On the Treachery and Emancipatory Power of Chicana Iconographies

Home , Ester Hernandez, New tribalism, Santa Barraza

Notes

Introduction: On the Treachery and Emancipatory Power of Chicana Iconographies

1 . For an excellent discussion of the differences between Chicana and Anglo feminisms see Marta Cotera’s (1997) revision of the movements’ history in “Feminism: The Chicano and Anglo Versions—A Historical Analysis.” 2 . Aztlán is the Chicano mythical homeland that was lost in 1848 with the Treaty of Guadalupe, by virtue of which Mexican citizens who chose to remain in the north of Mexico lost their citizenship, their country, their land, and eventually their language. 3 . For an analysis of Chicana spiritualism as a means for social and gender liberation, see Laura Pérez’s (2007) Chicana Art , Lara Medina’s (2006) “Nepantla Spirituality,” Castañeda-Liles’s (2008) “Our Lady of Guadalupe and the Politics of Cultural Interpre- tation,” Jeanette Rodriguez’s (1994) Our Lady of Guadalupe , and Aída Hurtado’s (2003) “Transgressive Worshiping.” 4 . Another label used to group US feminists of color is “multiracial feminism.” Maxine Baca Zinn and Bonnie Thornton Dill (1996) offer an excellent discussion on the distinguishing features of “multiracial feminism” in “Theorizing Difference from Multiracial Feminism.” They emphasize the pervasive nature of race in contemporary US society and at the same time acknowledge how race shapes and is shaped by a variety of other social relations. 5 . According to Anzaldúa and Moraga (1981), a “theory in the flesh means one where the physical realities of our lives—our skin color, the land or concrete we grew up on, our sexual longings— all fuse to create a politic born out of necessity” (23). It attempts to describe “the ways in which third world women derive a feminist political theory specifically from their racial/cultural back- ground and experience” (xxiv). 6 . This idea is further developed in “Postmodernism, ‘Realism’ and the Politics of Identity,” where Moya dismantles misappropria- tions of Chicana “theory in the flesh” by Donna Harraway and Judith Butler. Both critics deny social location through a relativ- istic approach, which dissolves the analytical utility of categories 156 Notes

such as race, class, gender, and sexuality. As Alexander and Mohanty (1997) argue, the problem with this approach is that “If we dissolve the category of race, for instance, it becomes difficult to claim the experience of racism” (xvii). 7 . Alexander and Mohanty (2010) use the term “radical” to dis- tinguish between “the global as a universal system, and the cross-national, as a way to engage the interconnections between particular nations” (25). 8 . In 1939, Erwin Panofsky defined iconography as “the branch of the history of art which concerns itself with the subject matter or meaning of works of art, as opposed to form.” See Kleinbauer and Slavens (1982). 9 . See Richard Nebel (1995). 10 . According to Spitta (2009), “It is not the awed subject, but rather the misplaced object that causes a rift in understanding” because it unsettles “the subject/object binary that structures our certainty” (5). 11 . The farm workers lived in tremendous poverty, making as little as $2,500 per year. They demanded the same opportunities that other Americans had: minimum living wage, education for their children, decent housing, and life without fear ( Chicano 1996). 12 . For an excellent discussion of the impact of the Virgin of Guadalupe on Mexican-America communities see Elizondo’s works La Morenita (1980 ) and The Virgin of Guadalupe (1999), as well as G. Espinosa, V. Eliozondo, and J. Miranda, Latino Religions and Civic Activism (2005). 13 . Grewal and Kaplan (1994) locate postmodern practices within a complex and dynamic model of social, economic, and political relations, which they call scattered hegemonies. Their approach offers a productive model to feminist analyses and their critique of Western hegemonies. In their words: “Without an analysis of transnational scattered hegemonies that reveal themselves in gender relations, feminist movements will remain isolated and prone to reproducing the universalizing gesture of dominant Western cultures” (17). 14 . Originally, Nahuatl-speaking people used the word in the six- teenth century to define their situation vis-à-vis the Spanish colo- nizer. Nepantla is a seminal anchor in Anzaldúa’s borderlands theory since it is fundamental to the notion of “crossing borders” that is at the root of her feminist writing. 15 . See Alison Brysk and Gershon Shafir (2004) for an excellent discussion about the connection between globalization and the citizenship gap. Notes 157

16 . In particular, I will focus on Trujillo’s (1998) essay “La Virgen de Guadalupe and Her Reconstruction in Chicana Lesbian Desire.”

1 Chicana Theory in the Flesh: A Bridge for the Transnational Feminist Movement

1 . In particular see: Kum-Kum Bhavnani, John Foran, and Priya Kurian, Feminist Futures: Re-imagining Women, Culture and Development (2003); C. Mohanty and J. Alexander, “Introduction” to Feminist Genealogies, Colonial Legacies, Democratic Futures XIII–XLII (1997); Sangtin Writers and Richa Nagar, Playing with Fire, Feminist Thought and Activism through Seven Lives in India (2006); and Shari Stone-Mediatore, “Storytelling and Global Politics,” Reading Across Borders: Storytelling and Knowledges of Resistance (2003). 2 . Recent example of this approach is Vicky Funari, Sergio de la Torre, Grupo Factor X, Colectivo Chilpancingo, and Promotora por los Derechos de las Mujeres’s Maquilapolis: City of Factories (2006). The filmmakers brought together factory workers in Tijuana and community organizations in Mexico and the United States to depict globalization through the eyes of the women who live this experience. 3 . Rather than assuming “commonality of oppression,” Mohanty defines “solidarity” as communities who “have chosen to work and fight together,” where diversity and difference are central val- ues (2003, 7). 4 . For a history of the book, see the introduction of the 1988 Spanish version of This Bridge , Esta puente mi espalda: Voces de mujeres tercermundistas en los Estados Unidos , edited by Cherríe Moraga and Ana Castillo. 5 . For the most recent history of Chicana genealogy, see Maylei Blackwell’s Chicana Power: Contested Histories of Feminism in the Chicano Movement (2003). 6 . See Ester Hernández’s (1972) essay “La Chicana y el Movimiento” and Anna Nieto Gómez’s (1974) “Chicana Feminism” in Alma M. García’s Chicana Feminist Thought: The Basic Historical Writings . 7 . Her now classic Diosa y Hembra (1976) accounts even in more detail the significant role Mexican and Chicana women played in US and Mexican society. 8 . E. Hernández, personal communication with the artist in spring 2007. I had the opportunity to interview the artist at her house, in the Mission neighborhood of San Francisco in February of 2007. 158 Notes

