CONTENT

GENERAL ASPECTS OF HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF MEDICINE

Religio-philosophical systems and their impact on the history of medicine D.A. Balalykin ...... 9 Philosophy of Eugenics: gains and losses E.N. Shulga ...... 27

HISTORY OF MEDICAL DISCIPLINES

Scientifi c and practical educational aspects of modern epidemiology: a view through the prism of history N. I. Briko ...... 36 Main stages in the development of pediatrics in Russia G.L. Mikirtichan ...... 46

FROM THE HISTORY OF HEALTHCARE

Initiating the Global health at the time of the Crimean War (1853-1856), and the projects of sanitary reform of the Ottoman Empire A.M. Moulin ...... 61

FROM THE HISTORY OF RUSSIAN MEDICINE

Pirogov’s Spiritual Legacy Yu.L. Shevchenko, M.N. Kozovenko ...... 80 Doctor Ivan Lutsenko: myths and facts K.K. Vasylyev ...... 94 A Doctor from Russia in Belgian Congo: Yakov Schwetz V.K. Ronin ...... 107 “Future Pirogov”: about the student years of the scholar M.I. Perelman in Yaroslavl N.T. Eregina ...... 119 The forming of the fi rst scientifi c medical society in the Moscow University T.I. Surovtseva ...... 125

INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH

The Sick Poor: How do we defi ne them and what should we do with them? G.B. Ferngren ...... 135 The Western Medical Tradition and Typology of “Kinds of Medicine” P.E. Ratmanov ...... 146

7 CONTENT

Europe and free family: the role of the assistance of reproductive technologies in the collapse of the family C. Byk ...... 155 The conception of hospital care at the time of epidemics in the II–III centuries N.P. Shok ...... 160

SPECIFIC QUESTIONS IN THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE

History and Phenomenology of Hysterodemonic Renaissance P.I. Sidorov, V.V. Medvedeva, А.N. Davydov ...... 169 Brief history and description of the surgical instrument kit of the early 19th century S.P. Glyantsev ...... 186

MEMORABLE DATES

250th anniversary of the academic department of human anatomy of I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (1764–2014 ) M.R. Sapin ...... 193

8 SPECIFIC QUESTIONS IN THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE

УДК: 616.89 (091)

History and Phenomenology of Hysterodemonic Renaissance P.I. Sidorov1, V.V. Medvedeva2, А.N. Davydov3 !Institute of Mental Medicine Northern Scientifi c Center North-West Branch RAMS; 2Northern State Medical University, Arkhangelsk; 3Institute of Ecological Problems of the North ASC RAS Ural Branch.

The etiopathogenetic basis of the social and psychic epidemics is the bio-psycho-sociospiritual factors, which defi ne the paths of emergence and the mechanisms of progression of massively-induced neuropsychic disorders, the earliest forms of which were titled “hysterodemoniacal”: shaman disease, menerik, emeriak, hiccups, sheva, lishinka, kila and others. We underline the clinical forms and pathokinesis of induced conditions and diseases, factors and forms of traditional spiritual culture, which aff ect the specifi cs of development of social epidemics.

Keywords: hysterodemoniacal conditions, psychic epidemics, etiopathogenesis, clinical forms, treatment, preventive healthcare

One of the fastest-growing scientifi c fi elds, ex- examples of the "hysterodemonic renaissance," isting at the junction where natural sciences and the proponents of which act as individual occupa- humanities meet,is mental ethnoecology. A syn- tional therapists, and the paraprofessionals with ergistic bio-psycho-socio-spiritual approach al- their very laconic psycho-technical skills. There- lows for mental ethnoecology to be classifi ed as fore, today an appeal to the shamanic ideology a fi eld involving the cooperation of ethnography and phenomenology is interesting not only from and folklore, religious studies and sociology, psy- an academic point of view, but also in a practical chology and psychotherapy, psychiatry and nar- way, as it allows one to understand the historical cology, mental ecology and mental medicine. roots of the "mass expansive psychotherapy," suc- Historically, the earliest mental ethnoecology cessfully exploiting marginal subpopulations. subjects were mental illnesses, which in the 19th The purpose of this article is to provide a his- century were named "hysterodemonic": shamanic torical analysis of the emergence and develop- illness, Arctic hysteria, piblokto, hiccups, hexes ment of psychic epidemics, their division by bio- "shyova," "lishenka" and "kila," and others, re- psycho-socio-spiritual ties with specifi c forms of ferred to in psychiatry as induced neuro-psychi- traditional spiritual culture, and systematization atric disorders, underpinning the development of of the main directions of research on mental eth- collective psychosis (C. P.). noecology of the the north. In carrying out this The relevancy of the problem of C. P. as a task, we used an extensive historiography and re- group of contagious mental disorders is current- sults of mental health research on the indigenous ly due to the increasing prevalence of social ills population of the north. [1, 2; 3, p. 17] and addictive behavior, totalitarian sects, various Psychiatric research into C. P. began in Rus- pyramid-type schemes and extremist and terrorist sia in the second half of the 19th century. Previ- organizations. Nor can we ignore the numerous ously, patients who were under the infl uence of C. P., came under the patronage of church orga- nizations as "victims of the devil" or by the laws E-mail: [email protected] and decrees prescribing punitive measures against © P. I. Sidorov, V.V. Medvedeva, A.N. Davydov participants of C. P. Currently this problem is the HISTORY OF MEDICINE 2014, №1

