UNIVERSITATEA DIN ORADEA
ANALELE UNIVERSITĂŢII DIN ORADEA
Seria GEOGRAFIE
TOM XXV Nr. 2/2015 (December)
Editura Universităţii din Oradea
UNIVERSITATEA DIN ORADEA DEPARTAMENTUL DE GEOGRAFIE, TURISM ŞI AMENAJAREA TERITORIULUI
ANALELE UNIVERSITĂŢII DIN ORADEA
Seria GEOGRAFIE
TOM XXV Nr. 2/2015 (December)
Editura Universităţii din Oradea ANALELE UNIVERSITĂŢII DIN ORADEA, SERIA GEOGRAFIE ANNALS OF UNIVERSITY OF ORADEA, GEOGRAPHY SERIE
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ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409
C O N T E N T S
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CORE AREA OF ILE-IFE, NIGERIA Adewale Olufunlola YOADE (Art#252101-681) ...... 137
TOWARDS A RESILIENT ENERGY SYSTEM IN EASTERN ROMANIA – FROM FOSSIL FUELS TO
RENEWABLE SOURCES Alexandru BĂNICĂ, Marinela ISTRATE (Art#252102-682) ...... 148
THE USAGE OF TECHNOLOGIES IN TERRESTRIAL MEASUREMENTS FOR HAZARD MAPS Dan VELE, Mircea ALEXE, Ioan STOIAN (Art#252103-671) ...... 157
THE DYNAMICS OF THE MINOR RIVERBED OF TESLUI RIVER IN RELATION TO THE HUMAN
FACTOR (1910-2008) - CASE STUDY: REȘCA - FĂRCAȘELE DE JOS SECTOR Gabriel VELCU, Gabriela Adina MOROȘANU (Art#252104-684) ...... 168
THE NATIONAL STRUCTURE OF MARAMUREŞ COUNTY AT THE 20TH OCTOBER 2011 CENSUS George-Bogdan TOFAN, Bogdan-Nicolae PĂCURAR, Adrian NIŢĂ (Art#252105-680) ...... 177
THE REGRESSION MODEL IN THE FORECAST OF TRAVEL DEMAND IN AKURE, NIGERIA Ogunbodede E.F., Ale A.S. (Art#252106-688) ...... 186
WINE ROAD - AN INSTRUMENT FOR THE VALORISATION OF WINE TOURISM POTENTIAL.
CASE STUDY: ALBA COUNTY VINEYARDS Mihaela UNGUREANU (Art#252107-683) ...... 195
ANALYSIS OF URBAN SPRAWL PHENOMENON IN BATNA CITY (ALGERIA) BY REMOTE
SENSING TECHNIQUE Hadda DRIDI, Abdelhalim BENDIB, Mahdi KALLA (Art#252108-689) ...... 211
TYPOLOGY OF WOODEN CHURCHES IN THE DRAINAGE BASINS OF MUREȘ AND ARIEȘ, ALBA
COUNTY Ștefan BAIAS, Maria GOZNER, Grigore Vasile HERMAN, Florin Miron MĂDUȚA (Art#252109-696) ...... 221
CONTRIBUTION OF REMOTE SENSING IN THE ANALYSIS OF THE DYNAMICS OF CHOTTS AND
SEBKHAS: CASE OF THE ENDOREIC AREA OF GADAIN (NORTHEAST OF ALGERIA) Rabah BOUHATA, Mahdi KALLA, Aida BENSEKHRIA (Art#252110-690) ...... 234
AN ASSESSMENT OF HOUSING AND NEIGHBOURHOOD QUALITY CONDITION IN ILESA,
NIGERIA Adewale Olufunlola YOADE, Olabisi Omowumi ADEYEMI, Babawale A. ADEYEMI (Art#252110-690) ...... 242
THE INFLUENCE OF FIRMS STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ON THE DEGREE OF
AGGLOMERATION ECONOMIES ENJOYED AMONGST FIRMS IN THE LAGOS REGION, NIGERIA Adejompo FAGBOHUNKA (Art#252112-691) ...... 253
USING GIS FOR CAVES MODELLING AND ANALYSIS. THE STUDY CASE OF ANINA MINING
AREA (BANAT MOUNTAINS, ROMANIA) Laurențiu ARTUGYAN (Art#252113-698) ...... 261
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL SYSTEM’S VULNERABILITY OF THE EASTERN REGION OF PETROŞANI DEPRESSION AND GENERATION OF CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTS BY THE COAL EXPLOITATION ACTIVITY Ciprian NIMARĂ, George-Bogdan TOFAN (Art#252114-685) ...... 269
CRUISE SHIP TOURISM ON THE DANUBE RIVER. CASE STUDY: CAPITALIZATION OF DELTAIC
TOURISM POTENTIAL Elena IRINCU, Rodica PETREA, Norbert RACZ, Angela BULZAN (SAV), Luminița FILIMON (Art#252115-700) ...... 276
USING CARTOGRAPHIC DOCUMENTS AND GIS FOR FOLLOWING THE EVOLUTION OF THE
PONDS - AREA OF CEFA AND MĂDĂRAS COMMUNES - (BIHOR, ROMANIA) Ribana LINC, Liviu BUCUR (Art#252116-701) ...... 287
Book review by Martin OLARU (Art#252217-686) ...... 299
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 137-147 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252101-681
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CORE AREA OF ILE-IFE, NIGERIA
Adewale Olufunlola YOADE Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife, Nigeria, e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: The study examined physical and environmental characteristics of traditional core area of Ile-Ife with a view to providing a framework for effective implementation of readjustment and revitalization in the study area. The findings revealed that the environment is not good enough for human habitation due to lack of abasic amenities in the area. The study concluded that while housing facilities in the core area of Ile-Ife, like many others in Nigeria were in deplorable state, there is urgent need to attend to the concerned area for better living of the inhabitants of the area.
Key words: physical, core, environment and housing
* * * * * *
INTRODUCTION The most visible and obvious consequences of urbanization in developing countries, such as Nigeria, is often rapid deterioration of urban housing and living conditions (Lewin, 1981). UN- HABITAT (2008), stated that only two African cities exceeded one million inhabitants in 1950. The number of such large cities reached nine in 1975 accommodating a combined population of about 19 million people. From 1975 to 2005 African cities exceeding one million rapidly increased to 43 with a combined population of 110 plus million people. By 2015, there will be 59, home to more than 169 million individuals. However, housing and the residential environment provide an extremely rich and fruitful area for the study of interplay of socio-cultural factors and environmental form (Onibokun, 1985). In a sense, housing is more than shelter; it has socio-cultural and psychological dimensions which must be clearly understood and taken into consideration in housing design, planning and execution. Nigeria is one of the few countries in Africa which had many large pre-industrial cities before the colonial period. The largest concentrations of such towns in the south-western zone, which is by far the most urbanized area of its size in sub-Saharan Africa (Onibokun, 1990). One of the major factors which explain the development of pre-colonial urbanization in this area was the continuous internecine war among the Yoruba. This forced peasants to find refuge in walled cities, leading to high population concentration in such cities characterized with organic development. On the other hand, the deplorable conditions of Nigerian core area environments have become a serious worry in recent times. Environment refers to all the conditions and influences
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
138 YOADE Adewale Olufunlola affecting the development of an organism in its lifetime. Man’s total environment includes all the living and non-living elements in his surroundings which could be natural or built (man-made), etc. in a complex network of systems (Okaba & Obong, 2006; Edu, 2006). It also refers to all natural resources, joint property of man of which one man’s right of use must not adversely affect the right of use of other joint owners (Offiong, 2003; Verla, 2003; Eni, 2005; Obong, 2007b). The current global awareness of the environment and its pivotal role to human endeavours and survival started mounting with the 1972 United Nation’s World conference on Human Environment. As identified by Obong (2007b), three major segments of environment include the natural, built and personal environments. The built and personal environments are what to a large extent determine the conditions of a school environment. For example, the particular concern here is that it is the product of anthropogenic activities. As posited by Eni (2005), human beings have characteristically lived in two worlds. The first is the natural world of nature consisting of plants, animals, soils, air and water that preceded the existence of man by hundreds of million years of which man is an integral and inescapable part. The second is the world of social institutions and artifacts (built world) that man deliberately creates for himself using science, technology, culture, political organization, and so forth. Therefore, this study seeks to assess the physical and environmental characteristics of traditional core area of Ile-Ife with a view to providing a framework for effective implementation of readjustment and revitalization in the study area. It also identified and examined the socio-economic characteristics of residents’ of the study area.
THE STUDY AREA Ile-Ife is made up of two (2) local government areas, Ife East and Ife Central Local Governments, whose headquarters are at Oke Ogbo and Ajebandele respectively. The two (2) local governments comprise twenty one (21) political wards in the council areas with the population of 355,818,000 (Federal Republic of Nigeria Official Gazette, 2009).
Figure 1. Map of the Study Area Source: Ife Central Town Planning Office, 2005 Physical Characteristics of Core Area of Ile-Ife, Nigeria 139
The core, which happens to be the oldest residential portion of the city, consists of the oldest parts of the city. The study area conforms to the general morphology of the traditional core areas of Yoruba cities, with the major elements, which include the palace, the king’s market (Oja- Oba) and the wards. According to Yoruba people, Ife is where the founding deities Oduduwa and Obatala began the creation of the world, as directed by the paramount deity Olodumare. Oduduwa is thought to have created the earth before he became the first divine king of Yoruba, Obatala is believed to have created the first humans out of clay. The Ooni (King) of Ife claims direct descent from the god Oduduwa, and is counted first among Yoruba Kings. He is traditionally considered to be the 41st deity (Orisha), the only one that speaks. According to historians, the town’s habitation can be traced as far back a century. The meaning of the word „ife” in the Yoruba language is „expansion”; „Ile-Ife” means in reference to the myth of origin that is, „The House of Expansion”. In fact, the city is regarded as the origin of Yoruba culture, industry and people of Yoruba descent.
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES INTRODUCTION The house, according to Williams (2007) is a dwelling place, constructed as a home for one or more persons, whether a crude hut or a mansion, and whatever its degree of intrinsic architectural interests, it provides protection from the weather and adversaries. Godwin (1998) defined the house as „the space that we can call our own, that gives us privacy and shelters us from the weather and intrusions of unwanted people” (Olayiwola et al., 2005).
CAUSES OF HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS The house or dwelling unit to the typical African, is not just providing protection from inclement weather and a social interaction forum, it is also a setting for pursuing a livelihood; a place for communicating with the ancestors and a nucleus for organic extension (Osasona et al., 2009). And because the essence of the house is not limited to shelter alone, it is a space where a generation of families expresses its existence and preserves the history and identities of lineage. Williams (2007) also observed that the physical characteristics of the house depend on the surrounding environment, available building materials, technological know-how, and some cultural determinants like the social and economic status of the owner. In addition, a typical dwelling is generally a product of physical constraints and social parameters. In African traditional built-form, symbolism was a dominant feature which is synonymous with function – the purpose to which both material and space could be put; and culturally-embedded interpretations of space- related phenomena – which relate to the determination of spatial pattern and organization, and the choice of construction materials (Osasona et al., 2007). Evidences suggested that the prevailing global environmental degradation poses serious threat to sustenance of carrying capacity of the ecosystem (Marcuse, 1998; Peters, 2000); hence environmental sustainability has taken priority position in housing, infrastructure provision, planning, land use and urban development among others (Salama & Alshawaikhat, 2005; Aribigbola, 2008). Although, Marcuse (1998) was of the view that sustainability should not be considered as goal for housing or urban programmes on the account that many of bad housing or urban programmes are sustainable. Meanwhile, Peters (2000) opined that the ecological and sociological „footprint” of cities has spread over ever-widened area and that fewer places on the planet earth are unaffected by this phenomenon. Changes in the ecology of urban environment occasioned by increasing population, overcrowded habitations and uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources may account for this wide ecological footprint of urban areas which is not peculiar to developing countries (Stoel, 1999; Hales, 2000). They however, observed that the pace and scale of growth have outstripped the capacity to maintain acceptable standards of public health, environmental safety and sustainable economic growth in urban areas in less developed nations in Africa, Asia and Latin America. 140 YOADE Adewale Olufunlola
In Nigeria, for instance, several studies (Rashid, 1982; NEST, 1991; World Bank, 1992; Anih, 2004; Muoghalu & Okonkwo, 2004; Ijioma & Agaze, 2004; Nduka, 2004; Mba, 2004; Bulama, 2005; Ojeshina, 2005; UN-HABITAT, 2005b) have identified many of the environmental problems as having serious adverse socio-economic and ecological implications. Majority of these problems, it is argued, are traceable to a number of factors. These include the colonial antecedent of most Nigerian cities (Ogbazi, 1992; Ikya, 1993), the high rate of urbanization (National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy, 2004), the bad psychological orientation of urban residents on the environment as well as poor environmental management practices (Meale, 1991; Agukoronye, 2004). Generally, environmental problems are mostly due to developmental processes and are of local, regional and global effects. These effects are viewed as consequences of human activities, and are most often harmful on human beings, livelihoods, animal and plant lives presently or transferred to posterity (Simond, 1994; Acho, 1998; Danish International Development Agency, 2000; Kjellstrom & Mercado, 2008). This has far reaching implications on sustainable development, most especially in the face of declining economic fortunes. Therefore, urban environmental issues will continue to dominate sustainable development agenda in developing nations in particular and the world in general in the next few decades.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 1. Urbanization: Urbanization is caused by high population growth rate and rural- urban migration. Urbanization in Nigeria is characterized by city slums with serious environmental consequences. The problem has been described as acute and exemplifies the inability of development measures to keep pace with the rate of population growth. The problem of the disposal of sewage and refuse is quite serious because of the rapid rate of generation of non- biodegradable materials such as plastics (Jiboye, 2010). Environmental conditions in cities have gradually deteriorated due to the rapid growth of the cities and the attendant inability of social services and infrastructures to keep pace with the rate of growth. Inadequate storm drains, dumping of refuse in drainage lines and construction of houses close to and even on the natural water channels have been shown to be responsible in that order for the increasing cases of flood in the urban centers. Environment problems associated with the increasing growth of urban slums including overcrowding in squalid housing conditions, poor quality or unavailability of basic infrastructures and social services, such as water and sewage facilities and even lack of access routes (NEST, 1992) 2. Overpopulation: Population is a major factor in all environment related issues. Overpopulation causes stress on the environment. Environmental problems such as overpopulation, degradation, erosion, desertification, etc. are caused by man’s misuse of environmental resources. There are evidences everywhere of rapid decline in environmental quality and human living conditions occasioned by rapid increase in human numbers. In 1985, Mabogunje stated that because of the economic emergency that was declared in the country, the next few years were going to witness tremendous efforts at increased production and enhanced productivity in the country. Under such stressful situation, “it will be easy for people to become so exigent, worrying only about what to get out of the environment for their own immediate needs and uses, without caring very much for the consequence, especially for succeeding generations (Mabogunje, 1985).
CORE AREA ENVIRONMENT The core segment of the urban population is indeed poor, and is constrained to limited, insufficient, crowded, cold and dirty shelter and a generally degraded environment (Galbraith, 1968; Mabogunje, 1980). The urban poor who are the residents of these areas are subjected to a life characterized by precarious conditions of nutrition and health, little or poor material possessions (Sada, 1975; Mabogunje, 1975). Physical Characteristics of Core Area of Ile-Ife, Nigeria 141
Filani (1987) has succinctly shown that most urban centers in Nigeria are characterized by high densities of buildings, the crowding of large numbers of people into those buildings, lack of space for open air living between houses, poor health, substandard housing, and acute environmental and sanitary problems. The shortage of affordable and decent accommodation for the urban poor is thus a major housing problem in Nigeria. A number of studies have confirmed the deplorable conditions of urban housing in Nigeria (Onokerhoraye, 1976; Wahab et al., 1990; Olotuah, 2007). These studies affirm that 75% of the dwelling units in urban centers in Nigeria are substandard and the dwellings are sited in slums. The inadequacy of the quality of most of urban housing stems mainly from the poor physical state of the buildings. They further showed that the buildings are often unsafe and insecure and do not provide adequate shelter from the elements of weather. Also, several studies have shown the deplorable conditions of urban housing in Nigeria; for example: (Onibokun, 1972; Onokerhoraye, 1976; Jagun, 1983; Wahab et al., 1990; Olotuah, 1997, 2000a, 2000b, 2005). Jagun (op cit) affirms that 75% of the dwelling units in Nigeria’s urban centers are substandard and the dwellings are located in slums. These results from combined effects of natural ageing of the buildings, lack of maintenance and neglect, wrong use of the buildings, poor sanitation in the disposal of sewage and solid waste, wrong development of land, and increasing deterioration of the natural landscape.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Various approaches have been used to explain the setting of urban areas. Among these approaches which are both descriptive and quantitative in nature are the Burgess (1925) Concentric Zones Models, Hoyt’s (1939) Sector Model; and Ullman’s (1945) Multiple Nuclei Model. These three models are described as ecological models. Other models include the Social Area Analysis and Factorial Ecology. Some of the models are not so general but they deal with specific urban features. Central to this study are those attempts, which strive to categorize settings according to their capacity to affect the behaviour of their inhabitants. This attempt to unravel „person-environmental fit”, according to Rapoport (1977), constitutes the core of the environmental approach to urban form. Caplan (1983) believes that residents will find fulfillment if neighborhoods are planned and built in relation to their expectations as expressed in the social- cultural and physical elements of housing areas. From the foregoing literature and conceptual issues, it can be seen that physical planning has a great responsibility to come up with peculiar residential designs that will fulfill specific users’ needs in terms of socio-economic and cultural expectations. This will involve constant modification of established principles, concepts and models of residential area planning and will, no doubt, pose a great deal of challenge but will be based on principles of planning with the people.
METHODOLOGY Data for the study were obtained from both primary and secondary sources. For collection of primary data, the set of questionnaires, targeted at the residents of the study area; were administered using systematic sampling method on household heads living in one out of every ten (10) houses located in the identified seven (7) political wards that formed the core area of the traditional city. A total of 477 household heads were selected for questionnaire administration. Information was obtained on physical and environmental characteristics of residents’ of the study area. Close ended questionnaires were designed for this study. They were structured in a way to reveal the physical background as well as environmental characteristics of Ile-Ife, Nigeria. In the process of examining the questionnaire, the author interpreted the question to those who were not literate and helped them in filling their questionnaire based on their response. Sources of secondary data included maps from Planning Office, journals, conference proceedings, unpublished thesis and books. Data collected were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 17. Also, both descriptive (tables, pictures, charts, cross tabulation, agreement index) and inferential tools (regression and ANOVA) were used to analyze the data collected. 142 YOADE Adewale Olufunlola
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This section discusses the results and discussion of the findings obtained from the study. The section is divided into three (3) sections. Section one discusses socio-economic characteristics of the dwellers of core area of Ile-Ife; section two discusses the physical composition of the study area; while section three discusses environmental characteristics of the study area.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS The household samples taken from the study area demonstrated the socio-economic features of the household which has significant influence on the implementation of urban renewal in the study area due to their socio-cultural attachments. 33.5% and 31.4% of the respondents (table 1) had primary and modern school education respectively. While 9.2% were secondary school leavers and 4.4% had more than secondary education. About 24.3% had no formal education at all. The structure of the family in the study area was the extended family type, where many nuclear families were found living under the same roof. This family consists of the father and sons. The inhabitants were predominantly polygynous with 91.0% of the respondents having more than one wife. Just 9.0% of the households were monogamous. The number of children by a family is a thorny issue among the Yorubas because it is regarded as being sacred and should be kept secret. However, according to table 1, 14.6% of the respondents had between 4 and 7 children while 27.3% had between 10 and 16 children. Other families 58.1% had between 17 and 25 children. This is a clear indication of high dependency on the working population. The high dependency factor may affect the households’ ability to maintain existing structures. Based on a portion of table 1, the basic occupation engaged in by the households in the study area are farming, trading, artisanry and civil service. From the Table, it is evident that majority of the respondents were traders 32.5% and 31.4% were self employed. A small proportion of 1.5% were civil servants. Information on the income of household heads was very difficult to collect. First, they were not well educated; moreover, most of the respondents who were farmers and traders had no records of their sales. Also,S they were not on fixed and regular income. The outcome of this, as shown in table 1, revealed that 35.6% of the respondents’ earned less than #5,000 a month and 28.7% earned less than #10,000. It is possible that occupation, income and family size could have some effects on physical and environmental characteristics in the study area.
Table 1. Socio-Economic Characteristics of Respondents (Data source: Authors’ Field Work, 2010) Socio-Economic Characteristics Number Percentage Level of Education Not educated 116 24.3 Primary school 160 33.5 Secondary school 44 9.2 Modern school 150 31.4 Tertiary school 7 1.4 Total 477 100 Occupation Agriculture 65 13.6 Trading 155 32.5 Civil service 7 1.5 Private employees 150 31.4 Artisans 45 9.4 Others 55 11.5 Total 477 100 Physical Characteristics of Core Area of Ile-Ife, Nigeria 143
Number of Wives 1 wife 434 9.0 More than 1 wife 43 91.0 Total 477 100 Number of Children 1 child 70 14.6 2-4 children 130 27.3 5 children and above 277 58.1 Total 477 100 Monthly Income Below #5,000 170 35.6 #5,001-#10,000 137 28.7 #10,001-#15,000 100 21.0 #15,001-#20,000 42 8.8 #20,001 and above 28 5.9 Total 477 100
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS The physical condition of the study area was poor. This is because the study area was in the old residential neighbourhood. Majority of the building in the area 65.2% were used for residential purposes. Only 8.0% and 0.2% were used for commercial and industrial purposes respectively. Mixed (mixture of residential and commercial) uses accounted for 27.7% of the identified type of land uses (table 2). Table 2, revealed that majority of the buildings (83.0%) was built more than 30 years ago. The age of the buildings together with the factor of material of construction of the buildings could affect the depreciation level of the building materials As shown in Table 2, 70.0% of buildings were constructed with mud, 20.3% with mud bricks and 9.6% with cement blocks. The predominance of houses constructed with mud is due partly to the economic status of the owner of the building who could not afford the cost of modern building materials as well as the age of the building itself. The building in the area is categorized into three according to their structural conditions. There were the good, fair or poor. The criteria for the classification are the age of buildings, materials of construction and the extent of maintenance. As could be seen from Table 2, 2.9% have classified as good, 48.6% of the building as fair, and 50.3% as being poor in condition. The fair or poor state of the buildings calls for the renewal of the buildings in the study area. From the above, it could be deduced that the study area is in deplorable state which necessitated for attention of the concerned authority.
Table 2. Physical Characteristics (Data source: Authors’ Field Work, 2010) Physical and environmental variables Number Percentage Land-use Residential 311 65.2 Commercial 38 8.0 Mixed 101 21.2 Institutional 12 2.5 Industrial 1 0.2 Religious 14 2.9 Total 477 100 Age of the buildings Below 10 years 10 2.1 144 YOADE Adewale Olufunlola
11-20 years 29 6.1 21-30 years 42 8.8 30 years and above 396 83.0 Total 477 100 Material for construction Mud 333 70.0 Mud brick 97 20.3 Cement block 46 9.6 Total 477 100 Condition of buildings Good 14 2.9 Fair 223 48.6 Poor 240 50.3 Total 477 100
ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS Various methods of waste disposal employed by the residents of core Ife are illustrated in the Table 3. Majority of the respondents (60.6%) dumped their refuse by the road side, 31.9% practised burning, while only 7.5% of the residents sampled used central collectors of the L.G.
Table 3. Environmental Characteristics (Data source: Authors’ Field Work, 2010) Waste disposal Open dumps 289 60.6 Burning 52 31.9 Central collectors 36 7.5 Total 477 100 Water supply Bore hole 40 8.4 Tap water 7 1.5 Well 430 90.1 Total 477 100 Drainage system Open drainage 337 70.6 Closed drainage 32 6.7 Underground 08 1.7 Total 477 100 Toilet facilities Water closet 28 5.8 Pit latrine 292 61.2 Bucket system 157 33.0 Total 477 100
According to the study, 90.1% of the respondents got water through well, while 8.4% got water through bore-hole. The remaining 1.4% houses had access to pipe borne water and none made use of vendor to get water. The result of the analysis revealed that majority 70.6% had access to open drainage, 6.7% had closed drainage within their neighbourhood and 1.7% had underground system in their area (table 3). Therefore the environment is not good enough for Physical Characteristics of Core Area of Ile-Ife, Nigeria 145 human habitation due to lack of adequate water, indiscriminately disposal of waste and the state of drainage found in the area. Also, more than three-fifth (61.2%) made use of pit latrine, less than two-fifths (33.0%) made use of bucket system and few (5.8%) had access to water closet within their respective buildings.
CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS OF LAND-USE AND WASTE DISPOSAL IN THE STUDY AREA Table 4 reflects the chi-square test between land-use and waste disposal the study area. The result showed that the chi-square (X2) value of 42.23 was significant at p=0.000. This is an indication that land-use determined the modes of waste disposed in the study area. Also, the result of regression analysis revealed that significant relationship existed between land-use and waste disposal in the traditional core area of Ile-Ife. This result is further validated by the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test, which explains the linear relationship and level of significance between the dependent variable (waste disposal), and the independent variable (land- use). It yielded an F- ratio of 438.72, which is significant at the 0.01 level (table 5 and 6).
