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Gazetteer of Tenth Century Coin Hoards

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Gazetteer of Tenth Century Coin Hoards Durham E-Theses Money and Power in the Viking Kingdom of York, c.895 954 GOOCH, MEGAN,LAURA How to cite: GOOCH, MEGAN,LAURA (2012) Money and Power in the Viking Kingdom of York, c.895 954 , Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/3495/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk Abstract The aim of this thesis is to use numismatic evidence to help understand the political aims and achievements of the Viking kings of York, c.895‐954. A variety of numismatic techniques will be used and tested for their suitability as a means of historical enquiry. Due to the limitations of the documentary sources for this period, coins will be used to provide an insight into the political workings of this kingdom. Firstly, the iconography and epigraphy of coins made in Viking York will be used to investigate how the Viking kings attempted to legitimise their rule. Secondly, it will be asked whether these coins were produced in sufficient quantity to form a usable currency and how the volumes of these currencies compare with other contemporary coinages, such as those issued by the Anglo‐Saxons. Thirdly, to understand where the Vikings ruled and how effectively they could impose coin‐use upon their kingdom, the economic influence of the Viking Kingdom of York will be examined by studying the distribution of the coins which were made both in York, and in other kingdoms. Finally, the ways in which coins and other forms of money, such as hacksilver, were used within and between Viking kingdoms will be examined to understand how effectively the Viking kings ruled their economy. It is hoped that this will reveal and refine existing knowledge about the ways in which the kings of York gained and maintained political power in York for much of the tenth century. 1 Money and Power in the Viking Kingdom of York, c.895 – 954 Megan Laura Gooch This thesis is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History, Durham University September 2011 2 Contents List of Figures 6 List of Tables 10 List of Abbreviations 11 Statement of Copyright 13 Acknowledgements 14 Dedication 15 1. Introduction. The Viking Kingdom of York: Historical and Numismatic Approaches 17 The Inadequacy of the Documentary Sources 18 Numismatics as an Historical Source 24 Money and Power in the Viking Kingdom of York 32 2. How did the Viking kings of York Legitimise and Rule their Kingdom? 34 Introduction: The Legitimisation of Early Medieval Kingship 35 Religion and Religious Symbolism 35 Warfare 38 The Importance of Lineage 39 Legitimisation through Association with Romanitas 42 The Legitimisation of the Viking Kingdom of York: Discussion of the Numismatic 43 Evidence Numismatic Iconography as an Historical Methodology 43 Guthfrith (Guthred) 45 Siefred and Cnut 48 Æthelwold 59 The Swordless St Peter Coins 60 Rægnald 72 Sihtric and the Sword Coin Types 80 3 Æthelstan and the Later Anglo‐Saxon Kings of York 90 Olaf Guthfrithson 95 Olaf Sihtricson, Rægnald II and Sihtric I 99 Eric Bloodaxe 105 Conclusion 109 3. What was the Volume of Currency in the Viking Kingdom of York? 112 The Theory of Die Estimation 113 Undertaking a Die Study 120 Analysing the Results of a Die Study 125 Calculating a Die Estimate 131 Comparing Anglo‐Saxon and Viking Die Study Data 146 Conclusion 156 4. What was the Extent of Viking Kingdom of York? 158 The Documentary Evidence 159 Understanding the Evidence: Hoards and Single Finds 166 The Distribution of Viking‐Age Coins 176 Conclusion 209 5. How was Money used in the Viking Kingdom of York? 211 Theories of the Viking‐Age Economy 211 Identifying a Status Economy in York 218 The Bullion Economy 224 The Transition to a Coin‐Based Economy 236 Conclusion 244 6. Conclusion: Understanding Coins as Historical Evidence for Viking York 246 Numismatics as an Historical Source 246 Money and Power in the Viking Kingdom of York 248 4 Further Questions and Research 252 Appendix I: Swordless St Peter Classification and Dies 256 Appendix II: Die Link Diagrams for Viking Coins of York 257 Appendix III: Die Data and Calculations for Viking, Anglo‐Saxon and English Coin Types 262 Appendix IV: Gazetteer of Viking‐age hoards 271 Appendix V: Types of crosses used on Anglo‐Saxon and Viking coins 316 Bibliography 317 5 List of Figures Frontispiece Engraving by F. Tyler of the Harkirke hoard, taken from C.E. Blunt, B.H.I.H. 2 Stewart