Fire today ManagementVolume 73 • No. 2 • 2013
FFuelsuels MManageMentanageMent
United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Fire Management Today is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department.
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Tom Vilsack, Secretary Melissa Frey U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager
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Tom Harbour, Director Fire and Aviation Management
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December 2013
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Fire Management Today 2 Fire Management today Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013
On the Cover: Contents Anchor Point: Good Ideas Matter ...... 4 Tom Harbour
Quantifying the Potential Impacts of Fuel Treatments on Wildfire Suppression Costs ...... 5 Matthew P. Thompson, Nicole M. Vaillant, Jessica R. Haas, Krista M.Gebert, and Keith D. Stockmann
Modeled Forest Inventory Data Suggest Climate Benefits From Fuels Management ...... 11 Jeremy S. Fried, Theresa B. Jain, and Jonathan Sandquist
Job Corp crewmembers Aaron Fire Season 2012: The Impact of Fuel Treatments on Wildfire Slack and Paul Almona putting in handline on the 1,625-acre Outcomes ...... 15 Chestnut Ridge prescribed burn on Frankie Romero and James Menakis the Greenbrier Ranger District of the Monongahela National Forest during the spring of 2009. A Towering FEPP Program Success: Trailer Truck Provides Fire Photo by Peter Fischer Training Academy Environment for Northern Minnesota’s Cloquet Area Fire District ...... 25 Kevin Schroeder
Training Future Fire Managers: Innovative Partnership Expands Job Corps Impact ...... 27 Michaela Hall The USDA Forest Service’s Fire and Aviation Management Staff has adopted a logo reflecting three central principles of wildland Proposed Process for Analyzing Courses for Conversion From fire management: Instructor-Led to Online or Blended Learning ...... 29 • Innovation: We will respect and value thinking minds, voices, and thoughts of Mark L. Cantrell those that challenge the status quo while focusing on the greater good. • Execution: We will do what we say we will do. Achieving program objectives, improving diversity, and accomplishing short Features targets are essential to our credibility. • Discipline: What we do, we will do well. Success Stories Wanted ...... 14 Fiscal, managerial, and operational discipline are at the core of our ability to Contributors Wanted ...... 24 fulfill our mission. Guidelines for Contributors ...... 35
Firefighter and public safety is our first priority.
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 3 Anchor by Tom Harbour Director, Fire and Aviation Management Point Forest Service good Ideas Matter
any good ideas have been defined, refined, and imple If we fail to share our ideas with others, we stand Mmented over more than a to lose an opportunity to make a difference—to century of wildland fire manage ment. Ideas such as the advent solve some of those issues identified in the QFR of the Pulaski, the fire shelter, and the cohesive strategy. personal protective equipment, national training standards, and the implementation of interagency Another good idea was revealed As American Humorist Arnold H. coordination are just a few that when interagency coordination and Glasow noted, “Success isn’t a come immediately to mind. collaboration reached unprecedent result of spontaneous combustion. ed levels through the three phases You must set yourself on fire.” The first Quadrennial Fire and of the National Cohesive Wildland What did he mean? Maybe, that Fuels Review (QFR) in 2004 and Fire Management Strategy. The ideas matter; without those who the subsequent QFR in 2009 rep process that started as an effort dared to share ideas in the past, we resent another beneficial idea: a to develop a cohesive strategy to would be nowhere today. strategic assessment process to address the wildland fire problems evaluate current mission strategies across America has encouraged If we fail to share our ideas with and capabilities against best esti and fostered a greater level of col others, we stand to lose an opportu mates of the future environment laboration across landscapes to nity to make a difference—to solve for fire management. A QFR cre address the three major factors of some of those issues identified in ates an integrated strategic vision the strategy—restore and maintain the QFR and the cohesive strategy. document for fire management resilient landscapes, create fire- So, I would challenge you: what are and provides a solid foundation for adapted communities, and respond the good ideas of the future? With policy discussion within the five to wildfire. We have always worked changing demographics, increas Federal natural resource manage in tandem with our partners when ing impacts on the wildland-urban ment agencies (Forest Service, a wildfire happens, but the cohesive interface, declining health of our Bureau of Land Management, strategy has encouraged us to look forests and rangelands, and the National Park Service, Bureau of across landscapes and jurisdictions subsequent increasing severity of Indian Affairs, and U.S. Fish and to work together not only when the wildfires, we need your help. You Wildlife Service)—and more impor fire bell rings but also to prepare are our experts in the field. tantly, among the Federal agencies for and learn to live with fire as a and their State, local, tribal, and natural occurrence. Are we there Considering those three major other partners. It sets the stage for yet? No, but we have made great factors of the cohesive strategy, I a “strategic conversation” within strides. would ask that you be part of the the wildland fire community about solution and share your ideas with the future direction and changes in your supervisor—share them with wildland fire management. me. Together, we can do more!
Fire Management Today 4 QuantIFyIng the PotentIal IMPaCts oF Fuel treatMents on WIldFIre suPPressIon Costs Matthew P. Thompson, Nicole M .Vaillant, Jessica R. Haas, Krista M. Gebert, and Keith D. Stockmann
and post-fire analyses suggest that This article is a condensed and slightly edited version of a previously fuel treatments can significantly published article appearing in the Journal of Forestry (Thompson et affect fire spread and final fire size al. 2013). Readers wishing for more detail on study motivation, rel (Cochrane et al. 2012, Collins et evant literature, data sources, modeling methods, and the full presen al. 2011, Hudak et al. 2011, Ager tation of results are encouraged to refer to the article in its entirety, et al. 2010, Finney 2007). Lastly, which is available from the author or through the journal. fuel treatments can also lead to reductions in final fire size by pro viding opportunities for enhanced Introduction pression costs. Our approach pairs suppression (Hudak et al. 2011, wildfire simulation outputs with a Syphard et al. 2011, Graham et al. odeling the impacts and regression cost model and quanti 2009, Moghaddas and Craggs 2007). effects of hazardous fuel fies the influence of fuel treatments reduction treatments is a M on distributions of wildfire sizes pressing issue within the wild Methods and suppression costs. Estimates fire management community. of suppression cost reductions can Framework Prospective evaluation of fuel treat ultimately be compared to treat The evaluation of potential cost ments allows for comparison of ment costs within a cost-benefit impacts involves first modeling alternative treatment strategies in framework. how treatments will impact fire terms of socioeconomic and ecolog behavior, and, in turn, model ical impacts and facilitates analysis Motivation for this study stems ing how altered fire behavior may of tradeoffs across land manage from four important sources. First, impact suppression costs. Figure 1 ment objectives (Stockmann et al. escalating Forest Service wildfire provides a conceptual framework 2010). While much attention has management costs have resulted detailing how the biophysical and been focused on assessing how fuel and may continue to result in socioeconomic context, treatment treatments affect expected loss to reduced budgets and potentially objectives, and treatment impacts highly valued resources and assets disruptive within-season borrowing relate to our modeling approach. (e.g., Ager et al. 2007), some have to nonfire programs, challenging The likelihood, extent, and inten also suggested benefits from fuel the ability of the agency to meet sity of fire, along with the density treatments in terms of avoided sup societal needs and maintain for and spatial pattern of values-at-risk, pression costs (Snider et al. 2006). est health (Thompson et al. 2013). jointly influence treatment strate In this paper, we demonstrate a Second, suppression costs are gies and design objectives (Calkin methodology for estimating poten known to be positively and highly et al. 2011). In some contexts, this tial reductions in wildfire sup- correlated with fire sizes and area may entail creating areas of low fire burned (Liang et al. 2008, Calkin et intensity and hazard, and fire sizes Matthew P. Thompson is a research forester al. 2005). Third, modeling efforts might actually increase as part of with the Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Missoula, MT. Nicole M. Vaillant is a fire ecologist with the Pacific Northwest Research Station, Prineville, OR. Estimates of suppression cost reductions can Jessica R. Haas is a data services specialist with the Rocky Mountain Research Station, ultimately be compared to treatment costs within Missoula, MT. Krista M. Gebert and Keith D. Stockmann are economists with the a cost-benefit framework. Northern Region, Missoula, MT.
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 5 therefore, treatment impacts. Fire Fire frequency, Density and spatial Context size potential is jointly driven by extent, and severity pattern of values the spatial continuity of fuels and temporal opportunities for spread. To compare simulation results Treatment Create areas of low Disrupt fire spread Facilitate containment with and without fuel treatments, objectives fire hazard we set up FSim runs to use identi cal ignition locations and weather conditions for both scenarios. Thus, Changes in burn Changes in intensity Impacts probability, fire size, and weather conditions are controlled and severity annual area burned for, and changes to modeled final fire size are attributed to, treat ment effects (although there is 1. Wildfire simulation outputs 1. Wildfire simulation outputs quantify expected changes to some stochasticity introduced via quantify expected changes to fire intensity Possible fire sizes spotting). Differences in estimated
Modeling 2. Expert judgment and suppression costs (a function of Approach 2. Cost regression outputs scenario analysis explore quantify expected changes in changed fire sizes) reflect expected range of potential cost suppression costs impacts suppression cost differences due to treatment.
