.9. Abu Zaydan spring mouth (photo T.Insoll)

2.10. Well on the edge ofthe Al-Khamis cemetery (photo T.Insoll)

2.11. Al-Khamis cemetery mound (photo R.MacLean) 2.12. Masonry blocks on the summit of the Al-Khamis cemetery mound (photo R.MacLean)

2.13. Shaikh Nasser shrine, Al-Helah village (photo T.Insoll)

2.14. Sketch plan of Shaikh Nasser shrine complex, Al-Helah village

2.15. Sa'eed Mehdi mosque mound, Karranah Village (photo T.Insoll)

2.16. Sketch plan of Sa' eed Mehdi mosque mound, Karranah Village

2.17. Al-Maqsha funerary mosque (photo R.MacLean)

2.18. Tomb marker adjacent to Al-Maqsha funerary mosque (photo T.Insoll)

2.19. Sketch plan of Al-Maqsha funerary mosque

2.20. Urn al-Nowarjeel shrine and mosque foundations, Bilad al-Qadim (photo R.MacLean)

2.21. Urn al-Nowarjeel shrine, Bilad al-Qadim (photo T.Insoll)

2.22. Sketch plan of Urn al-Nowarjeel shrine and mosque foundations, Bilad al-Qadim

2.23. Shaikh Salman Road complex (photo R.MacLean)

2.24. Grave inside the Shaikh Salman Road complex (photo T.Insoll)

2.25. Foundations incorporated in the Shaikh Salman Road complex (photo T.Insoll)

2.26. Sketch plan of the Shaikh Salman Road complex

2.27. Al-Helah mosque (photo T.Insoll)

2.28. in the Al-Helah mosque (photo T.Insoll)

2.29. Sketch plan of the Al-Helah mosque

Xll 2.30. Al-Hassan shrine, Al-Guraya (photo T.lnsoll)

2.31. Sketch plan of Al-Hassan shrine, Al-Guraya

2.32. Mosque on Budaiya Road (photo R.MacLean)

2.33. Sketch plan of the mosque on Budaiya Road

2.34. Muharram commemoration near Karranah village (photo R.MacLean)

2.35. Al-Khamis mosque precincts resistivity survey (plot S.Holden)

2.36. MOS resistivity survey (plot S.Holden)

3.la. Plan of units KHA OlC to H

3.1 b. KHA 01 C to H - Plan of reconstructed structural phases

3.2. Plan of units MOS OlA toG

3.3. KHA OIA- oven (photo T.lnsoll)

3.4. KHA 01 A- grave cuts and markers (photo T.lnsoll)

3.5. KHA 01 A- Plan of the visible grave markers and associated features

3.6. KHA OlB- Plan of the graves

3.7. KHA OlD- Raft of carbonised fill (photo T.Insoll)

3.8. KHA OlD- The embedded pot (photo T.lnsoll)

3.9. KHA OlD- Pit section

3.10. KHA OlD- Section of Wall G

3.11. KHA OlE- Possible door pivot with embedded egg (Photo Bahrain National Museum)

X111 3.12. View of the Al-Khamis mosque precincts structural complex (units KHA 01C to G) (photo T.Insoll)

3.13. View ofthe Al-Hassan mosque mound (MOS) (photo T.Insoll)

3.14. MOS OlA - Elements of the shrine and part of the mosque floor (photo T.Insoll)

3.15. MOS 01A- Wall with finger impressions (photo T.Insoll)

3 .16. M OS 01 A - Section profile of southern face

3.17. MOS OlA toG- Plan of reconstructed structural phases

3.18. MOS 01C- Flight of stairs and on the left, possible indentations for the support of water storage vessels (photo T.Insoll)

3.19. MOS OlC- Section profile of southern face

3.20. MOS OlC- Bedrock into which channel was cut (photo T.Insoll)

3.21. MOS OlD- Wall intersection (photo T.Insoll)

3.22. Coloured plaster fragments recovered from MOS OlC-3 (top 2), MOS OlA-18 (bottom) (photo Gten)

3.23. MOS OlD - Surviving spit of plaster floor cut by mosque wall (photo T.Insoll)

3.24. MOS -Complex of walls in the north-western comer of the mosque (photo Bahrain National Museum)

3.25. MOS- Mosque ablutions tank (photo T.Insoll)

3.26. MOS- Fragment of mosque floor, note shell layers (photo T.Insoll)

3.27. MOS- Collapsed column and arch (photo T.Insoll)

3.28. Kiln built into a burial mound at A'ali (photo T.Insoll)

3.29. MOS- Selection of trivets (photo Bahrain National Museum)

XIV 3.30. MOS and (top row centre- KHA 01E-8.4) KHA- Pottery wasters (photo Bahrain National Museum)

3.31. Detail of the Al-Helah mosque roof (photo T.Insoll)

3.32. KHA 01C- Putative washing area? (photo T.lnsoll)

3.33. Representative micro molluscs (photo Gten). Left to right: i. Achatinelloides sp. (KHA OlD-7) ii. Pisidium casertanum (KHA OlD-7) iii. Melanoides (KHA OlD-7) iv. Iravadia quadrasi (KHA 01E-5) v. Cerastus sp. (KHA 01D-7) vi. Hydrobia lacteal (KHA 01D-7)

3.34. Representative micro molluscs (photo Gten). Left to right: i. Bulinus (KHA 01D-7) ii. Quickia concise (KHA OlD-7) iii. Ceciloides aff. Tumulorum (KHA 01D-7) iv. Assiminea nitida nitida (KHA 01 D-7) v. Type 10 - Indeterminate Identification (KHA 01 E- 5)

4.1. Common Ware (Period 1, Period 2)

4.2. Common Ware (Period 3, Period 4)

4.3. Common Ware (Period 5)

4.4. Common Ware (Period 5 and Period 6)

4.5. Common Ware (Period 6)

4.6. White Ware

4. 7. Lower Gulf pottery

4.8. Miscellaneous unglazed earthenwares

4.9. Samarra Horizon glazed wares and early Sgraffiato

4.1 0. Later Sgraffiato

XV 4.11. Turquoise Glaze and miscellaneous glazed wares

4.12. Far Eastern and Indian pottery

4.13. Common Ware sherds with Arabic script

4.14. Schematic diagram of firing stack

4.15. Sherds bearing Arabic script (L-R- KHA OlF-14.5; MOS OlC-8.2; MOS OlE-5.2 [bottom]; MOS OlE-5.1 [top small]; KHA OlE-15.4) (photo Bahrain National Museum)

4.16. Chinese ceramics (L-R- KHA OlD-2.1; KHA OlD-2.2; KHA OlD- 1.1) (photo Bahrain National Museum)

5.1[1]. MOS OlC-12 and MOS OlC-7 - Cat remains (photo Bahrain National Museum)

5.1[2]. MOS 01C-12- Cut marked dog scapula (photo Bahrain National Museum)

5.1 [3]. KHA 01 D-4 - Dog radius, burnt distal end (photo Bahrain National Museum)