Table 4. Chi-Square Tests (Data source: Authors’ Field Work, 2010) Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 42.234 8 .000 Likelihood Ratio 6.859 8 .000 Linear-by-Linear Association 3.719 1 .110 N of Valid Cases 10
Table 5. Regression coefficient of Waste Disposal (Data source: Authors’ Field Work, 2010) Land-use B Std error Beta t Sig (P) (Constant) 8.908 252 - 5.082 0.41 Land-use 0.414 0.81 0.123 4.757 0.001 p significant at 0.01
Table 6. The overall F-test value from the regression of community shrine (Data source: Authors’ Field Work, 2010) Sum of Mean Model R R-square Df F Sig. Square Square Regression 645.653 1 243.653 Residual .801 .770 214.323 459 438.721 .001 .249 Total 140.554 460 p significant at 0.01
CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS OF CONDITION OF BUILDINGS AND DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN THE STUDY AREA Table 7 reflected the chi-square test between condition of the buildings and drainage system in the study area. The result showed that the chi-square (X2) value of 24.891 was significant at p=0.000. This is an indication that drainage system affected the condition of buildings in the study area. 146 YOADE Adewale Olufunlola
Table 7. Chi-Square Tests (Data source: Authors’ Field Work, 2010)
Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 24.891 9 .000 Likelihood Ratio 8.471 9 .000 Linear-by-Linear Association 5.917 1 .110 N of Valid Cases 10
CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION OF STUDY FOR POLICY FORMULATION This study has examined the physical and environmental characteristics of traditional core area of Ile-Ife, Nigeria. In doing this, it has examined physical and environmental characteristic of the core area and also the state of existing infrastructure in the study area. It has been established in this study that most of the buildings in the study area were in deplorable state which needed urgent attention and the whole environment was not good enough for human habitation. However, the inhabitants of the core were attached in tradition, seemingly conservative, and unaware of the magnitude and dimensions of the housing and environmental problems around them. The study concluded that while housing facilities in the core area of Ile-Ife, like many others in Nigeria were in deplorable state, there is urgent need to attend to the concerned area for better living of the inhabitants of the area.
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Edu N. (2006), Man in the Tropical Environment, Calabar: Unical Printing Press. Eni D.D. (2005), Philosophy and Methodology of Environmental Science, Calabar, Ultimate Index Book Publishers. Filani M.O. (1987), Accessibility and Urban Poverty in Nigeria, The Urban Poor in Nigeria, Makinwa P.K. & O.A. Ozo (Eds.), Ibadan: Evan Brothers (Nigeria) Publishers Ltd pp 128-138. Jagun A. (1983), Urban Housing Need Estimate in Nigeria: Governmental Capability in It’s Provision, Journal of Business and Social Studies, 4 (2). Lewin A.C. (1981), Housing Cooperatives in Developing Countries, New York: John Wiley and Sons. Mabogunje A.L. (1980), The Development Process: A Spatial Perspective (2nd Edition) London: Unwin Hayman Ltd. Mabogunje A.L. (1990), Perspective on Urban Land and Urban Management Policies in the Sub Saharan Africa, World Bank Technical Paper No. 196, The World Bank, Washington D C pg 33. Mabogunje A.L. (2002), Nigerian and the Good Urban Governance Campaign, The Launching of the Global Campaign for Good Urban Governance in Nigeria. Federal Ministry of Works and Housing, Abuja, Nigeria. Obong L.B. (2007a), Waste Management Education: A Panacea For Effective Solid Waste Management, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Studies, 5(3), 69-73. Obong L.B. (2007b), Understanding the Environment: Concepts, Principles and Applications, Calabar: Penile Publishers. Offiong V.I. (2003), Environmental Law Enforcement Problem A Study of the Calabar Urban Development Authority (CUDA) Nigeria, An Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis Submitted to the Department of Geography and Regional Planning, University of Calabar, Calabar. Okaba L.A., Obong L.B. (2006), Man and the Environment, Lagos: Horesgate Trust Ltd. Olayiwola L.M., Adeleye and Ogunsakin L. (2005), Public House Delivery in Nigeria: Problems and Challenges, Pretoria, South Africa. Olotuah A.O. (2005b), Urbanization, Urban Poverty and Housing Inadequacy, Proceedings of the Africa Union of Architects Congress, Abuja, 23-28 May, 185 – 199. Olotuah A.O. (2006), The State of Repair of Buildings in Akure, Nigeria, Proceedings of CIB W107 Construction in Developing Economies International Symposium, „Construction in Developing Economies: New Issues and Challenges”, 18-20 January, Santiago, Chile, paper 3.1 CD ROM. Olotuah A.O. (2007), „Strategies of Public Sector Intervention in Housing in Nigeria” Proceedings of XXXV IAHS (International Association of Housing Science) World Congress on Housing Science, Melbourne, Australia, 4-7 September, CD ROM. Olotuah A.O. (2009), Demystifying the Nigerian Urban Housing Question, Text of the 53rd Inaugural Lecture of the Physical Characteristics of Core Area of Ile-Ife, Nigeria 147
Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria. Onibokun A.G (1985), The Future of Physical and Administration in Nigeria, „National Workshop on Development Control and Planning Administration in Nigeria”. NISER, Ibadan. P6-15. Onibokun P. (1990), Urban Housing in Nigeria, Nigeria Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER), Ibadan, pp. 1-15. Onokerhoraye A.G. (1976), The Pattern of Housing, Benin, Nigeria, Ekistics, Vol. 41, No. 242. Onokerhoraye A.G. (1995), Urbanization and Environment in Nigeria – implications for sustainable development; Benin City, Nigeria: The Benin Social Science Series for Africa, University of Benin, Benin City. Sada P.O. (1975), Urban Housing and spatial pattern of modernization in Benin City, The Nigerian Geographical Journal, 18: 39-55 (1975). Verla A.W. (2003), Man and His Environment: An Introduction to Environmental Science, Enugu: Jeef Robin Publishers. *** (1992), The Challenge of Sustainable Development in Nigeria An NGO Report Prepared For United Nations Conference on Enviroment and Development (NEST), Rio De Janeiro, Brasil June 1-12 Pp.152 -172. *** (1996), United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS), An Urbanizing World: Global Report on Human Settlements, Oxford University Press. *** (2004), The Nigeria MDG Report 2004 (NEEDS); (http:/www.hollerafrica.com/show/Article.php) *** (2008), UNHSP, The State of AFRICA Cities 2008, A Framework for Addressing Urban Challenges in Africa (UN- HABITAT); Michael Jones Software, Nairobi Kenya.
Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online May 05, 2015 September 14, 2015 September 21,2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 148-156 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252102-682
TOWARDS A RESILIENT ENERGY SYSTEM IN EASTERN ROMANIA – FROM FOSSIL FUELS TO RENEWABLE SOURCES
Alexandru BĂNICĂ „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, Carol I 20A, 700505, Iași, Romania e-mail: [email protected]
Marinela ISTRATE „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, Carol I 20A, 700505, Iași, Romania e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: The study takes into account the two Romanian Eastern regions (North East and South East) trying to emphasize the post-communist dynamics of the energy sector in order to draw a general perspective for the future evolution towards both energy security and a clean environment. Before 1989, the energy sector, that had to sustain not only the population needs, but also an oversized manufacturing industry, was based on big power plants usually using coal and oil and highly polluting the environment. The hydropower had a rather small share in the total energy production. This inherited system was very much resistant after the end of the centralized political system, therefore after the general industrial decline the energy sector remained the main source of air pollution in many towns and cities from Romania. Meanwhile, in the last 6-7 years, due to a favourable national political context, we assisted, especially in the analysed area, to an important emergence of renewable energy investments (mainly wind and solar energy, but also biomass or hydro-energy). Our purpose is to evaluate, from a geographical point of view, the extent and the implications of a desirable progressive shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy that could radically change the territorial relations and sustain development on the long term.
Key words: renewable energy, regional development, energy government policy, spatial resilience
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INTRODUCTION Resilience can be defined as a measure for the persistence of systems and for their ability to absorb changes and disturbances while maintaining their fundamental relations between the essential elements (Holling, 1973), but also as the ability to absorb variations by efficiency, functional diversity, variety, redundancy and by providing flexibility reserves (Molyneaux, 2012). The term resilience also refers to the ability of a system, region, community or person to respond
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
Towards a Resilience Energy System in Eastern Romania… 149 and adapt to rapid changes, to absorb external shocks and to mitigate the impact in order to ensure that sudden shocks and stresses will not necessarily lead to a long-term decline, but that they are able recover quickly (Hill, 2008; Pike, 2010; Mitchell, 2012; Bigos, 2013; Martin, 2012). The concept of territorial resilience (Hambouch, 2012) states that the answer a complex ecological system can give to sudden changes in the environment is expressed in at least two manners: first the static resilience when the system has a capacity of self-organization, adaptation and (defensive) resistance to change, which allows it to maintain, by retaining its original shape and specificity (for e.g. the existence of its own resources of coal and natural gas) and secondly the so-called dynamic resilience, characterized by an ability of the energy system to adapt, learn, transform and re-create, which ensures its ability to adjust to external shocks. This approach opens a wide range of interpretations. Thus, one can distinguish between ecological resilience „emphasizes conditions far from any steady state condition, where instabilities can flip a system into another regime of behaviour” (Gunderson, 2000), engineering resilience „concentrates on stability at a presumed steady – state and stresses resistance to a disturbance and the speed of return to the equilibrium point” (Pendall, 2010), regional economic resilience „the ability of a region to recover successfully from shocks to its economy that either throw it off its growth path or have the potential to throw it off its growth path but do not actually do so” (Hill, 2008) or labour market resilience „the ability to transform regional outcomes in the face of a challenge” (Chapple, 2010). The resilience of such a complex system depends on certain internal features, but also on the amplitude of the disturbing phenomenon to whom it is subjected to and on its relations with the environmental components (Drăgan, 2011). The energy system is a fundamental component of the economic system of any country (Bădileanu, 2014; Bădileanu et al., 2014). In order to minimize the impact of dysfunctionalities within the economy an acceptable level of resilience is needed, namely a functional redundancy to provide opportunities for adaptation of viable solutions, while a preliminary solution is represented by the increase in energy efficiency and a higher use of renewable energy (Duşmănescu, 2014; Câmpeanu, 2014; Colesca, 2013).
OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY The study aims to apply the theories related to resilience in case of a complex system such as the national energy system, which integrates natural components (fuel resources, both classical or unconventional) and anthropic elements- economic (infra)structures such as thermo power plants, hydroelectric facilities, wind plants or solar energy facilities etc. The integrated analysis of the two (natural and economic) systems allows a study of interactions between them, while evaluating their resilience capacity when operating within a complex system with numerous interdependencies. The paper proposes the delimitation of the basic traits of Romanian energy system resilience with reference to the contribution of its eastern regions, as well as evaluating the dynamics of classical energy sector and the emergence of renewable energy in the North East and South East Regions. The second objective is to measure and analyse disparities between different regions and evaluate the contribution of the analysed territorial subsystem to accomplish specific objectives of the national energy strategy. Finally, the purpose was to establish to what extent the „green revolution” and the continuation of current trends is sustainable on the long term and whether it is able increase the resilience of the energy system as a whole. In this research there several types of indicators were chosen (based on data from the National Statistics Institute) in order to illustrate the assumptions and to obtain relevant results: from the energy vulnerability index (Ive) and the capabilities of large combustion plants, to the dynamics of renewable energy investment for the period 2007 - 2013. The analysis was made both at local and county level, therefore mapping and interpretation of derived indicators can explain the current situation of the existing national energy system. 150 Alexandru BĂNICĂ, Marinela ISTRATE
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The resilience of the National Energy System The resilience of energy systems can be explained by following the four typical stages of a system subject to external influences: challenge, context, response and outcome (Hamdouch, 2012). The starting point is the disruption or initial shock that triggers certain response mechanisms. For an energy system it may include decreased availability of fuels in case of shocks, increasing prices, the introduction of environmental restrictions, reducing imports of electricity, unexpected changes in demand. The second concept - the context - refers to the fundaments that structure and shapes the national energy system, i.e. the state energy policymaking process, the functioning of the institutions, the overall economic situation. The third stage, the answer should be understood as the moment when the system adapts to existing challenges i.e. the ability to absorb innovation and structural rearrangements of energy producing and distributing facilities. Given the current technologies, an adequate response involves the replacement of polluting energy producing units by those using renewable energy sources, more environmentally friendly and much more suitable in order to eliminate some of the pollution from power plants. The final concept is the result, which can consist either by the returning to the initial situation (pre-shock phase) or by improving/worsening the functionality of the system. In other words, it is necessary to determine whether the national energy system was deeply affected or recovered well, by minimizing costs and by maximizing energy production profits. During the communist period, in Romania, an intensive process of industrial development took place, based on systematic exploitation of natural resources, without seriously taking into account the environment effects. In the first phase (years 1950-1960) equipping the territory with basic infrastructure elements (electrification, hydro, roads etc.) started together with the allocation of massive investments in mining activities and heavy industry (steel, shipbuilding). Years 1970-1980 marked a change in national development policy by moving to the implementation of more diversified highly intensive industries (aluminium, machine building, chemical and petrochemical industries). The last stage of the communist period (1981-1989) is marked by a new vision in socio- economic territorial units distribution aiming to obtain homogenization in development, which involved, among other things, the construction of industrial giants, big consumers of labour force and energy, but often characterized by economic profitableness and representing major sources of complex pollution. Simultaneously, it was necessary to develop a high capacity energy sector to fuel this oversized processing industry, but also to meet the direct needs of our growing population. Large units of electricity and heat production were built by using hydropower potential (by building huge artificial reservoirs with multiple effects on the natural environment and the local settlements) and nuclear potential (with corresponding risks included) but most of the energy demand was satisfied by installing high capacity thermoelectric power plants using huge quantities of fossil fuels by sometimes deficient technologies increasing the concentrations of pollutants, that were added to those generated by the processing industry. After the fall of the communist regime, the transition from a centralized economy to a market economy has been accompanied by a clear decline in productive activities (many industrial units disappeared, including most of the factories and large industrial complexes), which resulted in the decreasing of the overall energy consumption in industry (figure 1). For example when Romania confronted the peak of privatization and closure of large industrial facilities the industrial energy consumption decreased from 13.68 million kWh (1996) to 10.208 million kWh (2000) (Bădileanu, 2014). From 2007, the integration of Romania into the European Union led to the adoption of the Community acquis, i.e. the EU directives on air quality and other environmental fields. Regarding the energy industry - the main remaining consumer polluting of fossil fuels (figure 2) – one can notice the maintaining of large units especially in South-Western Region and the relative diminishing activity of power plants in urban areas, due disconnection and the proliferation of individual sources heat production. Nowadays, the overall level of energy consumption in Romania stands at less than one third compared to the EU average. Towards a Resilience Energy System in Eastern Romania… 151
Figure 1. Energy consumption for industry and population (Source: INS, 2014)
Figure 2. The structure of the thermo-energy production in Romania by fuel (Source: INS, 2014)
At national level, the degree of energy autonomy varies depending on the raw materials into use (for e.g. national resources of natural gas, oil and coal - especially lignite – can provide Romania’s needed quantities for decades), and overall, one can assess that the country's dependence on foreign energy sources is lower than the EU average (in 2011, 21.34% vs. 53.83%) (EUROSTAT, 2013). The relatively low degree of dependence is increasing the resilience of Romanian energy system. Nevertheless, although Romania has 5% of the EU's oil reserves, and, together with Poland and Ukraine, the largest gas reserves, the imports of gas are significant, representing about 17% (99% from Russia) while the imported oil has a higher share - 66% (IEA, 2012). Energy vulnerability index (Ive) is based on regional energy consumption by households (including private transport), on estimated energy consumption by freight transport, industry, services and agriculture, national industry coal and national energy import dependency. According, the national average value of 41.8 for Ive, Romanian regions have a relatively contrasting situation, some below the average value – North Eastern Region (39) and Bucharest - Ilfov (37), other above the average with a maximum in Southern Region (45). This indicates, once again, deeper vulnerability of North Eastern Region in terms in energy area (European Commission, 2008). 152 Alexandru BĂNICĂ, Marinela ISTRATE
The energy system in North East and South East Regions In the last 25 years, the economic and industrial transition has shown, on the one hand, the spatial differentiation and the concentration of big polluters particularly in certain regions (e.g. South West or South), while others confront massive industrial decline (North-East) and, on the other hand, the progressive appearance of high-tech industries and smaller but more efficient industrial units in all regions. In terms of regional structure of electricity production units, their distribution is determined by the availability of energy resources in those areas. South East Region is favoured by the presence of the sole nuclear plants in Romania, and therefore counts for about 21% of the total energy installed capacity, while the North East Region has only 6.5% as it is forced to reduce coal and oil capacities and focus on hydropower and alternative sources. Both regions taken into account still retain, though in unequal proportions, an oversized and inefficient processing industry, fuelled by the energy sector comprising large polluting power plants (figure 3).
Figure 3. Installed capacities of large combustion plants from Eastern Romania (>50 MW) (Source: EEA, 2014)
The existing power plants mainly operate on natural gas (Amurco Bacău and the municipal thermoelectric power plants from Iași, Constanța and Tulcea), coal and natural gas (municipal thermoelectric plants from Bacau and Iasi- Holboca), coal (municipal thermoelectric power plants from Suceava, Bacău, Comănești), liquid fuels and natural gas (municipal thermoelectric power plants from Brăila- Chișcani, Palas Constanța and Năvodari). Towards a Resilience Energy System in Eastern Romania… 153
An urgent measure to be taken is to upgrade power plants in close correlation with the need to comply with European legislation or to close the old inefficient ones. According to Directive 2001/80/EC aiming for limiting emissions of acidifying compounds, dust and ozone precursors, it is necessary to modernize power system components by installing gas desulphurization units using low NOx emission burners, filters for the upgraded large combustion plants etc. Regarding the emissions from thermoelectric plants built between 1987 and 2002, the limits are less stringent, but, for the previous ones, the time permitted to function before rehabilitation is 20,000 hours, which is worrisome as more than half of the Romanian power plants are over 30 years old and 20% are aged between 20 and 30 years. Having in view these provisions, some power plants in the east were closed (units in Brăila, Vrancea or Onești), others have stopped some of their capabilities (Suceava, Constanța) while others have worked for a limited number of hours (Borzeşti) or have been completely modernised by accessing EU funds (Botoșani).
The alternative of renewable energy Renewable energy sources in Romania have an average potential at European level, standing out especially in terms of hydropower (Carpathian and Subcarpathian) and wind energy (Carpathian regions). In solar energy, the potential is higher than the European average in all Romanian regions which give the country the opportunity to become a major player in Europe along with Mediterranean countries. The renewable energy capacities had a highly ascendant dynamic, until recently, also because of a very attractive legislation (green certificates at very low prices, an opportunity that was finally limited), which led to an exponential increase in foreign investments in this area. Analysing the regional electricity generating units in the two regions considered (table 1), one can observe the absolute dominance of the South East region (second in Romania after the South Region, which has 38% of the national total), which turns to account a diversified potential of renewable energy, attractive to foreign investors, but also a certain hydropower potential (especially micro-hydro plants) in North East Region.
Table 1. The regional structure (NE and SE regions) of the energy systems installed in capacities in 2013 (Data source: Bădileanu et al., 2014 and own calculations)
Installed capacity in Share of the total Region Energy resource Employees (no) 2013 (MW) country (2013) North-East Coal 240 3,84 1162 Hydrocarbons 358,6 7,44 30 Hydro 671,9 10,8 563 Wind 66 3,22 6 Total 1336,5 6,54 1761 South-East Hydrocarbons 912 20,65 1042 Nuclear 1413 100 2136 Wind 1933,4 94,40 174 Solar 7,7 8,56 2 Total 4266,1 20,90 3354
The small hydropower plants can be a source of basic power supply of isolated rural areas and consumers (high altitude cottages, weather stations, etc.). In the studied area, most of these facilities were built in the Carpathian areas corresponding to Suceava and Neamț counties (1.80% of the total national installed capacity). Biomass is the main source of fuel in rural areas, being used for domestic heating and cooking. It includes mainly agricultural and forestry biomass, but also waste from industrial exploitation of timber. Although it has a significant potential, modern biomass energy recovery is still at an early stage, while the largest units are installed in Neamț County (15.8 MW, representing 25% of total installed capacity at national level). Photovoltaic energy units are installed in extra-Carpathian areas with high insolation from southern and eastern Romanian Plain and Dobrogea (8.38% of total national capacity). Although solar energy is free, 154 Alexandru BĂNICĂ, Marinela ISTRATE the technologies needed to catch it and convert it into electricity is expensive, so it took an attractive legislation (6 green certificates for each MWh) to attract foreign investors. Many photovoltaic parks were installed and others are in the design phase, but, nevertheless, investments in solar energy (about 70 million euro in 2012) are more modest than those of the wind sector (3 billion euro in 2012) (Colesca, 2013). Wind power not only has great potential in the Eastern part of Romania, but is also well capitalized, representing, in fact, the basis of renewable energy in Romania, with the largest investments (Wenisch, 2003).
Figure 4. The dynamics of investments in renewable energy in Eastern Romania (Source: ANRE, 2014)
Figure 5. The share of different renewable energy capacities in Eastern Romania (Source: ANRE, 2014) Towards a Resilience Energy System in Eastern Romania… 155
The use of wind energy has a long tradition in Moldova and Dobrogea, since the nineteenth century, when it was used for small scale cereal milling and for pumping water. Regarding the modern wind power plants put into operation, North East Region has about 3% of the installed capacity, while Dobrogea holds almost 43% of the plants currently producing electricity from wind power. There is a nearly continuous area of large investments this type of energy in the south – eastern part of the country, as many wind turbines were installed in the last 6-7 years (Constanța county holds a total of 5400 MW installed wind power, 37% of Romanian capacity, Tulcea - 2500 MW, while Galaţi - 1,000 MW).
CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES In terms of adaptation cycles stated by resilience theories, national energy system is currently under reorganization phase expressed by resizing or closing of conventional polluting units and high investments in energy sources diversification. However, there is the possibility for future failures, since electricity consumption increases, while the existing tensions in the European energy market, in terms of constant and reliable supply for classic fuels (oil and gas especially), do not seem to decrease in the years to come. In Eastern Romania there are conditions which ensure the diversity of energy sources, in particular wind and photovoltaics for plateau and plain areas, biomass, biogas and small hydropower for the Carpathian and Subcarpathian area. The analysis of the resilience capacity of national energy system can be extremely important in determining economic development policy objectives, in order to make effective decisions about the allocation of funds, about financial and technical assistance or about assigning a special status to the most vulnerable regions. It is also important for the competent authorities to understand the requirements of common European energy policy in order to promote necessary measures for developing and strengthening the adaptive capacity of large electricity generating units to support development and investment opportunities in the national energy sector. In the future, energy security and resilience should be designed in terms of decentralization and local use of renewable resources to ensure stability and energy autonomy for both production and distribution services.
Acknowledgments This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, co-financed by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational Program Human Resources Development 2007 – 2013.
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Bădileanu M. (2014), Crossroads in the past 23 years history of the Romanian energy system, Procedia Economics and Finance, 8, pp. 60 – 65. Bădileanu M., Băleanu D., Georgescu L.I. (2014), Regional disparities of the Romanian energy system, Procedia Economics and Finance, 8, pp.53-59. Bigos Magdalena, Qaran W., Fenger M., Koster F., Mascini P., Veen Van der R. (2013), Review essay on labour market resilience, INSPIRES. Câmpeanu V., Pencea S. (2014), Renewable energy sources in Romania: from a paradise of investors to a possible abandon or to another boom? The impact of a new paradigm in Romanian renewable sources policy, Procedia Economics and Finance, 8, pp. 129 – 137. Chapple K., Lester T.W. (2010), The resilient regional labour market? The US case, Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society, 3, pp. 85–104. Colesca S.E., Ciocoiu C.N. (2013), An overview of the Romanian renewable energy sector, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 24, pp. 149 – 158. Drăgan M. (2011), Reziliența sistemului regional Munții Apuseni, Rezumatul tezei de doctorat, Universitatea Babeș-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca. 156 Alexandru BĂNICĂ, Marinela ISTRATE
Dușmănescu D., Andrei J., Subic J. (2014), Scenario for implementation of renewable energy sources in Romania, Procedia Economics and Finance 8, pp. 300-305. Gunderson L.H. (2000), Ecological Resilience – In Theory And Application, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 31, pp. 425–39. Hamdouch A., Depret H.B., Tanguy C. (2012), Modialisation et resilience des territories, Presses de l Universite du Quebec. Hill E.W., Wial H., Wolman H. (2008), Exploring Regional Economic Resilience, Institute of Urban and Regional Development, University of California, pp. 3-6. Holling C.S. (1973), Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4, 1973, pp. 1-23. Martin R. (2012), Regional Economic Resilience, hysteresis and recessionary shocks, Journal of Economic Geography 12(1), pp. 1-32. Mitchel T., Harris K. (2012), Resilience: A risk management approach, Overseas Development Institute, pp. 1 – 7. Molyneaux L., Wagner L., Froome C., Foster J. (2012), Resilience and electricity systems, A comparative analysis. Energy Policy, 47(0), pp. 188-201. Pendall R., Foster K.A., Cowell M. (2010), Resilience and regions: Building understanding of the metaphor, Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society, 3, pp. 71–84. Pike, A., Dawley S., Tomaney J. (2010), Resilience, adaptation and adaptability, Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society, 3, 59 – 70. Wenisch A., Pladerer C. (2003), Energy Situation and Alternatives in Romania, Austrian Institute for Applied Ecology, pp. 17 – 19. *** (2008), European Commission, 2008, Regions 2020, accessed in 24.02.2015 *** (2012), International Energy Agency (IEA). 2012. Energy balances of non-OECD countries, accessed in 16.11.2014 *** (2013), EUROSTAT, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/energy/data/main_tables, accessed in 17.11.2014.
Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online June 03, 2015 September 14, 2015 Octomber 01,2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 157-167 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252103-671
THE USAGE OF TECHNOLOGIES IN TERRESTRIAL MEASUREMENTS FOR HAZARD MAPS
Dan VELE „Babeş-Bolyai” University Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Geography, Department of Physical and Technical Geography, Clinicilor 5-7 Cluj-Napoca, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
Mircea ALEXE „Babeş-Bolyai” University Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Geography, Department of Physical and Technical Geography, Clinicilor 5-7 Cluj-Napoca, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
Ioan STOIAN National Center of Cartography, 1A Expoziției Blvd., Sector 1, Bucharest, e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: In the context of natural phenomena (earthquakes, floods, landslides etc.) bring economical and social prejudices year by year, watching on them and taking decisions becomes mandatory for reducing the material and human lives loss. Making hazard maps represents a tool used on wide global scale but also particularly in our country. This paper work has the purpose to reveal the interests of certain authors related to the usage of the new technologies of terrestrial measurements (GPS technologies, photogrammetry, cartography and of remote sensing) in order to make these hazard maps.
Key words: terrestrial measurements, risk, hazard maps, management.
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INTRODUCTION Hazard maps are digital maps scaled 1:25 000 to 1:50 000, representing wide areas at local level purposed to determine high risk zones for earthquakes, floods, landslides, fires etc. In this work paper we are only giving attention to hazard maps for floods and landslides. Starting with hazard maps, risk maps are realized at higher scale (1:5 000-1:10 000) which are even more complete and they allow a detailed analysis of the loss evaluation and they can also be used for obtaining building permission and making general and local urbanism drafts. Digital maps designed for hazard and risk maps control are generally made of graphical data basis (the digital map itself) which is being attached the attributes basis structured on connected areas regarding the general features of places situated in the area zones affected by natural hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, floods and also those ones of potential areas (Stoian, 2006; Stoian, 2007). This way, the content of these maps starts to be shaped and it has the following structure (figure 1).
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
158 Dan VELE, Mircea ALEXE, Ioan STOIAN
Figure 1. Digital map support for hazard map making
Figure 2. The digital map representing the relief in the Municipality of Cluj-Napoca
- geographical localizing, natural area, geomorphologic data, hydrographical network; - dynamical parameters of the land, geological features; - territorial structure, categories of usage; - localities affected by natural risks contented by law 575/ 2001; - technical infrastructure, categories of works situated on the county area: - hydro technical works having a defending role against floods; The Usage of Technologies in Terrestrial Measurements… 159
- hydro technical works which can affect the pass regimen; - works of landed improvement; - works regarding the communications and transport networks for road traffic, railway traffic and maritime traffic; - works of crossing river’s inflows. Categories and the structure of buildings, highness regimen, construction materials. The representation of the relief which has a great importance for hazard maps it’s made of level curves or by representing the digital pattern of the land / yard (figure 2). The methodologies of usage for data acquiring regarding plotting of hazard and risk maps were based on classical and modern tools, starting with GPS technologies for making the support system within the geodesic datum adopted (Krasovski - 1942 ellipsoid, protection system Stereo 70, Marea Neagră 1975 altitude system, 1990 edition) technologies of making ortophotos based on photogrammetric flights made between 2005-2010 and satellite multispectral recordings, for analysis and interpretation.
THE CONTENT OF HAZARD MAPS In the very present phase of editing hazard maps for floods there are used recorded information and data from credible and pertinent sources whose goal is to localize the areas which are likely to be flooded only by highlighting the localities which had been affected, depending on the type of flooding and also the physical and valuable loss made on different levels (Prăvălie & Costache, 2013). The data referring to the hydrographical county network, the features of hydrometrical stations located on the main rivers are extremely important for estimation and authenticity regarding the flooding management and also for treating and checking mathematical patterns related to hydraulics calculations and managing wide waters (Bălteanu & Alexe, 2001). Also, watching the hydrographical network has an important role in the following are: - the analysis of hydro basinal already existing systems and of those which are proposed to be realized; - technical issues of local committees for defending against floods and for emergency situations; - technical data of the defending plan belonging to habitational areas. The data quantum given to hydrometrical stations can be assimilated only for the localities situated in the proximity of the stations. The data regarding flooding curves for various probabilities crossed along the river’s pan studied to bound floodable areas are made and approved by MMGA, ANAR in conformity with the attachments, responsibilities and competences given by law and they can be fulfilled after delivery. The features of lithology geological stereotypes, which are added to those of geomorphological type and their climacteric particularities, lead, talking about certain variable dimensioned domains, high values of slipping probabilities, which leads to their circumscription in a group of lands exposed to hazards, to landslides (Coșarcă et al., 2006). For example, in conformity with „Guide regarding macro zoning of Romanian territory from the view point of landslides risks, 1999” the landslides from Cluj county are, generally, to be considered in the short depth category 1 to 5 m, rarely in the superficial (less than 1 m) and deep (5 to 20 m) categories, mainly progressive, in areas with highlighted and regressive slopes in the versants that limit the mellows reactivated or primary. So that the following layers and features had been proposed (table 1). In order to give examples for the meaning of extracting information from attribute base, we chose the period most affected by floods, in Cluj, year 2002. The main features of the hydrometrical stations located on the county’s rivers relevant for the chosen period, are shown in table 2. Regarding landslides there have been made studies that include interdisciplinary research elements (Murariu et al., 2009 a, 2009 b; Stoian et al., 2007). The purpose of these studies is that 160 Dan VELE, Mircea ALEXE, Ioan STOIAN through value estimation and geographical distribution of the risk coefficients Ka-Kh (table 3) and by mentioning the group of potential (low, average, high) to establish the probability level of slips, which would lead to identify, localize, and bound the areas which are exposed to the slipping hazard. Finally, there have been made measure proposals to prevent and reduce the effects of landslides, as the Law 575/ 2001 regarding the Plan of national territory management- the 5th section, natural risk areas- asks.
Table 1. Database for hazard mapping
THE THE FOLDER’S STRUCTURE DATA RESOURCE LAYER
Physico geographical scale Curve ID Altitude raster 1:50000 given by CNC 1. The data were updated with The relief information source taken from ortophotos. Physico geographical raster scale 1:50000 given by CNC Vegetation ID County Name Type Surface The data were updated with information source taken from ortophotos. The data can be 2. developed, filled/ modified from credible resource at low scale or in conformity with urbanistic and territorial Vegetation covering managing plans Physico geographical raster scale 1:50000 given by CNC Land ID County UAT Type Surface The data were updated with information source taken from ortophotos. The data can be 3. developed, filled/ modified from credible resource at low Land usage scale or in conformity with urbanistic and territorial managing plans Physical geographical raster scale 1:50000 given by CNC UAT ID County Name The data were updated 4. following (UAT) unities “The Romanian Statistic Anuar
e territorial 2004” and the urbanistic and Administrativ territorial managing plans. The county committees by updating the data from each
locality received from the
county committees were fulfilled with the required data
material at the National Statistic Population Construction Localities ID Localities 5. Building type Physical state Institute and also other Building period Building regimen data data sources. The data can be developed and shown on many other subjects concerning the water network, the type of
Localities, characteristic energy used, liveable places etc. Romanian Cadastral Water
1992
The official data source is provided by the Romanian area Name height Length County Surface Altitude Altitude Average River ID 6. Drainage Cadastral Water 1992. The confluence rivers Average slope Altitude spring Altitude data update is predicted by ANAR- INGHA through
nonCadastral nonCadastral Cadastral and Cadastral Cadastral revision, new edition. The Usage of Technologies in Terrestrial Measurements… 161
Physical geographical raster scale 1:50000 provided by
CNC with certain mentions of
County Committees through
7. ANIF and SGA. flutes State Type Name Length County Channel ID Drainage area Already made Already made and to be done
Romanian Cadastral water 1992 edition. The official data
resource which works in the
present represents The
8. Romanian Cadastral Water NNR Name Usage Surface
Lake ID 1992 edition. It is predicted the County Volume data update by ANAR – Drainage area natural lakes natural lakes Artificial and INHGA, through the Cadastral revision, new edition. Physical geographical raster scale 1:50000 provided by
CNGCFT information taken
from Hydrographical space managing drafts, shown by Type River
Length MMGA-ANAR. There had Work ID Objective County
9. Drainage area been made certain formalities regarding the inclusion of data contented by GIS data edited in 2005 under the ANAR Hidrotechnical and Hidrotechnical
the construction area watching, regarding the main hydrotechnical works with managing works existing in updated information. Technical from Counties committees There have been made certain
formalities to MTCT and AND in order to gain the viability Type Name
County state of the roads. The data can Material Road ID Road Category 10 be fulfilled during the projection and building of the reabilitation of the roads and main roads network and also
Roads and railways Roads and railways the ones of the dates provided by the Cadastral roads which is going to be made by AND.
Table 2. Characteristic data of hydrometric stations (Cluj County) 2002 CLUJ 06.03-09.03.2002 - 314 houses and adds on 17 localities Blast establishments Iara, Aghireșu, Baciu, - 7 social objective Valea Ierii, Căpușu - 152,3 km DJ + DC Mare, Mărișel, Măguri Răcătău, Beliș, Chiuiești, 4-30. 07.2002 - 37 arches and Mociu, Cluj-Napoca, Spils from the slopes, hail, footbridges Vânători, Ciucea, wind - 400 ha infield Mărgău, Călățele, - 7 hydrotechnycal Săcuieu, Băișoara constructions 01.08-15.08
Flow of pr. Visag, discharge - phone networks from the versants - electric networks - 1 km. Water network - dead animals - fountains
162 Dan VELE, Mircea ALEXE, Ioan STOIAN
To quantify the hazards dued to landslides, have been followed the following purposes (Olaru et al., 2009): - calculating the coefficients of influence and drawing thematically maps using GIS; - calculating the medium hazard coefficient and plotting the hazard map for slipping by over putting the thematical maps in GIS.
Table 3. Mentioning the coefficients which have a contribution to the risk evaluation for landslides (Dordea, 2007) The potential of landslides LOW MEDIUM HIGH The probability of landslides and the risk coefficient Symbol Criteria Practically Medium- Reduced Medium High Very high zero high 0 <0.10 0.10-0.30 0.31-0.50 0.51-0.80 >0.80 Cliffy bolds, massive, Most of the depositions Unconsolidated detrital compacts or broken which are part of the sedimentary rocks - covering rock formations necimen-tion, such as (diluvial, colluvial and clays, clays fat saturated proluvial deposits) and soft plastic - plastic from the layering rocks consistent with swelling category pelitic stratified and large contractions, rocks, such argillite, clays montmorillonite clays, the Ka Lithologycal and marly limestones, power-nic expansive, dust chalk, metamorphic rocks, and sand sized loose, able especially epizone schists submersible sata, breccias and less mid-zone schists, salt etc. strongly alterated and exfoliated, certain magmatic segregation strongly alterated etc.) Horizontal relief plan, Mound relief, specific to Relief characteristic of affected by crummy piedmonts and elevated zones of hilly and erosion, vales that form the plane areas spited by mountainous, heavily hydrographical network hydrographical areas next affected by a dense Kb being in an advanced to vales which have a network of young valleys maturity stage certain maturity stage, high slopes, valleys The bounded by medium sized majority of the Sub-vente and generally medium or (direction parallel to the small dips versants layers). massive rocks structures of Most folded and faulted Geological structures magmatic segregation geological structures are characteristic geosynclines origin, layered sedimentary affected by cleavage and areas in flysch and rocks, with horizontal cracks diapir structures, molasses formations of layers, metamorphic rocks areas that mark the top marginal basins, layered Kc Structural covered by blades sariaj geological structures, horizontal layers strongly folded and deployed affected by a dense network of cleavage, fissures and stratified. Generally arid areas with Moderate precipitation Precipitation of long-term low average rainfall. Flows amounts. The main river slow, with high infiltration spilled into the river valley valleys reached the stage of of water into the stone. At whose watersheds extend maturity while their rains fast speeds drain the hilly and mountainous tributaries are still in youth solids transport flow. Hydrologic Kd areas generally controlled by stage. During floods there Predominance mine and climatical precipitations. The is both vertical and lateral vertical erosion. prevailing riverbeds erosion. Important sedimentation processes, depositions of solid flow. lateral erosion occurring only during floods. Ke Hydrogeology Water flow occurs at very Moderate groundwater Groundwater flow occurs The Usage of Technologies in Terrestrial Measurements… 163
low hydraulic gradients. flow. Filtration forces can under high hydraulic Filtration forces are feeble. influence the slope values gradients. At the base of The free level of Groundwater level the slopes, sometimes in groundwater is situated generally lies less than 5 verse, the springs of water. deep down in the ground. meters There is a slope to the surface flow inside their developing filtrate forces that may contribute to the onset of ground nuts- books. Earthquake intensity of on Earthquake intensity of 6-7 Seismical intensity higher Kf Seismic MSK scale less than 6 degree than 7 Arboreal vegetation Arboreal vegetation Arboreal vegetation coverage more than 80%. coverage sticks between coverage lower than 20% Kg Silvan Deciduous forests with 20% and 80%. Deciduous grand trees. and coniferous trees of various ages and sizes. On the slopes there are not On the slopes are built Slopes affected by a huge great construction certain works (roads and water pipe network and executed, water railway platforms, coastal sewerage, roads, railways, accumulations are missing channels, careers). With canals coast, careers, Kh Anthropic limited extension and overloading them in the proper slope protection upper deposits landfill constructions. Lakes that wet bottom slopes.
MODERN TECHNOLOGIES USED FOR IDENTIFYING AND BOUNDING THE HAZARD AND RISK AREAS OF THE NATURAL PHENOMENA Technologies based on sensors which are used in photogrammetry and remote sensing, are one of the most proper means operational available used in order to find out digital dates to represent the relief (Alexe & Holobâcă, 2003). They offer flexibility to the patterning process and bounding the altimetry data, ensuring the necessary precision and realizing a high automatising level based on few quality parameters, results and final costs, very closed to their optime value (Ionescu, 2004; Zăvoianu, 1999). Using altimetric data extracted from the satellite images for identifying and bounding the zones of hazard and risk of natural phenomena, represents the capacities and bounding of the photometrical analytical and digital technology and also the changes which follows as a result due to the new digital cameras coming, specific elements which define the superior ascendent evolution and dynamics of this technology and its usage in the context of identifying hazard and risk zones of natural phenomena. An aerial image defines a perspective view upon the land, as this is seen from upside, view which is also known under the name of orthogonal. If the image of the photogram is taken exactly vertical, for example taken a photo with a camera which has the optical axe on the same position as the vertical direction of the place, the higher planimetric details will have on the photogram image a different scale compared to the one of details located to a lower altitude reported it the sea level (Linder, 2003). The size or the magnitude of the movements dued to the relief, to the details photographicaly recorded on the photogram’s image, is a focal distance function of the objective or the camera’s imaginary optics, the height of the represented detail (plotted) and the distance of the detail towards the centre of the image (Stoian & Bârliba, 2009). The movement dued to relief is hidden and corrected by stereophotogrametrical ways, which through their inner nature, take into account these variables (figure 3). Furthermore, is the aerial photograms are not seriously taken vertically (practically they are seldom vertical or nadiral, because of the platform’s dynamics which is carrying the sensor or the airplane) so that there also show movements dued to the longitudinal and transversal incline of the platform in the exposing moment or the one of taking the image of photogram (Turdeanu, 2000). 164 Dan VELE, Mircea ALEXE, Ioan STOIAN
Figure 3. Getting rectified images (orthorectification)
Figure 4. Plotting hazard map for floods- the digital model of the land
The effective result is that planimetrical maps are not usually clear when made under the horizontal aspect, if during the map plotting it is not taken into account the fact the land altitude’s effect. The exception from this rule is represented by the administrative bounds, lot bounds which The Usage of Technologies in Terrestrial Measurements… 165 belong to certain keepers and also other asymmetrical planimetrical details, which do not appear on the images taken while flying and there are not practically plotted stereophotogrammetrical but based on measuring angles and distances, realized using topographic technologies (Coșarcă et al., 2006).
Figure 5. Obtaining hydrographical networks by working with satellite images
Figure 6. Highlighting the objectives flooded by torrents
166 Dan VELE, Mircea ALEXE, Ioan STOIAN
So, because the administrative bounds and also lot limits belonging to different owners are not visible on aerial or satellite images for their plotting are always used the topographic upheavals. All these requiring of the topographic plotting can be satisfied through stereophotogrammetry or combinated with digital altitude data produced by IFSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar) equipment or the ones belonging to LIDAR (figure 4). In this way another good example is the one of obtaining the hydrographical network (figure 5) obtained by the aero walked LIDAR ad also through digital data which came through sonar equipment (Mihai, 2009; Stoian et al., 2005). To the file containing data obtained through digital pattern it is added the data vectorial kit composed by localities, roads, railways. Using the determination functions of the running off and those of followings based on digital values from the digital models it can be anticipated the flow and length of a flood, of a bad weather and also the places, localities or the communication ways (figure 6).
CONCLUSIONS Hazard maps ensure conditions of minimum acceptable risk based on some watching strategies of phenomena producing survival conditions for the population and the protection of the environment, in which the cartographical draft, to be more specific making thematical digital maps, based on calculating risks items and especially the integration of a very large informational volume included in the informatical geographical systems (GIS). The maps gain these way analytical and practical features, growing their social usage side apart from those of scientifical and practical importance, being usually named as land’s mathematical patterns. The patterns are used in order to study real or abstract physical phenomena, to create real and precise images of the reality but especially to create a virtual prototype, which describes the structure and the habit of natural phenomena in different conditions. The interest for plotting risk maps on international level and national level, lately, has become bigger and bigger. Hazard maps are defined as being maps which indicates year by year the probability of natural phenomena apparition: earthquakes, floods, landslides. Evaluating the potential of producing hazard is strongly linked by giving a certain frequency of observed apparitions based on the main features, which mainly depend on the data base quantity, on their quality, the data quantum, which implies a high degree of precision and detailing of the characteristic areas of hazard maps.
REFERENCES
Alexe M., Holobâcă I.H. (2003), Câteva consideraţii privind utilizarea teledecţiei în studiul inundaţiilor, Analele Universității din Oradea, Seria Geografie, tom XIII, p. 35-39, Oradea. Bălteanu D., Alexe Rădița (2001), Hazarde naturale şi antropogene, Editura Corint, Bucureşti. Coşarcă C., Onose D., Savu A., Negrilă A. (2006), Geometrical Expertise and Dimensional Control of the Construction to the Hydrotechnics Buildings, RevCAD nr. 8, p. 9-16, Alba Iulia. Dordea D. (2007), Hărţi de risc la alunecări de teren. Studiu de caz – (Comuna Valea Lungă, Judeţul Alba), Proiect Envibucharestmap – Cnmp/modulul IV Parteneriate-MEC, Contract de cercetare-Prospecțiuni S.A.-Partener CNC 31-006 din 18.09.2007. Ionescu I. (2004), Fotogrammetrie inginerească. Modelarea digitală altimetrică a terenului, Editura Matrix ROM, București. Linder W. (2003), Digital Photogrammetry. Theory and Applications, Springer - Verlag Berlin. Mihai B.A. (2009), Teledetecție. Noțiuni și principii fundamentale, Editura Universității din București. Murariu G., Praisler Mirela, Stoian I. (2009 a), Numerical Simulation for Charges Flow Assessment Using Fluent Platform, The Annals of the University Dunărea de Jos of Galaţi, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Informatics, Fascicle II, Supplement, Year III, p.121-125, Galați. The Usage of Technologies in Terrestrial Measurements… 167
Murariu G., Praisler Mirela, Stoian I. (2009 b), Toward a grid technology based on numerical computation with fluent platform, The Annals of the University Dunărea de Jos of Galaţi, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Informatics, Fascicle II, Supplement, Year III, p.143-147, Galați. Olaru V., Stoian I., Stan C., Marunţeanu C., Scrădeanu D., Ştefănescu Beatrice (2009),( Decision support system for landslide risk management in a geographical area with high risk for natural disasters – terrarisc, RevCAD, p. 223-230, Alba Iulia. Prăvălie R., Costache R. (2013), The vulnerability of the territorial-administrative units to the hydrological phenomena of risk (flash floods). Case study: the subcarpathian sector of buzău catchment, Analele Universității din Oradea, seria Geografie, nr. 1, p. 91-98, Oradea. Stoian I. (2006), Elaborarea hărţilor de hazard la nivel judeţean, Buletinul de fotogrammetrie şi teledetecţie, nr. 32, Bucureşti. Stoian I. (2007), Realizarea unui sistem informatic în vederea monitorizării situațiilor de criză la dezastre naturale, Buletinul de Fotogrammetrie şi teledetecţie, nr. 34, p. 3-13, Bucureşti. Stoian I., Bârliba Luminița Livia (2009), Elemente de fotogrammetrie - note de curs, Editura Eurobit, Timișoara. Stoian I., Bunea S., Insurățelu M. (2005), Realizarea hărților tematice, a hărților de risc și managementul crizelor utilizând tehnici de teledetecție, Revista de geodezie, cartografie și cadastru, volum 14, p. 403-409, Bucureşti. Stoian I., Praisler M., Anghelescu A., Nacu V., Baroiu N. (2007), Monitorizarea hazardurilor şi riscurilor în caz de calamităţi naturale în arealul Dunărea de Jos, Proiect de cercetare RISKGAL nr. 31-070 din 20/09/2007- Centrul National de Cartografie, București. Turdeanu L. (2000), Fotogrammetrie analitică, Editura Academiei, Bucureşti. Zăvoianu F. (1999), Fotogrammetria, Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti. *** Ghid privind macrozonarea teritoriului României din punct de vedere al riscului la alunecări de teren, 1999, GEOTEC S.A. Bucureşti.
Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online January 23, 2015 March 01, 2015 Octomber 09,2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 168-176 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252104-684
THE DYNAMICS OF THE MINOR RIVERBED OF TESLUI RIVER IN RELATION TO THE HUMAN FACTOR (1910-2008) - CASE STUDY: REȘCA - FĂRCAȘELE DE JOS SECTOR
Gabriel VELCU Geography Teacher at Technological Highschool „Francisc Neuman”, Arad, Romania e-mail: [email protected]
Gabriela Adina MOROȘANU University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: Teslui River has suffered during the last century (1910-2008) important changes that have been reflected both in the morphology of the drainage canal (the minor riverbed) and in the natural hydrological regime. These changes concern mostly the relation between the anthropic factor and the minor riverbed, which is often subjected to an increasingly intense human pressure. The present study analyses the riverbed section situated between Reșca and Fărcașele de Jos, by presenting a general image of the spatial dynamics of the minor riverbed of Teslui, based on recent cartographic materials (topographical maps, aerial images and Landsat images).
Key words: dynamics, minor riverbed, morphometrics, anthropization
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INTRODUCTION The present study aims to achieve a detailed analysis of the vertical and horizontal dynamics of a river sector, on the basis of cartographic materials and direct observations obtained from the field research. Over time, changes in the minor riverbed can have a negative impact on human activities, especially when the adjacent flood plain is densely populated (Rapp et al., 2003). Thus, changes in the geometry of the minor riverbed have generated negative effects on human society and the environment, destruction of hydro-technical works (bridges, dykes, consolidation of river banks) and have caused losses of agricultural land (Radoane & al., 2005). In this respect, studies on the historical dynamics of water courses have enjoyed greater attention in recent years, in order to recreate, on the one hand, the natural behavior of the river (by using historical data), and to determine the present conditions of evolution, on the other (Feier & Radoane, 2007).
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
The Dynamics of the Minor Riverbed of Teslui River … 169
STUDY AREA The riverbed sector between Reșca and Fărcașele de Jos, analyzed in this study, is located in the eastern part of the Oltenia Plain (The Plain of Caracal) and represents the last part of the lower course of Teslui, more precisely the confluence between Teslui and Olt. From a mathematical perspective, the area is located at the meeting point of the 44º10’ northern latitude parallel and the 24º22’30” eastern longitude meridian (figure 1).
Figure 1. The geographic position of the riverbed sector Reșca - Fărcașele de Jos (Teslui) in Romania (Source: SRTM) 170 Gabriel VELCU, Gabriela Adina MOROȘANU
The riverbed sector that forms the object of this study has a length of 13 Km, (around 12% of Teslui’s total length), an average slope of 0.7 m/km, a liquid multiannual flow of 1.6 m³/s and a solid (alluvium) multiannual flow of 0.99 kg/km (the data was provided by the Reșca hydrometric station, which is included in the studied area). Generally, changes occurring in minor riverbeds are determined by a series of factors such as lithology, geological structure, solid flow, liquid flow, vegetation, tributaries and, above all, human activities (Popa & Condurache, 1997). Natural factors play an indirect role in influencing the dynamics of Teslui’s riverbed. Thus, the lithology of this area is made up of lowland quaternary deposits composed of fine or medium gravel, alternating with clay sands, situated above the Pliocene deposits of the Getic Depression (Savin, 2008). These deposits are easily swept by an accelerated flow of water. In addition, the liquid flow of the river is an important factor in the evolution of the minor riverbed, because it generates flash floods that cause changes in the course, self-capturing meanders and alluvial deposits. The minor riverbed of Teslui, downstream of Reșca, exhibits numerous meanders due to a reduced water flow. In recent times, the highest flows have been recorded at Reșca hydrometric station in 2005 (4,41m³/s) and 2006 (2,18m³/s), when major flash floods occurred, severely impacting the lateral dynamics of the river’s course. When there is an excessive solid flow and the slope remains constant, the river loses its ability to carry the entire amount of alluviums, and the amount that cannot be carried away is deposited, forming isles and banks. Between Reșca and Fărcașele de Jos, Teslui river receives its last left-side tributary, Potopinu, and a series of small, undeveloped torrential organisms on its right side, which is more developed. Torrential precipitations significantly increase the amount of sediments. The present study emphasizes the anthropic factor, which is very important for the lateral dynamics of Teslui’s minor riverbed downstream from Reșca. The anthropic impact is an important problem in the entire river basin, but much more in the minor riverbed, where it takes the form of damming, changes in the water course, bridge building.