Figure 1.—Conceptual framework for evaluating potential cost impacts of fuel The basic steps of the overall analy treatments (our approach is highlighted in gray). sis procedure are outlined below. Data needs include an up-to-date restoring historical fire regimes. In on fire size as a primary variable map of landscape fuels, spatially other contexts, treatment strategies affecting suppression cost estimates delineated fuel treatments, and pro are oriented more towards resource (figure 1). The foundation of our jected fuel conditions after treat protection and the inhibition of fire approach is the coupling of two ment. growth across the landscape. peer-reviewed models used by the Forest Service and other Federal 1. Obtain or create up-to-date fuels Multiple mechanisms exist by land management agencies: (1) data to represent existing condi which fuel treatments could affect FSim (Finney et al. 2011), a spatial tions. suppression costs. Reduced inten ly explicit large fire (defined at 300 2. Obtain historical fire occurrence sity will in many contexts lead acres or more) occurrence, spread, data and identify appropri to reductions in burn severity and containment model and (2) ate RAWS (Remote Automated (Wimberly et al. 2009, Martinson a large-fire cost model (Gebert et Weather Station) for fire weath and Omi 2008), enabling oppor al. 2007). The use of a fire growth er data. tunities for resource benefit and simulation model approach allows 3. Design and spatially lay out pro moderated suppression responses. us to directly model disruptions in spective fuel treatments. These changes in wildfire manage fire spread and subsequent impacts 4. Modify existing conditions fuels ment could in turn lead to sup to fire size. In our approach, there data to reflect fuel treatments. pression cost reductions. However, fore, all else being equal, treat 5. Generate FSim wildfire simula Gebert and Black (2012) recently ments resulting in reduced fire tion model outputs with and found that less aggressive protec spread will tend to decrease fire without fuel treatments. tion strategies may ultimately lead size, in turn reducing fire cost. 6. Aggregate and feed variables to costs on par with or higher than output from FSim into the more aggressive strategies, owing Fuel Treatment Cost Impact regression cost model to esti to longer durations and increased Modeling mate the expected suppression acreages burned. Simulating the occurrence and cost for each simulated fire.
growth of wildfires across the cur 7. Compare expected suppression Another mechanism is to change rent and hypothetically treated costs with and without fuel fire size distributions, which, to landscapes enables evaluation treatments, across fires, and reiterate, are a major determinant of changes in fire behavior and, across simulated fire seasons. of suppression costs. Here we focus
Fire Management Today 6 Case Study: Deschutes Landscape Restoration Program acres of which are National Forest Collaborative Forest and was selected as a pilot study System land), in west-central for modeling the impacts of fuel Oregon. Also identified in figure 2 Project treatments on expected suppres are the boundaries of seven areas The Deschutes Skyline Project, sion costs. Figure 2 provides a map organized for purposes of National commonly referred to as the of the analysis landscape (516,962 Environmental Policy Act analyses, Deschutes Collaborative Forest acres), as well as the DCFP proj as well as the locations of all ongo Project (DCFP), was one of the first ect area, most of which is located ing or proposed fuel treatments 10 projects approved and funded within the Deschutes National within the DCFP. under the Collaborative Forest Forest (145,000 acres total, 112,000 Deschutes National Forest staff pro vided data on vegetation and fuel layers reflecting existing conditions (EC), as well as treatment polygons and post-treatment (PT) fuel condi tions. In total, 66,808 acres (about 46 percent of the DCFP landscape) are projected to receive treatment during the planning period from 2010 to 2019. For modeling pur poses, we used a single landscape to reflect the entire suite of fuel treat ments. That is, the post-treatment modeling results represent the cumulative effect of all treatments upon completion of implementa tion. We set up FSim to simulate fire occurrence and growth for a total of 10,000 simulated fire sea sons and included a buffer around the study area of width ranging from 2 to 3 miles to account for off- site ignitions that could burn into the study area. To generate weather files for FSim, we used the Colgate RAWS with data from 1990 to 2010 and fire history information for all fires on the Deschutes National Forest over the same period.
Because of the large spatial extent of the treatments and the combina tion of mechanical treatments with surface and activity fuel treatment, we hypothesized that reductions in fire sizes and expected suppres sion costs would occur within the study area. We further hypothesized that treatment effects would be more prominent for those ignitions Figure 2.—Map of Deschutes Collaborative Forest Project (Collaborative Forest occurring closer to treated areas. Landscape Restoration Program) study area, with project areas and treatment units Therefore, we present modeling highlighted.
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 7 Table 1—Percentage reductions to fire size, cost per acre, and cost per fire resulting from treatment, across all large fires igniting within three overlapping landscape areas of increasing size (within treated areas, within a 2-mile buffer of treated areas, and across the entire study area).1
Treated areas 2-mile buffer Entire study area percent change Size Mean 17.08 11.30 4.68 Median 22.24 14.97 5.55 Min 0.66 0.66 0.74 25th percentile 12.12 5.97 2.78 75th percentile 23.13 13.20 7.06 Max 12.84 3.78 0.58 Cost per acre Mean -2.24 -0.60 0.53 Median 0.26 0.28 1.00 Min -6.73 -0.43 -0.17 25th percentile -0.30 1.40 1.22 75th percentile -3.18 -1.04 0.35 Max -1.74 0.00 0.00 Cost per fire Mean 15.86 10.78 6.71 Median 17.58 10.63 5.21 Min -0.48 0.25 -0.78 25th percentile 18.60 11.30 5.05 75th percentile 20.57 12.91 7.04 Max 5.64 1.06 2.72
1Treatment effects dampen as the area increases, owing to the increasing proportion of fires that do not interact with treatments. results for fires that ignited within although off-site effects are discern Deschutes data, where smaller fires three overlapping analysis areas ible. Within treated areas, the mean tend to cost more per acre. Overall of increasing size (within treated and median fire sizes decrease by per-fire costs decrease, however, areas, within a 2-mile buffer of 17.08 percent and 22.24 percent, because the effects of the reduc treated areas, and across the entire respectively. Within the 2-mile tions in fire sizes overwhelm the study area). buffer, mean and median fire sizes effects of increases in per-acre decrease by 11.30 percent and 14.97 costs. Reductions in cost per fire Results percent, respectively. Treatment also lessen as the analysis area Fuel Treatment Effects on effects dampen as the analysis area increases and are generally compa Burn Probability, Fire Size, increases because of the increas rable in magnitude to reductions and Suppression Cost ing proportion of fires that do not in fire size. Within treated areas, interact with treatments. the mean and median fire costs Table 1 presents summary statistics decrease by 15.86 percent and 17.58 regarding percentage reductions in Table 1 also indicates increasing percent, respectively, and within fire size, cost per acre, and cost per cost per acre with decreasing fire the 2-mile buffer mean and median fire resulting from treatment. With size, consistent with both the cost fire sizes decrease by 10.78 percent respect to size, reductions are most regression model and historical and 10.63 percent, respectively. prominent within treated areas,
Fire Management Today 8 Table 2.—Mean annual area burned and suppression costs across all 10,000 simulated fire seasons, across fires igniting within three overlapping landscape areas of increasing size (within treated areas, within a 2-mile buffer of treated areas, and across the entire study area).
Treated areas 2-mile buffer Entire study area EC PT Reduction EC PT Reduction EC PT Reduction Area burned 1,315 ac 838 ac 36.25% 2,494 ac 1,911 ac 23.37% 5,398 ac 4,799 ac 11.08% Suppression $1,610,806 $1,042,147 35.30% $2,848,653 $2,195,551 22.93% $5,093,335 $4,432,626 12.97% cost EC = Existing conditions. PT = Post-treatment landscapes.
Annual Area Burned and area burned and suppression costs largely driven by projected changes Annual Suppression Costs drop by 36.25 percent and 35.30 in fire behavior fuel models. Future percent, respectively, after treat applications should focus on care Beyond per-fire results, it is impor ment. ful model calibration and valida tant to aggregate individual simu tion (Scott et al. 2012, Stratton lated fire results into unique fire 2009), in particular the accuracy seasons on an annualized basis. Discussion and of projected fuel conditions before This approach captures both those Concluding Remarks and after fuel treatments. Fourth, fire seasons in which no large fires Our analysis demonstrates that the only certain way to reduce sup occur and those fire seasons in planned fuel treatments within pression expenditures is to make which multiple large fires occur. the DCFP study area are likely to a decision to spend less money, Across the entire study area there reduce the number of large fires, and strong sociopolitical pressures were approximately 160 fewer large fire sizes, and large-fire suppression or other factors may encourage fires after treatment, which reflects costs. In a broader sense, our analy aggressive suppression indepen the effect of fuel treatments on sis demonstrates a possible method dent of potential changes to fire limiting the growth of ignitions for estimating the impacts of fuel behavior from fuels treatments. to below the 300-acre “large fire” treatments on financial risk. The Fifth, at present, the modeling threshold. tools and approaches defined here technique addresses cost impacts could inform treatment design and only from changes to final fire size, Table 2 presents results for annual strategy development across land not fire intensity. Modeling the cost area burned and annual sup management agencies interested in impacts of reduced fire intensity pression costs across all 10,000 better managing suppression costs. or severity may require alternative simulated seasons. The 25th, 50th fire modeling approaches or the (median), and 75th percentiles are There are caveats, assumptions, incorporation of local expertise and not presented as they are all equal and limitations to address regard professional judgment coupled with to zero—this is because the chance ing this work, and therefore, results scenario analysis. of experiencing a large wildfire in of this demonstration should be any given year is only about 35 per viewed through a critical lens. In summary, we believe we have cent (for the entire study area)—so First, nearly 50 percent of the identified a novel and unique there are many years in which no DCFP project area will receive methodology that should inform suppression costs are incurred treatment; impacts to fire sizes and fuel treatment design and imple (within the study area, not the costs may be dampened on land mentation, and that ultimately will entire Deschutes National Forest). scapes receiving less treatment. facilitate the reduction of wildfire The annual area burned and sup Second, results are dependent on management costs. Despite identi pression costs increase as the size the wildfire simulation and regres fied limitations, modeling results of the analysis area increases, sim sion cost models used, which come can provide useful information ply because more fires are included with errors and uncertainties, and about the relative magnitude in the sample. Percentage reduc which at present do not account and direction of change result tions, however, decrease because for the possibility of changed sup ing from strategic fuels manage a smaller fraction of fires interact pression strategies or tactics. Third, ment. Recommended applications with treatments. For fires igniting changes in wildfire outputs are include fuel treatment design within treated areas, mean annual