5.1[4]. KHA 01F-16- Pig tibia with cut marks (photo Bahrain National Museum)

5.1 [5] . KHA 0 IE-15 - Turtle or terrapin bone fragments (photo Bahrain National Museum)

5.1[6]. Possible flooring shell - Left, Mixella blanda (MOS 01A-1); Right, Clypeomorus bifasciatus (MOS OlA-2) (photo Bahrain National Museum)

6.1. KHA 01 D-4 - Carboni sed date stone (photo Gten)

6.2. KHA 01H-14- Mineralised date stone (photo M.Beech)

XVI 6030 Simple madbasa, Shabani House, Bilad al-Qadim (photo T.Insoll)

701. Glass small finds- L-R, MOS OlC-6, stopper?; MOS OlA-6, handle in shape of an animal head?; KHA OlF-4, miniature bottle (photo Gten)

7020 Glass vessel necks- L-R (top row), KHA OlA-201; KHA 01A-5o5; KHA 01D-4001; KHA OlE-801; (2nd row), MOS OlC-1701; MOS 01D-1.1; MOS 01E-2 (x 2) (photo Gten)

7 03 0Selected glass rim and base profiles

7.40 Selected glass handles - L-R, KHA 01A-2o3; MOS 01A-14; MOS 01C-5o1; MOS 01C-502; MOS 01C-2203; MOS 01C-2401; MOS 01C-17o2 (photo Gten)

7050 Decorative glass types - L-R (top row), KHA OlA-4.2 (moulded); KHA 01D-41.1 (wheel cut?); KHA 01E-14 (wheel cut?); KHA 01E-16o1 (moulded); (2nd row), MOS 01A-6 (x 2 moulded); MOS OlC-21 (engraved); MOS 01C-21 (marvered); (3rd row), MOS OlC-22 (trailed); MOS 01E-2B (moulded) (photo Gten)

7060 Glass bracelets - L-R (top row), KHA 01A-2; KHA 01A-4; KHA 01D-3; KHA 01D-5.1, 5.2, and 503; KHA OlF-2; KHA 01H-1; (2nd row), MOS 01A-1; MOS 01A-2.2, 201; MOS 01A-3; MOS 01A-5; MOS 01C-3; MOS OlC-5; MOS 01C-17 (photo Gten)

7 07 0Representative cross-sections of glass bracelets found

7080 Glass kohl applicator fragments - L-R, KHA 01D-3; KHA 01H-9; MOS 01C-2 (photo Gten)

7090 Beads and Haematite - L-R (top row), KHA 01H-10 (haematite lump); KHA 01E-3 (Haematite lump with facets cut); KHA 01C-3 (carnelian/agate); KHA 01H-10 (glass); MOS 01F (coral); MOS 01C-7 (glass/frit?); MOS OlA-2 (glass); MOS 01A-7 (banded agate); (2nd row), KHA 01F-3 (carnelian/agate pendant); KHA 01F-14 (glass); KHA OlF-3 (frit); KHA 01F-15 (carnelian/agate); KHA 01E-28 (agate); KHA OlE-28 (glass); KHA OlE-23 (glass/frit?); (3rd row), KHA OlE-22 (carnelian/agate); KHA 01E-20 (glass); KHA 01E-8 (carnelian/agate); KHA 01E-3 (glass); KHA OlD-7.3 (lapis-lazuli); KHA 01D-3 xvn (carnelian/agate); KHA 010-6.F (glass); (41h row), KHA 010-6.H (glass); KHA 010-6.C (haematite bead); KHA 010-6.A (lapis-lazuli) (photo Gten)

7.10. Additional beads - L, KHA 010-5.10 (banded honey-coloured ellipsoid agate); R, KHA 010-5.9 (banded long truncated convex cone agate) (photo Bahrain National Museum)

7.11. Additional beads and pendants- 2nd right, KHA 010-6.0 (garnet drop pendant); far right, KHA 010-6.E (banded pale honey coloured ellipsoid agate bead) (photo Bahrain National Museum)

7.12. Spindle whorls- L-R (top row), KHA 01 E-14; KHA 010-41; (2nd row), KHA 01E-20; KHA 01E-9; KHA 010-6 (photo Gten)

8.1. KHA 01H-7 - Gold dinar of Abu al-Abbas Saffah (photo Bahrain National Museum)

8.2. KHA 01H-7 - Gold dinar of Abu al-Abbas Saffah (photo Bahrain National Museum)

8.3. KHA 01H-15A - Gold dinar of Harun al-Rashid (photo Bahrain National Museum)

8.4. KHA 01H-15A - Gold dinar of Harun al-Rashid (photo Bahrain National Museum)

8.5. KHA 01F-1 - Gold dinar of Nezar al-Aziz (photo Bahrain National Museum)

8.6. KHA OlF-1 -Gold dinar of Nezar al-Aziz (photo Bahrain National Museum)

8. 7. KHA 01 C-5 - Selection of cleaned lead coins/weights (photo Gten)

8.8. Selection of lead disks (coins/weights) to indicate profiles

8.9. Other lead artefacts recorded

8.10. Copper coins. L-R, KHA 01F-2; MOS 01C-1 (photo Gten) XVlll 8.11. "Native strip" from Bushire (after Valentine 1911:129, no.l 0; not to scale)

8.12. Iron and copper artefacts

8.13. KHA OlE-6. Barbatia setigera shell bearing evidence for having been opened (photo Bahrain National Museum)

8.14. Selected copper artefacts. L-R, KHA 01D-3; MOS 01C-2; KHA 01C-5; KHA 01H-10; MOS 01A-9 (photo Gten)

9.1. The two pearls. L-R, KHA 01C-3; KHA 01E-26 (photo Gten)

9.2. Mother of pearl plaque from Qala'at al-Bahrain (photo Gten)

9.3. Bitumens. L-R, MOS OlA-3 (3.6g); MOS 01A-3 (9g); KHA 01D-7 (photo Gten)

9.4. Bitumens. L-R, KHA 01 H-15A; KHA 01H-12 (photo Gten)

9.5. KHA 01A-4.19- White earthenware base with traces of purple dye (photo Bahrain National Museum)

9.6. Lithic artefacts. L-R (top row), KHA 01D-7.2; KHA 01D-6.2; KHA 01A-5.1; (2nd row) KHA 01D-7.1; KHA 01D-6.1 (photo Gten)

9.7. Lithic artefacts

9.8. Lithic artefacts. L-R (top row), MOS 01A-6.1; MOS 01C-3.1; KHA 01E-6.2; MOS OlC-8.1; (2nd row) MOS 01A-6.2; KHA 01E-6.1; MOS 01C-8.2 (photo Gten)

9.9. Lithic artefacts

9.10. Stone vessel fragments. L-R (top row), KHA 01H-15A; KHA OlF- 2.2; KHA 01F-21; KHA 01H-5.1; KHA 01H-5.2; (2nd row) KHA 01D-4; MOS 01A-18; KHA 01D-6; (bottom) KHA 01E-6.6 (photo Gten)

