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COPYRIGHT AND USE OF THIS THESIS This thesis must be used in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. Reproduction of material protected by copyright may be an infringement of copyright and copyright owners may be entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright. Section 51 (2) of the Copyright Act permits an authorized officer of a university library or archives to provide a copy (by communication or otherwise) of an unpublished thesis kept in the library or archives, to a person who satisfies the authorized officer that he or she requires the reproduction for the purposes of research or study. The Copyright Act grants the creator of a work a number of moral rights, specifically the right of attribution, the right against false attribution and the right of integrity. You may infringe the author’s moral rights if you: - fail to acknowledge the author of this thesis if you quote sections from the work - attribute this thesis to another author - subject this thesis to derogatory treatment which may prejudice the author’s reputation For further information contact the University’s Copyright Service. sydney.edu.au/copyright Anzac Cinema: The Heroic Depiction of Australia’s Film Industry, 1906-1988 PETER MAGEROS B.A. (HONS) M.A. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2015 Statement of Authorship The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original, except as acknowledged in the text. The material has not been submitted, either in whole or in part, for a degree at this or any other university. PETER MAGEROS 2 ABSTRACT In 1915 Australia’s bush-bred soldier-warrior, the ‘Anzac’, wrote himself into history on the battlefields of Europe, earning a reputation as one of the world’s most fearsome and indefatigable fighters. Back home he was conscripted in an equally fierce cultural war as local film interests battled to keep Australian films on Australian screens. This thesis examines the historical prolificacy of Australian cinema to portray itself as heroic as the nation’s Anzac soldier, who is also commonly referred to as the ‘digger’. As such, the thesis aims to contribute to scholarship about the relationship between the Australian film industry and the national identity by examining how the cinema has at pivotal moments sought to incorporate the Anzac legend into its own identity. It is argued that Australian cinema has sought to depict itself in the ‘heroic’ image of the legend. This nationalist tendency was most apparent at moments of crisis for the production sector – the First World War, the arrival of sound cinema in the early 1930s and the period during and immediately after the Second World War. It is also argued that Anzac-themed films were the catalyst for the cultural nationalist-boom of the early 1980s. The main argument is that the Anzac legend was exploited at these pivotal moments as the film industry sought to re-establish or consolidate its presence in the domestic market when faced with the reality of Hollywood’s dominance. This idea of the ‘heroic film industry’ involved metaphorically aligning the fighting image of the ‘digger’ with the struggle of the film industry itself, culminating in a depiction for both that was interchangeable. This thesis examines a selection of Bush-Anzac-themed films released between 1906 and 1988, with each chapter focussing on a particular phase of the cinema. This is essentially an interventionist approach to the study of Australian film history. As such, it is involved in a 3 critical analysis of the films in question and discourse on the film industry, the result of which is a fresh approach to the relationship between cinema and mythology. 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Working towards a PhD is not something that is to be entered into without a healthy dose of self-belief, among other important qualities. I would like to also thank my supervisor Dr Keith Broadfoot for his guidance throughout my candidature at the University of Sydney, and his patience in reading through the seemingly countless chapter drafts that I have sent to him. In addition, I would also like to thank my associate supervisor Dr Bruce Isaacs for his efforts, particularly in helping me to develop some of the much earlier versions of the thesis. I extend this gratitude to others in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences for their encouragement and assistance, and I speak here in terms of both academic and administrative staff. I am just as grateful to the library staff at both the University of Sydney and at the New South Wales State Library where I spent many days and weeks undertaking research. As the fictional cinematic character Indiana Jones once stated: “Seventy per cent of all archaeology is done in the library – research, reading”. I would add that in the Humanities that figure is far closer to 100 per cent. I allowed myself to be guided by my