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 9 where impacting fire sizes and Gebert, K.M.; Black, A.E. 2012. Effect Scott, J.; Helmbrecht, D.; Thompson, suppression costs are explicit man of suppression strategies on Federal M.P.; Calkin, D.E.; Marcille, K. 2012. wildland fire expenditures. Journal of Probabilistic assessment of wildfire haz agement objectives, and analyses Forestry. 110(2): 65–73. ard and municipal watershed exposure. of projects moving forward under Natural Hazards. 64(1): 707–728. the Collaborative Forest Landscape Gebert, K.M.; Calkin, D.E.; Yoder, J. 2007. Estimating suppression expenditures for Snider, G.; Daugherty, P.J.; Wood, D. 2006. Restoration Program and the individual large wildland fires. Western The irrationality of continued fire sup National Cohesive Wildland Fire Journal of Applied Forestry. 22(3): pression: an avoided cost analysis of fire Strategy. 188–196. hazard reduction treatments versus no treatment. Journal of Forestry. 104(8): Graham, R.T.; Jain, T.B.; Loseke, M. 2009. 431–437. References Fuel treatments, fire suppression, and their interactions with wildfire and its Stockmann, K.D.; Hyde, K.D.; Jones, J.G.; Ager, A.A.; Finney, M.A.; Kerns, B.K.; effects: the Warm Lake experience dur Loeffler, D.R.; Silverstein, R.P. 2010. Maffei, H. 2007. Modeling wildfire risk to ing the Cascade Complex of wildfires Integrating fuel treatment into ecosys northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis in central Idaho, 2007. Gen. Tech. Rep. tem management: a proposed project caurina) habitat in central Oregon, USA. RMRS-GTR-229. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. planning process. International Journal Forest Ecology and Management. 246(1): Department of Agriculture, Forest of Wildland Fire. 19(6): 725–736. 45–56. Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 36 p. Stratton, R.D. 2009. Guidebook on Ager, A.A.; Vaillant, N.M.; Finney, M.A. LANDFIRE fuels data acquisition, cri 2010. A comparison of landscape fuel Hudak, Andrew T.; Rickert, Ian; Morgan, tique, modification, maintenance, and treatment strategies to mitigate wildland Penelope; Strand, Eva; Lewis, Sarah A.; model calibration. Gen. Tech. Rep. fire risk in the urban interface and pre Robichaud, Peter R.; Hoffman, Chad; RMRS-GTR-220. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. serve old forest structure. Forest Ecology Holden, Zachary A. 2011. Review of Department of Agriculture, Forest and Management. 259(8): 1556–1570. fuel treatment effectiveness in forests Service, Rocky Mountain Research and rangelands and a case study from Station. 54 p. Calkin, D.; Ager, A.A.; Thompson, M.P. the 2007 megafires in central Idaho, 2011. A comparative risk assessment USA. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-252. Syphard, A.D.; Keeley, J.E.; Brennan, framework for wildland fire manage Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of T.J. 2011. Factors affecting fuel break ment: the 2010 cohesive strategy science Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky effectiveness in the control of large report. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-262. Mountain Research Station. 60 p. fires on the Los Padres National Forest, Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of California. International Journal of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Liang, J.; Calkin, D.E.; Gebert, K.M.; Venn, Wildland Fire. 20(6): 764–775. Mountain Research Station. 63 p. T.J.; Silverstein, R.P. 2008. Factors influ encing large wildland fire suppression Thompson, M.P.; Calkin, D.E.; Finney, Calkin, D.E.; Gebert, K.M.; Jones, G.J.; expenditures. International Journal of M.A.; Gebert, K.M.; Hand, M.S. 2013. A Neilson, R.P. 2005. Forest Service large Wildland Fire. 17(5): 650–659. risk-based approach to wildland fire bud fire area burned and suppression expen getary planning. Forest Science. 59(1): diture trends, 1970–2002. Journal of Martinson, E.J.; Omi, P.N. 2008. Assessing 63–77. Forestry. 103(4): 179–183. mitigation of wildfire severity by fuel treatments—an example from the Thompson, M.P.; Vaillant, N.M.; Haas, J.R.; Cochrane, M.A.; Moran, C.J.; Wimberly, Coastal Plain of Mississippi. International Gebert, K.M.; Stockmann, K.D. 2013. M.C.; Baer, A.D.; Finney, M.A.; Journal of Wildland Fire. 17(3): 415–420. Quantifying the potential impacts of fuel Beckendorf, K.L.; Eidenshink, J.; Zhu, treatments on wildfire suppression costs. Z. 2012. Estimation of wildfire size and Moghaddas, J.J.; Craggs, L. 2007. A fuel Journal of Forestry. 111(1): 49–58. risk changes due to fuel treatments. treatment reduces fire severity and International Journal of Wildland Fire. increases suppression efficiency in a Wimberly, M.C.; Cochrane, M.A.; Baer, A.D.; 21(4): 357–367. mixed conifer forest. International Pabst, K. 2009. Assessing fuel treatment Journal of Wildland Fire. 16(6): 673–678. effectiveness using satellite imagery and Collins, B.M.; Stephens, S.L.; Roller, G.B.; spatial statistics. Ecological Applications. Battles, J.J. 2011. Simulating fire and 19(6): 1377–1384. forest dynamics for a landscape fuel treatment project in the Sierra Nevada. Forest Science. 57(2): 77–88.
Finney, M.A. 2007. A computational method for optimising fuel treatment locations. International Journal of Wildland Fire. Did You Know 16(6): 702–711.
Finney, M.A.; McHugh, C.W.; Stratton, R.D.; Riley, K.L. 2011. A simulation of probabilistic wildfire risk components for For the 2013 fire season, the Forest Service provided a specific the continental United States. Stochastic Wildland Fire Web site. The site contained information on a Environmental Research and Risk variety of subjects associated with the agency’s involvement in Assessment. 25(7): 973–1000. wildfire suppression, research, firefighters’ roles, and a host of other items. Fire Management Today 10 Modeled Forest Inventory data suggest ClIMate BeneFIts FroM Fuels ManageMent Jeremy S. Fried, Theresa B. Jain, and Jonathan Sandquist
s part of a recent synthesis costs. Covering the full study area addressing fuel management required 14 different FFE-FVS vari By our hazard score Ain dry, mixed-conifer forests ants. calculation, most (Jain et al. 2012), we analyzed more than 5,000 Forest Inventory We considered three aspects of forested acreage in dry and Analysis (FIA) plots, a prob fire hazard: crown fire potential mixed-conifer forests is ability sample that represents (as indicated by FFE predictions currently hazardous with 33 million acres of these forests of torching index and probability respect to at least one throughout Washington, Oregon, of torching [ptorch]); intensity Idaho, Montana, Utah, and extreme and firefighter safety during initial hazard criterion. northern California. We relied attack (based on FFE-predicted on the BioSum analysis frame surface flame height); and wood work (Daugherty and Fried 2007, value, residual stand viability, and to generate estimates of expected Barbour et al. 2008) that integrates carbon emissions risk implications yields and value of merchantable several models to evaluate the eco (based on FFE-calculated mortality and energy wood, as well as both nomics of treating fuels by using volume). Our hazard score for each on-site treatment costs and the 13 different mechanical fuel treat plot was computed as the sum of costs of delivering material from ments per plot. We are extending the number of aspects by which it the forest to suitable processing this analysis to explore the carbon was rated hazardous on a scale of 0 facilities. dynamics associated with these fuel to 4 (receiving one point for each treatments and to share a concep of four criteria: ptorch >20 percent, By our hazard score calcula tual model and preliminary results. torching index <20 mph [miles per tion, most forested acreage in dry hour], surface flame height >4 feet, mixed-conifer forests is currently The BioSum framework uses FIA and mortality volume [as a percent hazardous with respect to at least data consisting of high-quality field age of prefire live tree volume] > one hazard criterion (figure 1). measurements as the foundation 30 percent). We modeled a variety Between one-tenth (in Utah) and and the Fire and Fuels Extension of treatments aimed at achieving one-third (in northern California of the Forest Vegetation Simulator greater crown spacing; removal of and on the Klamath) of hazard (FFE-FVS) to model silvicultural ladder fuels; removal of late-seral ous acreage could be effectively prescriptions and generate indexes species to favor retention of fire treated (achieving a reduction in relevant to fire hazard. The Fuel adapted, early-seral species; and hazard score) by using 1 or more of Reduction Cost Simulator (Fight blended approaches. We deemed the 13 treatments modeled. These et al. 2006) was used to estimate treatments that reduced hazard opportunities were about equally on-site treatment costs, and a geo score from the no-treatment case as split between acreage where treat spatially explicit travel times cal effective and processed and aggre ments would pay for themselves culator was used to estimate haul gated “cut-lists” produced by FVS and return some net revenue
Jeremy S. Fried is a Forest Inventory and Analysis research forester for the Pacific The prospect of climate benefits depends Northwest Research Station, Portland, critically on the likelihood of fire encountering OR. Theresa B. Jain is a research forester for the Rocky Mountain Research Station, the treated area during the effective lifespan of Moscow, ID. Jonathan Sandquist is a for estry technician for the Rocky Mountain the treatment. Research Station, Moscow, ID
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 11 from sales of products, and acre 40% age where we would expect treat Number ments to occur only if subsidized. 35% of Where more than one treatment Hazards can achieve a reduction in hazard 30% score, we consider the best treat ment to be that which minimizes 25% 0 hazard score; when there are ties 20% 1 in that score, they are resolved first by choosing the treatment with 15% 2 Percent of Area the lowest ptorch, and secondarily 3 the treatment with the greatest net 10% revenue. For each geographic sub 4 5% region within the study area and broad forest type group within dry 0% mixed-conifer, the Fuel Synthesis Northern PNW Interior North and Central Utah Guide (Jain et al. 2012) provides California and Rockies Klamath comprehensive information, in the Subregion form of histograms, on treatment effectiveness and economics (for Figure 1.— Percentage of area within each subregion by hazard score (number of ways example, net revenue, wood and rated hazardous). energy production and value, and costs of treatment and haul). Figure 1 Some recent studies have suggested that fuel treatments compromise the climate benefits of forests by reducing carbon sequestration and by generating greater net green house gas emissions than would occur with a hands-off or caretaker approach to forest management. On close evaluation, such conclusions typically turn out to be driven by: (1) not including some or all of the out-of-forest climate benefits linked to forest products and biomass-gen erated energy, (2) using outdated information concerning the magni tude of those benefits (for example, citing studies that overstate mill waste and unutilized harvest residues relative to contemporary norms), (3) not fully accounting for mortality in unmanaged stands, or Figure 2.— Trajectories of mean, per acre, merchantable volume (no treatment case), and merchantable volume plus products effects (best treatment case) for 4 fire scenarios, (4) evaluating study areas in which based on 132 plots in Douglas-fir and true fir forests representing 1.2 million acres. wildfires are comparatively rare.