9 .11. Stone vessel fragments

XIX 10.1 . Vegetationally derived motifs in the Kizimkazi Mosque, Zanzibar (photo T.Insoll)

11.1. Saar 'fire temple' (photo T.lnsoll)

CHARTS

4.1. Breakdown of the Period 1 assemblage

4.2. Breakdown ofthe Period 2 assemblage

4.3. Breakdown of the Period 3 assemblage

4.4. Breakdown of the Period 4 assemblage

4.5. Breakdown ofthe Period 5 assemblage

4.6. Breakdown of the Period 6 Assemblage

4. 7. Size of the assemblage

4.8. Brokenness per period

4.9. Percentage of all glazed pottery

4.1 0. Percentage of glazed, slipped, and incised common ware

4.11. Percentage of common ware

4.12. Percentage ofwhite earthenware

4.13. Percentage ofLower Gulf pottery

4.14. Percentage of Mid East glaze

XX 4.15. Percentage of Far Eastern ceramics

4.16. Percentage oflndian pottery

4.17. Percentage of frit

4.18. Percentage of other ceramics

4.19. Percentage of sgraffiato

4.20. Percentage of turquoise glazed

5.1 [ 1]. The frequency of the principal vertebrate faunal groupings

5.1[2]. Caprine element representation

5.1 [3]. Cattle element representation

5.3[1]. Size of the fish vertebrae at Bilad al-Qadim

TABLES

2.1. Dimensions of Abu Zaydan column drums

2.2. Named sites in Bilad al-Qadim

2.3. Shrines/ recorded in Bilad al-Qadim and Northern Bahrain

3.1. Summary of suggested construction phases at the Al-Khamis mosque (after Kervran 1990:7)

4.1. Periods represented in each unit

4.2. Common ware types and statistics

4.3. List of wares

4.4. Occurrence of common ware types

XXI 4.5. Occurrence of wares in each period

5.1[1]. Measurements of selected chicken remains

5.1 [2]. Measurements of selected cormorant remains

5.1 [3]. Measurements of selected cat remains

5.1[4]. Measurements of selected dog remains

5.1[5]. Details of the hare bone recovered

5.1[6]. Sheep and Goat Measurements

5.1 [7]. Sheep/Goat tooth wear

5.1[8]. Measured cattle remains

5.1[9]. Dolphin teeth fragments recorded

5.1[10]. Molluscs present

5.1[11]. The crustaceans

5.2[1]. Contexts sampled for ecofactual analysis

5.2[2]. Frequency of mollusca

5.2[3]. Frequency of charred plant remains

5.2[4]. Frequency of small animal remains

5.2[5]. Mollusca habitats

6.1. Date stones recovered from Bilad al-Qadim

6.2. Forms represented in the pottery assemblage from Bilad al-Qadim

7.1. Glass fragment totals

xxn 7.2. Bead and pendant totals

7.3. Haematite fragments from Bilad al-Qadim

7.4. The spindle whorls recovered from Bilad al-Qadim

8.1. The three gold dinars from Bahrain

8.2. Totals of lead artefacts by unit and period

8.3. Copper coins from Bilad al-Qadim

8.4. Metal artefact and fragment totals

9 .1. Excavated pearls

9.2. The archaeological bitumens from Bilad al-Qadim

9.3. The sherds with Arabic script

9.4. Summary of chipped stone tools recovered

9.5. Summary of other stone tools recovered

10.1 . Potential sources of materials represented in Bilad al-Qadim

App.5.3[1]. Fish taxa represented (by excavation unit)

App.5.3[2]. Fish taxa represented (by pottery period)

App.5.3[3]. Fish taxa represented (by anatomical element)

App.5.3[4]. Fish taxa represented (by context, KHA OlA and C)

App.5.3[5]. Fish taxa represented (by context, KHA OlD)

App.5.3[6]. Fish taxa represented (by context, KHA OlE)

App.5.3[7]. Fish taxa represented (by context, KHA OlF)

App.5.3[8]. Fish taxa represented (by context, KHA OlH)

XX111 App.5.3[9]. Fish taxa represented (by context, MOS OlC)

App.5.3[10]. Size ofthe fish taxa

App.5.3[11]. Size of the fish vertebrae

App.5.3[12]. Summary offish families present (Bahrain)

App.5.3[13]. Summary offish families present (Arabian Gulf)

App 8.3[1]. Catalogue of Metallurgical and other Industrial Waste from MOS andKHA

XXIV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My foremost debt of gratitude is owed to Shaikh Salman bin Hamad al-Khalifa, Crown Prince and Commander in Chief of the Bahrain Defence Force for making this project possible. His foresight in realising that the necessary development of his country also presents challenges in preserving and presenting the rich heritage of Bahrain meant that he was the type of patron an archaeologist can only wish for. It is because of this that the current volume is dedicated to him.

Thanks are also owed to numerous other individuals and organisations, and if any are missed here I apologise for doing so. Firstly, Dr Yateem, Mr Abdelrahman Musameh, Mr Khalid al• Sindi, and Mr Mustafa Salman are thanked for facilitating and permitting the research under the auspices of the Ministry of Information, the National Museum of Bahrain, and the Archaeology Superintendent's Office. BAPCO, ALBA, and the AHRB as major sponsors of the fieldwork are also gratefully acknowledged for their financial commitment to the Early Islamic Bahrain Project. A special debt of thanks is also owed to Dr Rachel MacLean and Miss Freya Insoll for assistance in numerous ways, as always this is truly appreciated.

Other individuals who have assisted this research project, and who are thanked for this, are Mr Parker, and Shaikh al• Khalifa of the Crown Prince Court; the site supervisors, Ms Sarah Croucher, Mr Andy Ginns, Mr Patrick Holmes, and Ms Katherine Baxter; Dr Nick Hanson-James who assisted with field survey; Mr Stuart Holden, then of the University of Manchester Archaeology Unit who undertook the Geophysical survey; Dr Rob Carter who completed the pottery analysis, ably assisted by Ms Paula Wallace; Mr Ian Smith (Chester Archaeology) who completed the analysis of the mammal bones and shell; Mr Donald MacLean for pot washing; Dr Mark Beech (ADIAS Project) who partially analysed some of the fish bones (unfortunately this analysis, owing to a breakdown in communication from the Emirates, is not as detailed as it might be); Mr Eden Hutchins who analysed the flotation sample contents; Dr Mark Nesbitt (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew) for looking at seeds which turned out not to be seeds; Dr Elizabeth Healey (University of Manchester) for analysing the lithics; Mr Andy Ginns for drawing some of the lithics; Dr Dave Polya and Ms Sharon Fraser (University of Manchester) for looking at the bead and stone vessel materials; Dr Sonia O'Connor (University of Bradford) for identifying the ivory and bone spindle whorls; Professor Julian Henderson (University of Nottingham) who examined the glass composition; Mr Khalid al-Sindi (Bahrain National Museum) and Dr Cecile Brese (British Museum) who commented on the gold and copper coins; and to Dr Ina Berg (University of Manchester) for translating a paper by Ernst Diez from German.