METHODOLOGY In order to describe the dynamics of Teslui’s minor river bed in the studied sector (Reșca- Fărcașele de Jos), two research methods, frequently employed in geographical studies, were used: the qualitative method and the quantitative method.
Figure 2. Simplified methodological diagram (Olt – Teslui confluence sector) The Dynamics of the Minor Riverbed of Teslui River … 171
The first method is exemplified by the mapping of Teslui’s minor riverbed in three distinct cartographic materials, by means of GIS techniques. The starting point was the cartographical document so called „Drawing Master Plan”, with a scale of 1:20.000, in a Lambert-Cholesky projection, made in 1910, more specifically the Caracal and Dăneasa (Olt County) sheets. The second cartographic material used for creating the digital terrain model (DEM) by extracting the contour lines and the altitudes is the topographic map (1980), with a scale of 1:25.000, drafted by the Military Topography Department. The most recent materials that confirm the dynamics of Teslui’s riverbed are the aerial mappings, with a scale of 1:5.000, from 2008. The vector information resulting from digitizing the cartographic materials was then overlaid, in order to create a map of Teslui’s riverbed dynamics that can be used for various measurements. The quantitative method aimed to extract specific morphometric parameters for the horizontal behaviour of the riverbed, such as the length and width of the minor riverbed and the degree of meandering, elements that allow for a thorough analysis of the river’s configuration and dynamics over time and space. The entire methodology of the study can be summarised by a simple diagram (figure 2).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS General aspects of the riverbed’s dynamics, as determined on the basis of cartographic materials. Drawing Master Plans (scale of 1:20.000, from 1910) are the instruments that explain the evolution of Teslui River in the first half of the 20th century. The river’s course was completely different from its present state. It was possible to distinguish three sectors of braiding: the first one, at the exit point of Teslui from the village of Reșca, the second one, more evolved, next to the village of Hotărani, and the third, the most evolved of the three, on the north-eastern limits of Fărcașa de Sus (figure 3).
Figure 3. The dynamics of Teslui’s riverbed and the position of the braiding areas in the Resca - Farcasele de Jos sector (Source: Drawing Master Plans, 1910) 172 Gabriel VELCU, Gabriela Adina MOROȘANU
The minor riverbeds of Teslui and Olt rivers are very dynamic during this period. Particularly at the confluence of these rivers, there is a strong development of accumulation forms, such as scroll bars and eyots. Insignificant human interventions are limited to a couple of drainage canals built in the flood plain of Teslui river. Olt River is presented on maps as not being channelled and very unbraided. Also, the point where Teslui spills into the Olt is the southernmost point (figure 4). The topographic map (with a scale of 1:25.000, from 1980) is different from the map previously presented, both in terms of the evolution of river bends and because of the construction of irrigation systems. The system of dykes is presented in a fragmentary manner on the left bank of Teslui (in the final sector) and is completely absent in the case of Olt’s riverbed. Scroll bars are gradually replacing eyots. Whereas the previous material presented Teslui’s riverbed in its natural state, with a wide area of divagation during „high waters” or flash floods, the situation in 1980 is different, with a flood plain modified by human activity through irrigation systems and partial damming of areas, which slowly cancel the river’s freedom (figure 5). The purpose of these drainage – damming – irrigation interventions was to turn this area, which suffered from frequent flooding, into agricultural lands. Also, the expansion of farms right up to the level of the minor riverbed in some sectors (the village of Reșca) put pressure on the river’s course, which nowadays frequently crosses the villagers’ gardens. The last cartographic materials consulted were the aerial mappings (scale of 1:5.000, 2008), and they explain in detail the present dynamic of Teslui’s riverbed. After the regulation of Olt’s lower course, the problem of channelling the confluence sectors of its tributaries emerged, and this could limit to a certain extent the shifting of the junction point. Therefore, in 1997, Teslui’s left bank was reinforced with a 2 metre high dyke, which ran for 4 km, from the junction point upstream. In this manner, the minor riverbed of Teslui oscillates in this sector between the right bank, left in its natural state, and the left bank, which is dammed (figure 6).
Figure 4. Map of human interventions in the Teslui – Olt confluence area (Source: 1:20.000, Drawing Master Plans, 1910) The Dynamics of the Minor Riverbed of Teslui River … 173
Figure 5. Map of human interventions in the Reșca – Fărcașele de Jos sector of Teslui’s riverbed (Source: topographic maps, 1980)
Figure 6. Map of human interventions in the Resca – Farcasele de Jos riverbed sector, Teslui (Source: aerial maps from 2008) 174 Gabriel VELCU, Gabriela Adina MOROȘANU
In the research field, even today it is possible to see traces of the river course’s changes, signalled by abandoned river arms, oxbows and ponds, left near the dammed areas that have a high level of phreatic waters.
The morphometrics characterisation of the minor riverbed between 1910 and 2008 The research carried out on the ground and using cartographic methods strengthens the idea of Teslui’s minor riverbed dynamics (figure 7a). Thus, 13 cross sections have been established (profiles taken at intervals of 1 kilometre), where several measurements were made: width of the minor riverbed (l), sinuosity index (Is), length of the minor riverbed (L) between the extreme profile points (1 – 13) (figure 7b).
Figure 7. The dynamics of Teslui’s minor riverbed (a) and the location of the profile positions (b) (Source: ortophotoplans, 2008)
The width of the minor riverbed is the first morphometric parameter measured for each cross section, with significant variations between 1910 and 2008 (figure 8).
Figure 8. Variation of Teslui riverbed’s width in the Reșca-Fărcașele de Jos sector, 1910-2008
It is to note a slight increase in the width of the minor riverbed along the river, with variations ranging between 7 and 80 metres, the average value being 43.5 metres (measured at full banks). In the riverbed sectors that experienced anastomosis, the measurements taken were those of the main flow canal. A comparison of the river bed’s width in 1910 and 2008 shows a clear tendency of narrowing of the river over time, and this parameter tends to increase from upstream towards downstream. If in 1910 there are noticeable differences in the distribution of values, in 2008, these differences are much lower. This situation is explained by the fact that the riverbed The Dynamics of the Minor Riverbed of Teslui River … 175 was affected by human intervention, and nowadays, the course of the river is determined by human interventions. The partial canalization of the river on its final 4 kilometres led to the concentration of the entire water flow on a single canal, thus generating a wider by 12 metres compared to the past, when Teslui River could divagate freely at the slightest fluctuation in flow. Therefore, the average width of the minor riverbed calculated for 1910 was of 30.9 metres, compared to a maximum of 14.6 metres in 2008.
The length of the minor river bed and sinuosity index Data from 1910, 1980 and 2008 show that the length of the riverbed has changed between these moments by several hundreds of meters, based on the analysed cartographic material. The river’s length decreased continuously form 15.4 kilometres in 1910 to 15.2 kilometres in 1980 and 12.7 kilometres in 2008. This decrease can be explained by the shifting of the confluence point towards the North, which is visible on the ground because of the abandoned river arms and oxbows of the old course. The local presence of stretches of dykes on the topographic map (1980) shows us that Teslui’s freedom of movement has been somewhat limited. The river’s course is 200 metres shorter. The massive difference of 2.5 kilometres between 1980 and 2008 is the result of the embanking of the right bank and the complex works that altered the confluence between Olt and Teslui Rivers. The once flooded terrain became arable land and the inhabited area expanded (Olt’s flood plain). The sinuosity index was determined for the main flowing canal by calculating the ratio between the sinuous length of the minor river bed and the straight line length of the same river bed. In cases of meanders, their length is calculated as a ratio between the length of the minor river bed and the chord. Values lower than 1.5 characterise a sector of a river as having a sinuous riverbed and values equal to or above 1.5 are associated with river sectors which have a river bed with many meanders (Leopold & Volman, 1957). The average value for the sinuosity index calculated for the three reference moments (1910, 1980 and 2008) is 1.39, a value that characterises the riverbed as sinuous. The moment with the greatest evolution is that of 1980, and afterwards the index’s value decreased to 1.23 in 2008 (figure 9). Therefore, the river has transformed itself from a sinuous riverbed to a river bed with meanders and then back to a sinuous river bed.
Figure 9. The variation of the sinuosity index – Teslui River (Reșca-Fărcașele de Jos)
CONCLUSIONS Systematic observations of the morphometric parameters specific for the horizontal configuration of Teslui’s riverbed (measured at 13 cross sections) allow for the identification of Teslui’s evolutionary tendencies in the 1910-2008 interval, seen as representative for its behaviour under the influence of human actions. Therefore, it is possible to observe that the river maintains its basic morphometric characteristics over the entire time span, with the exception of the minor riverbed’s width, which suffers from significant narrowing due to the development of the course. In addition, an increase in 176 Gabriel VELCU, Gabriela Adina MOROȘANU the dynamic character was noted until 1980 (the evolution of meanders towards complex forms), followed by a decrease in the riverbed’s dynamic nature (straightening and shortening of the minor riverbed because of self-capturing meanders). The human factor played an extremely important role in the dynamics of Teslui and Olt riverbeds through the regulation of the entire confluence sector. The expansion of households in the alluvial plain and the cultivation of lands close to the minor river bed determined the river to react at the slightest human impulse by changing its course.
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Ciubotaru Ana-Maria (2015), Influence of human activities on water quality of rivers and groundwaters from Brăila County, Analele Universității din Oradea, Seria Geografie, XXV:1, p 05-13. Costache R., Fontanine I. (2013), The snow drift potential in the Plain Area of Buzău County, Analele Universității din Oradea, Seria Geografie, XXIII:2, p 245 – 254 Coteţ P. (1957), Câmpia Olteniei- studiu geomorfologic, Editura Ştiinţifică, Bucureşti. Dobre R. (2007), Dinamica albiei si raportul cu infrastructura feroviară în sectorul Câmpina - Predeal, Comunicari de Geografie, vol. XI, Editura Universitatii, București. Feier I., Rădoane M. (2007), Dinamica în plan orizontal a albiei minore a râului Someşu Mic, înainte de lucrările hidrotehnice majore (1870-1968), Analele Universităţii „Ştefan cel Mare” Suceava, XVI - 2007. Galiș V. (2013), The precipitations regime in the hydrographic basin Crisul Negru, Analele Universității din Oradea, Seria Geografie, XXIII:2, p 363-374. Grecu F. (2008), Geomorfologie dinamică, Editura Credis, Bucureşti. Ichim I., Bătuca. D., Rădoane M., Duma D. (1989), Morfologia şi dinamica albiilor de râuri, Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti. Ielenicz M. (2007), România-geografie fizică, vol.2: climă, ape, vegetaţie, soluri, mediu, Editura Universitară, Bucureşti. Leopold L.B., Maddock T. (1953), The hydraulic geometry of stream channels and some physiographic implications, U.S.Geol.Survey Prof Paper, 242. Mihalca I. A., Alexe M., Alexe I. (2015), The frequency of occurrence of flash floods on the rivers in the land of Dorna, Analele Universității din Oradea, Seria Geografie, XXV:1, p 66-73. Morariu T., Buta I., Pisota I. (1970), Hidrologie generală, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti. Norman Doyle P. (2005), The effects of human activities on stream water quality: case studies in New Zealand and Germany, Master of Applied Science Earth and Oceanic Sciences Research, Institute Auckland University of Technology Auckland, New Zealand, September 2005 (master thesis). Popa A., Condurache C. (1997), Dinamica albiei minore a râului Suceava, între Ițcani și confluența cu râul Siret, Lucrările seminarului geografic „Dimitrie Cantemir”, nr. 17-18, 1997-1998. Rapp C.F., Abbe T.B. (2003), A framework for Delineating Channel Migration Zones. Rădoane M., Rădoane N, Dumitriu D, Cristea I. (2007), Granulometria depozitelor de albie ale râurlui Prut între Orofteana şi Galaţi, Revista de Geomorfologie, 7, Bucureşti. Rădoane M., Rădoane N., Cristea I., Oprea D. (2008), Evaluarea modificărilor contemporane ale albiei râului Prut pe granița românească, Revista de Geomorfologie, 10, 57-71. Rădoane M., Rădoane N., Dumitriu D. (2003), Geomorphological evolution of river longitudinal profiles, Geomorphology, 50, Elsevier, Olanda, p 293-306. Rădoane M., Ichim I., Rădoane N., Dumitrescu G., Ursu C. (1996), Analiza cantitativă în geografia fizică, Editura Universității Al. I. Cuza, Iaşi. Savin C. (2008), Râurile din Oltenia- monografie hidrologică, Volumul I, Editura Sitech, Craiova. Toma F.M. (2011), Analiza frecvenței producerii viiturilor pe râurile din Câmpia Română dintre Olt și Argeș, Geographia Napocensis, 2, p. 41-49. *** http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/last.html *** http://www.dobrosloveni.ro/ *** http://www.primaria-farcasele.ro/ *** http://earth.unibuc.ro/
Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online July 17, 2014 September 19, 2015 Octomber 09,2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 177-185 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252105-680
THE NATIONAL STRUCTURE OF MARAMUREŞ COUNTY AT THE 20TH OCTOBER 2011 CENSUS
George-Bogdan TOFAN „Vasile Goldiş” Western University of Arad, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Engineering and Informatics, Departament of Biology, Ecology and Geography, Baia Mare Branch, 5 Culturii Street, Romania e-mail: [email protected]
Bogdan-Nicolae PĂCURAR Centre for Research on Settlements and Urbanism, Faculty of Geography, „Babeș-Bolyai” University Cluj-Napoca; Cluj County Council, Urbanism and Territorial Planning Department, Cluj-Napoca, Romania e-mail: [email protected]
Adrian NIŢĂ „Babeș-Bolyai” University, Faculty of Geography, Gheorgheni Branch, Csiki Garden, Romania e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: The aim of the following study is to present the territorial distribution of the 20 ethnicities found in Maramureş County, in urban as well as rural areas, and in the 76 administrative-territorial units that make up the county. Regarding the ethnic structure of the population, one must point out that solely 451 536 people declared their ethnicity (out of total of de 478 659 people), Romanians numbering 374 488 people (82.94%), Hungarians 32 618 people (7.22%), while the number of people who claimed the Ukrainian ethnicity was 30 786 (6.83%), followed by Gypsies – 12 211 people (2.70%), other 16 ethnic groups (German, Turkish, Russians-Lipovan, Tartar, Serbian, Slovak, Bulgarian, Croatian, Greek, Italian, Jews, Czechs, Polish, Chinese, Armenian and Csangos) with a total of 1 433 people (0.32%), and other ethnicities with 179 people (0.04%).
Key words: the 2011 Population Census, Romanians, Ukrainians, Zipsers.
* * * * * *
INTRODUCTION First of all, one must mention the fact that depicting the evolution of the ethnic structure, before 1989, faced several major hurdles when it came to actual research. Consequently, in the geographic literature of the 1980s, there is only a brief presentation of the ethnic structure and its evolution in Maramureş County (Posea et al., 1980), but after 1989, geography managed to focus on a more in depth analysis of this issue. Without trying to exhaust the issue, we would like to mention certain authors and researchers, who wrote and published studies dealing with ethnicity and its evolution in Maramureș: Josan et al., 1994; Ilieş, 1994, 1998; Boar, 2001; Popa & Bota, 2003; Dezsi, 2006;
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
178 George-Bogdan TOFAN, Bogdan-Nicolae PĂCURAR, Adrian NIŢĂ
Puşcaş, 2007; Ilieş, 2007; Hotea, 2008; Scridon, 2012, as well as the studies published by Pop (1991, 2004 and 2014), for the national censuses of 1992, 2002 and 2011. The first author of this study began to research this topic by writing the paper entitled „The northern component of the depression aligment of the Central Group of the Eastern Carpathians (Drăgoiasa-Glodu-Bilbor-Secu-Borsec-Corbu-Tulgheş)”, later extended into a doctoral thesis, published in 2013, as well as two research studies in Population Geography, regarding the ethnic and religious structure of Harghita and Mureş counties, at the 2011 Census, published in 2014 (please see the references). These last two endeavours belong to a post-doctoral geographic study of ethnicity, religion and electoral behaviour of the population living in Harghita, Covasna and Mureş counties, during 2008-2014. Returning to the ethnic structure of Maramureş County, at the Census held in 2011, the registration of ethnicity was based on the declaration of the interviewed people. The undeclared people, and the people for whomdata was collected indirectly from administrative sources, fall into the „Unavailable information” category. Therefore, the frequency of the ethnic structure is calculated based on the number of people who declared their ethnicity, and not based on the total stable population (Tofan, 2014). Thus, out of a total of 478 659 people, only 451536 people agreed to declare it, while the remaining 27 123 fall under the „Unavailable information”.
WORK METHODOLOGY In order to analyse the 2011 ethnic structure of Maramureş County, according to the current scientific means, we started by collecting statistical data from the National Instiute of Statistics (www.recensamantromania.ro/rezultate-2), and Maramureş County Statistics Department (http://www.maramures.insse.ro/main.php), which were then processed, and displayed in a table, graphic and cartographic fashion, all of them playing a major role in the understanding of the territorial situation. The analytical succesion of the 21 ethnicities found in Maramureş County will follow the census structure, as: Romanians, Hungarians, Gypsies, Ukrainians, Germans, Turkish, Russian-Lipovans, Tartars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croatians, Greeks, Italians, Jews, Czechs, Polish, Chinese, Armenians, Csangos, Macedonians, plus two categories other nationalities and unavailable information. As stated before, the corresponding frequencies to the ethnic structure were calculated based on the number of people declared and not based on the total stable population. All these elements, taken as a whole, enable a synthetic analysis of the ethnic structure of Maramureş, of the urban and rural areas, that is the two municipalities (Baia Mare and Sighetu Marmaţiei), towns: Baia Sprie, Borşa, Cavnic, Dragomireşti, Săliştea de Sus, Seini, Şomcuta Mare, Târgu Lăpuş, Tăuţii Măgheruş, Ulmeni and Vişeu de Sus.
THE ETHNIC (NATIONAL) STRUCTURE OF POPULATION In order to perform the best analysis regarding the frequency and territorial distribution of ethnicities in the county, we organized the structure in six categories, depending on their percentages (table 1). Thus, we have the following situation: the Romanian ethnicity with 374 488 inhabitants (82.94%) out of a total of 451536 declared inhabitants, followed by the Hungarian ethnicity, with 32 618 inhabitants (7.22%) and the Ukrainian ethnicity with 30786 inhabitants, which leads to a relative value of 6.82%. As a side note, the highest number of Ukrainians can be found in the County of Maramureș. The fourth ethnicity, in terms of numbers, are Gypsies, with 12 211 inhabitants and percentages of 2.70%, followed by the other ethnicities category, comprised of 1 433 persoane (0.32%).
Romanians In 2011, Romanians had 82.94% (374 488 inhabitants) of the total of 451 536 people who declared their ethnicity, 218 574 (85.77%) being found in urban areas, while 155 914 (79.26%) in rural areas, in the 63 communes and their 226 villages. Romanians are present in high numbers in urban areas, for example in Baia Mare – 96 105 (85.39%) out of a total of 112 549 people, Sighetu The National Structure of Maramureş County at the 20th of October 2011 Census 179
Marmaţiei - 28 634 (83.28%), out of 34 384 declared, then in Baia Sprie – 11 318 (77.66%), out of 11 318 people, Borşa – 25 197 (97.90%) out of 25 738, Cavnic, - 4 064 (84.60%) out of 4 804 people, Dragomireşti, 3 129 (99.52%) out of 3144, Săliştea de Sus, 4 795 (99.96%) out of 4 797, Seini, 7 011 (81.29%), out of a total of 8 625 people, Şomcuta Mare, 6103 (83.75%) out of 7 287 people, Târgu Lăpuş, 9 787 (87.56%) out of 11 177 people, Tăuţii Măgheruş, 5 891 (86.32%) out of 6 825 people who declared their ethnicity, Ulmeni, 3 764 (53.73%) from 7 006 people and Vişeu de Sus, 12 776 Romanians (91.83%) out of total of 13 913 people.
Table 1. The ethnic structure of Maramureş County, general presentation and urban/rural distribution, in 2011 (Source: the 2011 Census)
Crt. Ethnicities County Urban Rural no. Total declared 451536 100.00 254823 100.00 196713 100.00 population 1 Romanians 374488 82.94 218574 85.77 155914 79.26 2 Hungarians 32618 7.22 26507 10.40 6111 3.10 3 Gypsies 12211 2.70 7423 2.91 4788 2.43 4 Ukrainians 30786 6.82 1043 0.41 29743 15.12 5 Germans 1054 0.23 1026 0.40 28 0.01 6 Turks 25 0.00 21 0.00 4 0.00 7 Russians-Lipovans 18 0.00 16 0.00 * - 8 Tartars * - * - - - 9 Serbians 6 0.00 6 0.00 - - 10 Slovaks 11 0.00 10 0.00 * - 11 Bulgarians 4 0.00 3 0.00 * - 12 Croats 3 0.00 * - * - 13 Greeks 6 0.00 5 0.00 * - 14 Italians 52 0.01 43 0.01 9 0.00 15 Jews 46 0.01 45 0.01 * - 16 Czechs 3 0.00 * - * - 17 Polish 8 0.00 7 0.00 * - 18 Chinese * - * - - - 19 Armenians 8 0.00 4 0.00 4 0.00 20 Csangos 8 0.00 8 0.00 - - 21 Other ethnicity 179 0.04 77 0.03 102 0.05
In terms of Romanian presence in rural areas, that is the 63 communes spread across the county, there were 155914 inhabitants (79.26%) out of a total of 196 713 declared. The numerical situation of Romanians, in the 63 communes, is as follows: - seven communes are monoethnical, that is 100% Romanians, three of them found in Maramureşului Depression (Bârsana, Bogdan Vodă and Poienile Izei), two in the Someşan Plateau, Purcăreţ-Boiu Mare Plateau subunit (Boiu Mare and Vima Mică), and Cupşeni, located in Lăpuşului Hills, and Bicaz, situated in Silvaniei Hills, Asuajului Hills subunit; - in 40 of the 63 communes, the Romanian population exceeds 90%: Ardusat (99.62%), Asuaju de Sus (99.50%), Băiţa de sub Codru (98,67%), Băseşti (95.38%), Botiza (99.96%), Budeşti (99.90%), Călineşti (99.94%), Cerneşti (96.70%), Cicârlău (99.25%), Coaş (99.56%), Copalnic Mănăştur (92.02%), Deseşti (99.87%), Dumbrăviţa (99.29%), Fărcaşa (97.66%), Gârdani (99.73%), Giuleşti (99.83%), Groşi (98.22%), Groşii Ţibleşului (93.43%), Ieud (99.98%), Lăpuş (99.30%), Leordina 180 George-Bogdan TOFAN, Bogdan-Nicolae PĂCURAR, Adrian NIŢĂ
(99.71%), Mireşu Mare (98.33%), Moisei (99.95%), Oarţa de Jos (99.25%), Onceşti (99.93%), Petrova (98.53%), Recea (94.74%), Rona de Jos (98.95%), Rozavlea (99.47%), Săcălăşeni (96.17%), Săcel (99.79%), Săpânţa (99.64%), Sarasău (96.94%), Şieu (99.91%), Şişeşti (99.85%), Strâmtura (99.86%), Suciu de Sus (95.09%), Vadu Izei (99.80%), Valea Chioarului (91.06%) and Vişeu de Jos (98.80%);
Figure 1. The ethnic structure of Maramureş County, at the 2011 Census.
- a number of six communes have a Romanian population between 70-90%: Ariniş, Coroieni, Ocna Şugatag, Remetea Chioarului, Sălsig şi Satulung, while Băiuţ has between 50-70%; - in nine communes with a large Hungarian and Ukrainian presence, the Romanian population descended below 50%, for example in Bocicoiu Mare (39.29%), Câmpulung la Tisa (24.61%), Remeţi (19.07%), Bistra (10.90%), Coltău (6.58%), Rona de Sus (5.18%), Ruscova (3.52%), Poienile de sub Munte (3.19%) and Repedea (1.95%);
Figure 2. The urban ethnic structure of Maramureş County, at the 2011 Census
Hungarians They are the largest minority in the county, as they were colonized here in the Middle Ages, especially in the salt rich areas of Ocna Şugatag and Coştiui. In Maramureş County, at the census held on 20th October 2011, this ethnicity registered 32618 inhabitants, meaning 7.22% of the 451536 people who declared their ethnicity. If we compare urban with rural areas, we see that 26507 Hungarians live in cities and towns (10.40%), while only 6111 (3.11%) live in villages. In urban areas, the situation for the Hungarian population was as follows: Ulmeni (23.80%), Baia Sprie (17.90%), Seini (16.10%), Cavnic (14.60%), Sighetu Marmaţiei (12.80%), Tăuţii Măgheruş (12.40%), Târgu Lăpuş (11.50%), Baia Mare (11.30%), Vişeu de Sus (2.78%), The National Structure of Maramureş County at the 20th of October 2011 Census 181
Şomcuta Mare (1.52%), Borşa (1.39%), fewer than three people in Săliştea de Sus, while in Dragomireşti, this ethnicity was not present.
Figure 3. The rural ethnic structure of Maramureş County, at the 2011 Census
In rural areas, there were 6111 Hungarians (3.11%), most of them in Coltău (55.30%) and Câmpulung la Tisa (70.80%), higher values being found also in Băiuţ (35.10%), Remetea Chioarului (13.00%) and Ariniş (10.90%), while eight communes had a Hungarian population below 10% (Rona de Sus, Ocna Şugatag, Remeţi, Bocicoiu Mare, Groşii Ţibleşului, Recea, Satulung and Groşi). Values below 1% were found in 22 communes, eight rural settlements registered fewer than three Hungarians and 20 communes have no registries of such ethnicity (Asuaju de Sus, Bicaz, Cupşeni, Onceşti, Rozavlea, Săcel, Şieu, Strâmtura etc.).