focus of philosophers and historians, lawyers and look, poor diet and insuffi cient sleep, excessive anthropologists, social activists and doctors. physical exertion, domestic inconveniences, dis- Most Russian psychiatrists in the second half ease and frequent births) [11]. An important role of the 19th century regarded the C. P. phenom- was played by the state of mind of the subject, the enon as a predominantly psychosocial condi- level of personal responsiveness, the depth of ex- tion. What's more, psychiatrists do not deny the posure to dogmatic teaching on his or her psyche possibility that the formation and manifestation and currently held superstitions [12,13]. of mental epidemics could be infl uenced by na- Most authors consider an increase of psy- tional culture and ethnic traditions, which add cho-emotional tension (P. E. T.) among the par- exotic aspects to symptoms, but does not change ticipants of a rite or process as one of the main the algorithm for the development and clinical es- causes of C. P. Psycho-emotional tension entailed sence of this phenomenon. [4-6] The presence of a condition involving a narrowing of conscious- a psychiatric component with C. P. victims is of ness, leading to the inability to account for one's little doubt and generates no misunderstandings actions. An increase in P. E. T. potentiates sug- among psychiatrists. In 1908, V. M. Bekhterev gestibility, autosuggestibility, extreme emotional spoke of "collective or mass delusions and hal- disturbances, tendency to imitate, panic, becom- lucinations," epidemics of possession, hysterics, ing a factor infl uencing individual lives and the hexes, psychotic manifestations of religious con- community as a whole. Under the infl uence of tent and distributing panic reactions. [7] suggestion, a person loses individuality and ini- Psychiatrist A. A. Tokarsky divided the causes tiative, becoming part of the crowd, panicking. of collective psychosis into "predisposing and pro- "In the frenzied crowd each individual aff ects the ducing." With the fi rst he attributed "poverty of others, and he or she is subjected to a similar in- mental content, parochialism, a lack of insight fl uence." [12] and ignorance"; with the second – the dominat- In the category of "producing" causes of C. P., ing ideas of society, external events, the tenden- psychiatrists have attributed factors such as war, cy to imitate, psychic contagion and suggestion political upheaval, social and economic reforms, [8]. This classifi cation is largely congruent with potentiating the uncertainty of social and political a modern interpretation of personal and social relationships and situations that increase neuro- identity of the subject, a universal trend of poten- psychic anxiety, leading to a decrease in the sta- tial pathways of collective psychosis. bility of the central nervous system. Studies by Russian psychiatrists have identi- Thus, the basis for the occurrence of C. P. fi ed a set of preconditions for C. P. that are "pre- was defi ned as a polyetiologic factor, which is the disposing" and "produced by the direct instilling main criterion in the formation of a path lead- of ideas." The fi rst group included fanatical faith, ing to the emergence and spread of mass mental based on extraneous suggestion and infl uence of contagions. The intensity of the emergence and the inductor, who possesses a charismatic per- spread of mental phenomena of a contagious na- sonality and the ability to impress his or her ideas ture were aff ected by socio-economic changes on to others (such an inductor could be a mentally and crises. ill person) [9], low education, primitive culture The separation of social and psychological and social confusion. P. I. Jacobi wrote that col- mechanisms in the emergence of C. P. is only lective psychosis "develops only in a population possible by analyzing historical forms "hysterode- that is physically weakened and suff ering from monic" disorders closely associated with specifi c nervous exhaustion, both morally and mentally." forms of traditional spiritual culture. [10] Among the factors that aff ect the mental state The connection of shamanism and shamanic of a person in terms of occurrence of C. P. are a illness with nervous and mental disorders among number of exogenous factors (drugs, alcohol, diff erent peoples of northern Russia and Siberia hunger, poverty, fatigue, an accumulation of large have been marked by many ethnographers. [14- numbers of people possessing a common out- 16] N. A. Alekseev analyzed the role of shamanic P. I. Sidorov, V.V. Medvedeva, A.N. Davydov sickness in the development of the concept of the an "excited, ecstatic person." [19] It is no coin- chosen one in the Turkic peoples of Siberia. He cidence that L. V. Khomych, one of the leading showed that the future shaman endured mental scholars of the traditional culture of the Nenets problems, although persons suff ering the prob- people, wrote: "Not considering nerve disease as a lems and fated to become shamans were inter- cause of shamanism (shamanism is an ideological preted in diff erent ways by Siberian Turkic peo- and partly social phenomenon), we must still note ples [17]. that an important role is played by an unbalanced S. P. Davidenko wrote the following on the and easily excitable psyche in the formation of in- role of mental disorders that infl uenced the for- dividuals who are engaged in shamanism." [20] mation of animistic magic visualizations: "As soon Features that determine the propensity to- as animistic ideas spread and strengthened, any wards to becoming a shaman tend to include the direct relation with the spirits became inevitable, strange behavior of the future shaman. Approach- and of special value were such qualities of higher ing puberty, he, according to the Nenets people, nervous activity as the ability to fall into a more or "went a little bit crazy": he began to sing, or sleep less deep hypnoid state with partial wakefulness in for days on end, then walked about with out no- some parts of the cortex, with dream-like wake- ticing anybody, etc. It was believed that tadebtse fulness, with self-induced hallucinations and so had appeared before him – spirit-helpers of sha- on, i.e. all of which is characteristic of hysteria ... man ancestors – and forced him into shamanistic With training, in a negative sense, this hysteria, as activity, tormented him. Then the one who was we know, can lead to a signifi cant further deterio- suff ering or his family would turn to a shaman to ration." [18] help in his recovery. Only another shaman could We do not think it possible to reduce such a to some extent alleviate the mental disorder of the complicated and diverse complex, as shaman- potential shaman. ism represents, to the "cult of hysteria." However, We can assume that as "doctor-psychiatrists" "shamanology," having studied the complex phe- shamans were probably fairly well versed in their nomena associated with "professionally" clas- kind of "diagnosis" of mental illness. Moreover, sifi ed people in traditional societies, providing we become convinced of this conclusion when we these societies a psychological balance in the face see, fi rstly, the psychohygienic and psychothera- of a world full of dangers, requires the develop- peutic function of the shaman as one of the most ment of a mental ethnoecological approach to important, and secondly, the fact that the bulk of shamanism. patients who turned to a shaman were people with The presence of a large number of individu- neuro-psychiatric disorders. als with heightened suggestibility created a special During the ritual, which, according to the Ne- psychological climate that enhanced the social nets, was a way of communicating with spirits, the signifi cance of shamanism in the traditional so- shaman would bring himself to an ecstatic state. cieties of the north of Russia and Siberia. The ac- This ecstatic technique played a huge role in sha- cidental death of a shaman often led to outbreaks manism. A long time was required to completely of psychogenic illness. The belief in the increas- master the shamanic profession. L. V. Khomich ing vulnerability of human souls after a shaman's writes that, as if one night was enough to teach death in the face of a world of hostile forces gave the basics to a future shaman, then to become rise to epidemics of mental disorders. The epi- yanumpoi, inutana, i.e. a shaman of the "highest demic stopped when one of those that had taken qualifi cation", took about two decades. [20] Dur- ill became a shaman. The universe that was dam- ing this time, the shaman received expertise, and aged by the death of the shaman was restored by constantly trained in the art of inducing oneself the appearance of a new mediator between the into a state of trance or ecstasy. Mental instability, world of human souls and the spirit world. It is manifesting itself in the shamanic sickness, was noteworthy that the word "shaman," which gave skillfully cultivated in the practice of shamanic rise to the internationalist scientifi c term, means activity. Perhaps it is precisely this practice that HISTORY OF MEDICINE 2014, №1