This interview reminded me that even though the origins of any artistic endeavor are essentially irrecoverable, art always emerges from a concrete encounter with time, space, emotions, memory, and hopes. In this interview Hernández talked about those concrete encounters with “the real” and linked them to the broader context of what it meant for her to be a Chicana woman, the daughter of an immigrant family, a feminist mestiza, and a social activist making art in the United States since the 1970s. 9 . Ometeotl is the Aztec divinity that reunited the feminine and masculine principles of the universe. For further explanation about the connection between the Virgin of Guadalupe and Ometeotl see León Portilla (1963). 10 . The images examined here are reproduced with the permission of the artist, who holds the copyright. These images cannot be reproduced by any informational system without permission from the artist. The author is grateful to Ester Hernández for her permission to reproduce them in this publication. 11 . Ester Hernández. Lecture presented at Kenyon College, spring 2009. 12 . According to the Aztec myth, Coatlicue becomes pregnant with Huitzilopochtli , the sun/war god, by swallowing a ball of feath- ers while sweeping the Serpent Mountain. Huitzilopochtli is born fully armed and slays his sister, Coyolxauqui (the moon), and her four hundred brothers (the stars). The importance of the myth, cited by Pat Mora (1996) in a note to her poem “Coatlicue ’s Rules,” becomes apparent when Chicana writers connect myth to history. For example, in “El mito azteca” Cherríe Moraga explains that her art emerges from the Coatlicue ’s wound: “That moment when brother is born and sister is mutilated by his envy”. 13 . Hernández. Lecture presented at Kenyon College, spring 2009. 14 . Ibid. 15 . “La Llorona Project, San Francisco.” The professional website of Juana Alicia, artist and educator Juana Alicia, 2003–2007. Web, accessed November 5, 2010. http://www.juanaalicia.com/about/ . 16 . “Oral History Interview with Juana Alicia 2000, May 8 and July 17.” Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institute . Web, accessed July 12, 2010. http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections /interviews/oral-history-interview-juana-alicia-13573 17 . Ibid. 18 . Ibid. 19 . Ibid. 20 . Ibid. Notes 159

21 . Ibid. 22 . Ibid. 23 . Fresco buono is an ancient painting technique that, practiced all over the world, has endured for centuries. 24 . “Oral History Interview with Juana Alicia 2000, May 8 and July 17,” Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institute . Web, accessed July 12, 2010. http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections /interviews/oral-history-interview-juana-alicia-13573 25 . See Miguel León-Portilla’s Tonantzin Guadalupe (2000) and Richard Nebel’s Santa María Tonanztin (1995) for an in-depth discussion of the fusion of these icons. 26 . For a full image of the mural see https://www.google.com/search? q=juana+alicia&hl=en&client=firefox-a&hs=LHJ&rls=org.mozi lla:en-US:official&channel=np&prmd=imvns&tbm=isch&tbo=u &source=univ&sa=X&ei=YKzQT43KEKeO0QG_j520DQ&ved =0CHoQsAQ&biw=1594&bih=739 27 . “La Llorona Project, San Francisco.” The professional website of Juana Alicia, artist and educator. Web, accessed November 5, 2010]. http://www.juanaalicia.com/sections/recently-completed . 28 . “Women and Water—A Truly Global Struggle.” World Development Movement. Enviro-News. Web. Accessed Nov 5, 2011. www. enviro news.com/ . . . /women_and_water_a_truly _global_struggle.html. These women have become highly politi- cized because they are losing access to the most essential resource in additional to their lands.

2 Nepantlismo, Chicana Approach to Colonial Ideology

1 . See Estrada de Torres’s (2000) México, Ayate de la Virgen de Guadalupe , in particular, pages 11–65. 2 . Ibid. 46–47. 3 . See Miguel León-Portilla’s Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind . 4 . Coatlicue (1963) is the Aztec goddess of life and death, mother of all deities, including Huitzilopochtli and her sister Coyolxauhqui , the goddess of the moon, whom his brother dismembered. 5 . Artist statement Consuelo Jiménez Underwood: Undocumented Borderlands exhibition, California State University, Fresno, September 2011. 160 Notes

6 . I am grateful to art historian Guisela Latorre for sharing her 2010 unpublished article with me, “A Visual Borderlands: Chicana/ Latina Artists as the New Mestizas,” presented at NACCS, Seattle, Washington, April 7–10, 2010. This essay is now published with a different title. See in Works Cited, Guisela, Latorre. “Mestiza Aesthetics: Anzalduan Theories on Visual Art and Creativity,” in Women in the Arts: Dialogues on Female Creativity, ed. Diana Almeida and Paula Elyseu Mesquita (New York: Peter Lang, 2012). 7 . According to Mignolo (2000), this gnosis is “conceived at the conflictive intersection of the knowledge produced from the perspective of modern colonialisms (rhetoric, philosophy, science) and knowledge produced from the perspective of the colonial modernities in Asia, Africa, and the Americas/Caribbean” (11). 8 . I am grateful to Yreina D. Cervántez for sharing and discussing her artwork with me in the summer of 2009, in Oaxaca, Mexico. In my interview with her, she emphasized the connection between the spiral and the circular conception of time, which, on the one hand, defies the ideas of linearity and progress so attached to modernity, and on the other hand, embraces a nonhierarchical notion of epistemic resonance. 9 . I am grateful to Santa Barraza for sharing and discussing her artwork with me in an interview we had in the summer of 2008. Códices, she explains, are Aztec hieroglyphs that documented their history, myths, rituals, cosmology, and religion. 10 . This association of the Virgin with Mayahuel comes from the fact that Our Lady left her imprint on maguey fiber, on Juan Diego’s tilma (cloak). See Herrera-Sobek’s (2000) Santa Barraza book, in particular, pages 5–6. 11 . In her early years Menchú helped with the family farm work, either in the northern highlands where her family lived, or on the Pacific coast, where both adults and children went to pick coffee on the big plantations. She soon became involved in social reform activities through the Catholic Church and became prominent in the women’s rights movement when still only a teenager. After a guerilla organization established itself in the area, the Menchú family was accused of taking part in guerrilla activities and her father, Vicente, was imprisoned and tortured for allegedly having participated in the execution of a local plantation owner. After his release, he joined the recently founded Committee of the Peasant Union (CUC). In 1979, Rigoberta too joined the CUC. Soon after, her brother and mother were arrested, tortured, and killed by the Notes 161

army. In 1981, Menchú had to go into hiding in Guatemala and then flee to Mexico. That marked the beginning of a new phase in her life as the organizer of resistance to oppression in Guatemala and the struggle for Indian peasant peoples’ rights abroad. Over the years, Menchú has become widely known as a leading advo- cate of Indian rights and ethno-cultural reconciliation, not only in Guatemala but in the Western Hemisphere. (http://nobelprize .org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1992/tum-bio.html). 12 . My gratitude to Liliana Wilson for sharing and discussing her artwork with me in the summer of 2009, in Oaxaca, Mexico. 13 . To support this project, Villa Montalvo, an arts center located on a 175 acre estate in Saratoga, California, partnered with MACLA (Movimiento de Arte y Cultura Latino Americano) a community-based arts organization in San José, California, that primarily serves Latina/o and Chicana/o populations. 14 . Santa Barraza speaks about the Nepantla Project in Herrera-Sobek’s (2000) book in pages 6–8. 15 . I am grateful to Kenyon College for funding a research trip in the summer of 2008 to the Gloria Anzaldúa archives housed at the Benson Library at the University of Texas, Austin. 16 . Paper presented at El Mundo Zurdo: International Conference on the Life and Work of Gloria Anzaldúa, San Antonio, Texas, May 15–17, 2009. 17 . My gratitude to my daughter, Catalina Odio, whose sensibility and insight were instrumental in developing these final remarks. 18 . Jiménez Underwood. Communication with the artist, March 15, 2011. 19 . Jiménez Underwood’s statement. Undocumented Borderlands exhibition, September 2011. Brochure. Center for Creativity and the Arts, California State University, Fresno, California. 20 . Jiménez Underwood. Communication with the artist, March 15, 2011. 21 . Jiménez Underwood’s statement. Undocumented Borderlands exhibition.