Gypsies In Maramureş County, there were 12 211 people who declared themselves as Gypsy (2.70%) out of a total of 451 536 people, 7 423 (2.91%) living in urban areas, while 4 788 (2.43%) in rural areas. In urban localities, Gypsises were more numerous in Ulmeni (22.40%) and Şomcuta Mare (14.50%), then in Baia Sprie (4.16%), Baia Mare (2.76%), Seini (2.23%), Sighetu Marmaţiei (1.43%), Tăuţii Măgheruş (1.00%), while in other five urban localities (Borşa, Cavnic, Dragomireşti, Târgu Lăpuş and Vişeu de Sus) their percentages were below 1%, and Săliştea de Sus no one registered as such. In rural areas, this ethnicity can be found in 31 communes out of 63, missing from 22 communes which are Adrusat, Băiuţ, Bocicoiu Mare, Budeşti, Cicârlău, Cupşeni, Onceşti, Şişeşti, Vadu Izei etc. Taking into consideration the percentages of this ethnicity, the 31 communes can be structured as follows: - below 1% includes 19 rural settlements, the lowest absolute values being found in Călineşti (1 person), Coaş (1), Giuleşti (1), Săpânţa (1), Groşi (2 persons), Vişeu de Jos (2), etc.; - between 1-10% - 18 comune (Băiţa de sub Codru, Băşeşti, Câmpulung la Tisa, Cerneşti, Copalnic-Mănăştur, Fărcaşa, Groşii Ţibleşului, Mireşu Mare, Ocna Şugatag, Recea, Remetea Chioarului, Remeţi, Ruscova, Săcălăşeni, Sarasău, Suciu de Sus, Valea Chioarului and Vişeu de Jos), while the above 10% category includes four communes: Coltău (38.10%), Satulung (20.60%) and Coroieni (19.70%), Sălsig (10.60%).
Ukrainians This ethnicity comes third, after Romanians and Hungarians, with a total of 30 786 inhabitants (6.82% of the population that declared its ethnicity), meaning the highest percentage of Ukrainian ethnics in Romania – 50 920 in the whole country. 182 George-Bogdan TOFAN, Bogdan-Nicolae PĂCURAR, Adrian NIŢĂ
In 2011, they were found in urban areas – 1 043 people (0.41%), distributed as follows: 750 in Sighetu Marmaţiei (2.18%, of the 34 384 inhabitants), 153 in Baia Mare (0.14% out of 112 549), 81 in Vişeu de Sus (0.58%, out of 13 913), 21 in Borşa (0.08% out of 25 738), 8 in Cavnic (0.17% out of 4 804), five people in Tăuţii Măgheruş (0.07% out of 6 825), four in Ulmeni (0.06% out of 7 006), followed by Seini, Şomcuta Mare and Târgu Lăpuş with the (*) sign, indicating fewer than three people, while the towns of Dragomireşti and Săliştea de Sus have no declared Ukrainian ethnics. In rural areas, Ukrainians numbered 29 743 people, representing 15.10% of the total of 196 713 declared, with the following territorial distribution: - over 90% in three communes from the Vişeului Basin: Poienile de sub Munte (9 254, 96.30% out of 9 605), Ruscova (5 011 people, 92.90% out of 5 393 inhabitants) and Repedea (4 472 people, 97.30% out of 4 596 people) (figure 4); - percentages between 70-90% can be found in three communes located in Maramureşului Depression - Bistra (3 543 people, 87.20%), Rona de Sus (3 213, 86.30%) and Remeţi (2 156, 72.00%), while the 50-70% category is comprised of a single settlement - Bocicoiu Mare (1 975, 53.70%), situated in the same geographic unit; - the last category corresponds to percentages below 1% and comprises 24 communes (Câmpulung de Tisa, Leordina, Ocna Şugatag, Petrova, Recea, Remetea Chioarului, Săpânţa, Strâmtura etc.). In the remaining 32 communes, this ethnicity was not registered.
Other ethnicities Alongside Romanians (82.94%), Hungarians (7.22%), Ukrainians (6.82%) and Gypsies (2.70%), there are 16 national minority categories, such as: Germans, Turks, Russian-Lipovans, Tartars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croatians, Greeks, Italians, Jews, Czechs, Polish, Chinese, Armenians and Csangos, plus the other ethnicity category. A) The 16 national minorities (from 5 to 20, in table 1) number 1 433 people (0.32%) of the total declared population of 451 536 people, out of which 1 276 in urban areas (0.51%) and 157 (0.10%) in rural areas. Germans (Zipsers), with a population of 1 054 inhabitants (0.23%) with 1 026 in urban areas (606 in Vişeu de Sus, 270 in Baia Mare, 57 in Sighetu Marmaţiei etc.) and 28 in rural localities (5 in Ruscova, 4 in Remeţi, 4 in Băiuţ, 3 in Săcel, etc.), were initially colonized for lumbering operations. Turks - 25 people of this ethnicity in the county, with 21 living in urban areas, most of them in Baia Mare (19), and four in rural settlements (Ariniş, Mireşu Mare, Recea and Satulung). Russian-Lipovans, with a population of 18 out of which 16 in urban areas (9 in Baia Mare, three in Vişeu de Sus, etc.) and only two in rural areas (Ardusat and Strâmtura). Tartars – solely a single ethnic, living in Baia Sprie. Serbs - only six people, all residing in urban areas (three people in Baia Mare, and one in each of the following localities: Sighetu Marmaţiei, Baia Sprie and Şomcuta Mare). Slovaks are numerically insignificant in the county (11 people), 10 in urban areas (7 in Baia Mare, two in Sighetu Marmaţiei and one person in Săliştea de Sus) and only one in Coltău. Bulgarians are represented by four people, three residing in Baia Mare and one in Bocicoiu Mare. Croatians – three ethnics, one in Ulmeni and two in Repedea commune. There are six Greeks in the county, five of them dwelling in urban localities (four in Baia Mare and one in Baia Sprie) and one in the Commune of Repedea. Italians take the sixth spot after Germans (Zipser) and number 52 people, 43 living in urban areas (32 in Baia Mare, six in Sighetu Marmaţiei and fewer than three in Borşa, Tăuţii Măgheruş and Vişeu de Sus) and 9 in rural localities (three people in Ocna Şugatag and one person in each of the following Coltău, Groşi, Lăpuş, Leordina, Moisei and Sălsig). Jews register a population of 46, out of which 45 can be found in urban areas (32 in Baia Mare, 11 in Sighetu Marmaţiei and one in Seini as well as in Şomcuta Mare) and one in Poienile de sub Munte Commune. The National Structure of Maramureş County at the 20th of October 2011 Census 183
, 2011
y
Count ş
The territorial distribution of the main ethnicities in Maramure ethnicities main the of distribution territorial The
ure 4. g
Fi
184 George-Bogdan TOFAN, Bogdan-Nicolae PĂCURAR, Adrian NIŢĂ
There are only three declared Czechs, two in urban areas (Baia Mare and Şomcuta Mare) and one person in Recea. The Polish are represented by 8 people at county level, 7 residing in urban localities (four in Baia Mare and three in Vişeul de Sus) and one in Satulung. Only one Chinese ethnic was registered, in Baia Mare. Armenians - 8 people, four in towns and cities (fewer than three in Baia Mare, Sighetu Marmaţiei and Vişeu de Sus) and four in Poienile de sub Munte. Csangos – likewise 8 people, represents the last minority that we will like to discuss in this paper, as Macedonian ethnics were not found in 2011. Csangos can be found exclusively in urban areas (six in Baia Mare and two in Sighetu Marmaţiei).
B) The other ethnicity category included, at the 2011 Census, a total number of 179 people, which represent 0.04% of the total declared population of Maramureş. At local levels, there was a strong majority of 77 people, who reside in urban areas (41 in Baia Mare, 11 in Sighetu Marmaţiei, 11 in Şomcuta Mare, three în Baia Sprie, and fewer than three in Borşa, Cavnic, Dragomireşti, Seini, Tăuţii Măgheruş and Vişeu de Sus). In rural localities, that is the settlements that make up the 63 communes, the largest number was found in Bistra (69 people), followed by Repedea (15), Bocicoiu Mare (11) and Rona de Sus (3), and by four communes with the (*) sign, meaning fewer than three ethnics (Băiuţ, Remeţi, Suciu de Sus and Vişeu de Jos). In the remaining 55 communes there were no inhabitants registered in this category.
Unavailable information Said component is a first for the censuses held in our country, being comprised of, as previously stated, those persons whose information have been collected indirectly, from administrative sources. In Maramureş County, the absolute value of this indicator was 27 123 people, out of which 20 463 in urban areas and 6 660 in rural areas. As this indicator is rather irrelevant in the evaluation of the 21 nationalities, we believe that its analysis is meaningless. Furthermore, this manner of registration led to some inconsistencies in the percentages of the main ethnicities (Pop, 2014).
CONCLUSIONS As found during the 2011 Census, the population of Maramureş County decreased by 31 451 people compared to 2002, and out of the total stable population (478 659 inhabitants), only 451 536 declared their ethnicity. Consequently, a significant number of people (27 123) were included in the „Unavailable information”, as they did not declare their ethnicity, or had their information extracted indirectly from various administrative data, a problematic method, which created difficulties in finding the correct percentage of some of the main ethnicities. We would also like to point out that marking an administrative unit with a (*), meaning fewer than three people. This situation created further problems in finding the proper values. The national structure of Maramureş is dominated by Romanians (89.94%), which in some areas, such as: Bârsana, Bicaz, Bogdan Vodă, Boiu Mare, Cupşeni, Poienile Izei and Vima Mică, reached 100%, while in other 44 communes, percentages over 90%. The Hungarians (7.22%) had majorities only in Câmpulung la Tisa (70.80%) and Coltău (55.30%), while Ukrainians (6.82%), with their largest representation of any county, were a majority in seven settlements from Maramureşului Depression: Poienile de sub Munte, Repedea, Ruscova (over 90%); Bistra, Remeţi, Rona de Sus (70-90%) and Bocicoiu Mare (50-70%). Compared to 2002, only the Gypsy minority experienced increases in its numbers, from 8 913 people (1.74%) in 2002, to 12211 people (2.70%) in 2011, while all the other main ethnicities decreased in numbers: there were 418 405 Romanians in 2002, while in 2011 their numbers fell to 374 488; Hungarians, from 46 300 people in the year 2002 to 32 618 in 2011; Ukrainians decreased from 34 027 in 2002 to 30 786 in 2011, and Germans, from 2 012 ethnics in 2002 to a minute 1 054 in 2011. The National Structure of Maramureş County at the 20th of October 2011 Census 185
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Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online May 5, 2015 September 25, 2015 Octomber 12,2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 186-194 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252106-688
THE REGRESSION MODEL IN THE FORECAST OF TRAVEL DEMAND IN AKURE, NIGERIA
Ogunbodede E.F Department of Geography & Planning Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin University, P.M.B. 01, Akungba - Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria e-mail: [email protected]
Ale, A.S Department of Geography & Planning Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin University, P.M.B. 01, Akungba - Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: This paper examined the application of regression model in the forecast of travel demand in cities using Akure as a reference point. The aim is to examine the effectiveness of regression model in predicting travel demand in any urban environment. The data used for this study was derived from a larger study of Akure and the data were collected in respect of household size, income, number of people owing motorcycle, number of people with personal vehicles, waiting time at bus stop and walking time from house to bus stop as independent variables, while trips to work places, business centers, educational centers, social centers, religious centers, medical centers were also regarded as dependent variables. Correlation matrix of the dependent and independent variables were carried out using stepwise multiple regressions. The regression was used to enable the researcher find the best linear prediction equation for travel demand in Akure. The stepwise multiple regressions adapted was a search procedure that identified the independent variables that possessed strong relationship with the dependent variable, at 0.05 significant level, the total trip accruing from all trips purposes as defined under dependent variable Y1 to Y6 referred to as aggregate trips showed that income is very important in determining travel demand with an equation of this type Y1=2575.25+125.27X6 . It was however discovered that a lot of problems beset the use of statistics in geographic studies. The model exposes some short coming inherent in the application of regression analysis to studies in geography.
Key words: Trip Purposes, Forecast, Travel Demand, Income and Prediction
* * * * * *
INTRODUCTION The issues of efficient and adequate movement within cities have been a major concern to transport analysts and planners in the recent past and it has continued till date. This is because urbanization, urban expansion and transportation are intricately interwoven (Ikya, 1993; Sada, 1973; Mabogunje, 1968; Onokerhoraye & Omuta, 1978). This is amply displayed by various
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
The Regression Model in the Forecast Of Travel Demand in Akure, Nigeria 187 studies concentrating on patterns, volume and problems of city transportation planning. The problems have not been resolved despite various measures adopted in ameliorating them. The recent trend in urbanization problems shows that transport problems ranked high when compared with problems of housing, congestion, pollution and waste disposal and management. This is because; urbanization in cities especially in developing countries has resulted in the continuous influx of people into the major cities. The rural-urban migration reduces the number of people in the rural areas while at the same time increase that of the cities and consequently the spatial sizes of the cities (Onokerhoraye & Omuta 1978; Ayeni, 1975). There is no doubt, that most cities in the developing countries have a rate of urbanization that is one of the highest in the world. For example, the number of cities of 20,000 people or more rose from 56 in 1956 to 180 in1963 and the proportion of the country population in such cities rose to 19.1%. Ever since 1963, the cities in Nigeria have grown astronomically. This rapid growth in urban population has implication for intra-urban movement, with all its attendant problems. As the city expands consequent upon the increase in population, the problems get compounded. For example, the commuting distance of Lagos increased from 20 km in 1970 to 35 km in 1995; that of Kaduna increased from 6 km to 10 km during the same period (Ikya, 1993); while that of Akure (a medium Urban centre) increased from 5.2 km in1966 to 6.4 km in 1976; to 10.5 km in 1986 and 13 km in 1996 for the major artery road (Ogunbodede, 2001). It is important therefore, to plan the transport system to meet the needs occasioned by the high population concentration. To do this, we need to identify the factor of travel demand for the analysis and prediction of urban movement. Various studies conducted in Nigeria focused on the problem as they exist. Example of such studies in Nigeria include Adefolalu (1997) traffic congestion in the city of Lagos; Bello (1994) urban transport in a growing city, a study of Ilorin metropolis, Okpala (1981), urban traffic management in Nigeria cities using mass transit priorities as case studies; Ogunsanya (1982) focused his work on human factors in urban traffic congestion while Omiunu (1988) worked on rapid growth and expansion of cities. All these studies have serious implications on existing urban transport services. However, we need to know the future movement patterns to enable us plan for the transport needs. That being so, geographic analysis of an urban area using statistics to unfold basic framework that is capable of providing insight into land-use pattern and predicting likely transport components for solving them should be undertaken. Previous studies aimed at quantitatively determining the future movement patterns contain inaccuracies. This is particularly so with the use of the regression methods which as explained by Ogunsanya (1984) are filled with problems. The paper presented here is therefore concerned on the application of regression model on travel demand with a view to exposing some of the problems and finding more suitable quantitative technique of analysis which could be used to improve forecasting power of variables. This will go a long way to assist transport policy makers to plan with data knowing fully well that planning without facts is as good as making no efforts.
AIM The main purpose of this paper is to search for a suitable technique of forecasting travel demand of commuters in cities. This is done by identifying factors that influence trip generation in the city of Akure and invoke a regression model to predict travel demand.
CONCEPTUAL ISSUES AND LITERATURE REVIEW A lot of theoretical works have been carried out on urban public transportation (Ullman, 1956; Adeniji, 1987; Ogunsanya, 1992a; Anderson, 1958; Cooley, 1971). The concept of spatial interaction is very important in studying relationship. In the quest for the basis of spatial interaction, Ullman (1956) postulated three principles which are relevant to this study. These are complementarity, intervening opportunities and transferability. Complementarity implies a real differentiation and the existence of supply and demand in different areas which can result in 188 Ogunbodede E.F., Ale A.S. interaction, intervening opportunity sets up a constraint as to the possibility of interaction taking place between two places even if the condition of complementarily is fulfilled. Transferability relates to the case with which such demand could be met and it is measured in real terms of transfer and time costs. Nakkash and Greco (1972) employed linear regression model to relate trip frequency to household location with respect to the other elements of the spatial system. The result of the study shows that there was no significant relationship between trip frequency and the type of road. Based on this varied sets of hypothesis concerning trip frequency need be postulated. The hypothesis must identify the relationship between trip frequency and the socio-economic characteristics of trip makers using variables such as age, income, length of stay in the city, size of household, member of workers per household, annual house rent and marital status. Various statistical techniques have been adopted to relate transport studies with land use in urban areas. For example, Ogunsanya (1986) examined the usefulness of graph theory in intra-urban network flow estimation. Although the use of graph theory in intra-urban network flow had hitherto been largely focused on regional network especially in developed countries, Ogunsanya applied it to an urban area where he regarded intersection or junctions as nodes and the roads as links. This enabled him to abstract an urban road network flow estimation of Barnsley. Other works on transportation network include that of Kansky (1963), Gauthier (1968), Garrison (1960) Nystuen and Dacey (1961). These researchers have applied graph theory to the study of transportation network and came up with results that are of immense use in the area of transport planning, Ayeni (1983) examined the development of an urban land use transportation model for the city of Lagos (Nigeria). He provided a synthesis of the social characteristics of urban transportation system into rudiments of urban land use and transport system modeling. He was able to identify some of the controversial links between land use and transportation model. The model constitute an approach for identifying the nature, characteristics and magnitude of urban transportation problem, sorting these out into their various components in space, monitoring them as well as designing effective and efficient routes and network system for their solution. In the analysis of vehicles concentrations on roads, Omiunu (1988) applied the index of percentage of vehicular concentration on some selected roads (25 roads) in Benin city (Nigeria) using the formula:
IVC = TVM X 100 TVY 1
Where IVC = index of vehicular concentration TVM = Total vehicular traffic per month TVY = total vehicular traffic for the year.
Both TVM and TVY were based on peak hours from 7.30 – 8.30 am, 12.30-2.30 pm and 5.30 – 7.30 pm .The formula according to Ominnu was adapted from Winifred Ashton’s work on the theory of traffic flow. Ogunsanya (1984) demonstrated the usefulness of isochrones in traffic congestion. He interpreted the spacing of isochrones in a similar way as a contour in a topographical map. The close isochrones indicate the steep or highly congested area depending on the spacing of the isochrones. Areas where the space is even, indicated even travel time and thus, low or absence of traffic congestion. Ogunsanya (1985) also used the basic concepts of graph theory and Makov chain model to build a link probability value on the basis of modal flow values obtained from a road junction count. To do this, urban network is regarded as a circuit consisting of junctions which are nodes in the network and each road is joined by a link which is Uni-or-bi-directional. In the compilation, it was assumed that all links in the work are equal. The Regression Model in the Forecast Of Travel Demand in Akure, Nigeria 189
Existing studies (Ullman, 1956; Hay & Smith, 1970; Goddard, 1970; Ogunsanya,1982; Ogunbodede, 2005) have shown on regional or macro scale that some pattern discerning techniques can be used in the identification of spatial pattern of flows between regions. One of such method is the non-routed cartographic techniques. Ogunsanya (1982) used the non-routed cartographic techniques to depict the result of the overall pattern of intra-metropolitan freight flow between fourteen (14) sectors in the city of Lagos. The overall pattern appears rather blurred indicating the complexity of intra-metropolitan freight flow and the inefficiency of the non-routed flow map in described the pattern. Ogunbodede (2005) also applied the same technique to the city of Akure and finally come up with a pattern of dominant flow of commuter traffic on the basis of which land use zones can be structured. This method, according to Ogunbodede (2005), enable us to identify each functional land use region on the basis of the intensity of interactions, specific flow may be identified as dominating others. This was done in order to identify the overall structure of commuter’s movement within the city of Akure. In an attempt to overcome the defects of the cartographic techniques in discerning flow pattern, Berry (1966) demonstrated how factor analysis can be used. Similarly, Goddard (1970) used it in explaining the pattern of taxi flow in central London and Kano (1976) in showing the pattern of freight flows between U.S.A metropolitan centres, while Ogunsaya (1982) applied it to freight movement in Nigeria. The result of the factor analysis was better than the non-routed cartographic techniques. This is because the solution helped in the identification of major ‘‘consuming’’ region and their important ‘‘producing’’ sources. Bello (1994), Aderamo (1990), Arosanyin (1998), Asuquo (1981), Ayeni (1983), Nwoke (1988), Ugonabo (1988) and Nie et al., (1975) have extensively used regression analysis in their various studies. Of importance, in the application of regression analysis and its usefulness in research work for geographical studies are the works of Aderamo (1990), Bello (1994) and Oyegun (1980) among others. The regression analysis was used to find the best linear prediction equation for trip generation purpose in addition to identifying the explanatory ability of independent variables in the study area.
THE STUDY AREA Akure the capital city of Ondo State is the study area. It is located in the South –Western part of Nigeria. It lies between Latitude 70 151 North of the Equator and Longitude 50 51 East of the Greenwich Meridian. The study area is centrally located in relation to other surrounding towns in Ondo State of Nigeria. The Socio –Economic activities such as trading and commerce as well as its political influence over the years were responsible for the rapid development of the city. This has led to the sharp increase in population as recorded in the 2006 census, which put the population of Akure to about 433,950 People [N P C 2006]. As a centrally located point of human agglomeration, within the State, movement of people and goods in the town has faced a lot of challenges. The traffic challenges are enormous and had deferred past planning strategies hence the need for a model to forecast travels demand in cities.
MATERIAL AND METHODS The data used for this study was derived from a larger study of Akure (Ogunbodede, 2001). Since the study was on a model in the forecast of travel demand, the base year for deriving the equation was assumed not to be too significant. The data were collected in respect of household size, income, number of people owing motorcycle, number of people with personal vehicles, waiting time at bus stop and walking time from house to bus stop. All these data were regarded as independent variables. Trips generated to work places, business centers, educational centers, social centers, religious centers, medical centers were also regarded as dependent variables. This independent variables were regressed for each dependent variables to enable us derive the best linear equation for the study area. The data (independent and dependent variables) were collected and stated as shown below: 190 Ogunbodede E.F., Ale A.S.
Table 1. Definition of Independent Variable (X1 to X6) and Dependent variables (Y1 to Y7) Sources; Author’s report 2014
Notation Variables Surrogate Measure X1 Walking time Average walking time from residence to the nearest bus stop. X2 Waiting time Average waiting time to get to bus at bus stop. Vehicle X Average number of vehicles owned in a house. 3 ownership X4 Motorcycle Average number of motorcycle owned in a house. X5 Household size Average number of people living in a house. X6 Income Average income earned by a household head. Y1 Working trips Average trips generated by going to place of work. Y2 Business trips Average trips generated by going to business zones. Y3 Educational trips Average trips generated by going to education centers Y4 Social trips Average trips generated by going to social areas. Y5 Religious trips Average trips generated by going to religious centers.
Y6 Medical trips Average trips generated by going to medical centers.
Average trips generated by all purpose of movement (i.e. y1 Y7 Total trips to y6).
MODELING PROCEDURE The regression analysis is used in this study to enable the researcher find the best linear prediction equation for travel demand in the study area. Conceptually, travel demand is a function of a set of independent variables.
Y = F(x1,x2,x3…………….x7)
This relationship can be made operational using a multiple regression equation (see equation 1).
Y = a + b1x1 + b2x2 + ………………+ bnxn+e……. equation I
Where Y = represents trip which is dependent on some variables A = represents the intercept of the regression plane b1 ……. bn represents the weight determined by empirical evidence (partial regression coefficients) x1……. xn represents the explanatory variables (predictors) which are independent.
Correlation matrix of the dependent and independent variables were carried out using stepwise multiple regressions. This is a search procedure with a prime focus on identifying the independent variable(s) that actually posses strong relationship with the dependent variables. The stepwise multiple regressions involves among other procedure adding one variable at a time to the regression equation. The outline of the steps in stepwise procedure as reported in Ogunsanya (1984) is as shown below; Step1: Complete the simple correlation coefficient between the dependent and independent variables and select the variables with the highest coefficient, say X4 for the regression equation. The Regression Model in the Forecast Of Travel Demand in Akure, Nigeria 191
Step 2: Compute the partial correlation coefficients and select the variables with the highest partial coefficient as the next variables, say x1. Step 3: compute regression equation Z = (x4, x1) and using criteria f1 to exclude and f2 to include, decision is made whether to retain x4 in the light of including x1. The partial correlation coefficients for the remaining variables are computed and the next variable x2, is selected as in step 2. Step 4: The regression equation z + f (x4, x1, x2) is then computed and x4 and x2 are examined as to whether they should be retained before an additional variable to be included is determined as in step 3. This continues until all the variables are exhausted and the final best equation selected. Consequently, in this model, it can be explained that trip generation is a function of a set of independent variables, as stated below;
Y = f (X1, X2, X3, ------Xn)
This relationship can be made operational using a multiple regression of the form
Y = a + b1x1 + b2x2 + ------+bnxn + e equation 1
Where
Y - Represents trip generation (Dependent variables) a - Represents the intercept of the regression plane f - Represents the functional relationship between Y and x b1 – bn - represents the weights determined by empirical evidence (Independent variables). In this study, trip generation by purpose such as work, business/shopping, educational, social/ recreational, religious/ worshipping and medical were regarded as dependent variables (i.e. predicted). Independent variables represent the explanatory variables (i.e. predictors x1……..x6 in table 1).