Moreover, thanks are also due to Dr St John Simpson (British Museum), Dr Venetia Porter (British Museum), Dr Derek Kennet (University of Durham), and Mr S0ren F. Andersen (Moesgaard Museum) for initial comments on the pottery; to Dr Dorian Fuller and Dr Eleni Asouti (University College London) for analysing the wooden beads; to Dr Maria Kostoglou (University of Manchester) for analysing the metal-working debris; to Dr Paulo Farias (University of Birmingham) for examining the Arabic inscribed pottery sherds; to Professor Donald Whitcomb (University of Chicago) for information about Carmathian skinning practices; to Professor Dan Potts (University of Sydney) for providing blacksmith related references to Michael Pollard and Derek Trillo for fulfilling numerous scanning requests and for their superb finds photography (Gten Photographic Unit, University of Manchester); to Mr Jonathan Pickup (University of Manchester) for preparing PDF files and for scanning illustrations; all the Bahraini and expatriate workers who did the physical hard work of digging in high temperatures; and to Dr Flemming H0jlund and Dr Karen Frifelt (Moesgaard Museum) for an invitation to look at the material from Bahrain Fort. A special note of thanks is also offered to Dr St

XXVI John Simpson for answering queries on the possible meanings associated with eggs, for reading and commenting on the whole manuscript, and for making available for comparative purposes his report on the small finds from Kush before publication. His collegial gesture is truly appreciated. Dr Rachel MacLean and Mr S0ren F. Andersen are likewise especially thanked for generously reading and commenting on complete drafts of the manuscript. Acknowledgements made by other contributors herein are listed at the end of their contributions where necessary.

Notes It should also be noted that the responsibility for all errors in the volume remains with Dr Timothy Insoll. Please also note that the database records of the pottery, faunal, and mollusc analysis, and the graphs for the XRD analysis completed are archived with the author at the University of Manchester, with the contributors, and in the Bahrain National Museum. Finally, for simplicity's sake, and following Lindholm ( 1996), no attempt has been made to include diacritical marks which would giVe the proper pronunciation of the Arabic words, except in a few instances. Readers are referred to Arabic-English dictionaries for correct orthography. It is felt that this is partly compensated for by the inclusion of a lengthy Arabic summary.

xxvn

Chapter 1 Introduction

The Project Background and Aims of the Volume

This study results from an intensive years fieldwork completed in Bahrain in 2001. This comprised two seasons of both excavations and surveys (February-May and September-November), separated by the Bahraini summer when it was deemed too hot to work effectively in the field. The rationale behind the project was various, and although the idea initially stemmed from this author, without the early approval of Shaikh Salman bin Hamad al-Khalifa, it would have proven impossible to initiate so quickly, and certainly could not have run so effectively without the active patronage and involvement of the Crown Prince.

A primary factor necessitating the targeted and intensive nature of the fieldwork was the rate of development, and thus allied destruction of the archaeological heritage, which Bahrain has been undergoing in the past 20 to 30 years. The speed and extent of building work, redevelopment, and land reclamation is phenomenal. This point has to be stressed, for the opportunities to complete fieldwork which the early Islamic Bahrain project necessitated, i.e. within the urban context of Bilad al-Qadim as a whole rather than only within the already protected scheduled monuments such as the Al-Khamis Mosque or Qala'at al-Bahrain, meant that, in essence, this was the last chance for this work to be completed in what is now, effectively, a suburb of the capital, Manama.

The aims of this volume are also various, and it has what could be best described as multiple roles. Firstly, it serves as a site and field report, and therefore the results of the archaeological research are The Land ofEnki in the Islamic Era presented in detail. Hence contributions by the specialists who were employed by the project, or whose services were sought on a voluntary basis are also included. However, where necessary, as these are busy professionals whose working lives have demands put upon their time which extend beyond those of the Early Islamic Bahrain project, the interpretation of materials such as the pottery and faunal remains recovered has been expanded by this author to consider, for example, what can be said about the social role of food based upon these classes of material, or what they might indicate regarding trade and exchange patterns.

Yet the aim of this volume is envisaged as more than providing a site report which might be of interest to a handful of specialist archaeologists working in the Gulf region, several of these exist already. Hence a further intention here is to explore the relevance of the results achieved within their wider contexts; the role of trade and commerce in creating the complex history manifest in Bahrain and the Arabian Gulf region is considered in some detail where possible, and this is in turn set within the context of the wider-world beyond - with reference to the Indian Ocean and sub-Saharan Africa for example. Equally, religious and other identities, such as ethnicity and gender, are also considered at some length with reference to the archaeological and other available sources of data• historical, anthropological, and ethnographic. The possible archaeological indications of the presence of the Carmathians, the correlates of Shi'ah identity, the potential significance oflndian and African populations are all evaluated herein, primarily, as the evidence dictates, with reference to Bahrain.

Thus part of the focus could be defined as attempting to achieve the "thick description" (Geertz 1973) which interpretive archaeology should aim for. As Tilley ( 1993: 8) has rightly noted, "all interpretation is of necessity a process of contextualization"; hence to begin to realize an archaeological narrative which might also be of interest outside of the specialist milieu of Gulf archaeology or Arabian studies, contextualization of all facets of the archaeological evidence is vital. It is also useful to introduce the notion of an

2 Introduction "action play" with regard to the desired interpretive outcomes. This is a metaphor related to those considered by Goffman (1959) with reference to the notion of 'performance' within the domain of sociology, but can also be more strictly allied, albeit in an altered form, within Islamic studies with the work of the anthropologist Talal Asad who has similarly explored the notion of recreating an action play. In other words presenting an account of Muslim society which is composed of various "classes of actors" (Asad 1986:1 0), rather than just concentrating upon tribes' people and city dwellers, which are sometimes the dominant focus, in this instance, in Islamic anthropology. Within Islamic archaeology, when social groups are considered at all, similar criticisms can be made (see Insoll 1999a for relevant discussion), hence here an attempt will be made to be more inclusive in considering, as far as the evidence will allow, a range of social groups.

Yet striving for maximum interpretation does not mean that this author is somehow deluded into believing that he can 'experience' the archaeology of Early and Middle Islamic Bahrain. Elsewhere criticism has been made of supposed phenomenological approaches adopted by some archaeologists in attempting to interpret their material (lnsoll 2004a); within the context of the archaeology of Islamic Bahrain such a proposition is absurd, primarily for the reason that the resultant experiential interpretation would be generated by this author, a non-Muslim, Anglo-Saxon male, and the attempt, besides being methodologically futile, would be, undeniably, both reductionist, and even racist in tone. This said, the comparative material offered by the available historical, ethnographic, and anthropological records means that suggestions can be made, where necessary, as regards max1m1smg interpretation, albeit admittedly with an emphasis placed upon hypothesis and suggestion rather than 'fact'.