3 Spiritualities of Dissent and Storytelling in Chicana Literature

1 . On the value of naming in feminist liberation theology see Elizabeth Schussler Fiorenza’s (1996) The Power of Naming: A Concilium Reader in Feminist Liberation Theology . 162 Notes

2 . Other feminist theologians who make a similar connection between history and spirituality are Ursula King, Elsa Tamez, and Linda Hogan. 3 . For examples of the diverse role the Virgin plays in Latina cultural productions, see Marie B. Christian’s study Belief in Dialogue: U.S. Latina Writers Confront their Religious Heritage (2005); Jacqueline Doyle’s “Faces of the Virgin in Sandra Cisneros’ Women Hollering Creek ” (2004); and Román-Odio’s “Chamanismo y sexualidad en la escritura de mujeres hispanas” (2002). 4 . See “Historia del culto guadalupano” by Fidel de Jesús Chauvet. 5 . For instance, Jacques Lafaye, Jeanette Favrot Peterson, and William Taylor show that in the colonial period the Creoles appropriated the image to justify the conquest and to glorify Mexico. The Mexican national independent movements also began and culminated under the banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe, first in 1810 with father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and, a century later, in the 1910 Mexican Revolution with Pancho Villa and Emilio Zapata, who appropriated the icon. Beyond the Mexican-US border, Chicano communities also claimed social, religious, and national rights under her banner, as exemplified by César Chávez’s social activism in the 1960s and by Chicanas, who began their recreation of this iconography in the 1970s and continued down to the present day. 6 . The myth is cited by Mora in a note to her poem “Coatlicue ’s Rules: Advice from an Aztec Goddess.” 7 . This apparition occurred in June 1992 in Watsonville, California, a US-Mexican town of cannery workers. 8 . For examples, see the works by Rubén Martínez, Luis Alfaro, Rosario Ferré, Denise Chávez, and Jeanette Rodriguez. The lat- ter explains that Guadalupe’s image “is carried by the oppressed, the disposed, the outlaw, and the repressed” (Rodriguez 1996, 128), linking his work with gang youth to the Indian Juan Diego.

4 Globalization and Chicana Politics of Representation

1 . Some ideas from this chapter come from my essay “Transnational Feminism, Globalization and the Politics of Representation in Chicana Visual Art,” in Transnational Borderlands in Women’s Global Networks: The Making of Cultural Resistance (2011). Notes 163

2 . I am referring to the method of oppositional consciousness dis- cussed in chapter 1 . See Sandoval’s Methodology of the Oppressed (2000 ) and “Re-entering Cyberspace: Science of Resistance” (1994); also the concept of “artivism” that Sandoval and Latorre develop in “Chicana/o Artivism: Judy Baca’s Digital Work with Youth of Color” (2008). 3 . The images examined here are reproduced with the permission of the artists, who hold the copyright. These images cannot be reproduced by any informational system without permission from the artist. The author of this essay is immensely grateful to Ester Hernández, Consuelo Jiménez Underwood, and Marion C. Martínez for their permission to reproduce them in this publication, as well as to Mike McCardel, Kenyon College technology specialist, for his help in the manipulation of the images. 4 . See Gloria Anzaldúa’s reinterpretation of nepantlism in Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (1999), 99–113. Other useful explorations of the term are in Miguel León-Portilla, Endangered Cultures (1990), 10–18, and in Lara Medina “Nepantla Spirituality: Negotiation Multiple Religious Identities among U.S. Latina,” (2006). 5 . In Global Woman: Nannies, Maids and Sex Workers (2003), B. Ehrenreich and A. Russell Hochschild offer an excellent perspective on the effects that global capitalism has on women’s lives all over the world. 6 . Hernández’s artwork has been exhibited throughout the United States, Latin America, Europe, Africa, Japan, and Russia and is included in the permanent collections of the National Museum of American Art—Smithsonian, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, Mexican Museum–San Francisco and Chicago, and the Frida Kahlo Studio Museum in Mexico City. She is the recipi- ent of numerous fellowships and awards from the California Arts Council, Brandywine Institute, Galería la Raza, and the San Francisco Foundation. For the past eleven years she has been teaching at Creativity Explored of San Francisco, a visual art center for developmentally disabled adults. 7 . Personal communication with the artist and lecture presented at Kenyon College in the spring of 2009. After years of living and working in various rural areas of central and northern California, Hernández moved into the San Francisco Bay area in the early 1970s and returned to school, eventually studying Chicano/a studies and art at UC Berkeley. 164 Notes

8 . Personal communication with the artist. 9 . Spearheaded by President Ronald Reagan, enacted by President George H. W. Bush, and modified by President Bill Clinton, NAFTA has endured a number of changes since it was first officially signed in 1992. Despite these changes, which largely appeared inevitable, there was a wide breadth of opposition, primarily in the United States and Canada. Concerns included a debilitated labor force, environmental issues, and reduced sov- ereignty. Nonetheless, NAFTA was signed because the benefits ostensibly outweighed the risks; although some sectors may have suffered, overall economic growth was all but a certainty, and the establishment of a unified North American economy was impera- tive in the wake of manifesting globalization. For a general view of the history of NAFTA see “Understanding NAFTA,” accessed March 9, 2009.. http://www.naftaworks.org/ 10 . According to Graham Purchase in Anarchism and Environmental Survival , NAFTA could cause “the destruction of the ejidos (peasant cooperative village holdings) by corporate interests, and threatens to completely reverse the gains made by rural peoples in the Mexican Revolution.” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki /NAFTA – cite_note-39 11 . To understand the impact that NAFTA has had on Mexican workers and immigration see Elisabeth Malkin’s New York Times article, “Nafta’s Promise, Unfulfilled,” accessed March 23, 2009. http:// www.nytimes.com/2009/03/24/business/worldbusiness/24peso. html . 12 . Lecture presented at Kenyon College, spring 2009. 13 . I would like acknowledge research assistants, Tia Butler and Alex Zendeh, whose tremendous skills were invaluable for researching the Arizona Immigration Law and NAFTA. 14 . For a perspective on a scholarly consensus against the constitu- tionality of Arizona’s Immigration Law and for a view on the constitutional lawyers who say the law is unconstitutional see: Jim Malone, staff writer, July 8, 2010, VOA News, accessed July 17, 2010, http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/Arizon a-Immigration-Law-Causes-Constitutional-Clash – 98049004 .html. 15 . For a discussion on how federal law preempts the Arizona Immigration Law, or makes it unconstitutional, see Aaron Hedge, staff writer, July 9, 2010, Post Independent , accessed July 17, 2010, http://www.postindependent.com/article/20100709 /VALLEYNEWS/100709886. Notes 165