Table 2. Correlation Matrix of the Dependent and Independent Variables Source: Computer Output
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 Y7 X1 1.0000 X2 0.6561 1.0000 X3 0.1381 0.0136 1.0000 X4 - - - 1.0000 0.5827 0.3473 0.0586 X5 0.3136 - 0.0781 - 1.0000 0.5210 0.0470 X6 - 0.1855 0.0071 0.2689 - 1.000 0.3898 0.4537 Y1 - - 0.1197 0.0395 0.4090 0,0003 1.000 0.2210 0.2137 Y2 - - - - 0.4861 - - 1.000 0.4193 0.5028 0.1714 0.3231 0.0818 0.1027 Y3 0.1845 0.2501 0.1972 - 0.0675 0.3235 0.2660 - 1.000 0.3808 0.0590 Y4 - 0.0873 0.1386 0.5351 0.1007 0.3883 - - 0.3157 1.000 0.2549 0.1798 0.3051 Y5 0.1842 - - - 0.4528 - 0.0344 0.0747 0.4688 0.2832 1.000 0.2567 0.1892 0.1552 0.2721 Y6 0.0833 0.0854 - - 0.6605 - 0.5563 0.1075 0.4521 0.0647 0.5145 1.000 0.2049 0.3643 0.2381 Y7 0.2172 0.2628 0.0734 0.3062 0.6682 0.0486 0.2590 0.5268 0.6746 0.2657 0.6726 0.6849 1.000
192 Ogunbodede E.F., Ale A.S.
RESULTS OF THE REGRESSION MODEL Before further discussing the output explaining the relationship between the dependent variable Y1 (1, 2….7) and independent variables X1 (1, 2------6), it is pertinent to consider the coefficients of correlation variables listed in Table 2. The coefficient of correlation quantifies the relationship between two observed geographic factors and shows the direction and strength of relationship between the variables.
a) Correlation Result Table 2 shows the coefficient of the correlation which indicates the strength and direction of variables examined. The results of the dependent variable (Y1= 1, 2…..6) for work trips shows that there are two correlation coefficient of r x1 y1= 0.22: rx2y1 = -0.21; rx3y1= 0.12; rx4y1 =0.04; rx5 y1= 0, 41 and rx6 y1= 0.00 Business trip (Y2) has negative and low correlation coefficient of rx1y2 = 0.42; rx2 y2 = 0.50; rx3y2= 0.17; rx4 y2= 0.32; rx5 y2= 0.49 and rx6 y2= 0.08 Education trips ( Y3) has low correlation coefficient of rx1 y3=0.19; rx2 y3=0.25; rx3 y3;0.20; rx4 y3= 0.38; rx5 y3= 0.07; rx6 y3= 0.32. However, motorcycle (X4) has negative correlation with educational trips Social trips (Y4 ) has a generally low correlation coefficient of rx1 y4= 0.26; rx2 y4 = 0.09; rx3y4= 0.14; rx4 y4= 0.54; rx5 y4= 0.10; rx6 y4 =0.39. Religious trips (Y5) has the following correlation coefficient rx1 y5 = 0.18; rx2 y5=0.26; rx3 y5= 0.19; rx4 y5= 0.16; rx5 y5= 0.45 and rx6 y5= 0.27. Medical trips (Y6) shows that half of the coefficient of correlation is positive while the other half is negative. The dependent variable (Y6) has the following correlation coefficient of rx1 y6 =0.08; rx2 y6= 0.09; rx3 y6 = 0.20; rx4 y6= 0.36; rx5 y6 =0. 66 and rx6 y6 = 024 (See table 2) Table 2 further revealed that many of the independent variables (Xi =1,2 …….6) have low inter correlation coefficient. In the study, however, rx2 *1 has a high correlation of 0.66. In like manner the inter- correlations between the independent and dependent variables were generated
b) Regression Result Urban trips are made for a number of reasons. The major one is to travel to places of employment from a place of residence. All trips under this category are regarded as work trips with this equation. Y1 = 44.71 + 4. 61 x1 - 0.83x2 + 0.22x3 + 0.29 x4 + 13.81x5 + 2.07 x6 Trips to commercial zones are made for the purpose of shopping or selling of goods as revealed by this Business trip (Y2) equation. Y2 = 4063.31 – 164.56x1 – 48.20x2 – 1.88x3 – 29.13x4 – 9.02x5 – 0.99x6 Trips to educational institutions by pupils or parents are common and represented by Y3. The regression summary is as shown below. Y3 = – 1339.25 – 0.52 x1 – 17. 02x2 +0.19x3 – 0.20x4 + 45.33x5 +20. 77x6. Social trips (Y4) are trips made after the day’s work to friends and relations either to great or congratulate or sympathize with the lost. It also extends to trips made to recreation centers such as beer parlors, hotels or club houses and it is summarized here as Y4 = –1358. 09 + 49.42x1 +24.04x2 +0.38x3 +12.63x4 +38.80x5 +9.37x6. Religious trips (Y5) are trips made to churches and mosques in the city of Akure. Such trips are common on Sundays and Fridays respectively. The regression summary of this is Y5 = – 1372.55 +176. 62x1 – 63.03x2 –2.94x3 + 4.12x4 +46.18x5 +13.13x6 Medical trips(Y6) are trips made to Health centers such as hospitals/clinics and chemist/ pharmaceutical stores for treatment or to buy drug(s). The summary of the regression is as stated below. Y6 = –468.65 + 33.36x1 +21.93x2 –1.99x3– 1.49x4 +49.93x5 +5.01x6 The Regression Model in the Forecast Of Travel Demand in Akure, Nigeria 193
However, regression for total trips (Y7) i.e (Y1 to Y6) is a summary of all independent variables against the dependent variables (Y7) i.e total trips which is Y7 =2575.25 + 125.27x6 Where Y7 = total trips and x6 = income. The result shows that whatever purpose a trip is undertaken, the issue of finance is prominent in determining movement. The result further confirms early study of Ayeni (1979) and Mrakpor (1986) on the importance 0f income among other socio-economic variables in trip generation. The coefficient of determination (R2) is 0.4465 implying that 44.65% of the total variance is explained by sole variable (income), it further lend credence to the importance role income plays in journey making. The examinations showed that some problems hindered the use of regression model as discussed thereafter.
PROBLEMS CONFRONTING THE USE OF TECHNIQUES IN GEOGRAPHIC STUDIES A lot of problems beset the use of statistics in geographic studies. Prominent among such problem is lack of originality in the type and variety of statistic used. Geographers have not been able to develop their mathematical instruments to solve man-environment problems. Hence, they depend largely on models built by other disciplines for adaptation and application. For example, the Gravity Model used by population and transport geographers was borrowed from the Newtonian laws of Physics. Thus, the interrelation and application of the variables in use is subject to controversies. Similarly in regression model there is problem of standardization of some socio- economic variable such as age, sex income etc. alternate solutions of the income is the use of logit and probit models. These model are yet to be accessed by most researchers in the field of geography, hence the need for training in this area. Quantitative techniques in geographical studies became prominent since 1950 (quantitative revolution). While some bought the idea, some still believe that descriptive analysis is the best. This is probably based on their mathematical background which makes anything written in formula or figures a threat to their studies. These scholars abound in developing countries. This is aptly displayed by few numbers of scholars that are compliant in computers application in their various studies. This has increased the gap, quality of research and standard of papers written by scholars in developed countries when compared with the developed world.
CONCLUSION Today, things have changed. Most studies have resulted to using statistics to analyze the past, present and infer about likely pattern of events in the nearest future. The studies presented here is the application of real life data in the forecast of travel demand in a rapidly developing urban environment. It is envisaged that the regression model will expose some of the short coming inherent in its application to studies in geography.
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Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online September 16, 2015 September 29, 2015 Octomber 12, 2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 195-210 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252107-683
WINE ROAD - AN INSTRUMENT FOR THE VALORISATION OF WINE TOURISM POTENTIAL CASE STUDY: ALBA COUNTY VINEYARDS
Mihaela UNGUREANU University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: The main aim of this study is to highlight the wine-growing and wine-making potential of Alba County and the way it can be valorised. Alba county has a rich wine- growing and wine-making heritage, a fact which is due to the long-standing tradition of wine- growing on these area, as well as to the characteristics of the natural factors (relief, geology, climate, soil), favourable for obtaining high-quality wines, the reputation of which has been acquired at national and international competitions. In order to render useful the wine tourism resources, the development of a specific infrastructure is needed, as well as the creation of complex tourist products, able to satisfy a wide range of tourist motivations. An efficient instrument to make productive the wine potential of a region is the „Wine Road" – a tourist trail which includes the tourist attractions of a delimited area, usually with a controlled designation of origin, and also a diverse range of tourist services (transportation, accommodation, catering leisure etc.). In Alba County, the „Wine Road" can be considered as a tourist attraction in itself, but also a means of harnessing the rich cultural-historical and natural heritage and, implicitly, the wine-growing and wine-making heritage.
Key words: wine road, vineyards, wine tourism potential
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INTRODUCTION The predominant form of organization of wine tourism is the „Wine Road" – a tourist trail which includes the winemaking units and which offers to the tourists the opportunity of discovering the tourist attributes of a wine-growing region (winescape, the grape varieties, vine and wine museums, the characteristics of the terroir etc.). Gatti (1997, p. 219) gives the following definition of the „Wine Road": „a signposted itinerary along a delimited area (region, province, area with controlled designation of origin), inviting tourists to discover the wine(s) produced in this area and the activities that can be related to this. This discovery is carried out directly in the farms (enabling the traveler to meet the producer) and/or in the spaces specifically organized to raise the profile of wine products (wine tasting centres or wine museums)". According to Bruwer (2002), the main reasons for tourists to visit the wine roads in a certain wine-growing region are the following: visit the vineyards, the opportunity to taste and buy
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
196 Mihaela UNGUREANU wines, the visit of a local museum which offers information about the tradition of winemaking and the history of that wine-growing area, take part in wine-related festivals and events, the winescape of the region, meet the winemaker, the opportunity of having a meal within the winemaking units. Tourists can also find accommodation in agrotourism pensions and experience the local cuisine of the region or buy specific products of the area. The wine road can be considered an integrated system of relationships between the tourism and the winemaking industries, by means of which tourists can get connected to the tourist offer of a wine-growing region. Therefore, we can say that it has been designed to generate income by the sale of goods and services. The question is: which are the means to interpret, organize and coordinate the wine trail for the visitors? This is not always clear. At first glance, the wine trail makes the connection only with the door of the cellar or the winemaking unit, and not with the tourist attractions of the area. A wine itinerary must be accompanied by a brochure with a map showing the tourist attractions included on the trail, the accommodation, catering and leisure offers. This is a particularly important factor as it can motivate the tourists to travel along a wine road (Gatti, 1997). This idea is endorsed by Isabelle Frochot (2000, p. 72-73), who considers that „a wine route usually consists of a designed itinerary (or several) through the wine region, which is thematically signposted as well as being marketed and interpreted via a free leaflet and map, which notes the different vineyards and wine-makers and provides information on sites of historical and other interest". Sophie Lignon-Darmalac (2009) analyzes the economic efficiency of wine trails in France and finds out that in order to attract visitors, these trails have to represent a tourist attraction themselves. The idea that the trail is indeed a tourist attraction and not only a marketing mechanism is supported more and more by the increasing number of attributes having a tourist value. For example, in France, the majority of wine tourism trails are designed as cultural heritage trails, including many tourist attractions in their structure, and tourists can travel along them with various means of access (car, bicycle, horse riding or walking). Every wine road tries to highlight a series of regional characteristics (natural, cultural and social ones) which confer a brand identity and a distinctive attribute (Moran, 1993) or something that makes it unique in the tourists’ perception. This idea is sustained by Elías Pastor (2006), who considers that the wine roads are multithematic areas where structural axis is wine, plus the identity of each region. The majority of the wine routes take the name of the wine-growing region, which, in most of the cases, is officially limited by a controlled designation of origin (CDO) or by a geographical indication (GI), such as: Bordeaux, Alsace, Provence, Champagne (France), Napa Valley (California, USA), Rioja (Spain), Douro (Portugal), Dealurile Moldovei, Colinele Dobrogei (România) etc. The wine road in Europe bears the stamp of the tradition, culture and history, as the tourists can enjoy the visits of the cellars, or the restaurants which promote the traditional local cuisine, as well as the specific architecture of the visited area. Meanwhile, the wine routes in the countries of the „New World" (Australia, New Zealand, USA etc.) are characterized by educational and recreational themes, as there is an increased interest of the tourists for wine tasting, improving the wine-related knowledge and using the winemaking units for entertainment purposes. In this context, the specific wine tourism activities go hand in hand with the gastronomy, the cultural and the rural tourism (Casanovas, 2008, quoted by Boschi, 2011). The first wine road appeared in 1953, in Alsace (France); it now covers 170 km. In a short time, the wine roads developed in Bordeaux, on the Loire Valley and the Rhône Valley. Germany, Italy or Spain immediately followed the lead and created new tourist trails on the Rhine Valley, in Tuscany or Castile. Countries which are not part of Europe (USA, New Zealand, Chile, Brazil etc.) followed the trend and eventually, the wine roads have become tourist destinations per se in south- Wine Road – An Instrument for the Valorisation of Wine Tourism Potential… 197 eastern Europe as well – Hungary, Slovenia, Romania and the Republic of Moldova – being considered the best way of valorizing the origin designations (Vlachvei, 2009). In Romania, the tourist project „Wine Road" has been designed within the framework of the national program „Romania – Land of the Wine" drawn up by the Ministry of Tourism and Regional Development in 2003. The wine road passes through the well-known vineyards of the counties Buzău, Prahova, Bacău, Iași, Vrancea, Vâlcea, Alba, Arad etc. The aim of such programs is the development of wine tourism, with all the investments and benefits that this type of tourism entails directly and indirectly. Currently, there are 11 wine roads passing through the best known vineyards of the country, but none of them has a well-established structure or functioning system. Many of them lead nowhere, because there are no signposts showing the itinerary, the accommodation, catering and leisure offer. In terms of functionality, the best organised is the wine road of Prahova county. It goes through 11 wine estates (Tohani, Halewood Cellars, Budureasca Cellar, SERVE Cellar, LaCerta Cellar, Basilescu Cellar, Ceptura Cellar, Domeniile Săhăteni etc.), covering approximately 58 km and attracting 12 000 – 13 000 tourists every year. The wine road of Buzău County covers 60 km and starts from the National Road DN10, towards Pietroasele and Monteoru. The investment amounted to EUR 24 million, with EU funding (http://www.vinland.ro/). In Vrancea county, the wine road passes through Panciu, Cotești and Odobești vineyards (Mănilă, 2013), covering approximately 100 km; in Arad, the 60 km which go along the county roads DJ708B and DJ708C (which start from the National Road DN10) cross the Miniș-Măderat vineyard from north to south. In Alba County, the wine road covers approximately 200 km and passes through Aiud, Alba, Sebeș-Apold and Târnave vineyards. As far as the research on this subject is concerned, there are many studies in the international specialized tourist literature. Most of the studies in the anglo-saxon literature highlight the role that the wine routes play in the marketing strategies of the wine factories, as well as their economic effectiveness (Preston-White, 2000; Bruwer, 2002; Kirkman, 2010). In Europe, the wine routes are considered tourist destinations per se and the majority of the studies emphasize the elements of the cultural landscape, the reputation of the wines and of the terroir etc. (Gatti, 1997; Correia, 2006; Boschi, 2011). In Romania, the research on this topic is still at an early stage and so is the development of this new form of tourism. There are a limited number of papers at the moment and the majority of the investigations are case studies. For example Ranca (2007) analyses the wine road in Dobrogea and considers that it represents a solution for the sustainable development of the local agrotourist potential. Most of the studies are descriptive (Popescu, 2000) and focus of the description of the attractions included on the wine road of a certain wine-growing region or vineyard (Mănilă, 2013). Other studies focus on the analysis of the wine-growing cultural potential and of the wine tourism potential on a national level (Soare, 2010). To conclude, we can say that the research on the topic of the wine routes in Romania, implicitly of the wine tourism is yet at the pioneering stage. This paper aims to bring a small contribution to the specialized tourist literature of Romania, concerning the wine routes.
METHODOLOGY In order to write this paper, we have used the classical research methodology, that is we have consulted the specialized bibliography related to tourism, from the international literature as well as the Romanian one, regarding our topic; we have studied as well the specialized bibliography having as subject the geography and wine-growing in the research area. The data base has been completed with the information acquired from the fieldwork. Among the documentary methods used on the ground, we mention: the observation, the analysis, the investigation, and the mapping. The visits on the ground aimed to identify, localize, describe 198 Mihaela UNGUREANU and photograph the wine tourism resources from the vineyards of Alba county in order to integrate them in the tourist trail „Wine Road". Also, the visits on the ground have allowed us to obtain from the wine producers and the local authorities some information concerning the tourist circulation, the characteristics of the tourist products, the accommodation supply, the on-going projects etc. The spatial representation of some of the analyzed elements has been made by using a specialized software, named ArcGIS.
WINE - GROWING POTENTIAL OF ALBA COUNTY Framing the vineyards of Alba County on a regional and national level Alba county vineyards are part of the Transylvania Plateau wine region, situated in the centre of Romania. The grape plantations of this region are grouped in five vineyards, namely: Aiud, Alba Iulia, Sebeş - Apold, Lechința and Târnave, situated within the administrative borders of four counties: Alba, Sibiu, Mureș, Bistrița-Năsăud. The grape plantations of Alba County are included in four of the five vineyards of the region, respectively: Aiud, Alba Iulia, Sebeș-Apold and Târnave (figure 1). From a physical-geographical point of view, the grape plantations of Alba county are located between the piedmont of Trascău Mountains (to the west), Luduș Hills, at the southern extremity of Transylvania Plain and the Mureș river between its confluences with Arieș and Aiud rivers (to the north), the northern extensions of the Subcarpathian Hills at the foot of Șureanu and Cândrel Mountains (to the south), the southern extensions of the hills from the Secașelor Plateau (to the south-east), the hills from Târnave and Mureș basin (to the east and north-east) (figure 2).
Figure 1. The vineyards and wine centers from Figure 2. The physical - geographical map Alba County of Alba County
From ecological point of view, the vineyard finds here good and very good vegetation conditions, especially in the south-western half of the Transylvania Plateau, in the Alba Iulia and Târnave vineyards, which bear the name „The Land of the Wine" (Cotea, 2008). The reputation of the Jidvei, Ciumbrud, Alba Iulia and Târnave wines has transcended the borders of the country, a fact which is proved by the numerous medals won over the years at the Wine Road – An Instrument for the Valorisation of Wine Tourism Potential… 199 international competitions. On a national level, Alba County does not own a vast wine-growing surface. In 2013, the total wine-growing surface (vineyards and grape nurseries) of Alba county was 4 656 ha, representing 45,8% of Transylvania Plateau grape surface and 2,2% of the Romanian grape surface. 1 The cornerstone of the vineyards in Alba County is the white wines production, either table wines, or belonging to the Grand Cru category (Cotea, 2008).
The vineyards of Alba County Due to the favourable conditions of the natural environment, the culture of vine has an ancient tradition on the territory of Alba County, being practiced here since very distant times. Târnave and Alba Iulia vineyards are among the oldest of Romania; wine-growing in these areas was attested by archaeologists and historiographers since the Dacian times (Martin, 1966; Macici, 1996). Until the phylloxera invasion (1880-1884), wine-growing in this area and in fact, wine- growing in the whole Romania was in a continual progress under all aspects: economical, technological, biological. Phylloxera had a disastrous impact on the vineyards on the whole Romanian territory. The reconstruction of the vineyards was rather difficult, being replanted in two stages: the first began in 1884 and lasted until the end of the Second World War, and the second covers the socialist period. By means of a vast programme, on a national level, the vineyards which were old and unproductive were replaced by new plantations, either for wine grapes or for table grapes. The aims were to increase the grape surface and the production per hectare. After 1989, together with the retrocession of lands and the establishment of the private property, the Romanian viticulture has entered in a downward spiral as a result of a poor management of the wine-growing stock. Currently, the Romanian viticulture is going through a stage of deep transformations, that of the reconversion of grape plantations; thus, the old vines and those which have developed from hybrid varieties are being replaced with new plantations, with noble varieties. In 2013, the total wine-growing surface of Alba county was 4 656 ha, out of which 3 860 ha were fruitful vines. Out of the surface planted with fruitful vines, 3 348 ha were grafted vines and only 512 ha were hybrid vines. The whole surface of fruitful vines belongs to the private sector, and 50 % of them are individual exploitations. 2 Aiud vineyard is located in the west of Transylvania Plateau, north of Alba-Iulia vineyard, the grape plantations being scattered on the hills from both sides of the corridor of lower Mureș (Teodorescu, 1987; Macici, 1996). Aiud vineyard covers a surface of approximately 600 ha 3 and includes the grape fields of Ciumbrud, Sâncrai, Ocna Mureș, Mirăslău, Lopadea Nouă, Ciuguzel and Uioara (Popa, 2010). The largest grape surface is owned by SC Domeniile Boieru SRL, owning approximately 180 ha, followed by Logos Cellar, with 20 ha. The small producers own little surfaces, from several tens of acres to 3-5 ha. The ecological conditions are favourable for obtaining high quality white wines, most of them bearing a designation of origin (Oșlobeanu, 1991). Alba Iulia vineyard locally named „The Land of the Wine", is located on the hills at the eastern foot of the Apuseni Mountains, which spread on the right border of Mureș, between Geoagiu and Ampoi water streams (Teodorescu, 1987; Popa, 2010). The vineyard covers a surface of about 230 ha 4 and includes the wine centre of Alba Iulia, encompassing some famous grape plains: Ighiu, Cricău, Șard, Țelna, Craiva, Bucerdea Vinoasă and Sântimbru. The ecological conditions are favourable for obtaining dry, semi-dry and semi-sweet white wines, table wines or bearing a designation of origin, as well as those wines which constitute the raw material for the Alba Iulia sparkling wine (Cotea, 2008).
1 http://www.insse.ro/ 2 http://www.insse.ro/ 3 http://www.insse.ro/ 4 http://www.insse.ro/ 200 Mihaela UNGUREANU
Sebeş – Apold vineyard is situated in the south-west of Transylvania Plateau. The grape plantations are spread on the northern extensions of the hills at the foot of the Meridionali Carpathians and on the southern extensions of the hills from the Secașelor Plateau. Globally, the wine centre Sebeș covers about 625 ha 5 and includes 11 grape plains, the best-known of which are: Câlnic, Gârbova, Vingard, Spring, Daia Romană and Cut. The vineyard is the source of white wines, table wines or bearing a designation of origin. Târnave vineyard is the largest and the most famous of Transylvania Plateau wine-growing region. The vineyard are situated in the hydrographic basin of Târnava Mare and Târnava Mică (Martin, 1966), at an average elevation of 270 m (Babeș, 2011), on slopes whose inclinations range from 5˚ to 15˚, a fact which demands methods of combating soil erosion and landslides. Târnave vineyard spreads on the surface of three counties: Alba, Mureș and Sibiu and includes six wine centres: Mediaș, Zagăr, Târnăveni, Valea Nirajului, Jidvei and Blaj, the last two being situated in Alba county (Cotea, 2008). As for the vineyards in Alba county, the largest surface belongs to Târnave vineyard (wine centres Blaj and Jidvei), with about 3 000 ha. 6 In the wine centre Jidvei lies one of the most famous national wine brands: SC Jidvei SRL. The wine-making unit of Jidvei owns the largest grape area in Romania, approximately 2 300 ha. 7 In the wine centre Blaj operate the Reasearch Station of Viticulture and Enology Blaj, as well as Târnave-Blaj Cellar, with a grape surface of about 250 ha. The ecological conditions of Târnave vineyard are favourable for obtaining dry white wines, different varieties of sparkling wines bearing a designation of origin (Târnave-Blaj, Târnave-Jidvei), as well as semi-dry or sweet white wines, liqueur and aromatic wines, which are obtained when the conditions for the development of the noble rot are met, especially from the following varieties: Fetească Albă, Fetească Regală, Traminer Roz, Muscat Ottonel, Sauvignon, Pinot Gris, Neuburger and Riesling italian (Macici, 1996; Oșlobeanu, 1991).
The grape production In the vineyards of Alba County, there are significant variations of the total grape production (wine grapes and grapes for current use) from year to year, due mainly to the values of the climate elements in certain vegetation periods, as well as to the production of certain extreme meteorological phenomena (fog, drought, hail). As we can notice in graph of figure 3, the grape production recorded a strong oscillation between years 1990-2014.
Figure 3. The evolution of total production of grapes in Alba county (1990-2014) 8
5 http://www.insse.ro/ 6 http://www.insse.ro/. 7 Data source: Ioan Buia, manager of winemaking complex SC Jidvei SRL. 8 http://www.insse.ro/. Wine Road – An Instrument for the Valorisation of Wine Tourism Potential… 201
The lowest value of the grape production was recorded in 1998, namely 8 540 tons. In the period 2005 - 2007, the grape production was very low, between 11 000 and 13 000 tons, but increased significantly in 2008, to 24 173 tons. The year 2014 was the most productive, the production reaching 32 557 tons of grapes (29 895 tons, out of grafted vines and 2 662 tons, out of hybrid vines). 9
The wine varieties The cornerstone of the vineyards in Alba County is the white wines production, either table wines, or bearing a protected designation of origin (Cotea, 2008). As far as the varieties are concerned, in the four vineyards of Alba County prevail the grape varieties for high-quality white wines, the majority of which bear a designation of origin, namely: Fetească Regală, Fetească Albă, Traminer Roz, Riesling Italian, Pinot Gris and Sauvignon Blanc, but also the variety for Muscat Ottonel aromatic wines (Macici, 1996; Popa, 2010). As for the wine varieties and their sugar content, the wines which come from the vineyards of Alba county can be: dry, semi-dry, semi-sweet and sweet (Cotea, 2008). Together with these wines, we must highlight the sparkling wines from Târnave vineyards (Jidvei), Alba Iulia and Sebeș-Apold, considered to be some of the best of our country, a fact which justifies their ranking among the sparkling wines bearing a designation of origin (Macici, 1996). The Alba sparkling wine has been produced since 1969, and is obtained, in most of the cases, out of Pinot Gris and Fetească Regală (Cotea, 2008). In recent years, in Târnave vineyard were introduced in culture the grape varieties for red wines (Pinot noir, Cabernet Sauvignon, Fetească neagră, Merlot and Syrah). The red wines are produced by SC Jidvei SRL. In 2011, the company launched onto the market a Pinot noir from the 2009 vintage, intended for the super premium segment (about 100 000 bottles). 10 In Aiud vineyard, at Ciumbrud, the conditions allow that, in some years, the grapes be infected with noble rot, which offers the possibility of producing some wines of an exceptional quality. One of the oldest wines produced in the vineyard is a blending named „Plebanos". It is obtained, in most of the cases, out of Fetească Albă, Grasă and Muscat Ottonel (Macici, 1996). Currently, this wine is produced by Logos Cellar from Aiud. According to the National Office for Designation of Origin for Wine (ONDOV), the wines of Alba county vineyards can have the following controlled designations of origin (CDO): Aiud, Alba Iulia, Sebeș-Apold, Târnave, Târnave-Blaj and Târnave-Jidvei. 11 Table no. 1 includes the grape varieties out of which the wines with CDO are obtained.