Thus it is hoped that this volume puts into practice some of the theoretical ideas contained in this author's previous publications pertaining to a more socially aware archaeology of Islam (see Insoll 1999a, 2001a, 2003). Islamic archaeology is the same as any other

3 The Land ofEnki in the Islamic Era area of archaeology. It is not by necessity a theory-free zone and theoretical tools developed elsewhere can equally be applied here. Finally, within introducing the aims of this volume it should also be noted that the opportunity to both explore these ideas and present the primary data in the detail which it deserves is due to the opportunity offered by the publishers, Kegan Paul, and the generous word limit given. In this respect it must also be stated that this book supersedes all previous publications on the Early Islamic Bahrain project.

Geographical Location

The location of Bahrain means that it has been at the crossroads of international contacts, and trade and exchange, since at least the Dilmun period. Besides the obvious economic advantages associated with this geographical position, this would seem to imply that the islands have also been exposed to both diverse currents of people and ideas over the millennia. These are themes which are reflected in the archaeological data considered here, and which serve to emphasise the unique position of Bahrain within the Arabian Gulf.

A further key point that also needs to be made is that for part of the period considered here, that is until the mid-eleventh century (all dates are AD unless otherwise specified), the name 'Bahrain' as referred to in historical sources described both part of mainland (Yamama and the Hadjar), and Awal and Muharraq islands. But at this point Nasir-i-Khusraw mentions both Awal and al-Hasa (Eastern Arabia) separately, and refers to the capital of Awal by the name Bahrain (Kervran 1982:4; Potts 1985:706). Specifically, he states that "seven parasangs east of Lahsa is the sea. In this sea is the island of Bahrain, which is fifteen parasangs long. There is a large city there and many palm groves" (Thackston 1986:89). However, the decline of "greater Bahrain" is not usually dated until later in the mid-thirteenth century and the collapse of the Uyunid dynasty, when Awal becomes the Bahrain of contemporary

4 Introduction usage (Kervran 1982:60, 62, and see below). Within this volume, unless otherwise stated, 'Bahrain' refers to the contemporary island group.

In modem definition there are two groups of islands within the Kingdom of Bahrain which are situated in the Gulf of Salwa, an arm of the Arabian Gulf, and located at approximately latitude 26°N, longitude 50°30'E (Doomkamp et al. 1980:1) (Figure 1.1). These two groups of islands are, firstly, the six main islands of the Bahrain group; situated c.24 km from the coast of Saudi Arabia in the middle of the Gulf of Salwa (McNicoll and Roaf n.d.:3). The largest island in this group is Bahrain (Awal) at c.48 km in length and 13-16 km width (Belgrave 1973:13). The other principal islands include Muharraq, Sitra, Nabih Salih, Jidda, and Umm an-Nasaan (Rentz and Mulligan 1960:941). The second group further to the south are the 16 Hawar Islands situated about 1.5km from the western coast of Qatar (Larsen 1983:6). There are also numerous smaller islands, islets, shoals, and patches of coral reef in the Bahrain archipelago (Doomkamp et al. 1980:1 ).

The focus here is upon the main island of Bahrain, Awal, where a cultivated area of some 5 km width is confined to the northern coastal strip; with beyond this, a predominantly barren landscape consisting of low rolling hills as well as numerous rocky cliffs and dry wadis. The narrow coastal strip which surrounds this central rocky core of Awal covers an area of some 275 km2, and is the "most cultivated and inhabited portion of the island" (Doomkamp et al. 1980:269), especially, as noted, in the north. Geologically, the island "is an elongated anticlinal dome of sedimentary rocks" with a basin in its centre (Rentz and Mulligan 1960:941; Doomkamp et al. 1980). The highest point in Bahrain, within this basin, at c. 140m above sea level is provided by the Jebel Dukhan, the "Mountain of Smoke", so-called owing to the hazy appearance it often presents. Average rainfall is 6.2 em and the climate is divided into three seasons; December to March, the cold season; June to September; the hot season; and April, May, October, and November, described as also hot but lacking the extremes of the latter (Belgrave

5 The Land ofEnki in the Islamic Era

1973: 15). Otherwise, the primary area within Bahrain which IS considered, Bilad al-Qadim, is introduced in Chapter 2.

It is also necessary to note that, geographically, two pnmary regional descriptive options exist; 'Arabian Gulf' and 'Persian Gulf'. Both of these have ethnic, i.e. relating to Persians and Arabs, and by implication, political connotations, namely whose Gulf is being referred to, Persia (Iran) or Arabia? Here, the term Arabian Gulf will be used, not because this author is privileging one claim over another, but merely because much of the evidence considered originates, and is viewed, so to speak, from the Arabian shore.

Historical Summary

Dilmun and Before Various summaries of the history and to a lesser extent the archaeology of Bahrain exist (e.g. Larsen 1983; Potts 1990; Vine 1993; Al-Khalifa and Rice 1986, 1993; Lombard 1999). But briefly summarised by way of background, Bahrain was connected to the Arabian mainland until c.7,000-6,000 B.P. (Doornkamp et al. 1980:414), and hence it is assumed that sites dating from before this point have been drowned (McNicoll and Roaf n.d.:4), for the earliest stone tools found on Bahrain, and hence one assumes occupation, date from the 4th_5th millennia BC (Larsen 1983:27-31 ). Contacts with Lower Mesopotamia seem also attested at this time, as indicated by pottery of "Ubaid type" recovered both on Bahrain, as at al-Markh (McNicoll and Roaf n.d.), and at various points on the Arabian shore of the Gulf (Cleuziou 1999:38-9). Subsequently, in the Early Bronze Age, Bahrain was to be home to the Dilmun civilisation, beginning c.2200 BC, and reaching its height between c.2000-1800 BC (Crawford and Moon 1997: 13 ). With Dilmun best known, besides for its seals (Al-Sindi 1999; Crawford 2001), perhaps for its burial evidence, on account of the massive numbers of tumuli which cover parts of Awal (Crawford and Moon 1997:16; Breuil 1999). These form one of the archaeological wonders of the world, though are

6 Introduction unfortunately rapidly diminishing in extent in the face of modem development.

Dilmun is variously subdivided, with useful general summaries provided by Vine (1993) and Lombard and Al-Sindi (1999), and more detailed ones by Larsen (1983:31-55), Potts (1990), and Crawford (1998). Periodically, it possibly participated in regional trade, perhaps in commodities such as Omani copper, "Dilmun dates" and "fish eyes" (pearls) by being a regional centre within trade routes linking Mesopotamia with Oman and the Indus Valley (Rao 1986; Crawford and Moon 1997); though the extent to which it functioned as such has been the focus of debate (H0jlund 1989). However, Dilmun would appear to have been affected by the collapse of the Indus polity in the late eighteenth century BC, the affects of which were, according to Lombard and Al-Sindi (1999:25), that the islands were occupied by the Mesopotamian Kassites between the fifteenth to fourteenth centuries BC, i.e. the period defined as "Middle Dilmun", whilst in the late Dilmun period; the islands were controlled by the Achaemenids, in circa the fifth century BC (see Potts 1990; Lombard 1999).