To bring systematic FIA data rep resenting all forested lands to bear on this question, we extended the BioSum analysis summarized in
Fire Management Today 12 the Fuel Synthesis Guide by using FVS to project effectively treated plots forward for 32 years under four alternative fire scenarios: no fire and fire under severe, but not extreme, weather conditions at 1, 16, and 32 years following treat ment.
Each scenario results in a trajec tory of in-forest carbon and out-of forest carbon and greenhouse gas implications that we summarize for the Douglas-fir and true fir forest type group (figure 2). We focused on live tree boles in part because of the difficulty in obtaining accurate estimates of other carbon pools and also because of the availability of comparatively accurate volume Figure 3.— Mean merchantable volume of live and harvested trees in Douglas-fir and estimation models. These models true fir stand of the dry mixed-conifer region, including climate effects of harvested wood account for the largest share of expressed as volume, by whether treated and fire return interval. forest carbon that changes over the life of a stand and generates greater over the 32-year projection no-treatment and best- treatment substantial out-of-forest climate period, owing to maintenance of cases (figure 3). impacts that are often underesti higher forest carbon stocks. If fire mated. occurs, climate benefits are greater For fire return intervals of 20 and in treated forests by the end of the 50 years, implementing the best We used a multiplier of 1.23 projection period, regardless of fire treatment produces greater climate (Stewart and Nakamura 2013) to timing. benefits than no treatment, con account for the climate implica sidering in-forest carbon and out- tions of woody carbon moved from Given that fire has long been an of-forest product effects. Of course, the forest to storage in products integral part of these forests, it is climate benefits represent only one and landfills, the substitution of all but certain that a fire will occur of many drivers of decisions about wood for materials such as metal at any particular location in the forest management. The evidence, and concrete that are responsible forest at some time in the future. however, that fuels management for substantial fossil energy emis There is, however, an uncertainty may not be incompatible with pro sions (Malmsheimer et al. 2011), as to when fire will encounter that ducing climate benefits should lead and the substitution of woody location. Therefore, we incorpo to more informed choices. biomass-generated energy for fossil rated the probability of fire occur fuel energy. rence for a given mean fire return A couple of caveats should be interval and used this to weight the noted. First, this analysis addresses Without fire or treatment, aver combination of future carbon tra only the stand-level benefits of fuel age climate benefits are always jectories depicted in figure 2 for the treatment in terms of the carbon and climate benefits that occur for a stand and the products that Evidence that fuels management may not be flow from that stand. Accounting incompatible with producing climate benefits for the landscape-scale benefits of a comprehensive and effective fuel should lead to more informed choices about forest treatment program, which could management. well reduce the size or frequency of
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 13 large fires, could generate reduc either one of which could alter Fight, R.D.; Hartsough, B.R.; Noordijk, P. tions in forest carbon emissions these preliminary conclusions. We 2006. Users guide for FRCS: fuel reduc tion cost simulator software. Gen. Tech. that we have not addressed here. think, however, that the conceptual Rep. PNW-GTR-668. Portland, OR: Second, the prospect of climate approach—of modeling fuel treat U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest benefits depends critically on the ments and their effects on the FIA Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 23 p. likelihood of fire encountering the inventory plots under alternative treated area during the effective scenarios—is a promising way to Jain, T.J.; Battaglia, M.A.; Han, H.S.; lifespan of the treatment. Because enhance statistical rigor in our Graham, R.T.; Keyes, C.R.; Fried, J.S.; Sandquist, J.E. 2012. A comprehensive only a few of the 14 FVS variants understanding of the climate impli guide to fuel management practices used in this analysis include regen cations of fuel treatments. for dry mixed conifer forests in the eration models by default, we con northwestern United States. Gen. Tech. sider these results preliminary. Rep. RMRS-GTR-292. Fort Collins, CO: References U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Barbour, R.J.; Fried, J.S.; Daugherty, P.J.; Service, Rocky Mountain Research Under the auspices of a 2013 Joint Christensen, G.; Fight, R. 2008. Potential Station. 331 p. Fire Science Program grant, we are biomass and logs from fire-hazard reduc tion treatments in southwest Oregon and Malmsheimer, R.W.; Bowyer, J.L.; Fried, exploring techniques for model northern California. Forest Policy and J.S.; Gee, E.; Izlar, R.L.; Miner, R.A.; ing regeneration, which, especially Economics. Philadelphia, PA. Elsevier Munn, I.A.; Oneil, E.; Stewart, W.C. following treatment or fire, could B.V. 10(6): 400–407. 2011. Managing forests because carbon conceivably lead to rapid develop matters: integrating energy, products, Daugherty, P.J.; Fried, J.S. 2007. Jointly and land management policy. Journal of ment of ladder fuels and increases optimizing selection of fuel treatments Forestry. 109(7S): S7–S50. in post-treatment forest volume, and siting of forest biomass-based energy production facilities for landscape-scale Stewart, W.C.; Nakamura, G.M. 2013. fire hazard reduction. Information Documenting the full climate benefits Systems and Operational Research. of harvested wood products in north Toronto, Canada. University of Toronto ern California: linking harvests to the Press. 45(1): 353–372. US greenhouse gas inventory. Forest Products Journal. 62(5): 340–353.
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Fire Management Today 14 FIre season 2012: the IMPaCt oF Fuel treatMents on WIldFIre outCoMes Frankie Romero and James Menakis
Introduction The fuels and fire ecology program In its simplest form, the FTEM process within the Forest Service Fire simply asks, “Did the fuel treatment alter fire and Aviation Management (FAM) behavior?” and “Did the fuel treatment help program is aimed at protecting firefighters to control or manage the fire?” people and property from expe riencing harm by wildfire, while taking actions to improve forest and wildlife communities, smoke Monitoring the Effectiveness conditions. Since 2001, the Forest incursions, or damage to adjacent of Fuel Monitoring Service has treated hazardous fuels non-NFS property. on more than 26 million acres of In 2006, the Forest Service initiated a program of monitoring the effec National Forest System (NFS) lands The costs of treatment are also tiveness of fuel treatments to help across the country, almost 16 mil very clear and apparent; we know answer some of these questions lion of which are in the wildland exactly what it costs to implement about the return on fuel treat urban interface (WUI). In addition, such projects (the Forest Service ment investments. When a wildfire the Forest Service supports grant averages $30 to $200 per acre for starts within or burns into a fuel programs to assist States and local prescribed fire and $250 to $1,000+ treatment, an assessment is con jurisdictions to implement fuel for mechanical fuels treatments). ducted to evaluate the impacts on reduction projects beyond NFS In contrast, the potential return fire behavior and fire suppression borders, resulting in an additional from an investment in fuels treat actions that resulted from the fuel 3 million acres of fuel treatments ment is more difficult to measure, treatment. outside national forest and grass not only because of the random land boundaries. nature of wildfire occurrence but The purpose of fuel treatment effec also because the benefits—such tiveness monitoring (FTEM) is to Implementing fuels treatments as added safety, reduced risk, determine: comes with both risks and costs. enhanced fire suppression effective 1. Are fuel treatments affecting fire Any time we choose to manipulate ness, and improved ecosystem func behavior by reducing the inten vegetation—whether we use chain tion—are not easily translated into sity and/or rate of spread? saws, heavy equipment, herbicides, a dollar value that we can compare 2. Does suppression effectiveness livestock, or prescribed fire—there to our initial investment. is risk of experiencing undesirable improve through enhanced firefighter safety, reduced fire consequences, such as injury to Because land managers strive to fighting costs, and/or reduced workers, unintended harm to plant minimize the risks while maximiz potential fire damage? ing the return on limited funds, we 3. What are the lessons learned must ask ourselves: Are we getting that are important to help a good return on our investment Frankie Romero is the national fire use improve the hazardous fuels program manager for the Forest Service, when we implement fuels treat program? National Interagency Fire Center, Boise, ments? Are the benefits we receive ID, and deals primarily with national a good value or should we adjust to policy issues related to the use of both In its simplest form, the FTEM better balance the investment with prescribed fire and wildfire to achieve process simply asks, “Did the fuel desired land management outcomes. James the expected benefit? Menakis is the national fire ecologist for treatment alter fire behavior?” the Forest Service in Fort Collins, CO, and and “Did the fuel treatment help deals primarily with fuel treatment effec firefighters control or manage the tiveness and fuels monitoring. fire?”
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 15 When first initiated, individual wildfire interactions on NFS lands attached to some of the records in forests could voluntarily enter for the 2012 fire season. About 90 the FTEM database. information in the FTEM database, percent of FTEM database records and the early results were of pre reported fuel treatments being When wildfires encounter fuel dominantly “successful” interac effective in either changing the fire treatments, we regularly observe tions. Starting in 2011, monitoring behavior of the wildfire as planned that the fuel treatment led to one was made mandatory any time in the treatment objectives or help or more of the following outcomes: a fuel treatment encountered a ing with control or management of wildfire on NFS lands. Mandatory the wildfire. Because of reporting • Improved initial attack success; monitoring resulted in the capture delays and the fact that multiple • Improved success in protecting of those instances where fuel treat interactions often are recorded in a homes and communities from ments were not effective in alter single database entry (one wildfire wildfire; ing the wildfire outcome, which burns into several treatments), we • Reduced wildfire damage and provides us with rich insight into believe these numbers are conser improved forest resilience after how to improve the program. In vative for 2012 and that more than wildfire; and 2012, the Forest Service made the 300 separate and distinct interac • Improved ability to provide FTEM database available to U.S. tions between fuel treatments and wildfire managers options for Department of the Interior agen wildfire actually occurred on NFS minimizing risk, reducing costs, cies. In the course of monitor lands. and enhancing fire-adapted eco ing these fuel treatment-wildfire systems. interactions, we have found the While a rigorous scientific analysis opportunity to make observations of the impact of fuel treatments The following sections provide a and generalizations regarding the on wildfire outcomes is needed, selection of fuel treatment-wildfire impact that fuels treatments have national and regional fuel special interactions that illustrate indi when tested by wildfires. ists who monitor these interactions vidual instances of the impact that have been able to detect recurring fuel treatments had on wildfire out Fuel Treatment-Wildfire themes based on making personal comes during the 2012 fire season. Interactions Observed During observations in the field; viewing the 2012 Fire Season entries in the FTEM database; and Fuel Treatments Improved reviewing the optional reports, The FTEM database contains more Initial Attack Success photos, and maps that have been than 300 records of fuel treatment- Swain’s Creek Fire, Dixie National Forest, Utah. Local firefighters expected structure loss when this fire was reported on June 20, owing to “high” fire danger, proximity to structures, and large fire growth experienced in previous weeks throughout southern Utah. Once on scene, first responders deter mined that this human-caused fire was within the Duck Creek Fuels Project, which had been thinned, piled, and burned in 2008. The fire was on NFS land about 100 feet from private land and structures. Observed flame lengths were 6 to 8 inches, burning in ponderosa pine needle litter. The fuel treatment greatly reduced flame lengths, pre vented torching and spotting, and allowed firefighters to easily con Figure 1.—Firefighters mopping up the Swain’s Creek Fire with structure in the tain and control the fire at 0.5 acres background, June 20, 2012. Source: Eric Eastep, Dixie National Forest. (figure 1).