led to the discovery of the archaic techniques of from people who suff ered an attack of shamanic ecstasy and primitive methods of psychotherapy. sickness allows, on the one hand, for the shaman It is also important to consider that the heart of himself to correct his own mental state during the shamanic concepts of plurality of souls may lie practice of archaic psychotherapy, and on the foremost in not trying to make sense of the out- other to carry out medical and psycho-prophylac- side world but in changing internal mental states. tic functions in his tribe. Shamanism accumulates The shaman is a mediator between the world within itself almost all registers of active psychotic of humans (human souls) and the world of spir- reaction, which in terms of content corresponds its. Most likely, the majority of shamans believed to a particular specialization and qualifi cation of in spirits and in their own extraordinary abilities. the shaman. The shaman can be seen historically Moreover, shamans probably could see and feel as the earliest evidence of the subclinical nature of the images of spirits, being in a state of ecstasy human creativity. and self-hypnosis. The ecstatic state was a neces- The most well-known forms of mental disor- sary condition to visit the spirit world. "Ecstasy is ders in traditional societies of the north of Rus- a blissful trance, a religious form of communica- sia and Siberia were Arctic hysteria and piblokto. tion with God, I would say, more eff ective than They received a thorough investigation in the the vision of the gods in their epiphany. It is more work of S. I. Mitskevich. Arctic hysteria is a dis- specifi c, and again more physical, than the later ease manifested in the "severe headaches with revelation. God appears, entering the person, and delusions, obsessions and imitation of shamanic acts through them. A person in ecstasy is not re- action." If a sick person has well-known shaman sponsible for their actions," writes O. M. Freiden- relatives, the disease will be perceived by others berg. [21] as the beginning of "shamanic sickness," a mani- The ecstasy technique has social signifi cance festation of the unusual qualities of the future for the psychology of traditional societies. Self- shaman, a "call to serve the spirits." [15] Yakut, hypnosis and ritual, which are, in fact, an archaic Evenki and Yukagir people considered Arctic technique to achieve the ecstatic state, might in hysteria patients as possessed, carriers full of spir- some cases be accompanied by the phenomena of its. Added to this is the clearly not coincidental auditory and visual hallucinations, derealization, fact that the main patients of Yakut, Yukagir and depersonalization and delusions. What's more, of Evenki shamans were "people with mental health great importance was the collectivity of the action problems." [22] itself. The mechanisms of mutual and self-hyp- Another common type of mental disorder was nosis are largely determined by the "speed" and piblokto, characterized by an increased fearful- "depth" of the achieving the mental state needed ness combined with shouts, blows, or other acts for communicating with the spirits during the rite. that were unexpected for the patient. Mitskevich, A variety of psychogenic conditions, arising investigating and describing in detail the cases during the ritual, signifi cantly pushed the limits of Arctic hysteria and piblokto, showed that pi- of the mental norm. In the system shamanic con- blokto was spread throughout Siberia. [17] Mostly cepts, the dream-state soul, leaving the body for women suff ered from it. It is noteworthy that the contact with the spirits, was perceived as a normal Yakut, Evenki and Yukagir people did not consid- but special form of existence, which makes it pos- ered piblokto an illness. This disease was seen as sible to infl uence the processes and phenomena a funny trait inherent in this or that person. It was that lie outside of the real-life experience. The the grounds for poking fun and jeering at a person same interpretation is extended to the spontane- without any malice. [22] ous type of mental disorders such as shamanic Probably one of the fi rst descriptions of "Arc- sickness, diff erent ethnographers' descriptions tic hysteria," as it was called in South Dauria, of which reveal the onset and development of belongs to A. A. Kashin. [23] It was manifested endogenous psychoses of the Arctic indigenous in various forms of "abnormal imitation" such as peoples. The recruitment and training of shamans hysterical echolalia, echomimia and echopraxia. P. I. Sidorov, V.V. Medvedeva, A.N. Davydov

