THE OPEN DOOR: EARLY MODERN WAJORESE STATECRAFT AND DIASPORA A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN HISTORY AUGUST 2003 By Kathryn Gay Anderson Dissertation Committee: Leonard Y. Andaya, Chairperson Barbara Watson Andaya David A. Chappell Jerry H. Bentley Jonathan Okamura Abstract This study focuses on the relations between Wajoq, a confederative Bugis polity in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, and overseas groups ofWajorese migrants in Makassar, western Sumatra, the Straits ofMelaka and eastern Kalimantan during the century following the Makassar War (1666-1669). Itargues that these outlying communities interacted with the center in ways similar to those ofthe local constituents, and that the diaspora can therefore can be seen as part ofthe state. The ability ofthe Wajorese government to incorporate these groups rested on a long-standing mechanisms for holding its various components together and on its definition ofmembership within the state. Wajorese migrants exhibited remarkable versatility in adapting to local conditions in the areas where they settled. While each community developed along its own lines, they employed similar strategies. Foremost among these were intermarriage, diplomacy and warfare. The various communities also cooperated with each other by sharing intelligence, establishing a commercial code oflaw and providing military assistance. Such cooperation was facilitated by the Bugis concept ofpesse meaning solidarity or commiseration. Pesse was the cultural and emotional glue that bound the migrants to the homeland. It was therefore key to the maintenance oflinks between the constituents ofWajoq. Relations between Wajorese migrants and their homeland intensified in the early eighteenth century when successive rulers in Wajoq deliberately sought to harness the military and commercial potential ofthe migrant communities. This effort culminated in the l730s when the exile La Maddukelleng returned from eastern Kalimantan, assumed the leadership ofWajoq, rallied the support of the Wajorese communities in Makassar and Sumbawa and attempted to expel the Dutch from South Sulawesi. While ultimately unsuccessful, his campaign exemplifies the manner in which the overseas Wajorese remained an essential part ofWajoq well into the eighteenth century. iii Table ofContents Abstract " ", .iii List ofMaps vii List ofAbbreviations " '" viii Chapter I: Introduction 1 Concepts ofStates .3 Bugis Statecraft 8 Wajorese Political Structure 12 Sources 20 The Study .32 Chapter 2: Wajorese History and Migration .35 Physical and Social Geography 35 Early Wajorese History , 40 Shifting Balance ofPower .43 The Makassar War .46 Wajorese Impressions ofthe War 51 Attack on Wajoq 53 The Torment ofWajoq 58 Chapter Conclusion 60 Chapter 3: Wajorese Society and Entrepreneurship in Makassar 62 Kampong Wajoq 64 The Wajorese Administration in Makassar 66 Commerce '" " 69 Wajorese Commercial Law 72 The Commercial Practices ofTo Anko and To Uti. 77 The Flowering ofWajorese Commerce 82 Chapter Conclusion 86 iv Chapter 4: The Wajorese in Western Sumatra 88 The Political Geography ofWestern Sumatra 91 The Arrival ofDaeng Maruppa 93 Sultan Endey, Daeng Mabela and the Bugis in the Service ofthe EIC 96 Daeng Mabela and the Bugis in the Service ofthe VOC 106 Daeng Mabela's Descendants and Their Legacy 108 Chapter Conclusion 114 Chapter 5: The Wajorese in the Straits ofMelaka 1I7 The Political Geography ofthe Malay Peninsula and Surrounding Areas 118 The Riau Bugis 121 Daeng Matekko 123 Commerce and Conflicts with the Dutch 129 The Riau Bugis in the Malay World 131 The Wajorese in Eighteenth Century Siak.. 134 Chapter Conclusion 13 8 Chapter 6: The Wajorese in Eastern Kalimantan 141 The Political Economy ofthe Eastern Coast ofKalimantan 141 The Earliest Histories ofthe Wajorese in Eastern Kalimantan 144 Kutai. 145 Pasir 149 La Maddukelleng 151 The Violence ofLa Maddukelleng's Conquest.. 153 La Maddukelleng's Legacy: Views from East Kalimantan 154 Pegatan 159 A Wajorese Itinerant in Eastern Kalimantan 161 The Rise to Power 166 Chapter Conclusion 168 v Chapter 7: The Repatriate Arung Matoa 171 The Role ofExpatriates in Wajorese Society 171 The Return ofLa Maddukelleng 174 Acquittal by the Tellumpocco 176 Counterattack 192 Civil War 195 Chapter Conclusion 198 Chapter 8: Conclusion .200 Unifying the Constituents , 200 The Open Door 207 Conclusion , 210 Appendix: The Origin Myths ofWajoq 211 Glossary .214 Bibliography 216 vi Lis/afMaps Map 1: Wajoq 18 Map 2: South Sulawesi. 36 Map 3: Western Sumatra 90 Map 4: The Malay World 119 Map 5: The Makassar Strait.. 