16 . See Luz Calvo, “Art comes from the Archbishop. The Semiotics of Contemporary Chicana Feminism and the Work of Alma Lopez” (2004). 17 . Personal communication with the author, March 21, 2010. 18 . See Wallerstein’s The Modern World-System for connections between the idea of the global designs of coloniality and the expansion of capitalism. 19 . Personal communication with the author, summer 2008. 20 . The controversy arose from one among the eight pieces that Alma López included in the show, Our Lady (1999), which portrays a 14” x 17.5” digital image of Our Lady of Guadalupe as a young, self-confident Latina (Raquel Salinas), wearing a mantle, not of stars but of stone, and a garland of roses covering her chest and abdomen. Our Lady largely overshadowed the work of the other artists in the exhibit. Archbishop Michael Sheehan of New Mexico accused López of portraying the religious icon as a “tart” and insisted the work be taken out. Catholics protested and orga- nized prayer vigils against the photo, which they viewed as a des- ecration. Based on its finding and overall analysis, the Museum of New Mexico Sensitive Materials Committee recommended that all the artwork in the Cyber Arte exhibition remain on public view for the duration of the exhibition. See “OUR LADY by Alma Lopez Triggers Controversy in Santa Fe” ( Arts Wire CURRENT http://www.artscope.net/NEWS/new04172001–3. shtml . April 17, 2007) accessed November 11, 2008.

5 Queering the Sacred: Love as Oppositional Social Action

1 . The epigraph in Moraga’s essay is Ricardo Bracho’s question, “How will our lands be free if our bodies aren’t?” (1993, 145). This link between sexuality and nation is a foundational principle in a queer Aztlán. 2 . Some ideas developed here came from my chapter “Queering the Sacred: Love as Oppositional Consciousness in Alma López’s Visual Art” in Alicia Gaspar de Alba’s and Alma López’s book Our Lady of Controversy: Alma López’s Irreverent Apparition (2011). 3 . Sandoval connects these US feminists of color through the notion of differential consciousness. In particular, see Methodology of the Oppressed (2000), 151–53. 166 Notes

4 . For a history of the movement see chapter 1 in this book. 5 . See Chela Sandoval’s “Re-entering Cyberspace: Science of Resistance,” (1994), in particular 88–89. 6 . To mention a few examples, see Ana Castillo’s Goddess of the Americas/La Diosa de las Americas: Writings of the Virgin of Guadalupe (1996); Sandra Cisneros’ short story collection, Women Hollering Creek and Other Stories (1991); Yolanda Lopez’s visual series on the Virgin of Guadalupe: Victoria F. Franco: Our Lady of Guadalupe (1978); Margaret F. Stewart: Our Lady of Guadalupe (1978); Portrait of the Artist as the Virgin of Guadalupe (1978); Nuestra Madre (1985–1988); Madre Mestiza (2002); Virgin at the Crossroads (2002); and most of Ester Hernández’s artwork. These writers and artists offer new ways of understanding gender, body, and spirituality and challenge an Anglo-European feminist discourse, which has maintained a minimalist and dualistic discourse about Hispanic feminisms with the formula “marianismo/ machismo.” 7 . The controversy surrounding López’s images is nowhere else made more visceral than in the exhibit Cyber Arte: Tradition Meets Technology , launched by the Museum of International Folk Art (MOIFA), in Santa Fe, New Mexico, in 2001. For an in-depth discussion of the controversy, see Gaspar de Alba and López’s book Our Lady of Controversy (2011). 8 . For a comprehensive view of Chicana spirituality see Laura Pérez’s study Chicana Art: The Politics of Spiritual and Aesthetic Altarities (2007). 9 . See León-Portilla’s useful discussion of Valeriano’s manuscript in Tonantzin Guadalupe: Pensamiento náhuatl y mensaje cristiano en el Nican Mopohua (2000), 19–47. For another account of the origin and impact of the Nican Mopohua , see Richard Nebel’s study, Santa María Tonantzin: Virgen de Guadalupe (1995), 167–269. 10 . For a history of the impact of the apparition on the Mexican consciousness, see Lafaye’s Quetzacóatl y Guadalupe: La formación de la conciencia de México (1983). 11 . López phone interview with the author, November 13, 2008. 12 . For this and other images by López, see www.almalopez.com 13 . López phone interview with the author, November 13, 2008. 14 . Ibid. 15 . This idea is described in one of Anzaldúa’s papers entitled “Nepantla, the theory and the Manifesto,” (2004), currently Notes 167

housed at the Benson Latin American Collection, at University of Texas, Austin. 16 . López phone interview with the author, November 13, 2008. 17 . Ibid. 18 . Nikki Sullivan calls this type of strategy a “queer practice” in Critical Introduction to Queer Theory (2003), 42–43. 19 . For a discussion of how Chicanas transgress such opposition, see chapter 2 .

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Index

Entries in italics refer to illustrations. Adelita, 30, 62 , 152 “Nepantla, The Theory and aesthetic systems Manifesto,” 65–66 Aztl án and, 126–27 nepantla and, 51–52 , 54–57 , of disruption and continuity, 91 , 65–66 , 73 , 152 96 , 153 new mestiza consciousness and, of survival, 72 116 , 149 see also embodied aesthetics queer readers and, 120 African Americans, 21 , 48 , 126 This Bridge Called My Back , Alarc ó n, Norma, 16 , 84–85 10–11 , 21–23 , 31 , 48–49 Albuquerque Journal , 114 Wilson and, 64–65, 69 Alexander, Jacqui, 77 Aquino, Mar í a Pilar, 80 alternative epistemologies, 16–17 , Archuleta-Sagel, Teresa, 114 26 , 47–49 , 121 , 142 Arendt, Hannah, 76 Althusser, Louis, 121 Arizona, 129 Álvarez, Gloria Enedina Immigration Bill 1070, 106–8 “Come Union,” 60 arrebato (rupture, fragmentation), 67 Anderman, Jens artivism, 14 Images of Power, 6–7 Asian Americans, 21 Annals of San Francisco, The , 58 autohistorias , 66–67, 152 “another way of seeing,” 66–67 , 74 Aztec culture, 3 , 28 , 37 , 43 , 48 , 52 , Anzald ú a, Gloria, 2 , 8 , 13 , 27 , 31 , 62–63 , 84–86 , 95 , 96 , 124–25 121 , 130–31 see also specific deities and Barraza and, 61–64 mythical figures Borderlands/La Frontera, 10 , Aztl á n, 3, 116–17 , 119–20 , 32–33 , 55–56 , 60 , 86 , 147 123 , 126–27 , 129–31 , Cerv á ntez and, 60 140–42 , 153 “ Coatlalopeuh , She Who Has Dominion over Serpents,” Baca, Elena, 114 85–87 Baca Zinn, Maxine, 31 Collected Papers , 65–66 “Political Familialism,” 30–31 Entre Amé ricas: El Taller Bambara, Toni Cade, 21–22 Nepantla , 64–65 Barraza, Santa, 2 , 12 , 57 , 61–64, globalization and, 101 73–74 , 152 methodology of the oppressed Homage to My Mother Frances , and, 147 62–63 Mignolo on, 51 Rigoberta Mench ú , 63–64 “Nepantla, Creative Acts of Barthes, Roland Vision,” 56 A Lovers’ Discourse , 134 184 Index