and C.S.S. Lyon, Coinage in Tenth Century England: From Edward the Elder to Edgar's Reform (Oxford: Published for the British Academy by Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 250. British Library, Harleian MS 1437, 128v‐129r 1.1 A Sword St Peter type coin 26 2.1 Portrait coins of Diocletian and Æthelstan 42 2.2 The variety of crosses on coins of Siefred and Cnut 50 2.3 Byzantine influences on Viking coin designs 52 2.4 Crosses on the coins of Cnut and Siefred 53 2.5 Biblical inscriptions on the coins of Cnut and Siefred 54 2.6 The sign of the cross on the Cunnetti coins of Cnut 55 2.7 Carolingian‐inspired lettering on the coins of Cnut and Siefred 56 2.8 Coin of Æthelwold 60 2.9 Keys on the Swordless St Peter coinage 64 2.10 Branch‐shaped symbols of the Swordless St Peter coins 64 2.11 Star symbol on Swordless St Peter coins and other media 67 2.12 The Karolus monogram on Swordless St Peter and Rægnald coins 69 2.13 Hand symbols on tenth‐century coins 73 2.14 Portraits on Roman, Anglo‐Saxon and Viking coins 76 2.15 Rægnald’s Bow and Arrow/Hammer type 77 2.16 The St Peter and Sihtric Sword types 82 2.17 The Sword St Martin type 87 2.18 The Anonymous and Rorivacastr Sword types 89 2.19 The main Anglo‐Saxon coin type of the tenth century 91 2.20 Æthelstan’s Totius Britanniae type 92 6 2.21 Tower and Flower types Anglo‐Saxon reverse designs of the tenth century 94 2.22 Olaf Guthrithson’s coins 97 2.23 Anglo‐Saxon style coins of the Viking kings of the 940s 100 2.24 The Standard symbol on coins 103 2.25 Triquetras on coins 104 2.26 The coins of Eric 107 3.1 Schematic illustration of how a coin is made using a hammer 115 3.2 Medieval woodcut illustrating a mint worker striking coins using a hammer 116 3.3 Two seemingly‐identical coins made from different dies 124 3.4 Schematic diagram of the die combinations in Olaf Sihtricson’s coinage 126 3.5 How to read a die link diagram 128 3.6 The obverse and reverse of a Swordless St Peter coin 129 3.7 Schematic die diagram for the Swordless St Peter coinage 130 3.8 York halfgroat dies dated c.1353 – 1355 136 3.9 Graph showing the estimated dies per year used for Viking coin types minted at 150 York 3.10 Graph showing the estimated dies per year used for Anglo‐Saxon coins types 153 from Edgar’s Reform, c.973 to the Norman Conquest 4.1 The location of Anglo‐Saxon forts or burhs 162 4.2 Map showing locations of meeting places and the dates of those meetings 163 between Vikings and Anglo‐Saxons in the tenth century 4.3 Map of Britain and Ireland showing the Five Boroughs, York and Watling Street 179 4.4 Map showing the distribution of Viking‐age hoards in Britain 181 4.5 Map showing the distribution of all Viking‐Age single‐finds 182 4.6 Maps showing the contents of Viking Age hoards in Britain: Anglo‐Saxon and 185 Northern Danelaw 4.7 Map showing Viking Age hoards in Britain containing coins produced in the 185 Southern Danelaw. 7 4.8 Maps showing the contents of Viking Age Hoards in Britain: Carolingian and 187 Islamic 4.9 Maps of hoard locations in the Irish Sea area: Bangor and Chester 189 4.10 A Map of Chester, showing the locations of the three hoards 190 4.11 Maps of hoard locations in the Irish Sea area: Harkirke and Dean 191 4.12 Map showing the distribution of hogback stones in Britain 193 4.13 The Cuerdale hoard and York 195 4.14 Map showing location of Bossall/Flaxton, York and Vale of York hoards 196 4.15 Maps showing single finds in Viking Age England: Anglo‐Saxon and Northern 199 Danelaw 4.16 Map showing single finds of coins produced in the Southern Danelaw in Viking 200 Age England 4.17 Map showing single finds of the Northern Danelaw, differentiated according to 202 coin type 4.18 Map showing distribution of styca finds from c.800 to c.867 203 4.19 Maps showing single finds in Viking Age England: Carolingian and Islamic 206 4.20 Map showing all Viking‐Age single finds with finds differentiated using colour to 208 show where they were minted 5.1 The linear model for Viking age economies 213 5.2 The simultaneous model for Viking‐age economies 215 5.3 The last Northumbrian and the first Viking coins of York 221 5.4 Map showing finds of non‐numismatic Viking‐age ornaments and ingots from 222 hoards and single finds 5.5 Coins which have been tested for metal purity 231 5.6 Map showing the distribution of single finds of coins which were made in the 234 Viking Kingdom of York 5.7 Chart showing the weight distribution of a sample of Anglo‐Saxon coins of 238 Edmund
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