Table 1. The varieties of grapes for the wine with designation of controlled origin 12
CDO CDO CDO Aiud CDO Târnave Alba Iulia Sebeș-Apold White varieties White varieties White varieties Red varieties White varieties Pinot Gris Pinot Gris Traminer Cabernet Sauvignon Pinot Gris Muscat Ottonel Muscat Ottonel Chardonnay Pinot Noir Traminer Roz Traminer Roz Traminer Roz Pinot Gris Fetească Neagră Muscat Ottonel Sauvignon Blanc Sauvignon Blanc Muscat Ottonel Syrah Sauvignon Blanc Chardonnay Riesling Italian Sauvignon Blanc Merlot Chardonnay Riesling de Rhin Neuburger Neuburger Neuburger Riesling Italian Fetească Regală Riesling Italian Riesling de Rhin Neuburger Fetească Albă Riesling de Rhin Riesling Italian Fetească Regală Furmint Fetească Regală Fetescă Regală Fetească albă Fetescă Albă Fetească Albă Furmint Furmint
9 http://www.insse.ro/. 10 http://vinul.ro/. 11 http://www.onvpv.ro/. 12 http://www.onvpv.ro/ 202 Mihaela UNGUREANU
As for the surface planted with grape varieties for wines with controlled designation of origin (CDO), in 2011 there were 2 100 ha in Alba County (figure 4), with over 800 ha more than in 2007.13
Figure 4. The evolution of the surface vineyards with CDO (ha), between years 2006 - 2011 14
WINE TOURISM POTENTIAL OF ALBA COUNTY The wine tourism potential includes all the tourist attractions of a wine-growing region, either natural or anthropic: winemaking units, vineyards, wine centres, cellars, research stations, vine and wine museums etc., plus the accommodation and catering units, access infrastructure specific to wine tourism (tourist trails) and other tourist amenities which are necessary in order to render valuable the wine tourism resources. We should not forget the natural and anthropic tourist attractions (natural reserves and monuments, cultural, historical and religious tourist attractions) which are not directly linked to wine tourism, but can be harnessed by it, thus creating a wide tourist offer, able to satisfy a diverse range of tourist motivations. On the whole, Alba county has a tourist potential harmoniously distributed on all its surface; to the west, in the mountain area, the natural tourist attractions prevail, followed by the cultural-historical and religious ones, and in the east-central part, the largest share belongs to anthropic tourist attractions, but also to wine-growing attractions (cellars, winemaking units, wine collections, castles etc.) (figure 5). In terms of wine tourism attractions, in Alba County lies one of the main wine producers in Romania: the winemaking unit of SC Jidvei SRL, and also one of the most famous national wine brands. In the four vineyard of Alba county there is an impressive number of cellars belonging, most of them, to small producers (figure 6): Logos Cellars, Tamas Andras Cellar, Papp Péter Cellar (Aiud), Köble Tiberiu Cellar, Iepure Ioan Cellar, Vass Attila Cellar (Ciumbrud), Toth Csaba Cellar (Alba Iulia), Apoulon Cellar (Bucerdea Vinoasă), Ţelna Cellar (Ţelna), Viticola Gârbova, Rex Vinorum (Aiud) etc. (figure 6). We must add to these SC Domeniile Boieru SRL, a medium-sized wine-producer, whose image capital becomes ever stronger. The quality of the wines of Ciumbrud, produced by Domeniile Boieru, has already been recognized by the medals won at the competitions in this field. 15 Furthermore, two tourist attractions which cannot be omitted are the Reasearch Station of Viticulture and Enology Blaj, as well as Târnave-Blaj Cellar. As for the wine-related anthropic attractions, the castles have a special importance, due to their historical and architectural value.
13 http://www.onvpv.ro/ 14 http://www.arev.org/ 15 http://www.domeniileboieru.ro/ Wine Road – An Instrument for the Valorisation of Wine Tourism Potential… 203
Some of them are already open for tourist purposes or there are on-going projects to achieve this. A good example is the Bethlen – Haller Castle (historical monument) of Cetatea de Baltă, which operated as a department for turning the wine into champagne, belonging to the Jidvei Company, until 2003, when restoration of the castle began. Currently, the cellar under the castle hosts wine tastings, together with local traditional meals or from the international cuisine. The castle may be visited only on request, with a previous programming, by organized groups or on the occasion of various events (symposiums, exhibitions). The image of Bethlen-Haller Castle is the logo of Jidvei brand.
Figure 5. The share of tourist attractions at the level Figure 6. The distribution of wine-producers and of Alba administrative units cellars in Alba county vineyards (Data source: the official websites of localities' Town-Hall; (Data source: investigation on the ground, 2014) investigation on the ground, 2014)
In Alba County there is an impressive number of castles, many of which are placed in wine- growing localities, and that could be included in the tourist trails after specific developments. Here, we could mention the Bethlen Castle of the commune Cut, Martinuzzi Castle and Kendeffy - Horvath Castle (Vințu de Jos), Mikes Castle (Cisteiu de Mureș), Teleki Castle (Uioara de Sus), Kemény Castle (Sâncrai), Wesselényi Castle (Obreja), Esterházy Castle (Şard), Bethlen Castle (Sânmiclăuş), Kemény Castle (Gâlda de Jos), the castle from Botești etc. (Anghel, 1982; Stoica, 2009). 16 Another category of tourist attractions located in vineyards, which could be harnessed by means of wine tourism are the natural reserves and the natural monuments. The fact that they are placed in the close surroundings of wine-growing localities favours their inclusion within the wine trails. The main protected areas of local or national interest from Alba county, which might be included in the tourist trail „Wine Road" are the natural reserves: „Pădurea Sloboda" (Aiud),
16 http://patrimoniu.gov.ro/ 204 Mihaela UNGUREANU
„Tăul fără fund" (Băgău), „Pădurea Cărbunarea" (Blaj), „Pădurea de stejar pufos" (Quercus pubescens) of Mirăslău etc., and the natural monuments: „Teiul lui Eminescu" and „Stejarul lui Avram Iancu" of Blaj. A particularly important tourist attraction is „The Botanical Garden of Blaj", the oldest botanical garden in the world established near a secondary school (1881-1883) (Anghel, 1982). At present, the majority of the wine tourism attractions of Alba County are harnessed by means of a tourist itinerary called „Wine Road".
„Wine Road" in Alba County The most effective way of putting to use the tourist potential of a wine-growing region is the so- called „Wine Road" – a tourist trail which includes natural attractions (winescapes, natural reserves and monuments), cultural tourist attractions (castles, mansions, vine and wine museums etc.), technical or industrial attractions (winemaking units, cellars), specific tourist infrastructure (roads and signposts enabling the tourists to arrive at the wineries, accommodation and catering units). In Alba County, the tourist programme „Wine Road" started at the beginning of 2004, in the framework of a project initiated by Alba County Council, with a non-refundable European grant. Afterwards, the initiatives of the members of some professional and inter-professional wine-related associations and organizations added to this. Their common purpose was to create a tourist product which should combine the vine and wine-related tourist attractions and the cultural- historical and natural ones, for the promotion of the local wines, the increase of the direct sales, especially in the case of the small producers and, last but not least, for the national and international promotion of the general tourist offer of Alba county. Other objectives or the factors involved are: improving of the access infrastructure in the rural localities included in the wine road, setting up signposts and information boards, editing leaflets, brochures, guides etc., in order to promote the project, as well as organizing cultural and recreational events or activities, for the creation of a complex tourist offer, able to satisfy a wide range of tourist motivations. The tourist itinerary „Wine Road" includes the most important wine centres of Alba County. The trail passes through scenic, historic and cultural interest areas, covering a distance of more than 200 kilometers (figure 7). The wine tourism attractions are grouped along the National Road DN1 (E81), having the advantage of a quick acces to the four vineyards of Alba county. Thus, from the National Road DN1, which passes from north to south the vineyards Aiud, Alba Iulia and Sebeș, the National Road DN14B (Teiuș - Blaj - Valea Lungă) starts, allowing the access to Târnave vineyard, towards the wine center Blaj, then towards Jidvei, on the County Road DJ 107 (Blaj - Jidvei - Cetatea de Baltă). Aiud vineyard represents the maximum concentration point of wine tourism attractions. In Aiud vineyard there is an impressive number of cellars that belong to the small producers: six cellars in Aiud and seven cellars in Ciumbrud, plus a winemaking company – SC Domeniile Boieru SRL (figure 8). All these small producers offer wine tastings directly in the cellar, and this is the moment when the tourist can meet the wine-producer and the whole history of the cellar and also the history of the wine, which can be purchased directly from the source. In order to develop the tourist segment, Domeniile Boieru society intends to build a pension within the vineyard and a restaurant having a seating capacity of 120 seats. In Aiud, the tourist can visit one of the oldest urban fortresses in Transylvania (13th - 16th centuries), and the Bethlen Castle within, which hosts the History Museum (Stoica, 2009). Near Aiud, we can visit some religious historical monuments, such as: the Church „Nașterea Maicii Domnului” (14th century) in Gârbovița and the Calvin Reformed Church (15th century) in Ciumbrud . 17 The tourists who wish to visit the tourist attractions in Alba Iulia vineyard can follow the route Alba-Iulia - Șard of the National Road DN 74, then they can continue on the County Road DJ 107H in order to visit the cellars, as well as other tourist attractions from Ighiu, Țelna, Bucerdea Vinoasă, Craiva, Cricău and Gâlda de Jos.
17 http://patrimoniu.gov.ro/ Wine Road – An Instrument for the Valorisation of Wine Tourism Potential… 205
Figure 7. „Wine Road" în Alba County
At Blaj, a city which has played an important role in the formation of the national consciousness of the Romanian people, the tourists can visit the Reasearch Station of Viticulture and Enology Blaj, Târnave-Blaj Cellar, but also many other cultural and anthropic tourist attractions, such as: the historical monument „Câmpia Libertății", the Metropolitan Castle, the 206 Mihaela UNGUREANU
History Museum „Augustin Bunea" etc. From Blaj, the wine itinerary heads towards the fascinating vineyards of Jidvei. Here, the tourist can visit the winemaking department of the Jidvei Company, one of the most famous and appreciated Romanian wine brands. The Jidvei Company owns 4 cellars: Jidvei, Bălcaciu (the first industrial-type cellar of Romania, built in 1958), the Bethlen-Haller Castle of Cetatea de Baltă (figure 9), built in the 15th century in Renaissance style (Sebestyén, 1963) and the Tăuni Cellar (built in 2014).
Figure 8. Domeniile Boieru Cellar. Figure 9. Bethlen-Haller Castle 18
Information and tourist signalization infrastructure of this route includes trail signs bearing the inscription „Wine Road" and tourist documenting boards. They are placed in the most important points of the trail: at the entrance in every locality included in the „Wine Road", in the centre of the localities and in the surroundings of the cellars / winemaking units (figure 9). The tourist information panels contain a sketch map with the „Wine Road" (figure 10) and the wine- growing localities that it passes through.
Figure 9.Tourist sign bearing the inscription Figure 10. Tourist information panel containing a „Wine Road", located near SC Jidvei SRL sketch map with the „Wine Road", located in Aiud, near Logos Cellar
In Alba County, these equipments are satisfactory, due to their density, as well as to their location. Their role is to inform continually the tourists that they travel along the „Wine Road" and
18 http://www.castelintransilvania.ro/). Wine Road – An Instrument for the Valorisation of Wine Tourism Potential… 207 about the leisure, accommodation and catering opportunities. As for the last element, we must mention that the tourist documenting boards do not contain information about the cellars or the wineries along the „Wine Road", the tourist attractions which can be visited or the catering and accommodation opportunities. For an efficient harnessing of the wine tourism potential, and not only, this aspect has to be improved. In order to visit the tourist attractions of an area, first of all, the tourist has to be informed that they exist, therefore, the tourist information and signalization infrastructure is essential for the valorization of the tourist resources of an area.
Accommodation offer Alba county has a wide accommodation offer, more developed in the mountain area, due to the density and variety of the natural tourist attractions (Gozner, 2010; Avram, 2012), but also in the main urban centres, because of the high number of cultural-historical tourist attractions. Alba Iulia Municipality concentrates the largest number of beds – over 1000, distributed in two, three and four-star hotels, as well as in tourist pensions and villas. 19 There is a close connection between the number of tourist attractions of an area and the degree of development of the tourist accommodation infrastructure. As we can notice on the map in figure 11, the localities which have a large number of tourist attractions also have a large number of accommodation offers. This aspect – the relationship between the density and the variety of the tourist attractions and the number of accommodation places – is particularly important for the localities included in the tourist trail „Wine Road". In the villages situated in vineyards, tourist pensions-type of lodgings have appeared during the last 3-4 years, as there is an increased interest on the part of the population, of the local authorities and of the cellars or wineries owners concerning the harnessing of the wine-tourism potential. In this respect, some cellars or wineries owners who organize wine tastings, wine-growing and wine-making tours, have established guest houses, as well as restaurants, with the purpose of providing a complete tourist package to the tourists. For example, Jidvei Company has introduced in the tourist circuit the Bethlen - Haller Castle of Cetatea de Baltă, by creating a wine tasting hall and eight rooms for accommodating the company guests. The tourists who visit Jidvei can find accommodation at the only pension in the village – „Casa dintre vii", built in the year 2011, as a result of the integration of the locality in the tourist trail „Wine Road" and of the increasing accommodation demand. In fact, most of the tourists who visit Jidvei estate choose the lodgings of Blaj municipality. The majority of the accommodation places are in the cities Alba Iulia, Aiud, Sebeș, Blaj and Teiuș, situated on the „Wine Road". As for the accommodation offer in the rural areas included in the „Wine Road", the most of the places are situated in the communes Ighiu, Gârbova, Săsciori, Spring and Pianu, followed by Jidvei, Stremţ, Gâlda de Jos and Cetatea de Baltă. According to the investigations made on the ground, the accommodation demand in the rural localities with a wine-tourism potential is much greater than the existing supply. But, at the level of the wine-producing units, there are projects concerning the building of „guest houses" (pensions) and restaurants. For example, SC Domeniile Boieru SRL of Ciumbrud (Aiud) intends to build a pension in the vineyard, exactly next to the winemaking unit, and also a restaurant having a seating capacity of 120 seats. For such a form of tourism, the tourist demand is made more of the foreign tourists and less of domestic demand, which demonstrates that Romanian tourists have not yet developed a culture of wine discovery, wine tourism being more addressed to a higher class of tourists. Wine-tourism attracts every year over 6000 tourists in the vineyards of Alba County. Following the interviews with the directors or the managers of the wine-production units and with a part of the small producers, we found out that the largest number of visitors per year come to the wine-making complex SC Jidvei SRL, that is 4000-5000 visitors. On the second place is situated Târnave-Blaj Cellar, which is visited annually by about 1000 tourists, followed by SC Domeniile Boieru SRL, of Ciumbrud (Aiud), with an average of 20 tourists per month.
19 http://www.insse.ro/). 208 Mihaela UNGUREANU
Figure 11. Distribution of the accommodation places and the share of the tourism attractions at the level of Alba administrative units (Data sources: official websites of the City Halls; investigation on the ground, 2014) 20
In Ciumbrud there are several cellars belonging to small producers, but the number of the tourists visiting them is very reduced, non-existent in some cases. The situation is the same in the cellars of the small producers of Aiud; unlike the others, the best known of them, the Logos Cellar, offers wine tastings, accommodation and the possibility to serve a meal in the „Două Sălcii"
20 http://www.insse.ro/. Wine Road – An Instrument for the Valorisation of Wine Tourism Potential… 209 hostel, but we do not have the data concerning the approximate number of tourists who visit this cellar every year. The situation is the same in the case of the other cellars of the small producers in Alba County; until now we cannot speak about a concrete tourist offer from their part and, therefore, we are not dealing with wine-tourism, but with wine-buyers who are offered the possibility of tasting the wines before choosing a variety for purchase. Jidvei Company is the only winemaker which has developed a concrete tourist offer, sold by means of travel agencies. As for the origins of the tourists, the majority are Hungarians, Germans, Danish, French, Italians, Dutch and less Americans, Canadians and Israelis. As a percentage, 80% are foreigners and the rest are Romanians from different parts of the country. The majority of the tourists visit the winemaking units and the cellars between May and September. At Jidvei Company, in the summer months there are 1 - 2 tourists groups of 30 - 40 people every week.
CONCLUSIONS In Alba County lie four of the oldest and most famous vineyards of the country, where there are traditional cellars, renowned for the quality of their wines, with particular touches of nobleness and originality. Throughout Alba County there is a balance of the tourist resources, the wine- tourism attractions being situated, normally, along the famous „Wine Road" (cellars, winemaking units, castles, fortresses, historical monuments, places of worship etc.) The tourists who visit Alba County can take part in wine tastings or have the opportunity of visiting the cellars and the winemaking units in order to learn the wine-making process. For the tourists who are less interested in wine, the variety of tourist resources in Alba County offers the possibility of experiencing other forms or types of tourism (cultural tourism, ecotourism, rural tourism, agrotourism). The data gathered during the investigation on the ground indicate the fact that wine-tourism takes more and more shape, being supported by the local authorities, in cooperation with professional organizations in the fields of tourism and wine-growing, and, by extension, by the wine-producers. The interest of the local authorities to develop wine tourism is proved by the projects accomplished until now, such as: the „Wine Road", the wine-related cultural events, fairs and exhibitions having a wine-growing related subject etc.
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Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online June 03, 2015 Octomber 01, 2015 Octomber 16, 2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 211-220 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252108-689
ANALYSIS OF URBAN SPRAWL PHENOMENON IN BATNA CITY (ALGERIA) BY REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUE
Hadda DRIDI Laboratory of natural hazards and spatial planning (LRNAT), university of Batna, Batna, Algeria, e-mail: [email protected]
Abdelhalim BENDIB Laboratory of natural hazards and spatial planning (LRNAT), university of Batna, Batna, Algeria, e-mail: [email protected]
Mahdi KALLA Laboratory of natural hazards and spatial planning (LRNAT), university of Batna, Batna, Algeria, e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: Define Batna city, define its outlines and follow the spatio-temporal evolution is one of the complex problems. Urban sprawl, that rapid urbanization is the occupancy factor of soil changes, generally irreversible. His study in a medium-sized city is an important issue that requires monitoring and detailed analysis. Our approach includes the use of remotely sensed images to evaluate and qualify urban sprawl in Batna. For this purpose, we used a series of images in digital format for the years 1972, 1987, 2001 and 2013, acquired by multispectral sensors mounted on Landsat satellite platforms, for area which is the subject of experimentation, then supervised classification by Support Vector Machine (Radio Basis Function classifier RBFC) was utilized. The selection of the images available from Landsat archives was made so that their acquisition date is spread enough to better distinguish changes within the urban fabric. The results obtained confirm that urban area increased 173.32% between 1972 -1987, 55.62% between 1987 -2001 and 38.71% between 2001 -2013. Furthermore, Shannon’s entropy index shows that the city has a high level of sprawl along its urban expansion history.
Key words: Batna, Urban Sprawl, Remote Sensing, Shannon’s entropy, SVM classification.
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INTRODUCTION In 2008, half of the world population started living in urban areas (Tewolde & Cabral, 2011). In Algeria, over the past four decades, the notable events which emerges from the general population and housing census (RGPH) is the rapid growth of the urban population representing 66.3% of the population in 2008 while it was 49% in 1987 and 31% in 1966, whereas the rural population showed a negative growth which decreased from 68% in 1966 to 33% in 2008 linked to the transformation of the relations between town and country (immigration and transferring of rural population to urban centres).
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
212 Hadda DRIDI, Abdelhalim BENDIB, Mahdi KALLA
This study presents the case of Batna city in the eastern of Algeria. Batna’s resident population reached 319742 inhabitants on 2013 while it was estimated at 289504 in the latest RGPH in 2008, which correspond to a population growth, the rate of 2.06%. This latest census indicates that 26.1% of Batna province population is grouped in Batna city on 0.99% of the territory. Indeed, much of the urban expansion has occurred as sprawl around the central urban core, with many of the most affluent residents migrating to the periphery. From 1972 to 2013, the land area of the city increased by almost 7 percent, while the population only grew by 3 percent. Today, Batna is one of the most rapidly developed urban areas of the state. The increase of the urban perimeter has generated a many problems, among other ones, related to the development of peri-urbanization, unplanned and uncontrolled spreading of urban development into areas adjoining the edge of a city, and recently enormous urban sprawl. This is the result of an urban dynamic not accompanied with an appropriate instrumentation concerning urban planning in order to control and regulate its growth. Any form of urban growth is not necessarily synonymous with urban sprawl. However, urban sprawl, as a concept, suffers from difficulties in definition (Barnes et al., 2001; Roca et al., 2004). Peiser (2001) considers that urban sprawl term is used to mean „greedy and ineffective use space and a monotonous, uninterrupted and discontinuous development”. Charles et al., (2006) defines the urban sprawl as being „a model of urban and metropolitan growth which reflects a low density, an automobile dependence and a new development of the zones to the fringe, often in the neighborhoods of the city”. In Algeria, any public policy based on regulatory instruments, by its nature, the land is a scope and an essential means of political planning, urbanism, planning and housing. This is obviously an instrument of intervention and regulation as it is a factor of production, concentration and management of interests and wealth. Established by the law 90-29 issued in 1/12/1990, on urban and city planning, and the law 90-25 issued in 18/11/1990, carrying the land orientation, texts and tools regulating land sector in Algeria seem inadequate. Regulatory dispositions and administrative practices impose constraints which people cannot respect. These inappropriate dispositions require the majority to seek solutions to their problems in irregular and informal field, outside the guidelines of planning tools, which gives large areas with constructs a poor quality, usually not straight and they suffer lack of basic equipment and areas, which cause accumulation. Within this framework, to control the urban growth and minimize the problems caused, policymakers in the difficulty of obtaining sets of spatial data accurate enough to detect the growth of the city, need decision support tools to assist them in management and strict implementation of urban planning instruments, it is essentially through spatializing of the phenomena that they address question of urbanization. The main goal of our contribution is to make some reflections about the urban sprawl process and to exhibit the integrated use of remote sensing and GIS together with Shannon’s entropy in addressing and quantifying urban growth patterns in the studied area in the last 40 years through Shannon’s entropy approach.
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA Batna, capital of the Aurès Massif (figure 1) with an area of 2852.41 Ha is located in eastern Algeria, between 6°7’59" and 6°13'31" East longitude and between 35°34’23 and 35°31'26" North latitude. Located on high plains, at the crossroads of Constantine, Biskra and Khenchela. This gave him a polarizing role. Founded in 1844 (Hogue, 2008) in the middle of a bowl surrounded by mountains with rugged relief, located on a site slightly sloping (47% of grounds do not exceed 10%), easy accessibility which makes it a useful location to build and spread. With more than 319742 residents and approximate 61100 housing units, Batna occupies a central and sensitive point. A statistical assessments show that Batna become in short time a pole of attractiveness and engine of economic growth of the province, where the majority of economic activities are focused in major sectors; the trade (45.50%), the services (38.08%) and industry (16.41%) (National Statistical Office of Algeria, 2012). Analysis of Urban Sprawl Phenomenon in Batna City (Algeria) … 213
Figure 1. A map of the study area: (a) location of wilaya of Batna, (b) study area – Batna city (Background layer Google Earth-2014)
MATERIELS AND METHODS The following multi-temporal remote sensing imageries and software have been used to extract built-up areas of Batna: - Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) image (path 209, rows 35) from 14 August 1972; - Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) image (path 193, row 35) from 16 June 1987; - Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) image (path 194, rows 35) from 02 April 2001; - Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) image (path 193, rows 35) from 06 January 2013; -Topographic map of Batna East, West, Arris East, West (at 1:50 000 scale, 1995, NI 32 XIX 3). ENVI4.7 and ArcGIS10.1 (ESRI) software are used for digital images processing because they support the file formats of one another.
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT This work will be based on the raw images that have distortion and degradation and preliminary treatments are designed to eliminate to get a map reference to its users. Filling gaps in Landsat ETM (Filling Gaps) May 31, 2003, Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) sensor had a failure of the Scan Line Corrector (SLC). Since that time, all Landsat ETM had wedge-shaped gaps on both sides of each scene, which results in data loss of about 22% (Wulder et al., 2008). Scaramuzza et al., (2004) have developed a technique that can be used to fill gaps in a scene with data from another scene Landsat. A linear transform is applied to the „filling” image to adjust, it based on the standard deviation and mean values of each band, of each scene. In this work we used a TM image obtained by the Landsat 5 Jan. 2, 2011 , this image intended to fill a more recent ETM + image (L7 SLC- off) obtained by the Landsat 7 January 6, 2013 satellite.