Fire Management Today 16 Southeastern National Forests. One notable observation is that the Southeast United States was in drought conditions for a large portion of last year, yet relatively few large wildfire events occurred there. In a query of the FTEM database, we found that, in 2012, 67 percent of the recorded wildfire- fuel treatment interactions for the national forests in the Southeast were from wildfires that were smaller than 20 acres in size. This was a slight reduction from 2011, where 75 percent of the interac tions were from wildfires smaller than 20 acres. It is arguable that this is due to a variety of factors; however, there is a strong feeling among managers in the Southeast Figure 2.—Gladiator Fire exhibiting 20- to 30-foot flame lengths in decadent chaparral, that their initial attack success May 18, 2012. Source: Fred Hernandez, Forest Service. is due in large part to the robust through chaparral with 20- to entered the Ash Creek Prescribed prescribed burning program in this 30-foot flame lengths (figure 2). Fire area, a 2003 treatment (figure region, which aims to treat most Crews prepared for a burnout oper 3), the fire dropped in intensity coastal plain forests every 3 years. ation along the “Senator Highway” and slowed dramatically, allowing In calendar year 2012, the Forest (Forest Road 52) in an attempt to the crews to contain the fire edge Service treated 695,122 acres with contain the northwest spread of directly with less effort than if the prescribed fire in its Southern the fire toward the Pine Flat sub burnout operation had been Region compared to 85,820 acres division. Fortunately, once the fire necessary. burned by wildfire (Southern Area Coordination Center1).
Fuel Treatments Improved Success in Protecting Homes and Communities From Wildfires Gladiator Fire, Prescott National Forest, Arizona. The Gladiator Fire was detected on May 13 at approximately 10:45 a.m. The fire was human-caused and started on private land in the town of Crown King, AZ. The fire quickly grew to 500 acres, and a type 1 incident management team was assigned. On May 18, the area experienced red-flag conditions as the fire, now close to 10,000 acres, burned
1Acres treated by prescribed fire and acres burned by wildfire were previously available on the Southern Area Coordination Center website. The website has since Figure 3.—Gladiator fire unable to sustain spread within the Ash Creek prescribed fire evolved and the figures are no longer available. area, May 18, 2012. Source: Prescott Hotshots.
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 17 Fontenelle Fire, Bridger-Teton National Forest, Wyoming. The Fontenelle Fire started in a mixed- conifer forest on Sunday, June 24. Fire behavior included torching, crowning, and prolific spotting of up to ½ mile. By Sunday, July 1, the fire had grown to more than 45,000 acres, with more than 400 firefighters and support personnel on the scene—and more coming.
One area of concern for firefight ers was the 12 summer homes in Middle Piney. Fortunately for homeowners and firefighters, a fuel treatment project around these summer homes had been imple Figure 4.—Middle Piney summer homes after Fontenelle Fire. The green trees mented 10 years earlier; that treat surrounding the summer homes are located within the fuel treatment area. Source: Jim Menakis, Forest Service. ment consisted of selective under- story thinning to open the forest said, “These treatments helped control the fire. The Forest Service canopy, removal of ladder fuels that firefighters protect the homes,” Pacific Northwest Region and the can cause crown fires, and removal and emphasized that the fuel treat Deschutes National Forest pro of dead trees and other fuels around ments “absolutely” allowed for fire duced a video called Make Wildland the homes. On Wednesday, June fighter safety. Urban Interface Communities Safer 27, additional structure protection with Fuels Reduction which tells work started around Middle Piney Pole Creek Fire, Deschutes the full story of the Pole Creek summer homes. The division super National Forest, Oregon. The Fire’s interaction with the Sisters visor at Middle Piney said that the Pole Creek Fire was started by Area Fuels Reduction Project; view hazardous fuel treatments “allowed lightning in the Three Sisters the video at
Fire Management Today 18 within the treated areas, which served to limit damage caused by the wildfires. The Burned Area Reflectance Classification images shown in figures 6 and 7 illustrate where fire intensity was reduced within areas where fuels had been treated within the footprint of these especially large wildfires.
Barry Point Fire, Fremont- Winema National Forest and Modoc National Forest, Oregon- California Border. The Barry Point Fire started by lightning on August 5 in south- central Oregon; this fire burned 93,000 acres over the Figure 5.—Aerial photo of Camp V (five) Fire post-fire effects where fuel treatments course of 16 days before it was con altered fire intensity allowing for control (a) as well as reduced damage to pine (b) and cedar (c) plantations. Source: Thomas County Sheriff’s Department, Nebraska. tained by suppression actions and moderating weather. ed in 2007 and prescribed burning the footprint of these wildfires, in 2009 and 2010 (figure 5). thousands of acres of fuel treat The Fremont-Winema and Modoc Drought conditions were prevalent, ments were encountered. While the National Forests have conducted and the Governor of Nebraska had size of the treatments was dwarfed fuel reduction projects on thou declared a state of emergency to by the scale of these wildfires, the sands of acres within the Barry address the continuing fire problem immediate post-fire effects indi Point Fire area over the past 20 in the State. In taking action on the cate that fire intensity was reduced years. In general, fuel reduc Camp V Fire, the fuel treatments tion treatments in anticipation of were used as a control feature to an eventual fire have two broad burn out along a road where fuels purposes in this area: reduce fire had been removed to control the intensity (increase stand survival) fire. In evaluating the post-fire and facilitate safe suppression and effects, the district ranger observed that, “We were really lucky on this one…. It burned through an area that we had thinned, and recently [had] done a prescribed burn….” The fire “stayed on the ground and out of the canopy in a lot of places,” he said, which helped most of the hand-planted trees to survive the fire (Starhearld.com 2012).
Central Idaho Large Fires. Three large fires in central Idaho covered a combined area of more than Figure 6.—Portion of the Trinity Ridge 662,000 acres—the Holstead Fire Fire severity map showing where fire intensities were generally reduced where (179,557 acres) and the Mustang fuel treatment had occurred. Note: Some of Complex (336,028 acres) on the the Whiskey Campo units had mechanical Salmon-Challis National Forest and treatment completed, but follow-up Figure 7.—A portion of the Halstead Fire, the Trinity Fire (146,741 acres) on prescribed fire treatment had not occurred where fuels reduction treatment resulted in when wildfire hit contributing to higher reduced fire intensity as the larger wildfire the Boise National Forest. Within intensities in some units. burned around these treatment areas.
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 19 Figure 8.—Kellogg Unit 5, effect of understory thinning and prescribed burning (2010) in center and left side of photo, adjacent forested lands on right side with much higher stand mortality where surface and ladder fuels were not treated. Kellogg Unit 5 was also used as a roadside fuel break to contain the west side of the fire on the Modoc National Forest. Source: Jim Menakis, Forest Service. containment of wildfire. Lower the High Fire was well within the eventually escape the wilderness than expected fire intensities were Bob Marshall Wilderness complex, area. observed within the fuel treatment suppression action was deemed areas where trees had been thinned appropriate because of the threat of Knowing this area would be a con from below, canopy base height was its leaving the wilderness area and tinual challenge for them, local increased, and surface fuels had affecting the Benchmark Recreation managers had crafted a plan to pro- been treated with prescribed fire. Corridor and private lands to the actively reduce the cost and expo east. Within a 20-square-mile area sure to firefighters in the future In contrast, past treatments on of where the High Fire occurred, while also allowing fire to play its adjacent forested lands had focused 19 fires had started over the past 20 role in wilderness. Previous wild on commodity production, with lit years, indicating to managers that fires and rugged terrain with areas tle consideration of potential wild it was inevitable that one would of sparse vegetation offered a land- fire impacts; such a focus resulted in small-diameter, dense stands with close crowns, low-crown base heights, and extensive surface fuel We saw hundreds of instances where fuel accumulations. Higher fire inten treatments offered firefighters environments sity was observed in these dense where suppression efforts could be more stands during the Barry Point Fire successful and safer. and, as a result, the fire caused more damage to the overstory trees on these forested lands than it did within the fuel treatment areas (fig ure 8 and 9).
Fuel Treatments Provided Wildfire Managers Options for Minimizing Risk, Reducing Costs, and Enhancing Fire- Adapted Ecosystems Elbow Pass Complex, Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex, Montana. In 2003, the High Fire on the Flathead National Forest, just west of the Continental Divide and Lewis and Clark National Forest, burned a mere 122 acres but required more than $400,000 and significant exposure of personnel and aircraft to control. Although Figure 9.—Adjacent forested lands with much higher stand mortality next to Kellogg Unit 5 on the Modoc National Forest. Source Jim Menakis, Forest Service.