Beauvoir, Simone de, 13 , 77–78 Candelaria, Cordelia, 44 The Second Sex , 78 “At Sixteen,” 44 Bechtel Corporation, 45–46 “La Llorona,” 44 Beltr á n Peredo, Elizabeth, 46 “Portrait by the River,” 44 Bhabha, Homi K., 9 capitalism, 1 , 2 , 3 , 32 , 45–47 , 99 , Bingemer, Mar ía Clara, 77 101 , 115 , 154 body, 3, 15–16 , 24–25 , 47–48 , 64 , Carrasco, David, 52 129–30 , 145–46 Castillo, Ana, 2 , 78 , 153 see also embodied aesthetics Goddess of the Americas , 13 , 77 , Bolivia, 45, 46 , 47 83–86 , 88 , 91 Bolla ín, Ic í ar, 46 Massacre of the Dreamers , 94 Even the Rain , 46 Catholicism, 5–6 , 95 , 111–12 , 139 Bolvig, Axel, 6 cenote, el (dreampool), 66–69 , border crossings, 3 , 13 , 16 , 153 74 , 152 Anzald úa and, 147 ceremony, 38–39 , 43 Barraza and, 62–64 Cerv á ntez, Yreina D., 2 , 12 , 71 , globalization and, 101 , 104–6 73–74 , 151 Hern á ndez and, 37–38 , 47–48 , Beyond Nepantla , 58 , 60–61 104–9 , 149 Mi Nepantla , 58 , 59–60 Jim é nez Underwood and, 69–73 , Nepantla , 57 , 58 111 The Nepantla Triptych , 12 , 57–61 , Juana Alicia and, 47–48 58 , 147 nepantla and, 52 , 56 Chalchiuhtlicue (Aztec goddess of strategies of, 57, 61 rivers), 45–46 Wilson and, 69 Chavez, Cesar, 40 borderlands, 9–10, 14–16 , 136 , Ch ávez Leyva, Yolanda 146–48 “Listening to the Silences,” 119 Anzald ú a and, 10 , 55 , 147 Chicanismo, 123, 140 , 146 , 152 Barraza and, 64 Chicano community, Chicana globalization and, 16 , 116 lesbians and, 140–42 Hern á ndez and, 33 , 37 , 150 Chicano cultural nationalism, 29 , Jim é nez Underwood and, 71–74 31 , 39–40 , 127 , 138 , 146 Mart í nez and, 113 , 115 Chicano indigenist aesthetics, 44–45, undocumented, 69–73 150 borderlands methodology, 1 , 16–17 , Chicano Movement, 3 , 8 , 29–30 , 101 146 border patrol, 92 Chile, 64 , 67 , 69 , 151 border thinking, 12 , 57–61 , 71 , 112 , chili, 37 , 109 , 112–13 151 Christianity, 54, 112 , 123 , 125 , Buddha, 39 153–54 Burk, Ronnie, 13 , 85 , 88 , 153 see also Catholicism “Retablo,” 90–91 Chrystos, 24–25, 48 butterfly, 128 “I Walk in the History of My People,” 24 California Proposition 187 , 59 , 67 Cisneros, Sandra, 2 , 13 Calvo, Luz, 122, 132 civilized/wild binary, 58 , 61 Index 185 civil rights movement, 2 , 22 cultural difference, 9 , 12 , 16 Clavo, Luz, 108 “Cyber Arte” Tradition Meets Coatlalopeuh (Aztec serpent Technology (MOIFA exhibit, goddess), 85–87, 96 2001), 114 Coatlaxopeuh , 13–14 Coatlicue (Aztec mother of all), 37 , Davalos, Karen Mary 39 , 44 , 55 , 85–91 , 96 , 109 , Yolanda M. L ó pez , 16 111–13 davenport, doris, 25 , 48 “ Coatlicue state,” 55, 68 , 87 Day of the Dead, 38 , 125 c ó dices , 12 , 61–63 , 152 decolonization, 5 , 19–21 , 39 , 47 , Cogan, Orly, 72 55 , 60 , 63 , 69 , 73–74 , 87 , 120 , Collins, Patricia Hill, 121 137–39 , 145–46 colonial difference, 17 , 57 , 149 “decolonizing the imagination,” 57 , 63 colonialism/colonization, 9–14 , 39 , deconstruction, 58 , 121 , 122 , 133 , 139 46 , 48 , 63 , 73–74 , 85 , 116 , democratics, 121, 133 , 139–40 146–49 Diego, Juan, 83–84 , 89–90 , 124 , border thinking and, 57–61 134–35 , 146 globalization and, 12 , 14 , 101 , differential consciousness, 120–24 , 102 , 117 , 151 142–43 internal, 31 differential movement, 89 , 121–22 , Jim é nez Underwood and, 70 , 71 , 133–34 , 139 109–13 , 151 disappeared, 38–39 nepantla and, 10–11 , 53–55 , 147 discursive colonization, 77–78 storytelling and, 77 disidentification, 127, 138 Virgin of Guadalupe and, 83 , 96 , domesticity, 37 , 43 , 45 , 71–72 , 139 108 , 139 , 146 domestic violence, 41 , 44 conciencia de la mestiza double consciousness, 48 , 67 , 130 (consciousness-in-opposition), dualistic thought, 86 , 142 87 , 121 , 142–43 Dunnington, Jacqueline Orsini see also differential consciousness; Viva Guadalupe , 83 mestiza consciousness Dur á n, Diego conocimiento (new knowledge), 56 , Historia de las Indias de Nueva 66–68 Espa ñ a , 53 corn, 37 , 104 D ü rer, Albrecht, 59 Cort és, Hern á n, 28 , 52 Cort é z, Constance, 109–10 electronic waste, 114–16 , 150–51 Cotera, Marta, 30 Elizondo, Virgilio, 82–83 , 125 “Our Feminist Heritage,” 30 embodied aesthetics, 128–29 , 138 , 142 Coyolxauhqui (Aztec moon endangered cultures, 58 goddess), 37 , 60 , 66 , 68–69 , environmental degradation, 43 , 88–89 , 131 , 133 45–70 , 102 , 112–17 , 148–51 , “ Coyolxauhqui process,” 74 153–54 Coyote , 109 epistemic agency, 22 , 25 , 147 critical mestizaje , 33 , 116 , 148 Espinosa, Gast ó n, 83 Crusade for Justice (Colorado), 29 Esquivel, Julia, 82 Cuautht é moc, Aztec emperor, 52 Estrada de Torres, Cristina, 52–53 186 Index