It must be stressed that an increased incli- rate and raised blood pressure. The start of the nation to hysteria acquired in childhood occurs attack could be accompanied by yawning, lacri- apart from the usual cultural environment, but mation, sudden sweating and/or a change in the defi nitely in a group of fellow countrymen, fa- color of the skin (redness or paleness). The main cilitating the expression of self and mutual induc- component of the attack was a kind of respiratory tance. A. A. Kashin describes an interesting case and phonatory type of hyperkinesis, incoherent during the training of one of the regiments of the speech, turning into a cry and then into a staccato Trans-Baikal tsarist army, where in the squad sec- muffl ed sound (in the case of "nemukhe"). Shouts tion, consisting of natives of one village, everyone and conversation took on an intrusive and violent began to repeat the command words in chorus. nature, and patients could not stop them on their The angry offi cer started to swear, at which point own. The attack would end with a sense of weak- the squad began to repeat his bad language. ness, weariness, depression and anxiety. In the fi eld of mental ethnoecology in the Eu- The Russian population of the Pinega, Me- ropean north of Russia, interest focuses on hys- zen and Pechora river basins traditionally associ- terodemonic forms such as hiccups in the Russian ated the hiccups disease with hexes and malicious population of the Pinega and Mezen river basins, magic. Pinega and Mezen residents saw the hic- shyova hexes in the Komi people and lishinka cups as being "placed" by a human sorcerer – a hexes in the Russian population in Izhmo-Pech- "chaka." The "hiccups" penetrated into a person ersky region. through the mouth. A woman would feel like she Hiccups are marked by cenesthopathy and au- had swallowed something, assuming that it was tonomic disorders, hypersensitivity and irritabil- the hiccups that she swallowed. The "hiccups" ity. Patients were characterized by suff ering from were regarded as an independent spiritual sub- headaches, loss of appetite, weakness, seizures stance. The suff er could even talk to the "hiccups" and a hysterical character. The reason for the at- that sat inside her, tormenting her. There could be tack could be almost any emotional irritant: smells several "hiccups," in which case they "were able" (cases of attacks as a result of the smell of incense to converse with each other. The main concern and tobacco were very frequent in the 19th cen- of the patient and her family was to prevent the tury), colors, sounds, meeting with an unknown onset of seizures, the desire to "appease" the hic- person. The old-time Russian resident popula- cups, which may request a variety of things, such tion of the Pinega and Mezen basis was singled as beer, wine and sweets. In conversing with sur- out with the following form of hiccups: "Nemo- rounding people, usually the suff erer's voice and chishcha," "nemukha" – silent hiccups in which the voice of the "hiccups" could be clearly distin- the patient's seizures were the most frequent and guished. painful, and during a seizure the patients could The "chaka," or the person who knew how to only emit jerky muffl ed sounds; "krikuha" or "re- place the hiccups or who was a suspect in placing vuha" – when the seizures were less frequent and them, faced being ostracized by the population. not as strong and during the seizures patients were In the 19th century there was a belief that only able to pronounce words and fragmentary (often blood of the chaka could remove from the "hic- incoherent) phrases; "govorukha" in which during cups" from the patient. an attack, patients reached a state close to ecstasy, Speaking on the existence of hiccups in the but retained the "ability to keep in touch with oth- 19th century among the northern Russian peoples er people, responding to their questions." of the Pinega and Mezen river basins, we must pay Bouts of hiccups lasted from a few minutes attention to the ubiquity of the hiccups among the to a day or more. At the beginning of an attack, Komi people of the Pechorsk region. The Russian patients usually felt physical weakness, itching or word "ikota" (hiccup in English) was not of Rus- numbness in diff erent parts of the body, cramps in sian origin, it came to Russian from Komi. the stomach, esophagus and/or throat. This was Both the Russians and the Komi people have followed by an increase in breathing and heart similar diseases attributed to the evil eye or hex. HISTORY OF MEDICINE 2014, №1

The hiccup was considered one of the manifes- Many researchers have written about the exis- tations of shyova hex by the Komi. "Shyova" is a tence of an ancient Komi-substrate in the culture hex, disease, evil spirit, personifi ed in the form of the Pechorsk, Pinega and Mezen-Porechan of butterfl ies, beetles, bees, fl ies, worms, threads peoples. [27, 28] For example, in the lower reach- and nodules. [24] Hiccups had exactly the same es of Mezen (with the Mezen-Pomor people) in personalization with the Russian peoples of the exorcisms water plays the purifying force, and in Pinega and Mezen river basins. According to the Leshukonsky region (with the Mezen-Porechan beliefs of the Komi, during an attack an evil spirit people) fi re plays this role. With the Komi people – the "shyova" – spoke within the hysterodemo- a shyova hex can only be destroyed by fi re. The nic patient. The seizures of the shyova patients Komi-cultural substratum is found in many ele- with the Komi were identical to bouts of hiccups ments of the culture of the Pinega and Mezen- among the Russian people in the area of the Ko- Porechan peoples, in particular, refl ected in mo- mi-Russian ethnographic border area. tifs in weaving and embroidery, in the semantics For comparison, it is interesting that it was of images in Mezen paintings and in the language. recorded that in the Pechora area there was the So, on in the Pinega region, non-Slavic names fi xed phase "yorsha spustit" (ie. send off a disease prevail in the names of rivers (about 85 percent), with a sorcery spell). O. A. Cherepanov expressed streams (50 percent), wetlands and forest tracts the interesting suggestion that the Russian word (about 60 percent), and there is a high percentage "yorsh" with the meaning of "disease" was intro- of non-Russian words in the names of settlements duced into the circle of mythological semantics by (36 percent). external coincidence with the Finno-Ugric "ier- Among various reasons for the appearance of ekh" or "iorysh, iorsh" (nodule, fl ap, piece). [25] hiccups on a massive scale in the 19th century, Note an important detail: hex in the Komi doctors have listed poverty, a malnourished exis- language means "vomida" (from the word "vom" tence, dark musty rooms, unrefi ned food, lack of – mouth). According to the ideas of the Komi heat, work requiring large expenditure of energy, and Russian peoples of the Pinega, Mezen and a separate and subordinate position of women in Pechorsk regions, the hiccup spirit is ingested the family and the long polar winter. However, in through the mouth and is most often located in these terms, the psychiatrists themselves reach a the stomach in patients. The notion of "shyova" is dead end, since it was impossible to explain why common among the Komi, as the term "hiccup" under the same specifi c conditions, there was a is both a disease and its cause, i.e. a certain inde- complete lack of hiccups in the western counties pendent spiritual substance. of the Arkhangelsk region and a ubiquity of hic- Analyzing the process of "mastering" the ability cups in Pinega and Mezen peoples. [28] to plant or place hiccups in a person, we observe a Apparently, the hiccups in the population of striking similarity in techniques of the Komi and northern basins of Pinega, Mezen and Pechora northern Russians. Among the peoples of the Pin- should historically be regarded as a phenomenon ega, Mezen and Pechorsk regions the following of the Komi-cultural substrate, the migration of needs to be done. "According to the Mezen people, which was facilitated by the induced nature of take a dog into a sauna, and when it vomits, eat the the neuro-psychiatric disorders. Demonological vomit; then you need to refer to the "black book." expansion among the Pinega and Mezen peoples [26] With the Komi people, the sorcerer's appren- was in no small way aided by the fact that "Rus- tice had to eat the vomit of either a red or white sians considered the most powerful sorcerers and dog in a sauna at the instigation of the sorcerer, be- witch doctors to be from foreign tribes: Finns, come acquainted with the black book and conduct Karelians, Mordvinians "[19], and in this case – a number of magical acts. [24] The black book was, the Komi. of course, a later phenomenon, which included the In the 19th century shyova-hiccups struck earlier ritual transfer of sacred knowledge, arising most of the adult female Komi population. Cases from an animistic set of ideas. of hiccups among men were also known. P. I. Sidorov, V.V. Medvedeva, A.N. Davydov