Fire Management Today 20 waters of Rapid River, where pre scribed burning had been accom plished over the past 15+ years. Considering an historical wildfire (Curren Fire, 1989), the Rapid River prescribed fires (1995–2009), and the topography (which was not well aligned with predominant winds), managers felt confident that the head of the fire would have a difficult time growing even under the persistent dry conditions that were dominating the weather fore cast. This allowed them to choose a strategy where they would control the portion of the fire outside the Figure 10.—Elbow Pass Complex in relation to previous wildfires and the recent South Rapid River drainage, about 70 Fork Prescribed Burn units, which limited spread to the north. Source: Lewis and Clark percent of the then 15,289-acre National Forest. fire, but would not pursue the fire in Rapid River. This strategy was scape with opportunities to inter fire areas. Managers observed expected to reduce both costs and rupt wildfire spread. Local manag that the Elbow Pass Complex was firefighter exposure. Once control ers planned and ignited a series of contained within wilderness with lines were completed around the prescribed fires between 2003 and less effort and cost than had been portion of the fire outside Rapid 2011 to introduce fire back into the expended in past years, owing in River, the management organiza landscape in an effort to break up large part to the strategic place tion was reduced on September 30 the continuous fuels and reduce ment of prescribed fires. By way of from a type I incident management the chances of fire escaping the wil comparison, the 2007 Ahorn Fire team (IMT1), with more than 600 derness area. Completing the South in the Bob Marshall Wilderness was personnel assigned and average Fork Sun Prescribed Fires “put the 52,505 acres in size and cost an daily cost of about $720,000, to a cork in the bottle,” as the local fire estimated $377 per acre to manage, type III team (IMT3) with about management officer described it. with large expenditures in aircraft, 200 personnel and average daily crews, and equipment, whereas the cost of about $260,000 (Parker From July 12 through July 31, five Elbow Pass Complex was 28,552 2012). Using these average daily different lightning fires ignited, acres in size and cost an estimated costs and a conservative estimate eventually merging into the Elbow $155 per acre to manage (Buhl of 3 additional days for an IMT1 to Pass Complex. The South Fork Sun 2012). directly control the fire in Rapid Prescribed Fires effectively stopped River, we estimate that the deci the Elbow Pass Fire’s spread to the Wesley Fire, Payette National sion to not pursue the fire in Rapid north (figure 10), allowing manag Forest, Idaho. After escaping initial River resulted in a cost savings of ers to focus actions on small pock attack on September 9, the Wesley around $1,380,000 (IMT1 cost/day x ets between the rock escarpments, Fire continued its march to the 3 days – IMT3 cost/day x 3 days). previous wildfires, and prescribed northeast until it ran into the head- The fire in Rapid River was monitored from September 23 to While 90 percent of the fuel treatment-fire October 15 and grew an additional 821 acres before rain and snow interactions reported these positive outcomes, stopped the Wesley Fire at 16,010 the remaining 10 percent do not appear to have acres (figure 11). Most of those worked as intended, thus we need to examine additional acres within Rapid River those more closely to learn why that was. were moderate to low intensity as the fire backed downhill, mostly
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 21 average.” When we summarize a fire season this way, the underlying assumption is that all of those acres were “damaging,” which means the only way to be successful is to reduce acreage burned. Our understanding of fire’s essential role in restoring and maintaining ecosystems, however, recognizes that many of our ecosystems suf fer from a lack of fire and that often the health of the system is improved when fire is reintroduced. Therefore, shouldn’t our definition of success include a description of how much of the “right kind of fire” we experienced as well as what damages or losses were incurred? Acreage burned is easy to measure, but it doesn’t tell enough about the end result to be a useful measure of how effective we were in applying fuel treatments, management strat egies, or fireline tactics to produce better outcomes.
As in previous years, the character ization of the 2012 fire season has fallen short of describing the favor able outcomes, by describing only the bad, which in turn prevents us from describing the impact that Figure 11.—2012 Wesley Fire, where direct fire suppression was taken on most of the fire management actions had on pro except the portion to the north in the Rapid River drainage, which was only monitored ducing better wildfire outcomes. because fire spread potential was judged to be low given the time of year (October) and Certainly there were wildfires in the barriers to fire spread, including prescribed fire treatments. 2012 that caused damage to prop erty and resources, and that even burning ground fuels with only iso improve. The following are some resulted in the tragic loss of life. lated torching—exactly the type of observations from the 2012 fire But in many cases, wildfires also fire behavior managers envisioned season that may help us improve in enhanced or maintained resource for the land management goals in the years to come. conditions and even added a mea this area, which are largely aimed sure of protection by reducing fuel at reintroducing fire into this fire- Find a Better Measure Than accumulations and breaking-up fuel adapted ecosystem. Acres Burned for Describing Wildfire Outcomes continuity. In 2012, we observed Room To Improve: cases where fuel treatments, wild More Observations As in the past, the story of the 2012 fire management strategies, and From the 2012 Fire fire season is told in terms of num thoughtful fire suppression tactics, Season ber of fires and acres burned. A typ either individually or in combi ical summary reads like this: “Some nation, resulted in fire behavior Like any “after-action review,” we 67,000 wildfires burned 9 million that moved some areas affected need to consider what went well so acres, which is fewer fires but more by wildfire toward more desirable that we can repeat it, but we also acres burned than the historical conditions (that is, healthier forests need to highlight where we can
Fire Management Today 22 and reduced fuel loadings). In the The return on these investments is not just future, we hope to improve our in dollars but also in the currency of safety, portrayal of wildfire outcomes by finding metrics that better describe protection from risk, and ecosystem function. this net effect.
So, what might success look like if workspace, or external hard-drive, fuel treatment data into WFDSS, we were to better illustrate wildfire causing delays in locating, trans go to
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 23 these positive outcomes, the While science grapples with quan Parker, J. 2012. Personal communication. remaining 10 percent do not appear tifying this problem, the anecdotal Emergency management specialist, Forest Service, Payette National Forest. to have worked as intended, thus, evidence suggest that well-designed 800 West Lakeside Ave, McCall, ID 83638. we need to examine those more fuel treatments have a good chance closely to learn why that was. of bringing about better wildfire Southern Area Coordination Center. http:// gacc.nifc.gov/sacc/. (27 June 2013). Are fuel treatments a good invest outcomes, making fuels manage ment? We will need better analyses ment an important part of an over Starhearld.com. 2012. Ranger: controlled to answer that question quantita all fire management strategy. burn helped save Nebraska forest. Scottsbluff, NE: Star-Herald. http://www. tively so that we can clearly state starherald.com/news/regional_statewide/ how much treatment, in which ranger-controlled-burn-helped-save areas, and at which intervals could References nebraska-forest/article_10ad01e8-c6bd provide the highest return for 11e1-aa19-0019bb2963f4.html. (18 June Buhl, C. 2012. Personal communication. 2013). each dollar invested. This work Fire management officer, Forest Service, is ongoing, and we expect to see Rocky Mountain Ranger District, 1102 the science in this arena continue Main Ave NW, Choteau, MT 59422. Acknowledgements to advance. The return on these Finney, M.A.; Seli, R.C.; McHugh, C.W.; The authors wish to thank all those investments is not just in dollars Ager, A.A.; Bahro, B.; Agee, J.K. 2006. who contributed time and effort in but also in safety, protection from Simulation of long-term landscape-level providing information and insights fuel treatment effects on large wildfires. risk, and ecosystem function. This In: Andrews, P.L.; Butler, B.W., eds. related to fuel treatment effective means the answer is more com Proceedings: fuels management-how to ness and entering information into plicated than seeking a financial measure success; 28–30 March 2006; the FTEM system. We appreciate Portland, OR. Proceedings RMRS-P-41. return, because society has not Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of your diligence and applaud your given science a dollar-value equiva Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service, efforts. lent for these nonmonetary returns. Rocky Mountain Research Station: 125–148.
Contributors Wanted! Fire Management Today is a source of information on all aspects of fire behavior and management at Federal, State, tribal, county, and local levels. Has there been a change in the way you work? New equipment or tools? New partnerships or programs? To keep up the communication, we need your fire- related articles and photographs! Feature articles should be up to about 2,000 words in length. We also need short items of up to 200 words. Subjects of articles published in Fire Management Today may include: Aviation Fire history Planning (including budgeting) Communication Fire science Preparedness Cooperation Fire use (including prescribed fire) Prevention/Education Ecosystem management Fuels management Safety Equipment/Technology Firefighting experiences Suppression Fire behavior Incident management Training Fire ecology Information management Weather Fire effects (including systems) Wildland-urban interface Personnel
Fire Management Today 24 a toWerIng FePP PrograM suCCess: traIler truCk ProvIdes FIre traInIng aCadeMy envIronMent For northern MInnesota’s CloQuet area FIre dIstrICt Kevin Schroeder
n the fall of 2011, the Cloquet The ability to train in the home Area Fire District (CAFD) in The Mobile Training environment enables 100 percent IMinnesota acquired a semitractor Tower is the only one of fire staff to be included without trailer truck through the Federal the need to travel long distances; Excess Personal Property (FEPP) of its kind in Minnesota it also provides training opportuni program. The truck transports a and one of only 10 units ties at a much lower training cost 53-foot, propane-fired mobile live nationwide. to participating fire departments. fire training trailer and a mobile This access, along with the variabil training tower (figure 1). The ity of potential training scenarios, mobile training tower is the only enables firefighters to obtain repeti one of its kind in Minnesota and 1 firefighter training, including fire tive practice to learn and hone of only 10 units nationwide. attack, search and rescue, self- their skills in a safe and controlled contained breathing apparatus environment. The newly acquired truck enables confidence, firefighter self-rescue, CAFD to transport these units to wall breaching, forcible entry, verti The live fire training unit is the each of the district’s three stations cal and horizontal ventilation, rapid newest in Minnesota and the only and throughout the entire region intervention, and confined space unit in northern Minnesota capable and the State for onsite training. rescue (figure 2). This resource was of supporting three independently The live fire training trailer was fea not available in the region before controlled propane-fired burn props tured at the Fire Service Educators this project. simultaneously on multiple levels. Professional Development The two-story unit, with computer- Conference and the Minnesota State Fire Chiefs Association Conference in 2012.
The acquisition cost through the FEPP program was $1,500, and the district needed about $5,000 to put the vehicle into service. Upgrades included tires, paint, striping, and mechanical work. The CAFD staff used existing equipment to install the emergency lighting and siren.
The training trailer and tower enable the CAFD to provide a fire training academy environment for all aspects of basic and advanced
Kevin Schroeder is the district fire chief for the Cloquet Area Fire District, Cloquet, Figure 1.—CAFD Mobile Live Fire Training Trailer and Federal Excess Personal Property. MN.