Eurocentrism, 60 , 123 , 147 gender/gender roles, 3 , 20 , 61–62 , Eve, 79 , 80 , 137–38, 146 72 , 116–17 , 122 , 129–30 , 139 , Executive Order 9066, 25 152–53 exile, 65 , 67 , 69 , 151–52 globalization, 1–5 , 9 , 14 , 16 , 42 , experiencing subjects, 22 , 76 , 92 44–47 , 99–102 , 104–17 , 145 , 148–54 facultad , 66–68 , 152 global-local relationship, 5–6 , 151 family, 30–31, 36–37 , 39 , 136 , 137 glyphs, 59–60 farm workers, 7–8 , 102–6 G ó mez Pe ñ a, Guillermo strike (1965), 7–8 “The Two Guadalupes,” 91–92 feminism, 2–5 , 10–11 , 13 , 19–23 , gossett, hattie, 25 , 48 25–32 , 42–49 , 148–49 , Grewel, Inderpal, 9 152–54 Guatemala, 38–39 , 64 Chicana feminists, 2–5 , 10–11 , Guijosa, Marcela, 85 , 153 19–21 , 28–32 , 72 , 96–97 , 154 “Feminista, librepensadora y Chicanas as bridge and, 19–22 , guadalupana,” 95 154 queer feminists, 120 , 152 Halkes, Catharina, 80 solidarity and, 20 , 47–48 , 154 Hall, Stuart, 24 , 34 transnational, 5 , 19–23 , 39 , 109 , “The Local and the Global,” 4 147 , 148–49 Haraway, Donna, 28 US feminists of color, 4 , 22–23 , “A Manifesto for Cyborgs,” 28 25–26 , 28 , 31–32 , 121 Hern á ndez, Ester, 2 , 7–8 , 11 , 14 , US third world feminism, 3 , 4 , 32–40 , 43 , 47–49 , 101–2 , 116 , 10–11 , 26 , 32 , 42–49 , 65 , 149 134 , 142 BuddhaLupe , 39 white feminists, 4 , 20–22 , 27–31 , La Ofrenda , 138 146 Sun Mad , 102–3 feminist spirituality, 77 , 85 , 87 , Sun Raid , 102–6, 103 89–91 , 95–97 , 114, 121 Tejido de los desaparecidos , 38 Feminist Writers’ Guild Community, Vestido de mujer immigrante , 27 34–38, 35 first/third world and north/south La Virgen de Guadalupe divide, 71 , 112 , 115 , 151 defendiendo los derechos de los folk art, 95 , 113 Xicanos , 33–34 Frente Auté ntico del Trabajo, 41 Wanted , 106–9 , 107 Hern á ndez, Leticia, 45 Gadsden Purchase, 129 Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel, 7 Gamboa, Diane, 72 Highwater, Jamake Garc í a Canclini, Né stor The Primal Mind , 60–61 La globalizaciö n imaginada , 99 history, 42 , 47 , 63 , 74 , 76 , 148 , 150 Gaspar de Alba, Alicia, 68 , 126–30 homeland, 36–38, 47 , 126–27 , 130 , Our Lady of Controversy , 16 149 “There Is No Place Like Aztlá n,” homophobia, 22 , 123 126–28 hooks, bell, 27 Gebara, Ivone, 77 Ain’t I a Woman , 26–27 Index 187

Huerta, Dolores, 30 Kaplan, Caren, 9 , 16 , 20 , 32 , 116 Huichol Indian, 69 , 109 Kim-Puri, H.J., 21 , 100–101 Huitzilopochtli (Aztec sun/war god), kites, 38–39 66 , 88–89 , 127 , 131 Hurtado, A í da, 2 , 26–27 land, 111–13 , 119–20 hybridity/hybridization, 16 , 37 , 65 , Landeros, M ó nica, 72 67 , 86 , 152 Lasso de la Vega, Luis, 124 Latorre, Guisela, 14 , 57–59 iconography Walls of Empowerment , 44–45 borderlands and, 9–10 Leimer, Ann Marie, 72 Chicana, 2–5 Le ó n-Portilla, Miguel, 11 , 125 defining, 6, 145–46 Endangered Cultures , 53–54, 58 identity formation, 3–4 , 10 , 61–63 , lesbianism, 119–20 , 133 , 136–42 , 66 , 69 , 74 , 87 , 130–31 , 152 152–53 immigration, 32 , 36–38 , 128 , 149 liberation, 77–78 , 84–86 , 101 , 147–49 globalization and, 116–17 liberation Mariology, 77 illegal/undocumented, 67 , 72 , 92 , lily, 69 104–9 linear perspective, 59–60 “in-between” culture, 111 Llorona, La (weeping woman), 32 , “indeed mestizo ” art, 61 43–44 , 62 , 150 , 152 India, 45–47 local, 14 , 24 , 32 , 44 , 48 , 60 , 62 , 113 , indigenous culture, 38 , 43 , 52–54 , 116 , 149 , 153 70 , 71 , 83 , 86 , 88 , 109 , 111 , L ó pez, Alma, 2 , 6 , 15–16 , 114 , 120 , 113 , 126 122–36 , 152–53 see also specific cultures and 1848 Chicanos in the U.S. after mythical figures the Signing of the Treaty of Ipalnemohuani (Giver of Life), 124 Guadalupe, 126 Iturbide, Agust í n de, 7 December 12 , 131–34 , 132 Diego , 134–36 Jackson, Andrew, 61 Mar í a de los Angeles , 130–31 Japanese Americans, 25 , 48 Our Lady , 6 Jesus Christ, 90 , 95 Santa Ni ñ a de Mochis , 125–26 , Jim é nez Underwood, Consuelo, 2 , 128–30 14 , 56 , 57 , 69–74 , 101 , 109–13 , L ó pez, Yolanda, 2 116 , 151 Lorde, Audre, 25 , 48 , 121 Undocumented Border Flowers, Sister Outsider , 27 70 , 70 Los Alamos National Laboratory Undocumented Borderlands, (LANL), 113 70–73 los Santos Mycue, Victoria de Vestido de Amé rica/Tepín, 109–13 , “A Litter Prayer,” 138 110 love, 133–35 , 140 , 142 , 153 John, gospel of, 81 Lugones, Mar í a, 27 Johnson, Elizabeth Pilgrimages/Peregrinajes , 27 Truly Our Sister , 78–79 Juana In é s de la Cruz, Sor, 30 machismo , 29 Ju á rez murders, 45–47 maguey plant, 62–63 , 90 188 Index