Of interest is the testimony of M. B. Edemsky tion to the socio-cultural hysterodemonic context on cases of hiccups on the Kanin Peninsula. Ac- in Komi and in the Nenets-Russian ethnographic cording to the stories of Russian inhabitants of a border areas. Here, under unifi ed geographical village on Kanin, Nenets people had the ability conditions diff erent ethnicities – diff erent econom- to "place hiccups." [30] "On Kanin there is one ic-cultural types – met and interacted with each Samoed person that can do anything: place affl ic- other: Komi hunters and fi shermen from the north- tions, hiccups, demons ... " M. B. Edensky him- ern taiga, Nenets cattle-herders and Russian farm- self noted that the beliefs connected with "magic," ers. There were also strong linguistic diff erences be- "sorcery," "nonconsciousness" were widespread tween the ethnicities who were in contact with one in Kanin and were equally frequent in both Rus- another – at a language family level (Finno-Ugric sians and the Samoed people. M. B. Edensky's Komi, Eastern Slavic – Russian, Samoed-Nenets). conclusions echo P. S. Efi menko's point of view Among these various peoples were diff erent world on the origin of hiccups: "The local peasants were outlooks. At the time of encountering the Russians, infected with hiccups from their Samoed neigh- the Komi possessed complex ideas associated with bors." [31] P. S. Efi menko confi rmed his opinion the use of magic, which were related to hunting with the fact that peasants from Mezen district and fi shing, and they retained animist beliefs and in the last century attributed hiccups "namely totemic elements [33], while the Nenets were sha- to Samoed sorcery." The similarities among the manists. The Russians in relation to either of the whole group of hysterodemonic diseases – hic- other ethnic groups were from a developed class cups, Arctic hysteria and piblokto – should be (fi rst feudal and then capitalist) society, forming noted. The similarity of the symptoms of hiccups state structures – and the bearers of an Orthodox and piblokto was observed both in the groups of state world viewpoint. All of these diff erences in patients (mostly women), and in the nature of the ethnic and cultural "genotypes" of these ethnic disease's development, seizures and the set causes groups that were in contact with one another were for them. Similarities were evident to some de- refl ected in the forms of hysterodemony. gree in the terms used. Women suff ering from A detailed elaboration of the question of the hiccups were called "ikotnits" in Pinega, Mezen Christianization of the Komi and Nenets has been and Pechora, and men sick with hiccups were documented. [34] However, the specifi c features called "miryak." [32] The similarity of the words of the social development of the Russian northern "miryak" and "emiryachene," or piblokto in Eng- areas infl uenced the attitude towards Orthodoxy lish, does not seem to come down to chance. among the peoples of northern Russia. The clash Due to the nature of the spiritual culture, of the monastic brotherhood with the peasant ideas about mental health and pathology among world in the development of the northern lands, the Pinega people had their own specifi c charac- forests, seas and rivers created a fertile ground for ter. Hiccups were seen in the light of demonol- a very standoffi sh "work-like" attitude towards ogy as an "abnormal norm," i.e., a state in which Orthodoxy among the peasants the seizure provided contact with the patient's that contributed to the preservation and exis- spirit. In this context the disease, the seizures, tence in the Russian north, not only of Orthodox played an important social role. It is important heresies (primarily various denominations of the to note that with shyova, as was the case with Old Believers), but also the more ancient pre- menerik, or Arctic hysteria, emiryachene, or pi- Christian beliefs of a demonological character. blokto, and with shamanic illness, people would Moreover, infl uenced by contact with populations approach the "demons," which were sitting in- possessing magical and animistic conceptions, a side the patients, treating them as oracles, asking kind of "renaissance" of hysterodemony and de- about the future, asking for help in fi nding lost monology occurred in ethnographic border areas. or stolen items etc. [31] One example of which we may call the phenom- For a better understanding of the nature of hys- enon of hiccups in the Russian population of Pin- terodemonic diseases, it is important to pay atten- ega and the Mezen basin. In addition to hiccups, HISTORY OF MEDICINE 2014, №1

