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Institutional Approaches to the Rehabilitation of Survivors of Sex Trafficking in India and Nepal

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Institutional Approaches to the Rehabilitation of Survivors of Sex Trafficking in India and Nepal University of Denver Digital Commons @ DU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Graduate Studies 6-1-2010 Rescued, Rehabilitated, Returned: Institutional Approaches to the Rehabilitation of Survivors of Sex Trafficking in India and Nepal Robynne A. Locke University of Denver Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd Part of the Social and Cultural Anthropology Commons Recommended Citation Locke, Robynne A., "Rescued, Rehabilitated, Returned: Institutional Approaches to the Rehabilitation of Survivors of Sex Trafficking in India and Nepal" (2010). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 378. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/378 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Studies at Digital Commons @ DU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ DU. For more information, please contact [email protected],[email protected]. RESCUED, REHABILITATED, RETURNED: INSTITUTIONAL APPROACHES TO THE REHABILITATION OF SURVIVORS OF SEX TRAFFICKING IN INDIA AND NEPAL __________ A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of Social Sciences University of Denver __________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts __________ by Robynne A. Locke June 2010 Advisor: Richard Clemmer-Smith, Phd ©Copyright by Robynne A. Locke 2010 All Rights Reserved Author: Robynne A. Locke Title: Institutional Approaches to the Rehabilitation of Survivors of Trafficking in India and Nepal Advisor: Richard Clemmer-Smith Degree Date: June 2010 Abstract Despite participating in rehabilitation programs, many survivors of sex trafficking in India and Nepal are re-trafficked, ‘voluntarily’ re-enter the sex industry, or become traffickers or brothel managers themselves. This thesis discusses the challenges of institutional rehabilitation from a critical theory perspective. Drawing from three months of participant observation, interviews, and focus groups with rehabilitation professionals, this thesis will show that there has been a recent, positive shift in the discourse of survivor rehabilitation at the institutional level. However, a focus on individual rather than holistic change, the structure of the rehabilitation process, and a lack of assessment tools has made these theoretical changes difficult to implement, resulting in a gap between “rehabilitation in theory” and “rehabilitation in practice” and the persistence of the status quo. ii Acknowledgements First, I want to thank all the organizations included in this research for their participation, encouragement, hospitality, and most importantly, for all of the important work they do for survivors of trafficking. Specifically, I would like to thank Anwesha Sen, Ruchi Thapa, Daniel Robbins, and Cliff, Nicole, and Jailyn Lubitz, whose friendship, guidance, and support was so valuable to me throughout my research in India and Nepal. Second, I would like to thank the people of my hometown, Seabrook, NH, who came together to raise over $2000 for survivors of trafficking during my time in the field, and my editor, Shir Haberman of the Hampton Union, who made it all happen. Thanks also to Seabrook Schools for your fundraising efforts, and John Anthony Simmons of WSCA 106.1 FM for allowing me to use your show to spread awareness of this issue. Third, I must thank the people who first introduced me to the wider world and also inspired me to commit myself to making positive change whenever and however I can: Robert Fleming, Adrie Kusserow, Robert Lair, and all of the Saint Michael’s College community; you continue to inspire me, and I hope I have made you proud. Fourth, I must thank the Anthropology Department at the University of Denver for providing me with this incredible opportunity. Specifically, I would want to thank my advisor, Richard Clemmer-Smith, who took time out of his much deserved sabbatical to support me throughout every step of my research, and Tracy Ehlers, for always finding the time to support me, and push me, when I needed it. Also, I would like to thank the Human Trafficking Clinic at the Korbel School of International Studies for its dedication iii to ending modern slavery in all its forms. Thank you for your endless commitment to this cause. Most importantly, I would like to thank my family and Andrew, who go into crisis every time I leave the country but still support me anyway. I can never express my gratitude for all you have given me and all the sacrifices you have made so that I could pursue this dream. Thank you for your constant support, encouragement, and faith in my decisions. Finally, this thesis is dedicated to the people of Kolkata: Asha, Mona, Farita, Sarah, Masum, Michael, and Mohammad: I will never be able to give back what you have given me, but I will never give up trying. iv Table of Contents Preface ................................................................................................................................ 1 Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................. 3 Statement of the Problem........................................................................................ 3 Not Another Gita Story: The Context and Value of this Study................. 4 Thesis Overview ..................................................................................................... 6 Chapter Two: Research Design and Theoretical Framework............................................. 8 Research Design ..................................................................................................... 8 Site Selection .............................................................................................. 8 Methodology............................................................................................. 11 Methods .................................................................................................... 12 Theoretical Framework......................................................................................... 19 The Political Economy of Sex Trafficking and the Feminism of Survival..................................................................................................... 19 Docile Bodies: The Survivor and the Institution ...................................... 39 Chapter Three: Literature Review .................................................................................... 44 A Situational Analysis of Nepal to India Trafficking........................................... 44 The Source ................................................................................................ 44 Procurement: Eight Case Studies............................................................. 52 Destination................................................................................................ 61 Pilgrims, Sailors, and Babus: Historical and Contemporary Observations of Kolkata’s Red Light Areas ............................................. 65 Rescue, Rehabilitation, Return ................................................................. 77 Chapter Four: Findings and Analysis ............................................................................... 84 Rehabilitation: In Theory and in Practice ............................................................. 84 Gita Revisited ......................................................................................... 107 Chapter Five: Problems and Recommendations............................................................. 112 Focus on the Individual: Local Socio-Cultural Contexts........................ 112 Structure: Donor Dependency ................................................................ 120 Lack of Assessment and Measurement................................................... 127 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 128 References Cited ............................................................................................................. 132 Appendix A: Glossary .................................................................................................... 137 Appendix B: Informed Consent Form ............................................................................ 139 Appendix C: Parent/Guardian Assent Form ................................................................... 140 Appendix D: Verbal Consent Script ............................................................................... 142 v Appendix E: Interview Questions................................................................................... 143 vi Figures Figure 1: Sex Trafficking: Size and Growth Rate, 2006-2007 (Kara 2009: 18) Figure 2: Sex Trafficking: Slave Trading Revenues and Profits, 2007 (Kara 2009: 20) Figure 3: Regional Trafficking Roles and Economic and Gender Status Means, Listed in Order of Mean Regional Human Development Rank (Farr 2005: 149). Figure 4: Exploitation Value of a Sex Slave, Brothels (2006 U.S. Dollars) (Kara 2009: 224) Figure 5: Demand Curve for Sex Acts: Kamathipura Brothel (Kara 2009: 36) Figure 6: Red light Areas in Kolkata (Sinha and Dasgupta 2009: 19) vii PREFACE The Bird Cage For all Nepali girls sold into prostitution. Whosoever sneaks out of the smoky hut long before the light has broken to wash her face in the brook, declining her mother’s offer of chai in favor of braiding and rebraiding her hair hard as a fossil against her skull, tight enough for the journey to Kathmandu,
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