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 25 The training trailer and tower enable the CAFD to provide a fire training academy environment for all aspects of basic and advanced firefighter training.
This mobility is not possible with The CAFD’s fire department, which some of the older fire trainers that has a combination of 24 full-time still use class A fuels for training. In staff and 34 volunteers, operates class A trailers, the instructor does out of three stations (the city of not have complete control of the Cloquet, the city of Scanlon, and training environment, and the prod Perch Lake Township). The depart ucts of combustion produced during ment provides firefighting and training evolutions can cause issues emergency medical services (EMS) when located in residential areas. transport at the advanced life- support level and responds to 2,800 The CAFD has received inquiries incidents each year in an area of from as far away as 170 miles. The 270 square miles. The CAFD serves CAFD uses the trailer weekly during a permanent population of 14,200; Figure 2.—CAFD firefighters enter the the spring, summer, and fall, and training trailer to attack an interior fire. the stations also provide fire and transports it with the FEPP vehicle EMS coverage to areas outside the controlled burn props and integrat to other locations 15 to 20 times a district, serving a total population ed safety systems, meets all nation year. The units are available to any of more than 22,000, including the al safety codes and offers complete department in the region for the cost Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior push-button control of the training of the operator, fuel, and expend Chippewa throughout their reserva environment. In addition, the unit ables. tion lands. can be set up and operated in any location owing to the clean-burning nature of the propane-fueled fire system (figure 3).
Figure 3.—CAFD truck and trailers at a Minnesota State Sectional Fire School.
Fire Management Today 26 traInIng Future FIre Managers: InnovatIve PartnershIP exPands JoB CorPs IMPaCt Michaela Hall
he Forest Service Fire and Aviation Management (FAM) The Forest Service has operated Job Corps Tprogram and the Job Corps Civilian Conservation Centers since 1964. Civilian Conservation Centers (JCCCC) have formed an innovative partnership to expand the influence trained and certified more than 750 16 and 24, and provided them with of the Job Corps program in filling students as firefighters, camp crew the educational, social, and voca future fire management positions members, and administrative sup tional skills to assist in the conser in the Forest Service. At the begin port staff. These students responded vation of the Nation’s public natu ning of fiscal year (FY) 2013, this to approximately 100 wildfire inci ral resources. At any time, more partnership phased in a new fire dents and also provided hurricane than 5,000 students are enrolled in program to establish and/or formal and storm recovery support. The the Forest Service’s 28 centers. ize type 2 wildland fire crew and partnership between FAM and the camp crew programs at each of our JCCCCs will provide support for As documented by Dawson and 28 JCCCCs over the next 5 years. centers with existing fire programs Bennett, “Dating back to the and establish new programs on the Civilian Conservation Corps of the Upon successful completion of the remaining centers. 1930s, the Forest Service has a his JCCCC Fire Program requirements, tory of involvement with employ Job Corps students will have the The Forest Service has operated ment programs with a rich legacy opportunity to compete for perma JCCCCs since 1964. During this of land stewardship” (2011). Today, nent or seasonal appointments or time, the Forest Service has trained JCCCCs are continuing the tradi be hired under the Public Lands eligible youth, between the ages of tion of protecting America’s natural Corps authority. Students may be recruited as apprentices for the Wildland Fire Apprentice Program, which will be one of the training programs for new firefighter hires to better meet the demands for a professional, highly skilled, and diverse wildland fire management workforce.
A number of JCCCCs have provided fire and camp crew support for many years, thanks to grassroots efforts at the local forest and center level. In 2012, 18 of the 28 JCCCCs
Michaela Hall completed the Job Corps program in 2007 after securing a perma nent position with the Forest Service. She Crew Boss John Fry instructs two Harpers Ferry Job Corp students in firing operations is the Job Corps Program Specialist within Fire and Aviation Management in the on the Cheat Summit Fort prescribed burn on the Monongahela National Forest, the first Forest Service national office. year of the Monongahela fire team program (Spring 2009).
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 27 heritage and providing programs of Upon completion of Fire Program work-based learning to conserve, develop, manage, and enhance pub requirements, students will have the lic natural resources. opportunity to compete for permanent or seasonal appointments. Although JCCCC students “are enlisted in a diverse array of Forest Service programs,” noted Dawson and rural, and are seeking pathways al conversations about the environ and Bennett, “they are most widely to prosperity.” ment…. After completing training, known for their program contribu Job Corps graduates return to their tions in urban forestry, hazardous Furthermore, according to Dawson communities as productive work fuels reduction, construction, and and Bennett (2011), JCCCC stu ers, consumers, community lead firefighting.” dents “are a diverse snapshot of our ers, and entrepreneurs.” Nation that reaches across the spec Through the fire program, the “Job Corps is a program of oppor trum of race, gender, and ethnicity. Forest Service can continue to take tunity…,” the authors continued. They are the citizens [who] are, all advantage of the available resources “Most students come from low- too often, missing from our nation- at JCCCCs, demonstrate its com income communities, both urban mitment to meeting the Cultural Transformation goals for the agency’s workforce, and employ our Nation’s youth.
References Dawson, L.J.; Bennett, A.D. 2011. The U.S. Forest Service Job Corps 28 Civilian Conservation Centers. Proceedings RMRS-P-64. In: Watson, A.; Murrieta- Saldivar, J.; McBride, B., comps. Science and stewardship to protect and sustain wilderness values: Ninth World Wilderness Congress sympo sium, November 6–13, 2009, Meridá, Yucatán, Mexico. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 18–23.
March 2012 training session at the Stephen T. Mather training center located at the Harpers Ferry National Park. Thirty Job Corp students, five AmeriCorps members, and five Monongahela National Forest employees attended the session.
Job Corps has 124 centers nationwide. For more information about Job Corps, visit your local Job Corps center, call 800-733-JOBS, or visit Job Corps’ Web site at
Fire Management Today 28 ProPosed ProCess For analyzIng Courses For ConversIon FroM InstruCtor-led to onlIne or Blended learnIng Mark L. Cantrell
f your goal is to take an instruc Background the forefront of not only the stu tor-led vocational course and dent’s mind but the instructional NWCG Training has been steadily convert it for Web-based training designer’s mind as well. I striving to bring the right training (WBT), it will work best if you view to the right people at the right time it as a completely new course cre When a course is structured with (Singh 2003). Since 2007, the pro ation. This is not to say that a cur real-world, on-the-job application gram has been slowly converting rent, instructor-led training (ILT) in mind, the tell–show–do mental select courses from an instructor- course will not be of value; it will ity is very beneficial. Baggett stress led format to a blended learning be of tremendous value. The analy es, “…the importance of ensuring format, in which the course is sis plan, however, is best accom that individuals feel that the course divided into two portions: 20 to 24 plished without the restriction of is directly relevant to their needs hours of online or WBT followed by what the current ILT course is. and job responsibilities will influ ILT. Generally, what was a 40-hour ence participation and completion instructor-led course converts to 20 Initially, this may seem like an of the WBT modules” (Baggett to 24 hours online and an 8-hour unnecessary step backwards. 2012, p. 42). NWCG Training begins instructor-led field day. After devel However, it has been the experi by telling them how they will use a oping this model for the past 5 ence of NWCG Training—the train skill on the job in the position for years, it has proven to be a viable ing branch for the U.S. wildland which the course is helping them model for converting vocational firefighting force organized under qualify. training. the National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG)—that this is the most beneficial approach to take. Many NWCG Training courses have Many organizations are striving to convert existing a hands-on element that makes the instructor-led courses to online or blended blended format the most common learning environments. for our conversion efforts.
Using NWCG Training as an The NWCG Training founda The normal NWCG Training blend example, this paper outlines a tional model seeks to emulate ed course follows the WBT portion process for achieving a successful a tell–show–do mentality. The with an ILT field day to “prove” conversion of a vocation-technical performance-based NWCG Training competency. The WBT presents training course to blended environ system focuses on safety, which cre and fully explains the skill and ments. ates a priority for training that can then demonstrates the informa immediately be used in real-world, tion for the student to watch. In high-risk situations. The realization the blended learning courses, these that a person could be entering two steps often occur online; in a a potentially dangerous environ WBT environment students can Mark Cantrell is an evaluation unit leader for the National Wildfire Coordinating ment provides inherent motivation interact with the description and Group training branch in Boise, ID. He throughout the entire process. This then watch numerous videos of has been involved with firefighting, both intrinsic motivation to pay atten good and bad examples. A key part structural and wildland, and instructional tion to the content brings safety to systems design since 1984.
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 29 of the description is how they will The job analysis should help define the knowledge be evaluated on this skill at the ILT field day. a successful performer needs, the attitudes the performer should possess, and the skills he or With this background information she should be able to safely demonstrate. in mind, the following research- supported analysis process is pro posed for converting a 100-percent Still, the normal audience analysis mance defined as safely meeting or ILT vocational-technical training questions—such as (1) What quali exceeding job standards. The goal course into a blended course. fications, if any, does the student is to train employees for what they already possess? (2) What type of will actually do. This training is The analysis needs to evaluate experiences can they relate to? and best done by observing exemplary learning by multiple perspectives, (3) How does the student expect performers. If it is not possible to which will provide the information to use the new knowledge and directly observe job performance, necessary to structure the course in skills?—need to be addressed, in then interviewing a diverse selec such a way that safety is maximized addition to any unique information tion of subject matter experts is an while efficiency is gained. The mul or skill sets that would be helpful alternative. tiple perspectives are: for the instructional designer to know. It might be tempting to take the 1. Audience analysis, current ILT course and assume 2. Job analysis, At NWCG Training, when a course everything that needs to be taught 3. Task analysis, comes up for revision, a team is is in it, but this assumption could 4. Reusable learning object classifi assigned to do the analysis. The be misleading. Often, with an ILT cation, team normally consists of one proj course, instructors supplement 5. Task division, ect leader, one instructional design content without realizing that they 6. Review of existing ILT course for er, one technical editor, and one are filling in a gap in the instruc currency, media specialist. This team consults tion. A fresh job analysis will identi 7. Gap analysis, and subject matter experts and feedback fy changes in procedures and policy 8. Transition to design. from the ILT course to determine that may have occurred since the if the identified incoming student course was designed. Audience Analysis skillset and knowledge base is suf ficient or if it needs further inves Implementing a learn-what Audience analysis is important to tigation. Once this information is you-need-to-perform mentality help determine what knowledge confirmed, the team then proceeds has caused a shift in how NWCG (mental), skills (physical abilities), with the analysis. Upon completion Training approaches online assess and attitudes (emotional priorities) of a solid audience analysis, a thor ments. An accurate job analysis will prospective students should pos ough job analysis is the next step. be extremely useful in preparing sess when they start the course. the final assessment(s), for both Clark and Harrelson in their 2002 Job Analysis the WBT portion and the ILT field research write “Transfer of learning day. NWCG Training normally has a Job analysis entails asking what a is more likely when new knowledge final assessment for the online por person successfully performing in and skills are acquired in their tion and another practical assess this position needs to know and context of application.” It is easier ment for the field day. In order to do. From an instructional designer to establish this context when you enter the ILT portion of a course, perspective, when consulting with understand what knowledge, skills, each student must first pass the a group on course development, it and abilities the audience enters WBT portion, which includes a final is helpful to ask what a graduate of the classroom door (virtual or lit assessment. When students pass the course-to-be must know, value, eral) with on day one. that final assessment, they have to and be able to do. present it to the lead ILT instruc Generally, when you are convert tor, in essence validating that they The focus should be on what they ing a current ILT course, you will know the information that was pre must know in order to be suc have a good idea about the incom sented and are ready for the practi cessful—with successful perfor ing students and their abilities. cal portion.