research in formulating my central argument, as opposed to the other way around, and so the hours I put in at the library were well spent. It was within the countless columns of archival newspaper reviews and articles that I looked at, as well as in the film trade papers, that I first observed the tendency of the film industry to portray itself in the heroic image of the Anzac legend. I would like to thank the University of Sydney for awarding me an APA scholarship when I arrived here in mid-2011, enabling me to continue with postgraduate research studies that were commenced at Macquarie University. I would also like to acknowledge Griffith University where my post-graduate research interest in Australian film was first sparked in 5 2009 when I completed a Master of Arts degree. Furthermore, I am grateful for the tutoring opportunities that I have been given at the University of Sydney, Macquarie and Griffith universities, along with the University of New South Wales. Finally, I want to thank my parents for their ongoing love and support. I would also like to dedicate this dissertation to my late grandfather, Michael Mageros, who served with the Australian Army during the Second World War. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abbreviations/ Glossary of Terms 8 Introduction 10 The ‘Heroic Film Industry’ (1906-1988) Chapter 1 23 The Rise of the ‘Bushman-Soldier’ Chapter 2 44 On the Frontline with Frank Hurley Chapter 3 72 The Heroes of the Dardanelles Chapter 4 108 ‘Invasion’ Chapter 5 139 ‘A Gallant Stand’ Chapter 6 169 Hollywood or Bust Conclusion 199 The ‘Big’ Australian Picture Bibliography 209 7 ABBREVIATIONS/ GLOSSARY OF TERMS G.U.O. Greater Union Theatres. R.A.A.F. Royal Australian Air Force. A.I.F. Australian Imperial Force. ANZAC In the strictest sense, ‘Anzac’ stands for the Australian and New Zealand Army Corp, although the term in this thesis is used as a reference to the Australian Soldier. The ‘Digger’ A popular colloquialism for the ‘typical’ Australian Soldier. The Anzac legend The nationalist mythology that emerged from the trenches in Gallipoli in 1915 and which was also based on the Legend of the Bushman. The Bush legend The nationalist myth that emerged during the 1890s relating to the ‘typical’ Australian, and which was based on facts of the bush worker. Used as a means of distinguishing Australia from its British ancestry by the radical nationalist writers of the 1890s. Gallipoli This is a reference to both the military campaign in Turkey in 1915, and the myth of the Anzac that emerged from the same campaign. 8 Australasian Australasian Films Limited. Cinesound Cinesound Productions Limited, Australia’s most successful ‘studio’ formed in the early 1930s. The ‘combine’ A reference to the Australian film conglomerate formed in 1912 and which comprised of Australasian Films and Union Theatres. Columbia The Hollywood studio Columbia Pictures. Ealing The British film company, Ealing Studios. Eftee Eftee Film Productions, formed in Australia in the early 1930s. Universal A reference to the Hollywood film company, Universal Pictures. 20th century Refers to the Hollywood studio, Twentieth Century-Fox. ‘The Kelly Gang’ A reference to the first Australian feature film released in 1906, The Story of the Kelly Gang. The New Australian Cinema A term used to refer to the 1970s and 1980s feature film revival. The New Nationalism In the 1970s, the term ‘New Nationalism’ was coined to distinguish Australia from its British heritage. 9 INTRODUCTION: THE ‘HEROIC FILM INDUSTRY’ (1906-1988) This thesis challenges the idea that Australia’s film industry has historically sought only to ‘reflect’ ideas about Australian national identity1, finding that Australian cinema went further, seeking at times to incorporate the Anzac legend2 into its own image. The Australian film industry, it will be argued, routinely depicted itself in the heroic image of the legend, a tendency that was most apparent during moments of crisis for the production sector – the First World War, the arrival of sound cinema in the early 1930s and the period both during and after the Second World War. It is further argued that Anzac-themed films were the catalyst for the cultural nationalist-boom of the early 1980s. The Anzac legend was exploited at all of these pivotal moments as the film industry sought to re-establish or consolidate its 1 The term ‘national identity’ is used in this thesis to describe how a nation ‘sees itself’ and the conjunctive role of Australian film in expounding this national self-image. This is consistent with Richard White’s argument that all national identities are inventions (Inventing Australia: Images and Identity 1688-1980, Sydney: George Allen & Unwin, 1981), while Tim Rouse’s contention that “there are in fact no Australians; there are only ways of seeing people as Australians” is also a useful starting point (Australian Liberalism and National Character, Melbourne: Kibble Books, 1978: p.257).