Malinche, La, 28 , 30 , 62 , 88 , 138 , 152 miscegenation, 11 , 53 , 111 Manifest Destiny, 126–27 , 129–30 Mixed Tech Media, 113 maps, 111 , 128 Moallem, Minoo, 16 maquiladora industry, 46–47 , 73 Mocihuaquetzqu (Aztec women who marginalized, 76–77 , 100 , 101 , 112 , die in childbirth), 43 116 , 123 , 134–35 , 145 , 149 , 154 Mohanty, Chandra T., 3–5 , 19–20 , marianistas , 13 , 40 , 77–78 65 , 77–78 Marian tradition, 78–82 , 89 , 94 , 95 , Montoya, Juana Alicia, 11 , 32 , 137 40–49 , 150 Marquardt, Marie F., 5 Las Lechugueras , 41 , 43 Mart í nez, Marion C., 2 , 14 , 101 , La Llorona’s Sacred Waters , 113–16 , 150–51 43–47 , 150 Compassionate Mother, 114–15 , A Woman’s Place/El lugar de la 115 mujer , 41–42 “Mixed Tech Media” and, 113 Mora, Pat, 13 , 85 , 153 Massey, Doreen, 116 , 151 “ Coatlicue ’s Rules,” 88 Matovina, Tim, 83 Moraga, Cherr í e, 4 , 13 , 21–26 , 85 , Mayahuel (Aztec goddess of the 91 , 119–20 , 148 , 153 maguey), 62 “La g ü era,” 25–26 Mayan culture, 48 , 63 , 90 “El mito azteca,” 88–89 McDannell, Colleen, 82 “Our Lady of the Cannery Medina, Lara, 11 , 54 , 60 Workers,” 89 memory, 47, 64 , 128 “Queer Atzlá n,” 15 Mench ú , Rigoberta, 63–64 “theory in the flesh” and, 106 Mesa-Bains, Amalia, 34 , 36–37 , 71–72 This Bridge Called My Back , mestiza consciousness, 32–40 , 60 , 10–11 , 21–23 , 31 , 48–49 62–63 , 66, 84 , 89 , 106 , 116 , Morelos, Jos é Mar í a, 7 121 , 136 , 146 , 149–50 mother, 2–3 , 11, 43–44 , 130 , 136 , Chicana archetypes and, 62 , 152 137 , 139 , 140–41 mestizaje , 17 , 30 , 42–43 , 66–67 , “mother who is not one but many,” 89–91 , 135 , 148–49 , 150 62 , 152 see also critical mestizaje ; spiritual Moya, Paula M.L., 4 , 23–24 mestizaje Mujeres Unidas y Activas , 41 meta-ideologizing, 121 , 133 , 139 Museum of International Folk Art methodology of the oppressed, (MOIFA), 114 121–22 , 133 , 139 , 147–49 Mexican/American Progressive nagvioli flower, 84 Organization, 102 Nahuatl culture, 13–14 , 44 , 51 , 54 , Mexico, 37, 45–48 , 62 , 80 , 128 124–25 Revolution, 7 , 30 , 35–37 Nahuatl language, 13 , 83 , 84 , 96 War of Independence, 7 , 30 narrative, 36, 37 , 39 , 43 , 48 , 76 see also Spanish Conquest ; see also storytelling US-Mexico borderlands Narv á ez, P á nfilo de, 52 Mignolo, Walter, 1 , 12 , 51 , 57 , 112 nation-building narratives, 130 , 142 The Darker Side of the nation-state, 20–21 , 63–64 , 73 , Renaissance , 51 116 Index 189

Native American women, 21 , 24–25 , patriarchy, 22, 85 , 88–89 , 112 , 123 , 48 , 58–59 127 , 131, 133 , 137–38 , 141 , Navarro, Clara Luz, 41 153–54 neo-colonization, 37 , 154 P é rez, Emma, 15 , 57 , 137–38 nepantla/nepantlismo, 10–14 , 26 , 146 P é rez, Laura, 16 , 59 , 109 Anzald ú a and, 12 , 54–57 , 64–67 , Chicana Art, 16 69 , 147 , 152 P é rez-Torres, Rafael, 33 , 116 Barraza and, 12 , 61–64 , 74 pesticides, 41 , 150 Cervá ntez and, 57–61 , 73–74 , Pinkola Est é s, Clarissa, 13 , 85 , 153 147 “Guadalupe: the Path of the defined, 11 , 51–52 , 65–66 Broken Heart,” 92–93 globalization and, 14 , 101 “Mi Guadalupe,” 93–94 Jim é nez Underwood and, 72–74 , place of origin, 126–31 , 145–46 111 , 151 Plan Espiritual de Aztl á n, El, 119–20 , Le ó n-Portilla on, 53–54 127 Medina and, 54 Posada, Jos é , 62 six elements of, 65–66 primitivism, 114 Spanish Conquest and, 51–57 “punctum,” 134 technology of crossing and, 74 “theory in the flesh” and, 26 queering the sacred, 15 , 120 , “thinking-space of possibility” 122–24 , 126 , 133 , 135–36 , 138 , and, 51 142–43 , 152, 153 , 156 Wilson and, 12, 66–67 , 69 , queer practice, 15 , 136 151–52 Quetzalco á tl (Aztec feathered New Mexico, 29 , 113 , 129 serpent), 59–60 , 84 new tribalism, 66 Qui ñ onez, Noemi, 44 Nican Mopohua , 124–25 , 131 , 135 , 142 racial profiling, 107–9 , 117 , 149 Nieto G ó mez, Anna, 30–31 , 40 racism, 5 , 14 , 19–20 , 22 , 25 , 27 , La Feminista , 31 31 , 34 , 38 , 44 , 58 , 92 , 96 , 101 , North American Free Trade 114–16 , 126 , 151 , 154 Agreement (NAFTA), 103–5 Ramirez, Catherine S., 113–14 Rasquache, 71–72 ollin glyph, 59 , 60 Raza Unida Party, 29 Omecihuatl (Aztec deity of duality), Rebolledo, Tey Diana, 43 , 44 84 Reid, Barbara E. Ometeotl (Aztec divinity reuniting Taking up the Cross, 81–82 masculine and feminine), 34 , 84 Renaud, Susana oppositional ideology, 121–22 Toto lo que viene del jard í n da oppositional social action, 131–36 , flores y todas las flores son 140 buenas, 138 Ortega, Mariana resistance, 63 “Being Lovingly, Knowingly Domesticana and, 72 Ignorant,” 28 globalization and, 101 O’Sullivan, John, 129 hybridization as, 65 Otherness, 48, 55 , 121 , 150 loving, 120 190 Index