Post-Dilmun Circa 325 BC it seems that Bahrain was explored by a Greek maritime expedition associated with Alexander the Great (see Potts 1990). Bahrain then became known by the Greek name of Tylos, a name which persisted until the second century AD (Salles 1999: 146). Tylos, although perhaps a useful historical 'name' is possibly less constructive for archaeological purposes, as is discussed in Chapter 11, primarily because it is sometimes stretched beyond realistic limits so that it also includes the Sasanian period as well (see for example Vine [1993:63]). Nonetheless, broken down into its component parts it includes within it, a Hellenistic period (Early Tylos), the end of which is difficult to place accurately, though "Middle Tylos" (AD 100-250) in part correlates with the period of Parthian control of Bahrain beginning in AD 129 (Lombard 1999:20), whilst "Late Tylos" is stretched from c.AD 250 to c.AD 600 (ibid.).

7 The Land ofEnki in the Islamic Era The latter encompasses the period of Sasanian control, which with its Iranian assoctatwns was perhaps formerly politically controversial as a recognised historical phenomena (see Chapter 11 ). Nonetheless, it is also fair to say that the Sasanian period on Bahrain is little known for there is "a paucity of information in literary sources relating to the Sasanian period and an abundance of conjecture and surmise" (Frye 1983:169 - the archaeology is considered in Chapter 11 ), but the sketchy historical framework as reconstructed (ibid.; Larsen 1983:58-61) would seem to suggest that Bahrain was under Sasanian control or influence, but the degree to which this existed and when this might have begun; the fourth, fifth, or even seventh centuries are all mentioned by Larsen (1983 :59), is seemingly unclear, hence perhaps the utility of the more neutral term 'Tylos'.

Regardless of the nomenclature involved, the end of this period of Greek derived categorization is placed almost at the start of the Early Islamic period and thus, as it can be seen, great diversity is seemingly subsumed within it (see Chapter 11 ). However, with reference to the primary period under consideration in this volume, the Islamic era, criticisms can also be made of the dating terminology used. Carter, for example, in Chapter 4 criticises the use of 'Early Islamic' and 'Middle Islamic' as being too broad and ill-defined. However these terms will be used here but a way of overcoming this valid criticism is to date them precisely within the context which they will be utilised. Hence here, 'Early Islamic' covers the period between the seventh to mid-tenth centuries i.e. until the start of the period of Carmathian control (Periods 1 and 2 in the Bilad al-Qadim sequence); whilst 'Middle Islamic' concurs with subsequent events from the mid-tenth through to the late fourteenth century (Periods 3, 4, 5, and 6 in the Bilad al-Qadim sequence). These are preferable as temporal descriptive terms for repeated recourse to the specific periods reconstructed from the Bilad al-Qadim sequence (see Chapters 3 and 4) is not always useful outside of the specific context of Bilad al-Qadim, and it is hoped that the discussion herein has potentially greater relevance as already discussed.

8 Introduction

Early Islam The during the Early Islamic era is comparatively better known than that of the immediately preceding periods, though it is still not rich in terms of available texts (Al-Doy 1993). The available historical sources, are, however, something which have been summarised by various scholars, including Belgrave (1973:118), Kervran (1982:59-63), Larsen (1983:62-68), Al-Doy (1993) and Al-Hadithi (1993), summaries which are drawn upon in providing this brief overview here. In general it should also be noted that recourse has been made to the relevant historical texts via secondary sources, rather than returning to the primary texts (with some exceptions as will be seen). This might be seen as a deficiency of the volume, but reflects this author's lack of linguistic abilities, as well as the fact that the available summaries provide more than adequate syntheses when combined.

This point made, the population of Eastern Arabia when the first Muslims arrived is best described as 'mixed' being composed of Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Bedouin following traditional pre-Islamic religions. The message of Muhammad was brought by letter to Bahrain in the seventh year of the Hijra by al-Ala 'ibn al• Hadrami (Vine 1993:75). According to Kervran (1982:61), apparently citing Nasir-i-Khusraw, many Arabs and Persians converted to Islam, including the Arab governor ruling for the Sasanians, Mundhir, but the Jews and Christians did not, preferring to pay the poll tax. However, there would appear to be a degree of confusion in this statement, for 'Christians' at least, could also be either 'Arabs' or 'Persians' (see Al-Hadithi 1993:257; and Chapter 11). Al-Hadithi (1993:258), in contrast, relates that it was the Magians (probably Persians [ibid.:257]), Christians, and Jews, who paid the jizya, and also reports that according to Ibn Abbas it was only paid by the Magians and Jews. Hence conflicting accounts would seem to exist.

Yet it should not be assumed that the subsequent progress of Islam in Bahrain was smooth, for some of these new Muslim converts renounced Islam, a group put down by troops drawn from the Abd

9 The Land ofEnki in the Islamic Era al-Qays tribe, to which Mundhir belonged (Kervran 1982:61). Following the recapture of Bahrain by the Muslims, Awal was apparently used, according to Faroughy (1951:56), as a "springboard" for the invasion of the southern provinces of Persia (Iran). Bahrain, the island, and Eastern Arabia thus continued to be ruled by the Caliphate; but it was often "the refuge of political and religious fugitives" (Belgrave 1973:118). Kervran (1982:61), for example, refers to a faction of Kharijites, who assembled for a while in Bahrain, but were expelled, again by the Abd al-Qays. Similarly, one of the leaders of the Zanj revolts was from Bahrain (see Chapter 11). Moreover, and of great significance considering some of the archaeological evidence described here, Bahrain was also to become a major centre associated with the Carmathian state beginning in the early tenth century (Madelung 1978).

Carmathians Belgrave (1973:123) mentions that the Carmathians used Awal for two main purposes; as a place to send exiles, and as an establishment for a customs station used to levy taxes on Gulf shipping and for receiving half the revenue from the pearling industry (and see Madelung 1978:664). The overall historical context of the Carmathians is primarily discussed in Chapter 11, though it should be noted here that the Carmathians succeeded in Bahrain (mainland and island) as they exploited weaknesses apparent within the Abd al-Qays, giving rise to an economically and militarily powerful state which survived "for nearly two centuries" (Kervran 1982:61). The exploits of the Carmathians are well documented, including the attacks on Hajj pilgrims, and on Mecca itself in 930, allied with the carrying off of the Black Stone from the Kaba and its return for a ransom paid by the Abbasids in 951, as well as the Carmathian raids upon Basra and Kufa (De Goeje 1862; Darke 1978:227-31; Van Donzel 1994:63; Daftary 1998:48). Ultimately, the defeat of the Carmathians in 1076 was to be by a leader of their old adversaries, the Abd al-Qays, 'Abdallah ibn 'Ali (Kervran 1982:62), with the subsequent year, 1077, described by Van Donzel (1994:63) as when "a definite end was put to the Carmathian reign in Bahrain".