142 vii List of Abbreviations ANRI Arsip Negara Republik Indonesia BKI Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie CRL Center for Research Libraries (Chicago) EIC (English) East India Company IG De Indische Gids JAS The Journal ofAsian Studies JMBRAS Journal of the Malay Branch ofthe Royal Asiatic Society JSBRAS Journal ofthe Straits Branch ofthe Rnyal Asiatic Society JSEAH Journal ofSoutheast Asian History JSEAS Journal ofSoutheast Asian Studies MBRAS Malay Branch ofthe Royal Asiatic Society RIMA Review ofIndonesian and Malaysian Affairs TAG Tijdschrift van het Aardrijkskundige Genootschap TBG Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde TNI Tijdschrijft voor Nederlandsch-Indie SFR Sumatra Factory Records SWK Sumatras West Kust VOC Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (United Dutch East India Company) viii Chapter 1 Introduction A number ofnineteenth century observers noted the tendency among the people ofWajoq, a Bugis polity in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, to migrate. Among them was B. F. Matthes, one ofthe leading Dutch philologists of South Sulawesi languages upon whose pioneering efforts virtually all subsequent textual research has been based. He described the people ofWajoq as "born traders [who] wander around everywhere in the archipelago and settle in those places where they can find the most advantage and at least be guaranteed some protection by the local ruler against piracy, which at home leaves much to be desired.'" This statement implies that Wajorese emigration resulted from a lack in the Wajorese system of government, specifically the absence ofprotection from piracy. What I would like to suggest in this study is that Wajorese emigration resulted not so much from a lack but rather from particular features in Wajorese government and society that encouraged migration. Figuratively speaking Wajoq had an open door that allowed people to come and go as they pleased. This facilitated the establishment ofa far-flung network ofWajorese migrants and merchants across the Southeast Asian archipelago. When I began this study I intended to investigate the development ofthe Wajorese diaspora as an aspect ofchange in Wajoq from the Makassar War (1666-69) until the Wajorese repatriate La Maddukelleng attempted to expel the Dutch from South Sulawesi in the 1730s. While I have remained consistent in terms ofsubject matter during the long course ofits preparation, my understanding ofWajoq as a polity and its relationship with the Wajorese overseas' settlements bas changed. Five years ago I saw Wajoq as an insular agrarian community and Wajorese migration as a result ofchanges in the Indonesian Archipelago during the early modern era, especially the advance ofthe United (Dutch) East indian Company (VOC), and I intended to study them separately. During the course ofmy research, however, it I B. F. Matthes, "Eenige opmerkingen omtrent en naar anleiding van dat gedeelte van Dr. J. J. de Holander's Handleiding bij de Beoefening der Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Oost-Indie, hetwelk handelt over het Gouvemement van Celebes en Onderhoorigheden," BKI, 19 (1872), p. 18. This translation is from David E. Sopher, The Sea Nomads: A Study o/the Maritime Boat Peoples o/Southeast Asia, Singapore: National Museum Singapore, 1977, pp. 159-160 which led me to this reference. , Throughout this study "overseas" is used loosely to describe areas at a distance from a given reference point. Thus the Wajorese community at Makassar is referred to as an overseas settlement even though it is technically not overseas from Wajoq. became apparent that the Wajorese homeland and overseas communities were linked by a sense of community, family ties, commercial relations, a representative council and a legal code. Family relations, money, leaders and weapons crossed Wajoq's territorial boundaries to such an extent that these boundaries appeared irrelevant. This is not to say that the boundaries were not important to Wajorese politicians because quite the opposite is true. Rather, it is that the Wajorese people within and outside these boundaries were significant to the state and its goals. In an attempt to understand the relationship between Wajoq and outlying communities of Wajorese migrants, I sought parallels in existing literature about mobile social formations including diasporas, semi-diasporas, deterritorialized nation states, transnations and ethooscapes. I generally found these concepts restrictive because oftheir tendencies either to describe a basically apolitical social formation, such as a cultural or religious diasporas, or to regard spatial dispersal as a feature of late modernity. Indeed, much ofthis discourse positions diasporas squarely in the late modern era.' While I use the term diaspora to denote a social formation consisting ofdispersed migrant groups that both