resistance —Continued see also resistance; spiritual spirituality as, 71 , 112 activism storytelling and, 76 Spanish conquest, 7 , 48 , 51–53 , 83 , technologies of, 121–22 , 133–34 , 124 , 135 139–40 , 143 , 153 Spanish culture, 43 , 86 , 124 Virgin of Guadalupe and, 83 , Spelman, Elizabeth, 27 91–94 Inessential Woman, 27 Review, The , 129 spiral, 60 Ringgold, Faith, 72 spiritual activism, 56–57 , 64–65 Rivero, Eliana S., 43 , 44 spirituality, 63–64 , 68–69 , 71 , 75–78 , Rodriguez, Jeanette 80 , 91 , 93–97 , 101 , 112–14 , Our Lady of Guadalupe , 80–81 , 123–24 , 130 , 146 , 153 83 , 97 defined, 75 Rolhieser, Ronald, 94 “of dissent,” 13 , 85 , 146 , 153 Holy Longing , 75 spiritual mestizaje , 1 , 5 , 12–13 , 61 , Romo-Carmona, Mariana 82 , 101 , 108 , 111 , 116 Compañ eras: Latina Lesbians, 119 Spitta, Silvia, 7 roses, 124 , 142 Misplace Object , 7 Roth, Benita Spivak, Gayatri Separate Roads to Feminism , 28 “Can the Subaltern Speak?,” 113 Rothenberg, Paula R., 73 stars, 69 , 84 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 61 Stevens, Evelyn, 13 , 77 Rowe, William Stone-Mediatore, Shari, 22 Images of Power , 6–7 Reading across Borders , 76 storytelling, 22–24, 26 , 36–37 , 48 , Sagarena, Roberto Lint, 52 75–78 , 148 sage, 60 subaltern knowledge production, saguaro, 70 1 , 12 , 55–57 , 61 , 76 , Sald í var-Hull, Sonia, 39 113 , 134 Salinas de Gortari, Carlos, 104 Sulliman, Jael, 46 Sandoval, Chela, 3–4 , 14 , 31–32 , 87 , Sullivan, Nikki, 136 121 , 133–34, 143 , 148 San Joaquin Valley, 7–8 , 102 territorialism, 111 scattered hegemonies, 9 , 46 terrorist state, 64, 67 , 69 , 74 , 151 seashells, 60, 68 Tertullian, 79 semiotics, 121, 133 , 139 Texas, 62–63 serpent/snake, 68 , 86 textiles/weaving, 38 , 69–72 , 109 , 151 sexism, 22 , 114 , 123 Tezcatlipoca (Aztec god of night sexual abuse, 82 sky), 60 sexuality, 122, 138 , 140–41 , 152–53 theory in the flesh, 4 , 10–11 , 23–29 , silence, forced, 119 32 , 43 , 47–48 , 77 , 95 , 106 , 137 , sirena (mermaid), 132–33, 134 148 , 150 , 154 Smith, Barbara, 25 , 48 “thinking space of possibilities,” 55–57 social activism, 39 , 47 , 74 , 91–94 , third space, 91 , 147 96 , 123 , 131–36 , 146 , 148 , third world, 21 , 23 , 100 , 106 , 114 150 , 154 alliances and, 31 , 39 , 41 , 45–47 , 49 Index 191

feminism and ( see under Valeriano, Antonio feminism) Nican Mopohua , 124 , 131 “ in the first world,” 121 , 126–27 V á squez, Manuel A., 5 tilma (cloak), 124 , 131, 142 Villa, Pancho, 7 Tlecuauhtlacupeuh (original name of virginity, 2, 4 , 80 , 93 , 137–38 Virgin of Guadalupe), 83 Virgin of Guadalupe, 1–9 , 146–47 Tonacatlalpan (Land of Sustenance), ancient mythology and, 80 124 , 130 Anglo culture and, 91–92 Tonantzin (Our Mother), 13–14 , 44 , Anzald ú a and, 85–87 84–91 , 124 , 130–31 , 135 , 137–38 Aztl án and, 127 Torre ó n, Angeles, 82 Barraza and, 62, 152 tortilla, 71, 151 Burk and, 90 transculturation, 11 , 53 , 111 Cerv á ntez and, 60 Transnational Feminist Movement, Chicana feminism and, 13–14 , 17 19–23 , 39 , 47 , 148–49 embodied spirituality and, 94–95 transnationalism, 1–3 , 5–6 , 12 , 14 , empowerment and, 6 , 9 , 80–81 , 32 , 38–49 , 61 , 64 , 71 , 116 , 85 , 87 , 91 145 , 150 farm workers and, 7–8 see also globalization globalization and, 5–6 , 14 treachery of images, 6–7 Hern á ndez and, 1–2 , 32–34 , Treaty of Guadalupe, 126–27 , 129 , 37–40 , 106–9 , 149–50 145 historical context of, 7 , 9 , 83–85 Tree of Life, 62 iconography of, 5–6 Tree-Virgin, 90 Jim é nez Underwood and, 109 , Trin Minh-ha, 121 111–13 , 151 True Colors program, 40 Juana Alicia and, 32 , 44 Trujillo, Carla, 15 , 120 , 122–24 , La Llorona and, 44 152–53 L ó pez and, 15, 120 , 122–26 , “Chicana Lesbians: Fear and 129–36 , 142–43 , 152–53 Loathing in the Chicano marianistas and, 13 , 77–80 Community,” 140–42 Mart í nez and, 114 , 151 “La Virgen de Guadalupe and Moraga and, 89 Her Reconstruction in Lesbian nepantlismo and, 10 Desire,” 136–38 original narrative of, 13 , 124–25 “Writer’s Note,” 138–40 Pinkola Est é s and, 92–94 popular religiosity and, 82–83 United Electrical Workers Union, 41 queering image of, 15 , 120 United Farm Workers, 29–30 resistance and, 91–94, 153 US-Mexico borderlands, 9–10 , spiritual feminism and, 95–97 51–52 , 55 , 69–73 , 101–2 , storytelling and, 77 109–10 , 125 Tonantzin-Coyolxauhqui- US Supreme Court, 108 Coatlicue and, 84–91 , US women of color, 4 , 21–23 , 25–32 , 149–51 , 153 55 , 65 , 74 , 121 , 146 Trujillo and, 15 , 120 , 122–24 , feminism and ( see under 136–40 , 142–43 , 152–53 feminism) Virgin-Sequoia tree, 89 192 Index

Wahla, Yoruba chief, 58 wounded knee, 24–25 , 48 , 76 , 149 water rights, 45–47 Wuthnow, Julie, 24 Western culture, 20 , 31 , 58–59 , 61 , 99 , 110 , 112 , 152–53 Xochitlalpan (Flowering Land), 124 wild/civilized binary, 61 wildflowers, 70–71 Yamada, Mitsuye, 25 , 48 Wilson, Liliana, 12 , 57 , 64–69 , 73 , Yarbro-Bejarano, 133 74 , 151–52 Ybarra-Frausto, Tom á s, 71 Eva , 68 , 68 , 69 yucca, 70 Los inmigrantes, Los deportados , 67 Mekaya , 67–68 Zapata, Emilio, 7 Mujer dividida , 67 , 68 Zhao, Michael Transformació n , 68–69 “E-dump,” 114 Wilson, Pete, 59 Zum árraga, Juan de, 84 , 124