10 Introduction Post-Carmathian Dynasties The lands belonging to 'Abdallah ibn 'Ali were called al-Uyun, and these in tum gave their name to the subsequent dynasty which ruled over Bahrain, the Uyunids, until the mid-thirteenth century (Kalus 1990: 100). The latter a date of significance for two primary reasons as Kervran (1982:62) describes; firstly, because it finally spelt the end of Abd al-Qays hegemony over Bahrain, and secondly, for it led to the separation of al-Hasa and Awal, and the end of "greater Bahrain". Thereafter, that is until the end of the fifteenth century, Kervran (1988:9) makes the point that Bahrain was for two centuries "included into the commercial empire which had grown in the Gulf from its starting point on the Persian coast" (sic). Within this period power had respectively shifted between the Amirs of Qays, the Atabegs of Fars, and the Salgharids, and ultimately ended up with the Princes of Hurmuz (see Rentz and Mulligan 1960:942). However, by the start of the sixteenth century, the yearly tribute which was supposed to be paid by the ruler of Bahrain, Adjwad Ibn Zamil, to his counterpart in Hurmuz was no longer forthcoming (Kervran 1988:11).

The Portuguese (and beyond) Yet at the same point in time events were to take on an importance of wider significance beyond that of Hurmuzi-Bahraini relations alone. This was because, as Kervran (1988:13) again notes, the wealth of Hurmuz was to become "the obvious aim for Portuguese greed". The result being that Hurmuz was occupied by forces led by Albuquerque in 1507. Almost immediately Portuguese attention then shifted to the retaking of Bahrain. But for various reasons this did not occur until following an initial reconnaissance in 1520, the first siege of Bahrain was begun in 1521 (C. D. Belgrave 1935:620). This was undertaken by a force composed of both Portuguese and Hurmuzi soldiers, and the island was "once again attached to the kingdom of Hurmuz" (Kervran 1988:20). A subsequent revolt over the shift of customs levying from Hurmuzi to Portuguese hands meant that a revolt soon took place. All the employees of the Portuguese factory on Bahrain were hanged, and again as Kervran (1988:20) succinctly observes, "only four months after its conquest, Bahrain had shaken

11 The Land ofEnki in the Islamic Era off the Portuguese yoke". This was, however, temporary, and Portuguese control was re-established in 1523. Nevertheless, a further revolt occurred in 1529 (C. D. Belgrave 1935:624), leading to a second unsuccessful Portuguese siege, this time of the Fort occupied by the Governor of Bahrain, Badr al Din. The outcome being that Bahrain was again freed from both Portuguese and Hurmuzi control.

Bahrain then settled down to half a century of what Kervran (1988:23) describes as "relative calm and prosperity". Nonetheless, the emphasis should be placed upon 'relative' for Bahrain was to witness a third siege in 1559, in this instance by the Ottoman Turks whose ships were in tum met and defeated by a Portuguese fleet, leading to various military engagements (see C. D. Belgrave 1935:627-8), followed by the Turkish surrender, their payment of tribute, and ultimately the ferrying of the Turkish troops back to the Arabian coast in 1560. A sequence of events which led the Ottomans, "for years, to be more cautious concerning Bahrain and led them to respect the independence of the island" (Kervran 1988:29). An independence which came to an end in 1602 when Shah Abbas I "laid hands on Bahrain and al-Qatif' (ibid.:31) in the name of the Persian empire. In so doing adding another major power into the chain of causal agents who have generated the historical vicissitudes which Bahrain has undergone over the course of the millennia and which are described in this brief historical overview.

Once again the most useful source for the history of Bahrain in this period, i.e. the latter part of the sixteenth century and into the seventeenth century is provided by Kervran ( 1988). Whilst beyond that point in time providing a summary of historical events is unnecessary for the purposes of this volume (but see Rentz and Mulligan 1960). However this said, where it is required, such historical detail is given in the following chapters.

12 Introduction Previous Research

Overall, relevant previous research completed on Islamic sites both in Bahrain and in other states in the Gulf would seem to be comparatively limited. Islamic archaeology is perhaps what can be best described as the 'poor cousin' of archaeological research in the region (and indeed elsewhere [see Insoll 1999a]). A point given emphasis by the comparative amount of attention focussed upon Dilmun and Tylos period sites within Bahrain (see for example H0jlund and Hellmuth Andersen 1994, 1997; Crawford, Killick, and Moon 1997; Hellmuth Andersen and H0jlund 2003). Furthermore, the archaeological research which has been completed also suffers from a lack of publication, or at least a slow rate of publication, sites might be investigated but the primary data, the necessary comparative material might not be presented. Additionally, where the material is published it often lacks a basic theoretical awareness or any attempt made at reconstructing a 'social' archaeology, as has already been noted. Data is reported but frequently no attempt is made to consider why or how the interpretation was formulated. Archaeological interpretation is of course active (Tilley 1993:1 0), but this is not reflected within much existing Islamic archaeological research where it is presented passively, if at all, as a given almost, with no attempt made to assess how or why the interpretive outcomes were arrived at.

Notwithstanding these criticisms various key Islamic archaeological sites have been investigated within Bahrain, and the emphasis here is placed upon those which been published, or whose reports have otherwise proven obtainable, as well as sites with at least partially relevant chronology to the Bilad al-Qadim material which is the primary focus of this volume. Most notable amongst these is of course Qala'at al-Bahrain, i.e. the tell capped by Bahrain Fort and its precincts, which in effect comprises a variety of sites. Occupation at Qala'at al-Bahrain dates back to the Early Dilmun period, c.2200 BC (H0jlund and Hellmuth Andersen 1994, 1997; H0jlund 1999:73), and the tell is composed ofthe occupation debris formed of its episodic use over many periods subsequently.

13 The Land ofEnki in the Islamic Era

The Islamic material from the Danish excavations at Qala'at al• Bahrain has recently been published by Frifelt who describes (200 1:36) the pottery as predominantly dating from the twelfth to thirteenth centuries, though some of the ceramics recovered from parts of the Islamic settlement also date from the fourteenth century and perhaps as late as the seventeenth century. Various components formed the Islamic settlement. These included the "town"; blocks of rooms, the East and West Blocks, separated by a 3m wide street. The purpose of these structures seems to have been both shops and for use as craft production areas (Frifelt 2001 :48-50). A so-called "Merchant Quarter" was also uncovered. An area with evidence for four Islamic building phases and which included the vestiges of two madbasa (date incubator used in the production of date syrup - see Chapter 6), as well as various other architectural remains, along with 30 coins, and a hoard of over 250 beads and pendants (see Chapter 7). "Strong trade relations with Syria and Mesopotamia" (Frifelt 2001:62) are described as being evident in the Qala'at material, with other imported material from Oman, Iran, India, and the Far East found. Further buildings, the so-called "Islamic horizon by the city wall" are described in brief by H0jlund and Hellmuth Andersen (1994:45), with an emphasis placed upon stratigraphy and structural phasing, though the presence of a large number of clay ovens is noteworthy.