in Pinega territory other forms of disease-causing vailed among the indigenous population and were syngignoscism developed, for example kila hexes. a factor in chronic mental trauma. The work of Kilareferred to boils appearing on the face of the Associate Professor V. V. Medvedeva in creating a aff ected person as a result of magic, hexes, com- team to eliminate this outbreak was the beginning ing from wizards or chaka. of our long-term studies on induced neuropsychi- The development of diff erent techniques of atric disorders with symptoms of "hiccups" in Pin- suggestion and ways of infl uencing the human ega area in the Arkhangelsk region [35]. psyche among the Russian population of Pinega, Over nine years (1970-1979) 146 neurosis pa- perhaps, to some extent, explains the phenom- tients were studied with symptoms of "hiccups." enon of St. John of Kronstadt, a native of the The main segment of the patients were examined village of Sura, who demonstrated the high effi - in their ordinary domestic setting and in their ciency of the Christian (Orthodox) approach in work setting. Some of the patients underwent out- confronting collective psychosis obsessions. Sura patient and in-patient examination and treatment was one of the largest centers of hysterodemonic in the city of Arkhangelsk (in the Arkhangelsk diseases in the north of Russia. According to the Regional Clinical Psychiatric Hospital № 1. Kat- villagers, in John's father's family there had been amnev) from fi ve to nine years. several generations of witches. In addition to clinical and psychopathologi- Not by chance, the last major collective psy- cal research methods, experimental psychologi- chosis bout of hiccups was in 1970, precisely in cal, EEG, and laboratory (biochemical) methods the village of Sura and aff ected almost the entire were employed; patients were also subjected to a indigenous female population. thorough therapeutic, neurological examination In Arkhangelsk, the regional party committee and consultation with other specialists. The lead- was sent a letter by local residents, in which it was ing etiopathogenetical peculiarities of neuropsy- asked to deal with and take action concerning per- chiatric disorders with symptoms of hiccups are sons "placing hiccups." On the instructions of pub- shown in Table 1. lic health administrators, a psychiatrist, neurologist All examined patients were women, the ma- and lecturer from the Knowledge Society fl ew to jority (34.2 percent) were middle aged (40-49 Sura. Staff at children's centers, schools, hospitals, years). In the case of 73.7 percent of the patients, shops, and other establishments were involved in their relatives suff ered from various forms of hic- dealing with the epidemic. It was discovered that the cups. There were whole families whose members outbreak of the hiccups epidemic arose after several suff ered "hiccups" on our records. Family histo- patients during attacks uttered the names of women ries of other mental and nervous diseases were not who allegedly had "placed the hiccups." Local resi- identifi ed. dents used various repressive actions against these Primary education was held by 74 percent of the people: one of them was strangled, stabbed with an patients, 19.1 percent were illiterate. Experimental- awl, her house was set on fi re and she was forced psychological methods revealed a low intellectual to leave her home and relocate. Court actions were level, poorly developed abstract thinking, limited taken. For centuries in this area there had existed interests and needs in 97.9 percent of patients. All the idea that "hiccups speak" on behalf of a "hex subjects and their parents – natives Pinega district placer" and only the blood of a "chaka" (a person of the Arkhangelsk region – lived all their lives in capable of "placing the hiccups") could save them one place, having not traveled anywhere. In pre- from the disease. The suff erers demanded public morbid state, the majority of patients were domi- confessions and that their disease be removed, and nated by hysterical and asthenic traits. when there demands were "refused," they dealt with The professions of the patients were associated them at their own discretion. with extensive contacts of children and adults. There Such archaic ideas about the nature of the dis- was constant contact between suff erers of "hiccups" ease, in particular the possibility of it being placed and other "hiccups" patients, providing for the fre- upon someone, were long standing and fi rmly pre- quent possibility to see attacks of "hiccups." P. I. Sidorov, V.V. Medvedeva, A.N. Davydov

Table 1. Etiopathogenetic peculiarities induced by neuropsychiatric disorders with symptoms of hiccups

Biogenesis Psychogenesis Sociogenesis Animogenesis

• The frequency of closely- • Low intellectual level • Onset coincided with • Limited interests and related marriages with • Hysterical and asthenic the social stress disor- needs the accumulation of so- traits in the premorbid state der • Troubled morale cli- matic and mental pathol- • Familial forms of alcohol- • Defective upbringing mate in the family ogy ism and alcoholic husbands • Low level of education • The prevalence of alco- • Family history of nervous • Early exposure to sick chil- (74 percent possess hol associated practices and mental disorders (74 dren, frequency of observa- primary level, 19 per- • Early formation of al- percent of relatives have tion of attacks of "hiccups" cent are illiterate) cohol environment suff ered hiccups) • Perception of "hiccups" as a • Sensory deprivation • Low level of culture • Onset coincided with defensive strategy of avoid- • Permanent (lifelong) • Ambivalence and un- altered reactivity dur- ance residency in one place formed spiritual and ing abortion, childbirth, • Low levels of resistance to • Authoritarian parent- moral sphere pregnancy, menopause stress ing style in the family • The prevalence of syn- • The frequency of somatic • Internalized personal con- • Social-class homoge- cretism and pagan be- diseases and endocrine fl ict neity liefs disorders (menstrual dis- • Neurotic personality devel- • Rudimentary socio- • The prevalence of su- orders, decreased libido) opment economic and political perstitious ideas about • Treatment resistance, a • Pathological personality life hexes and "placement high risk of recurrence development • Low professional level of hiccups"

Most of the patients had a history of, or were Table 2. Common clinical signs of "hiccups" currently suff ering from, chronic somatic diseas- Clinical signs es, endocrine disorders in the form of menstrual disorders and decreased libido. All patients were The attack is provoked by excitement and strong emo- found to have autonomic disorders in the pre- tions, unpleasant smells and sounds, unsatisfi ed de- onset period, becoming worse during an attack. sires and problems Somatoform autonomic dysfunction samples The attack begins with an aura: weakness, numbness, showed a distortion of autonomic refl exes. discomfort, yawning, watery eyes, increased heart The onset of the disease in 84.9 percent of rate and breathing, chills, fever, tremors patients was associated with a specifi c external Hyperkinesis (ticks) of a respiratory phonational type – factor, in 54.7 percent of cases the cause of the voiced and verbal, obsessive and violent disease was indicated as trauma (death of loved ones, family troubles, quarrels and accusations Duration of the seizure – from several minutes to of the "placing" of hiccups). With 30.2 percent of several days cases the onset coincided with giving birth, abor- Upon completion of the attack – weakness and weari- tion, pregnancy or the beginning of menopause. ness, anxiety and depression Only in 16.1 percent of cases did the disease begin Patients' conviction that the hiccups are a material that for no apparent reason. Three forms of the disease enters the body through the ears, eyes, nose, skin were identifi ed. The name chosen for the diff erent forms were basically taken from the terminology Forms of hiccups: roaring (63 percent), mute (25 per- cent), talking (12 percent) that was currently used among the local popu- lation: "nemochishcha" or mute, "revushchaya" or roaring, and "govoryashchaya" or talking hic- Attacks can be triggered by anxiety, negative cups. Each form has its own characteristic clinical and positive emotions, unfulfi lled desire, strong features, but at the same time all the forms have odors, sounds, presence of strangers or the pres- some common characteristics (Table. 2). ence of seizures in any person present. Some pa- HISTORY OF MEDICINE 2014, №1