Fire Management Today 30 Ross comments on this mindset that, “Online assessment demands a different approach to gauging knowledge acquired. Creditability and accountability have shifted to the learner” (Ross 2001, p. 16). The research of Singh and Reed also supports this two-assessment mindset for “an online, web-based post-test that certifies the compe tency of new employees” (Singh and Reed 2001, p. 4). If someone does not know the information from the online portion, then the ILT instructor has the authority to tell the person that it is not safe to progress to the ILT portion until the WBT portion has been mas tered.
Task Analysis The task analysis should provide a solid foundation for creating a learning path. The task analysis Figure 1. Position Task Book excerpt for Single Resource Boss positions. should use the information from Figure 1.—National Wildfire Coordinating Group Position task book excerpt for single the job analysis to create a list of resource boss positions. tasks to be performed in the new position. Each task should con Reusable Learning having to recreate the informa sist of measurable steps that can Object tion each time. Mohanty and Jain be demonstrated for an evaluator. expand on the reusable learning If you have a learning content object concept: “Learning objects NWCG has established position management system or desire to task books (PTBs) for the Incident are much smaller units of learning, establish a content management typically ranging from 2 minutes to Command System wildland fire system that is customizable, then fighting positions. These PTBs 15 minutes. They are small or ele each task should be evaluated for mentary instructional components break the positions down into the reusability. Consider whether each format of competency, behavior, which are reusable in different task is independent and reusable. learning contexts” (Mohanty and task, and examples. Figure 1 shows Maddocks (2002) detailed the reus the first competency, behavior, and Jain 2009, p. 32). Understanding able learning object (RLO) concept the RLO concept helps an instruc task for all single resource boss in a study for Cisco Systems. Cisco positions. tional designer determine what type has successfully used the RLO of learning can be expected from a concept, and NWCG Training is particular task. The end result of the task analysis striving to emulate their success by process should be a learning path documenting the context and com that demonstrates how to advance plexity of reusability. This step is Task Division from position A to position B. This valuable to NWCG Training from a Divide all tasks or RLOs into envi learning path should provide a learning content management sys clearly understood progression of ronmental learning or foundational tem (LCMS) viewpoint. A LCMS is (near and far) learning by using the skillsets, knowledge, and attitudes valuable from a number of perspec that outline what a person needs to learning path as a guide. This con tives, one of the most important of cept builds on Van Tiems’s (2012) learn in order to successfully per which is the ability to use the same form in position B. work on performance support. information multiple times without Application of his “Be Systematic”
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 31 National Wildfire Coordinating Group Training
Training information can be found on the National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) Web site (
Online Courses (
“I” Incident Command System • I-100 Introduction to the Incident Command System (2006)
“S” Suppression • S-110 Basic Wildland Suppression Orientation (2003) • S-190 Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior (2006) • S-260 Interagency Incident Business Management (2011) • S-290 Intermediate Wildland Fire Behavior (2010)
Other • Firefighter Math • Investigating Railroad Caused Wildfires • Mountain Flying Training 2013 • Using the Fire Incident Mapping Tool (FIMT) Tutorial
Blended Courses (http://training.nwcg.gov/blended.html): Blended learning combines online training and instructor led training. The online component of the course must be completed prior to attending the instructor led portion of the course. All online courses require the use of a course administrator. A course administrator must be secured before attempting any course work.
“M” Management Courses • M-581 Fire Program Management
“S” Suppression Skills Courses • S-130 Firefighter Training (2008) • S-230 Crew Boss (Single Resource, Blended) (2012) • S-231 Engine Boss (Single Resource, Blended) (2012)
Job aids or “how to” books are designed to be used in lieu of formal classroom training. Job aids are used by trainees to gain knowledge prior to completing a position task book and also by individuals qualified in a position as an aid or refresher in performing the job. These publications can be downloaded on the NWCG Web site at
Fire Management Today 32 process to NWCG Training results throughout the wildland firefight builds upon the original scenario in a performance-based system ing community, environmental in order to assist with the mastery that places safety and successful learning in the form of a job aid of new learning material. Often we performance as the highest priori should be used to cover the specif will build upon one scenario for ties. Clark and Harrelson in their ics of operation and maintenance an entire course in order to have 2002 work, Designing Instruction for one particular pump. a common incident for the entire That Supports Cognitive Learning class to relate to. Use a developing Processes, deal extensively with the An example of foundational far scenario while the lesson content is concept of dividing work into near- learning is the effective deployment being delivered (Ionas et al. 2012). and far-transfer tasks. They provide of a portable pump operation that Build the developing scenario to the following definitions: could entail multiple pumps, over establish context for the new lesson multiple elevation changes using material. Then, present a similar “A near-transfer task is one that hundreds of feet of water hose; scenario with differing environ is performed more or less the deployment thus requires complex mental elements for the students same way each time by follow hydraulic knowledge. Multiple sce to apply the new material. This is ing a series of prescribed steps. narios covering various levels of similar to the problem-based learn These tasks are procedural.... portable pump operation complex ing that Hong describes: “Problem In contrast, far-transfer tasks ity would be used to help develop a based learning is a curriculum do not have one invariant safe, successful performer. approach that helps the students approach. The practitioner must frame experiences through a series assess the environment and use Annotating the learning by the type of problem-solving activities” judgment to adapt guidelines of learning (near and far) and either (Hong 2002, p. 273). when performing far-transfer foundational or environmental will tasks.... The instructional meth provide a great deal of information At the end of this step, you should ods to ensure the transfer differ on how to design the lesson con have a learning path that is broken between near- and far-transfer tent. For instance: into tasks. Each task would have tasks; therefore, distinction various annotations such as near between the 2 types of tasks is • If it is environmental learning, or far foundational learning, or important” (Clark and Harrelson then make a job aid. environmental learning. You would 2002, p. 154). • If it is foundational learning, then be ready to review the existing then decide if it is near or far ILT course with the information It is helpful to annotate whether a learning. you have created. task lends itself to either founda º If it is foundational near tional learning or an environmental learning, then proceed with Review of the Existing job aid, which is a document or the tell–show–do process. Course for Currency device that assists in the perfor º If it is foundational far learn mance of one’s duties. An example ing, then determine what Review the existing course for out is a hydraulics calculator for experience will help achieve dated information or for problem computing pump pressure. Near- this far-learning task. Use areas. This can be accomplished transfer tasks are prime candidates goal-based scenarios to devel while other steps are being done. for job aid consideration. A portable op the learning process. One useful tool is feedback based water pump provides an example of on the evaluations and critiques of the difference between when a task Use the job analysis data to prepare the current ILT course, which will should be covered with WBT or ILT realistic case studies that will help often provide insight into content (foundational learning), or a job aid develop the students’ understand that needs review. If you have sub (environmental learning). The basic ing of the task. Use case studies ject matter experts help with the concept behind how portable water that mentally guide the student course revision, they can play a pumps work, how to operate them, through possible scenarios. role in finding the sources for new and how to maintain them is foun information that may replace out dational near learning. Because A developing scenario can be dated content. As you note where of the vast number of different very similar to a case study. The the existing ILT course information portable water pumps in operation context of a developing scenario falls along the learning path, you
Volume 73 • No. 2 • 2013 33 may notice that some areas lack learner as the primary driver. You Ionas, I.G.; Easter, M.A.; Miller, W.H.; content. This is where a gap analy may find that a task needs to have Neumeyer, G.M. 2012. Using open- source tools to design and develop the sis would be helpful. two components—one that is deliv online component of a blended-learning, ered online and the other that by instructor-led course. International necessity is ILT. Safety items and Journal of Designs for Learning. 3(1): Gap Analysis 12−26. tasks that need to be demonstrated Examine your detailed learning and assessed by an evaluator are Maddocks, P. 2002. Case study: Cisco path (with all the previous steps common multidimensional tasks. Systems ventures into the land of reus annotated) to help decide if there ability. 3 p.
While you may enter a course Hong, K.S. 2002. Relationships between conversion process with the solid students’ and instructional variables with expectation of converting a course satisfaction and learning from a Web- to WBT, keep what is best for the based course. The Internet and Higher Education. 5(3): 267–281.
Fire Management Today 34 Guidelines for Contributors Editorial Policy Fire Management Today (FMT) is an international quarterly magazine for the wildland fire community. FMT welcomes unsolicited manuscripts from readers on any subject related to fire management. Because space is limited, long manuscripts might be abridged (with approval by the author) by the editor; FMT also prints short pieces on topics of interest to readers.
Mailing Articles: Send electronic files by email or traditional or express mail to: USDA Forest Service General Editor Melissa Frey 201 14th Street, SW Washington DC 20250 Tel. 202-205-1090 Email: [email protected]
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