An additional important neighbouring site is the Islamic shore fort excavated initially by a Danish team and subsequently by a French one (Kervran 1982). The results of the former investigations have been published by H0jlund and Hellmuth Andersen (1994). Essentially, a square fortress of 52.5m outer dimensions on each side was excavated. This structure was found to have been extensively robbed to provide stone for the later fort construction on the tell. Various rooms as well as defensive towers were uncovered, along with the start of a flight of stairs, and madbasa for the production of date syrup (see Chapter 6) (ibid.:27). The inside of this fortress was laid out around a square, central courtyard, and from the comers of this courtyard walls divided the interior into

14 Introduction four centrally placed cross-arms and quadrants (H0jlund and Hellmuth Andersen 1994:481 ). The fort was dated to the twelfth to thirteenth centuries. Associated with this fort also seems to have been a moat. This was initially identified as a harbour channel, but subsequent excavation indicated it was a defensive structure, covered by Portuguese and Islamic layers (H0jlund and Hellmuth Andersen 1994:30-31 ).

The full report on the French excavations at the Islamic fort is still awaited, but the architecture and imported materials such as the Chinese ceramics, and the coins found have been described (Negre 1982; Pirazzoli-t' Sertsevens 1982). The fort has been dated by Kervran to between the tenth to thirteenth centuries (1982:80-81), and has been linked with the Carmathians, the latter an interpretation also agreed with by Frifelt (2001 :35). However, pending the final report the earlier part of the date range ascribed to the fort is not wholly convincing for all the eight identified Islamic coins are linked with the Salgharide Atabegs of Fars (1148-1280), and their presence interpreted as dating from after the fort's military function had been fulfilled and the structure was partly in ruins (Negre 1982:91). The Chinese coins cover a wider date range - Tang to Southern Song (621-1200), but could have been circulated long after they were minted. Whilst the Chinese ceramics only date from the thirteenth to sixteenth centuries (Pirazzoli-t'Sertsevens 1982:97) which is also perplexing considering this is after the terminal date range ascribed the structure.

Whether this structure is in fact pre-Islamic in ongm is also intriguing. Kervran (1982:75) gives a date of "the beginning of the Christian era" for three construction levels below the fort on the basis of ceramic parallels, including a "pink-tinted bowl" described as "reminiscent of certain bowls of Grecian design" (ibid.). This in itself is not particularly convincing. However, Potts (1990a: 113) argues that the pre-Islamic origin of the building was "demonstrated conclusively" by the subsequent discovery of a plaster lining of a silo which "exclusively" contained Hellenistic/Parthian ceramics "which ran over part of the west tower of the fortress" (ibid.). The

15 The Land ofEnki in the Islamic Era publication of the final report on these excavations should help clarify this point, though the presence of these sherds could be the result of redeposition as part of a single-action infilling, and hence bear no relation to the date of construction of the building (S. Simpson pers. comm.).

Another Islamic archaeological site on Bahrain of relevance which has been investigated was a group of houses and associated ovens and a madbasa near the village of A'ali (Sasaki 1990). This complex which has been dated primarily to the ninth to tenth centuries and thus correlates with the Abbasid period is published only in a summary form which, ceramics excepted, is not of great use for comparative purposes. Any mention of faunal remains recovered is omitted for example, and although "ash" deposits encountered in ovens are mentioned (ibid.: 113), no information on their contents is provided. The assemblage of ceramics (and other materials) predominantly dating from the ninth to tenth centuries which was emptied from the well at the Barbar Temple site should also be briefly mentioned. This was excavated by a Danish team and the results have recently been published (Frifelt 2001). The hypotheses which have been advanced to account for the presence of this material are discussed in the next chapter.

An additional pertinent Islamic site which has been investigated but not yet published in full is the remains of a village built, unusually, upon a sand dune at Barbar South. The preliminary report on this work dates the occupation, on the basis of the ceramics present, such as imported Chinese Blue and White wares, to between the twelfth/thirteenth and eighteenth centuries (Salles et al. 1983: 158). A range of structures were uncovered in the various "chantiers" excavated. The building remains in the northern unit were interpreted as linked with domestic activities (ibid.:43) whilst in the western unit, a mosque along with other structures whose function is not known were recorded. Finally in the Chantier Est, a large number of ovens and hearths were recorded, suggestive, according to Salles et al. ( 1983: 115), of a craftsmen's quarter.

16 Introduction Within Bilad al-Qadim, which as stated is the obvious primary focus of this study, the bulk of previous archaeological research has been concentrated upon the Al-Khamis mosque (Kervran 1990; Whitehouse 2003) (Figure 1.2). A structure thought to have been founded in the Umayyad period, subsequently reconstructed in the mid-eleventh century, mid-twelfth century, and again in 1323 when a second minaret was added (Kervran 1990:7). The epigraphy from this site has also been the focus of dedicated study (Kalus 1990, 1995) with useful results. Otherwise, the history of research at this site has been well-described by Kervran (ibid.:10-13), and it is unnecessary to repeat this here, though it is referred to where necessary (primarily in Chapter 3).

Moreover, to the sites already described could of course be added others; later ones such as (Walls 1987), or as yet little understood ones such as the Tree of Life, as well as the results of rescue excavations completed by the Bahrain National Museum at various sites. However, as already noted, selectivity has had to be exercised, and emphasis placed upon published and chronologically relevant sites. The job of adequate synthesis of existing unpublished reports, largely, it is presumed, in Arabic, must be left to others.

Besides focussing on research completed upon individual sites in Bahrain, mention must also be made of the work of Curtis Larsen (1983) and his attempt at writing a "geoarchaeology" of Bahrain, including that of the Islamic periods which is thus also relevant. Larsen's research has been critiqued by various commentators (see for example Potts 1985; Kennet 2001:146-8), though he is to be congratulated for synthesising the then available data. This said, however, there are various faults with his work of significance here, as for example in his juxtaposing the terms "medieval" and "middle" Islamic, or in his failing to adequately define what constitutes a "site", the obvious basis of his subsequent land-use, chronological, and population reconstructions. Moreover, the empirical foundations of his thesis do not always support his interpretations, and this is especially relevant not only for the Islamic periods, but also where he considers the immediately pre-

17 The Land ofEnki in the Islamic Era Islamic Sasanian period as well (see Potts 1985 :705). The tenuous nature of our understanding of this period on Bahrain has already been outlined (and will be returned to again), and hence the emphasis in his interpretations must be fully placed upon "hypothetical", a term which Larsen (1983:84) does himself use in describing his posited reconstruction of land use on Bahrain in the Sasanian era (his reconstructions of Islamic settlement patterns are considered in the next chapter).

In addition to considering previous research on Bahrain, further relevant sites in the wider Gulf region (and beyond) which have been investigated are referred to where necessary in subsequent chapters. It should also be noted in this brief discussion of previous research that supplementary published sources of use for interpretative purposes such as anthropological and ethnographic studies are also rare, and it is fortunate that Renny Harald Hansen (1968) completed a study under the auspices of the Danish Archaeological Expedition to Bahrain in the village of Saar in 1960. This now unrepeatable piece of research is invaluable in recording various facets of life in a Shi'ah village community even then being rapidly integrated into a 'modem' way of life. Hence the data recorded by her on both patterns of life and their material correlates and consequences is drawn upon extensively in the following chapter.

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