tients have a certain kind of aversion or attach- the throat, then it clamps down so that it is diffi - ment (whim) to certain types of foods or smells. cult to breathe, or if it moves to the hand and foot This applies to the memories, associations con- it is visible as if a mouse was twitching. They say nected with these objects or situations. Thus, in that it's nerves, but I do not believe it." Patients patients in whom attacks of hiccups arose in con- attribute their specifi c whim, painful sensations in nection with a drinking husband (psychotrau- the body and so on, to the infl uence of hiccups. matic situation) attacks can be caused by seeing a According to them, hiccups can be obtained by drunk person or the smell of wine. Other patients' direct contact with "hiccupers," or through some hiccups were caused by the smell of tobacco or kind objects or animals. In other words, patients gasoline. One patient said: "It [the hiccups] is have explanatory, interpretive, archaic ideas of modest, gentle, as it was placed inside me in girl- possession, acquisition, witchcraft and "hexes" at hood. It loves warm wine, it doesn't want to catch a superstitious level. cold; I fi nd drinking warm wine most disgusting, Among our observations, the more common but I am afraid to disobey – immediately an at- form of hiccups (63.7 percent) was the "roaring" tack begins." Another patient told of how she had form followed by the "mute" form (24.7 percent) three hiccups: "One of them does not like oil, the and the "talking" form (11.6 percent). All of these second – sugar, and the third loves alcohol. I am forms can be considered as a single fl ow of stages completely exhausted, I don't know how to please of the same disease, as it is often started with a them." "mute" form, subsequently replaced by the "roar- In all patients, the attack begins with precur- ing" and then the "talking" hiccups. sors (aura): weakness, discomfort in diff erent parts The mute form of hiccups is characterized by of the body, numbness, pins and needles, feeling the following symptoms. Patients, suddenly, after of a lump in the throat, esophagus, stomach, ir- some kind of psychogenic stimulus, and some- resistible yawning, tears, redness or paleness of times for no apparent reason, start to experience skin, rapid breathing and heart rate, palpitations, uncontrollable yawning, tears, redness or paleness chills, fever, rash, hand and eyelid tremors or high of skin, chills or fever, there is an increased pulse blood pressure. rate, increased heart rate, increased blood pres- In all patients, the primary radical attack of sure by 20-40 mm Hg, hyperhidrosis is observed hiccups is a kind of hyperkinesis (ticks) of a re- as well as tremor of the hands and eyelids. Patients spiratory or phonational type – voiced and verbal emit deep, sharp sounds, accompanied by a loud, (the actual hiccup). They are of an involuntary, hiccup ("the hiccup fyikaet, khlykchet"). This compulsive, obsessive-violent or violent nature. form of the disease is called "nemochishcha." The Patients cannot stop them arbitrarily. emotional state of patients during attacks varied The duration of the seizure is from several (irritability, maliciousness, restlessness, tearful- minutes to several days. At the end of an attack, ness, anxiety, depression or adynamic state). Pa- patients experience weakness, fatigue, muscle tients tend to strive be alone and there is a need relaxation, depressed mood, anxiety, and some- to lie down. During the attack the patient always times a sense of shame or embarrassment. remains conscious: patients are aware of their the Among the patients examined, especially environment and are self aware, answer questions among the older age group, there exists a cen- posed in the periods between the hiccups and turies-old perception (interpretation): hiccups continue to converse or work until an another at- consist of a material substance, it can enter the tack starts. Seizures often occur in public places, human body through the ears, eyes, nose or skin. but also in private, and patients cannot stop them In humans, it takes the form of fi laments, lumps, on their own. fl ies, cockroaches, worms or other living crea- The roaring form of the hiccups has the fol- tures. It is hosted in the body: "Where the hiccups lowing clinical manifestations. Often after some live, it beats like a heart, if it's in the spine, I can kind of unpleasant occurrence, and sometimes not bend. If it arrives with a spoon or rolls down for no reason, patients suddenly start to experi- P. I. Sidorov, V.V. Medvedeva, A.N. Davydov ence yawning, lacrimation, rapid breathing, red- on the others surrounding them or smash every- ness or paleness of bone covers, increased heart thing that falls within reach. During the attack, and pulse rate and increased blood pressure. The the patients do not respond to questions, their throat muscles and the diaphragm involuntarily consciousness changes, narrows, they remember contract, the patients' voice completely changes, the conversations of others, automatically per- they make howling sounds, which people refer form diff erent requests of the doctor, but this is in to as "barking like a dog, a bird singing, scream- spite of themselves (automatic obedience), they ing rooster," etc. All this is accompanied by may respond to the wishes or orders of strangers violent hiccuping, crying or laughing. During (fi ght, smash surrounding items, undress, walk attacks, patients complain of severe weakness, off somewhere else), of which they will regret stop work that has been started, and go to bed. after the bout. The presence of delusional and Other patients fi nd it physically easy to tolerate hallucinatory experiences has not been deter- these attacks and continue work or conversation. mined. The duration of attacks varies: from sev- Consciousness, as with the mute form, always eral minutes to several hours or rarely days with remains. During this time, as a rule, irritability, small interruptions. After the attack, for several depressed mood, unfounded melancholy or anx- days many patients continue to experience weak- iety arise. Patients strive to be alone, not to at- ness, fatigue, depressed mood, depression, and tract the attention of others. Some patients with anxiety. Many patients are afraid of their talk- characteristically emitted sounds declare that ing hiccup attacks, because they understand that they have in their body a hiccup in the form of they pronounce the names of innocent people, a dog, a bird or a mouse and the attacks express friends or relatives, and the locals always start to their displeasure or pleasure. take revenge on these people and their family. The next clinical form of hiccups is the talk- This often leads to fi ghts, attempted murder and ing kind. As with other forms of hiccups, the at- legal trials. tack usually begins with unpleasant sensations in The mute form appears simpler, with more diff erent parts of the body, numbness, pins and elementary hysterical disorders. Roaring and needles, fever, feeling of a lump in the throat, talking forms are more complex, with a peculiar esophagus or stomach, tears and uncontrollable alteration of consciousness (narrowing of con- yawning. At the same time there are increased sciousness, a hypnoid state) with increasing path- heart rate and increased blood pressure. Strong ological obedience and suggestibility. drawn-out hiccups are accompanied by the The development and implementation of a shouting of single words or phrases, which are preventive and corrective and therapeutic reha- often inarticulate. Patients chant the names of bilitation program consisted of four blocks: medi- those people who, in their opinion, hexed them. cal, psychological/psychotherapeutic, social and During the attacks, they blurt out information spiritual/moral. that in a normal state they would have never have Psychological/psychotherapeutic unit. A series told anyone. Occasionally bouts of "talking" hic- of workshops for all physicians in the endemic area cups manifest themselves in the shouting of ob- in which they were introduced to etiopathogenesis scene words (coprolalia), echolalia or echoprax- and the clinical overview of the disease, and the ia. Other women suff ering from hiccups always particularities of conducting psychotherapy for gather around the patient and persistently repeat patients. Psychotherapy conducted individually a question over and over – asking the name of and collectively, in the latter case the sessions in- the woman who "placed" the hiccups. And the cluded patients with the same forms of the disease patients shout out names. If a name is said, the and gave them an opportunity to be grouped with surrounding people strongly insist that the pa- those whom they wished be with and who they tient deal with her. Patients can automatically trusted. The psychotherapy consisted of seven to submit and against their will instigate violence. nine sessions of 30 minutes each. Before the fi rst Automatically, "against their will," they pounce session the patients were told in simple terms the HISTORY OF MEDICINE 2014, №1

essence of the disease. Seriously ill patients went the morale climate in families with hereditary through a course of hypnotherapy. forms of hiccups, the correction and reconstruc- Rational psychotherapy was available to all tion of the moral character and position of pa- doctors working in the precinct and district hos- tients. pitals. Taking the form of a conversation, the rea- The implementation of a comprehensive pro- sons for the hiccups, their development and ways gram of care for patients provided for improve- to eliminate them were explained to the patient. ment and recovery in 82.2 percent of patients Psychotherapy was individually tailored to the pa- within fi ve years. There were no further outbreaks tient's personality characteristics, her relationship "hiccups" in the Pinega area. A young priest of the with the social environment and traumatic fac- Sura parish, a participant in the ninth St. John tors. Patients were helped to rationalize confl ict readings at the Northern State Medical Univer- situations, mediation was conducted and they sity (2013), had not come across the "obsession were taught constructive responses to stress and with hiccups," replacing the modality in the men- were rid of their fear of hiccups being "planting" tality of the population in the endemic area with upon them. Psychotherapy was the core of the vicarious and other electronic forms of depen- treatment and rehabilitation programs. dency, fi lling the psychological void. Medical unit included remediation on neuro- In conclusion, basic branches of research on psychiatric basis and treatment of psychosomat- mental ethnoecology and ethnomedicine and the ic diseases, the use of general health promoting European north of Russia can be defi ned as: methods and vitamin therapy. To remove the af- transcultural mental ethnoecology studying fective and autonomic disorders, tranquilizers, mental health and mental illnesses in connection nootropics, antidepressants and psychostimu- with socio-psychological and ethno-cultural fac- lants were used. Neuroleptics were used only for tors. The literature describes the clinical picture the relief of big attacks of the hiccups. Treatment of schizophrenia, neurosis, alcoholism among of patients with severe talking forms of hiccups ethnic minorities; began with hospitalization, and patients with cross-cultural mental ethnoecology studying mute and roaring forms were treated as outpa- comparable aspects of mental health and mental tients. Supportive therapy using psychopharma- disorders in diff erent cultures. This publication cological agents was carried out over the course focuses on a set of induced neuropsychiatric dis- of a few months. orders among the Nenets, Komi and Russians, we Social unit care consisted of improving the have tried to show the productivity of integrated quality of life of the population of the endemic studies in ethnographic border areas; area, an increase in production effi ciency and the study of culturally connected endogenous work safety, social monitoring of risk factors and and psychogenic disorders, occurring within a par- correction of the social and economic develop- ticular ethnic group (shaman disease, Arctic hys- ment of the area, leisure-time activities and assis- teria, piblokto and others.); tance in solving social problems. "folk mental medicine" ("people's psychothera- Spiritual/moral block help consisted of cor- py, psychiatry and relaxation") as a section of nar- recting of the moral and psychological climate rative ethnography and history of medicine; in the endemic area, the early detection and ethnonarcology studying traditional drugs of prevention of mobbing degradation of ethics diff erent nations, the recipes for their prepara- and dehumanization of relations, prevention of tion and use patterns in diff erent rituals and cus- demoralization syndromes and destructive pro- toms (ethnoecology mental and ethnomedicine fessionalization of society, training in the ethics section), for example, the use of of red fl y agaric of business communication and providing con- tincture by shamans; structive spiritual and moral guidance against interdisciplinary research synergies within the superstition, conducting educational and aware- mental ethnoecology and ethnomedicine frame- ness programs among youth, the correction of work, requiring joint eff orts of psychiatrists and P. I. Sidorov, V.V. Medvedeva, A.N. Davydov therapists, narcologists and psychologists, soci- cal-psychological aspects of the spiritual culture ologists, and historians, ethnographers and phi- of ethnic people and the world of art, psychology, lologists; international relations, and so on. culture's mental ecology – the study of the so- The division of these areas is conditional, it cial role of individual forms of mental illnesses only helps to outline the subject of mental eth- in traditional culture, religious rites, magic, sha- noecology research and map out new horizons manism and the occult, establishing forms of in- in traditional ethnography and innovative mental terrelationship of biomedical, ethno-social, ethi- medicine.

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About authors Sidorov P.I. – Academician RAMS, director of the Institute of Mental Medicine Northern Scientifi c Center North- West Branch RAMS (Arkhangelsk) Medvedeva V.V. – Doctoral Candidate in Medicine, Docent of the Department of Psychiatry Davydov А.N. – Doctoral Candidate in History, Head of the Department of the Ecology Culture

The name of the article for the quotation: History and Phenomenology of Hysterodemonic Renaissance: Istoriâ mediciny 2014. N 1. P. 169–185.