Image registration (geo-referencing) The images that we have not exactly represent the same area of land. There is a gap between them. To remedy this problem and adopt the same standards (provide a common scale to all data), we conducted a registration of images using ArcGis10.1 software. To do this, a Universal Traverse Mercator (UTM WGS84) has been selected as the projection system, then a ground control points have been selected from topographic map (1:50 000), for more precision our procedure of geo-referencing is to move each point of raster (satellite images) to the same point of the target map using Geo-referencing tools.
214 Hadda DRIDI, Abdelhalim BENDIB, Mahdi KALLA
Pan-Sharpening Generally, the Pan-sharpening is defined as a combination of two or more different images to form using an algorithm a new image (Pohl & Van Genderen, 1998). The aim of image fusion is to integrate complementary data in order to obtain more and better information about an object or a study area than can be derived from single sensor data alone (Singhai & Sarup, 2011). In our work the pan- sharpening is to merge a panchromatic image (band 8) at high spatial resolution (15 m) obtained by the ETM + sensor with a multispectral image of medium spatial resolution (30 m) also obtained by the same sensor and the result produced a multi- spectral image with the same resolution as the panchromatic image.
Application of Supervised Classification (SVM) Our work has focused on an approach of mapping the urban sprawl by Support Vector Machine classification method from Landsat satellite imagery. It is, in the absence of measures on land and in the absence of available data, to apply SVM classification method. In terms of definition, the support vector machines (SVMs) is a supervised non-parametric statistical learning technique (Mountrakis et al., 2011). Indeed, the machines with vectors of support or separators with vast margin area set of techniques of supervised training in tended to solve problems of discrimination and regression, i.e. to decide to which class a sample belongs. In this regard, The SVM approach consists in finding the optimal hyperplane that maximizes the distance between the closest training sample and the separating hyperplane (Melgani & Bruzzone, 2004). By their strong connection to the underlying statistical learning theory, where they implement the structural risk minimizing for solving two class classification problems (Vapnik, 1995), and their effective in automatic estimation of impervious surfaces (Esch et al., 2009), the SVMs are quickly adopted in our work for their capacity to work with large-sized data, limited quantity and quality of training samples (Ghoggali et al., 2009; Gidudu et al., 2007), their theoretical warranties, and their good performances in practice.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION After extraction the study area, colorful composition; (band4, 3 and 2) suitable for urban themes were made from MSS, TM and ETM + images of 14 August 1972, 16 June 1987, 02 April 2001 and 6 January 2013 successively. Indeed, Support Vector Machines (SVMs) are typically a supervised classifier, which requires training samples (Mountrakis et al., 2011). Moreover, as we know perfectly the study area, we classified our area into three major classes; a class of Covered Plants (CP), a class of career, Sol Naked and Rocky Outcrops (CSN) and a class of urban frame (UF).This choice is made in a way to allow better identification of the city, and its extension in reference space-time. The images provided by the Landsat satellite since 1972, are successfully utilized to quantify and mapping the urban space, and follow the evolution of the city (figure 2). The combination of these maps will allow to elaborate the final map of urban sprawl which can be used to guide the development of Batna city, and extraction of the various axes of extension. Either, for lack of an optimal spatial resolution and maybe, by not adequate weather conditions at the data acquisition time, we can conclude that there are some pixels badly classified in this classification. Development of confusion matrix is a key element in this present work, it is for objective to evaluate the performance of classifications and validate the results, by evaluating the number of pixels correctly classified inside each piece of training. By analyzing the table 1, the matrix of confusion shows that the various classifications carried out by SVM (Support Vector Machine) method have a very high performance (table 2), of which total precision given equal to 96% and the Kappa coefficient equal to 93%. By works of Landis and Koch, (1977) and Rupali and Karbhari, (2015), when 0.81 < Kc < 0.99, it means that our results are statistically perfect, which means that the map of urban sprawl classified for different dates is compatible with ground realities. Analysis of Urban Sprawl Phenomenon in Batna City (Algeria) … 215
Figure 2. Classified images from different dates showing built-up areas in white
Table 1. Confusion Matrix of the supervised classification SVM_1972, 1987, 2001 and 2013
1972 1987 Class UF CSN CP Total UF CSN CP Total UF 52 3 0 55 414 6 1 421 CSN 5 1408 0 1413 41 2386 7 2434 CP 0 0 22 22 0 0 119 119 Total 57 1411 22 1490 455 2392 127 2974 2001 2013 UF 265 1 0 266 900 10 3 913 CSN 16 3280 2 3298 38 925 14 985 CP 0 1 50 51 0 12 374 396 Total 281 3282 52 3615 938 961 403 3330
Table 2. Validation the results of classification by good values of GP and KC
Matrix of Confusion Global Precision (GP) Kappa Coefficient (KC) Confusion Matrix 1972 0.952 0.890 Confusion Matrix 1987 0.966 0.948 Confusion Matrix 2001 0.960 0.936 Confusion Matrix 2013 0.963 0.950 Average (%) 96.06 93.12 216 Hadda DRIDI, Abdelhalim BENDIB, Mahdi KALLA
Quantification of growth rate Visual comparison of changes, limit their real appreciation and encourages misjudgement (Tonyé et al., 1999). Therefore, in addition to the visual method, it was confirmed using two other relative approaches. It is important to mention that most of the sprawl measurement techniques, in general, are relative measures, and can be used as indicators of sprawl by the analyst (Bhatta, 2012). The next table (table 3) shows the results of two quantitative methods for estimating the area of urban fabric. The first method is to estimate the surface by manual delineation, this method was carried out under ArcGis 10.1 (ESRI) software, a polygon can trace our study area and then measuring and calculating perimeters and surfaces. The area by the second method obtained by automatic extraction of pixels, then multiple the number by spatial resolution of the scene pixels, this is the most reliable and most accurate method because it neglects all undeveloped areas within the urban fabric. Statistically, the surface of the city increased from 483.43 ha in 1972 to more than 1321.32 ha in 1987, either rate of evolution of 173.32%, and from 2056.30 ha in 2001 to more than 2852.41 ha in 2013, or a rate of 38.71%. That is to say that, on average, Batna city needs 57 ha every year for its extension. Results reveal that land development on global (7.87%) is more than two times the population growth (3.86%). Indeed, urban growth before 1990 is a logical response of a demographic growth marked the first two decades of independence (from 55017 inhabitants in 1966, to more than 184000 in 1987). It was accompanied by national policy based on the principle of „Economy planned” and „industrializing industry” which involved a considerable increase in urban system of the city. After 1990, by displacement of the rural population to the city, because of security conditions that Algeria has known in the 90s (whether a population growth rate of 2.3%), and the release of land market, characterized by the appearance of new actors in land management (private owners), a major redistribution of human workforce operates in the city, causing an extensive consumption of peripheral grounds, situation since a few years began to present signs of urban saturation under the influence of urban sprawl.
Figure 3. Map synthesis of urban sprawl in Batna (combination with other geographic entities by a GIS)
Analysis of Urban Sprawl Phenomenon in Batna City (Algeria) … 217
Table 3. Evolution of the area of Batna city in 1972, 1987, 2001 and 2013.
Nbr of Area by manual Area auto-extraction Percentage of Year/ Sensor Pixels delineation (ha) method (ha) built-up (%) 1972 MSS 1 482 344 483.43 121,32 25.09 1987 TM 11 116 875 1321.32 909,86 68.86 2001 ETM+ 23 537 094 2056.30 1926,40 93.68 2013 ETM+ 33 192 750 2852.41 2716.68 95.24
Analysis of Urban sprawl by Shannon’s Entropy method The Shannon’s entropy was computed in this study to detect the urban sprawl phenomenon (Yeh and Li, 2001). Entropy is calculated according to:
………………………………………………….. (1)
Where; is the proportion of the variable (built-up) in the ith zone and n is the total number of zones. This value ranges from 0 to log (n), if the distribution is very compact then the entropy value would be closer to 0 and when the value closer to log (n) the distribution is more dispersed. In order to calculate Shannon’s Entropy, the study area was divided into five zones using multiple concentric circles created around the city center at 1000 meters interval (figure 4).Table 4 shows the Shannon’s entropy results for 1972, 1987, 2001 and 2013.
Table 4. Shannon’s Entropy Value for the study area
Years 1972 1987 2001 2013 Log(n)
Value of Shannon’s entropy Hn 0.486 0.911 0.962 1.135 1.60
Figure 4. Buffer Zones around the study site 218 Hadda DRIDI, Abdelhalim BENDIB, Mahdi KALLA
The entropy used for detect and measure the sprawl of the city and was calculated for each individual zone (n is the total number of zones. i.e., n= 5), the results show that Batna city was always sprawled. However, relatively lower value of Shannon’s entropy (0.486) was marked in the year of 1972 and largest values 0.911, 0.962 and 1.135 for 1987, 2001 and 2013 respectively. It indicates that at the time of 1972 the built-up area was distributed compact and homogeneous around the city center. Also, it should be noted that the entropy values have continuously increased during 1987, 2001 and 2013 to be close to the upper limit of log (n), 1.60 i.e. which means that the city has experienced sprawl.
Axes of this urban sprawl Visual examination of satellite images acquired shows that the occupation of soil changes are identified mostly in the city, previous map (figure 3) can help detect changes of the city since 1972. We are located in the city of Batna in few 900 - 1200 meters altitude. Eastward, more than 1954.61 ha of agricultural and plain land remained in continuous decline that due to the existence of a national road (NR # 31) connecting the city of Batna with the province of Khenchela which gives to the places adjacent a commercial importance translates rapidly by modifications on ground (from 56.26 ha in 2005 to 105.77 ha in 2013). Modifications operated in this zone; the replacement of the agricultural lands and open green spaces by built surfaces of commercial and individual habitat type, such the road of Tazoult and sector of Parc à Fourrage which does not cease to spread out inside agricultural lands (in average, Batna lose 2522.2m2, of the best agricultural lands every year for illegal growth). As you move south more changes and spreads operated the last 40 years, among these changes is Bouakal, Tamchit and Douar Eddis sectors, this trend is now almost blocked by the relief (slopes DJ Ich Ali 1400m), but here we notice the gradual filling of the inbuilt space especially by individual houses.
Figure 5. Linear dynamics and conurbation phenomena Analysis of Urban Sprawl Phenomenon in Batna City (Algeria) … 219
We are located west of the city; the changes made here are clearly on large and fairly ground. The installation of Hamla city (over 120 000 inhabitants), multi- functional city (university residences, public buildings...) with a total area of 105.62 hectares, this area is completely installed on a plain platform very fertile, in similar, we add the considerable evolution of the road of Hamla, B'china and Boukhris sectors, where informal habitat (individual) is the most spectacular. It should be noted that the continued growth of B’china and Boukhris (46.23 ha in 2005 to 87.23 ha in 2013) is currently almost faced by relief of Dj Boumerzoug (1700m). Finally, we headed North where we could distinguish and report some modifications and changes on the territory, among these changes we quote Bouzorane sector, which is completely stopped by the relief (Koudiet Bouzorane 1150m), on the other hand, the side of the road of Constantine, sprawl continues to increase to Fesdis city at 6 Km; conurbation phenomenon with the municipality (figure 5). Patterns of sprawl can take place either in radial direction, around a well-established city or linearly along the highways (Theobald, 2001). As shown in the following figure 6, the history of Batna city is characterized by two distinct forms of extension either in radial direction from the core coincides perfectly with the concentric model of Burgess, characterized by excessive consumption of open space and agricultural land, or linearly along the highways started after exhaustion and saturation of grounds by spreading, where the lines of communication have a structuring role.
Figure 6. Forms of growth of Batna city in 2005 and 2013
CONCLUSION Batna constitutes a fertile environment of a fabulous wealth with the big advantage to be just a step from France (…) from then on, few years Batna will become too small to maintain the mass of its inhabitants, believe it! (Pérès, 1875) The attractiveness of Batna city is a very old phenomenon, whose consequences on the current space constitute a real field of studies and experimentation through to the syndromes of the bad development and recently to urban sprawl. The main objective of this paper was to verify the ability of this type of multi-dates images provided by the satellite Landsat to identify the contours of the urban fabric, what led us to evaluate the spatiotemporal spreading of the city. Furthermore, Shannon’s entropy is a good method to detect and measure the spatial pattern of urban growth. The entropy value indicates an increase in the degree of dispersion of urban sprawl (from 0.486 in 1972 to 1.135 in 2013). This study presents an exhaustive assessment of urban sprawl status for the city which can be used by decision makers for ensuring sustainable urban development. Finally, the study demonstrates that remote sensing technique in combination with Geographic information system (GIS) is very useful for urban monitoring and future planning at local or global level. 220 Hadda DRIDI, Abdelhalim BENDIB, Mahdi KALLA
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Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online September 16, 2015 Octomber 01, 2015 Octomber 16, 2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 221-233 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252109-696
TYPOLOGY OF WOODEN CHURCHES IN THE DRAINAGE BASINS OF MUREȘ AND ARIEȘ, ALBA COUNTY
Ștefan BAIAS University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning – TSAC, 1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
Maria GOZNER University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning – TSAC, 1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
Grigore Vasile HERMAN University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning – TSAC, 1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
Florin Miron MĂDUȚA University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning – TSAC, 1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: The scientific undertaking, focused on a specific methodology, quantified in the specialist literature, takes shape as a quantitative, qualitative, typological and cartographic knowledge of what is authentic, traditional and representative for Alba County. The result allows us to tackle the issue of the wooden churches, considered authentic values for the inhabitant of this county.
Key words: cultural heritage, wooden churches, tourism
* * * * * *
INTRODUCTION Situated in the central part of Romania, run through by many streams, having a varied relief and covered by widespread forests, Alba county has been, since the dawn of time, a territory extremely favourable for the emergence and development of human communities. In the traditional way of living of the inhabitants of this area, in the traditional fundamental sides of their material and spiritual culture, that come into being in the extensive and varied range of ethnographic phenomena, from the settlement to the faith, one can recognize, even nowadays, certain elements of an ancient tradition which constitutes the cultural heritage of the Romanian people in this Transylvanian region (Godea, 1977; Mocean & Cenar, 1980; Anghel et al., 1982; Mocan, 2011; Tătar & Herman, 2013). In this regard, we can speak about the wooden churches ranked as historic monuments, erected by skillful craftsmen and by talented painters in the most
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
222 Ștefan BAIAS, Maria GOZNER, Grigore Vasile HERMAN, Florin Miron MĂDUŢA remote villages of the Apuseni Mountains or in the settlements located in the drainage basins of Mureș and Arieș. Even though Alba is one of the Romanian counties where the wooden churches representing historic monuments have not been yet fully registered 1 , a real treasure nestles here, due to the authenticity and originality of these values, a treasure which deserves to be duly appreciated. This is why our research focuses on the quantitative, qualitative, typological and cartographic study of the wooden churches, true „pearls” of the traditional architecture of this Transylvanian region (Ilieș, 2014).
METHODOLOGY The information and the data analyzed in this study come from the fields of geography, architecture, history, official statistical data and on-the-ground research. The results have been obtained by using the geographical research methods: the method of bibliographic documentation (Cocean, 2005), followed by the on-the-ground research, with the help of the adequate techniques - the observation and the description (Ianoș, 2000; Kothari, 2004; Armaș, 2006; Veal, 2006); the statistical method - collecting the statistical data and their processing, analysis and interpretation (Andrei & Stancu, 1995); the method of the analysis - the collected information and data are used in the profile processing (Cocean, 2005), the cartographic method - the information is turned into cartographic representations through the GIS software (Petrea, 2005; Clifford et al., 2010) and the method of synthesis, whereby the conclusions were drawn regarding the wooden churches of the drainage basins of Mureș and Arieș, Alba County (figure 1).
Figure 1. Spatial location of the study area
1 https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserici_de_lemn_din_Alba (date of visit: 20.07.2015) Typology of Wooden Churches in the Drainage Basins of Mureș and Arieș, Alba County 223
THE TYPOLOGY OF THE WOODEN CHURCHES In the geographic area of Alba county and on the basis of the reviewed documents (Cristache-Panait, 1987, 1993; Boțan, 2010; Opriș et al., 2001), 33 wooden churches were identified, that are part of the national cultural heritage (figure 2). Out of the total number of the wooden churches ranked as historic monuments, 14 churches are dedicated to the „Holy Archangels Michael and Gabriel”. These historical monuments have more than 200 years of existence, as the majority of them were built in the 18th century. The oldest wooden church in the research area is the church of Saint Nicolas belonging to the monastery of Lupșa, the village of Lupșa (year of construction 1429). The analysis of the wooden churches classified as historic monuments was made taking into account seven typologies, depending on the entrance, the portal, the orientation of the porch, the coverings of the exterior walls, the type of the roof, the shape of the helmet and the height.
Figure 2. Spatial location of the wooden churches in Alba County 224 Ștefan BAIAS, Maria GOZNER, Grigore Vasile HERMAN, Florin Miron MĂDUŢA
The first fundamental criterion in the establishment of the typology of the wooden churches is the entrance. According to this criterion, we have identified five types of wooden churches in Alba county: A - wooden churches with entrance on the west side; B - wooden churches with entrance on the south side; C - wooden churches with entrance on the west side and on the south side; D - wooden churches with two entrances on the south side and E - wooden churches with entrance on the north side (table 1). The statistical analysis of the wooden churches indicates the fact that the wooden churches with entrance on the south side predominate in the drainage basin of Mureș (45,5%), while those with entrance on the west side prevail in the drainage basin of Arieș (36,4%) (figure 3).
Table 1. Typology of the wooden churches ranked as historical monuments depending on the entrance (Data source: Data collected on the ground between 2014-2015) Wooden churches located in cities and villages in the drainage basins of: Type Mureș Arieș A - wooden churches Alba Iulia, Băgău, Fărău, Întregalde, Lunca Gârda de Sus, Lăzești, with entrance on the Mureșului, Noșlac, Pianu de Sus, Șpălnaca Sub Piatră, Valea Largă west side; Alba Iulia (in the premises of the Monastery „Sfântul B - wooden churches Ioan Botezătorul” – „Saint John the Baptist”), Goiești, Runc, Poșaga with entrance on the Copand, Fărău (in the premises of the Monastery de Sus south side; „Sfânta Treime” – „The Holy Trinity”), Geogel, Ghirbom, Săliștea, Sânbenedic, Șilea, Tău, Turdaș C - wooden churches with entrance on the Găbud Arieșeni, Sartăș west side and on the south side; D - wooden churches with two entrances on Bârlești, Cojocani, Dealu Geoagiului the south side; E - wooden churches with entrance on the Lunca Largă, Lupșa north side.
50.00% 45.5%
40.00% 36.4% 36.4%
30.00% 27.2%
20.00% 18.2% 18.20% 13.6%
10.00% 4.5% 0% 0% 0.00% D.B. Mures D.B. Aries C. with entrance on the west side C. with entrance on the south side C. with entrance on the west side and on the south side C. with two entrances on the south side C. with entrance on the north side *C – Wooden churches Figure 3. Typology of the wooden churches ranked as historical monuments depending on the entrance Typology of Wooden Churches in the Drainage Basins of Mureș and Arieș, Alba County 225
During the on-the-ground research, we have identified ten wooden churches whose portals are adorned with various motifs (table 2). In the drainage basin of Mureș, eight (36,4%) of the wooden churches have adorned portals and in the drainage basin of Arieș, only two (18,2%) of the wooden churches have adorned portals (figure 4).
Table 2. Typology of the wooden churches ranked as historic monuments depending on the portal (Data source: Data collected on the ground between 2014-2015) Wooden churches located in cities and villages in the drainage basins of: Type Mureș Arieș Alba Iulia (in the premises of the Monastery „Sfântul A- wooden Ioan Botezătorul” - „Saint John the Baptist”), churches with Gârda de Sus, Lăzești Cojocani, Geogel, Ghirbom, Lunca Mureșului, Noșlac, adorned portal; Sânbenedic, Șilea B-wooden Alba Iulia, Băgău, Bârlești, Copand, Dealu Geoagiului, Arieșeni, Goiești, Lunca churches with Fărău (in the premises of the Monastery „Sfânta Largă, Lupșa, Runc, unadorned Treime” - „The Holy Trinity”), Găbud, Întregalde, Sartăș, Sub Piatră, Poșaga (simple) portal. Pianu de Sus, Săliștea, Șpălnaca, Tău, Turdaș de Sus, Valea Largă
90.00% 81.8% 80.00% 70.00% 63.6% 60.00% 50.00% 36.4% 40.00% 30.00% 18.2% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% D.B.Mures D.B.Aries
C. with adorned portal C. with simple portal
* C – wooden churches Figure 4. Typology of the wooden churches ranked as historic monuments depending on the portal
Table 3. Typology of the wooden churches ranked as historic monuments depending on the orientation of the porch (Data source: Data collected on the ground between 2014-2015) Wooden churches located in cities and villages in the drainage Type basins of: Mureș Arieș Alba Iulia (in the premises of the Monastery A - Wooden churches with the „Sfântul Ioan Botezătorul” – „Saint John the
porch on the south side; Baptist”), Bârlești, Cojocani, Copand, Dealu Geoagiului, Ghirbom, Sânbenedic, Șilea, Turdaș B - wooden churches with the porch Fărău, Lunca Mureșului, Noșlac, Șpălnaca Sub Piatră on the west side; C - wooden churches with porch on Găbud the north side and on the west side; D - wooden churches with porch on Băgău all the sides.
226 Ștefan BAIAS, Maria GOZNER, Grigore Vasile HERMAN, Florin Miron MĂDUŢA
The porch of the wooden churches classified as historic monuments is placed on one side, two sides or even on four sides (table 3). The wooden churches with the porch on the south side prevail in the drainage basin of Mureș (60%) while in the drainage basin of Arieș, there is only one wooden church with the porch on the west side, the church of Sub Piatră (figure 5). In order to realize the graph of the figure five for the drainage basin of Mureș, the calculations took into account 15 churches.
60.00% 60.0%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00% 26.6%
20.00%
10.00% 6.7% 6.7%
0.00% D.B. Mures
C. with the porch on the south side C. with the porch on the west side and on the north side C. with the porch on the west side C. with porch on all the sides
* C – wooden churches Figure 5. Typology of the wooden churches ranked as historic monuments depending on the orientation of the porch
During the on-the-ground research, we have identified nine wooden churches (table 4) whose exterior walls have undergone renovation works (works which resulted in the plastering of the walls), following the destructive effects of the natural factors. The best preserved are the wooden churches situated in the drainage basin of Mureș (86,4%), while in the drainage basin of Arieș, 54,5% of the wooden churches have plastered walls (figure 6).
Table 4. Typology of the wooden churches ranked as historic monuments depending on the covering of the exterior walls (Data source: Data collected on the ground between 2014 - 2015) Wooden churches located in cities and villages in the drainage basins of: Type Mureș Arieș Alba Iulia (in the premises of the Monastery „Sfântul Ioan Botezătorul” - „Saint John the Baptist”), Alba Iulia, Băgău, Bârlești, Cojocani, Lunca Mureșului, Goiești, Lăzești, Lunca A - churches with Fărău, Fărău (in the premises of the Monastery Largă, Poșaga de Sus, wooden walls; „Sfânta Treime” - „The Holy Trinity”), Găbud, Sub Piatră Geogel, Ghirbom, Noșlac, Pianu de Sus, Săliștea, Sânbenedic, Șilea, Șpălnaca, Tău, Turdaș B - churches with Arieșeni, Gârda de Sus, plastered wooden Copand, Dealu Geoagiului, Întregalde Lupșa, Runc, Sartăș, walls. Valea Largă
The tall roof made of shingles, tiles or corrugated iron, supported by a system of beams and purlins, often extends over the porch by means of large eaves, a fact which gives the church its lithe silhouette (Godea, 2008; Baias, 2012, 2013). During the on-the-ground research, we have identified five categories of churches, depending on the type of the roof: A - wooden churches Typology of Wooden Churches in the Drainage Basins of Mureș and Arieș, Alba County 227 with the roof of the nave and of the tower made of shingles; B - wooden churches with the nave roof made of shingles and the tower roof made of corrugated iron; C- wooden churches with the roof of the nave and of the tower made of corrugated iron; D - wooden churches with the nave roof made of tiles and the tower roof made of corrugated iron and E - wooden churches with the nave roof made of asbestos cement tiles and the tower roof made of corrugated iron. As a result of the research, we have found out that the wooden churches with the nave and tower roof made of shingles predominate in the drainage basin of Mureș (45,5%), while in the drainage basin of Arieș, the wooden churches with the nave and roof tower made of shingles and the wooden churches with the nave and roof tower made of corrugated iron are equally prevalent (36,4%) (table 5 and figure 7).
90.00% 86.4% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 54.5% 50.00% 45.5% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 13.6% 10.00% 0.00% D.B. Muresului D.B.Ariesului
Churches with wooden walls Churches with plastered wooden walls
Figure 6. Typology of the wooden churches ranked as historic monuments depending on the coverage of the exterior walls
Table 5. Typology of the wooden churches ranked as historic monuments depending on the type of the roof (Data source: Data collected on the ground between 2014-2015) Wooden churches located in cities and villages in the drainage basins Type of: Mureș Arieș Alba Iulia (in the premises of the Monastery A - wooden churches with „Sfântul Ioan Botezătorul” - „Saint John the Goiești, Lupșa, Sub the roof of the nave and of Baptist”), Alba Iulia, Găbud, Ghirbom, Lunca Piatră, Valea Largă the tower made of shingles; Mureșului, Pianu de Sus, Săliștea, Șpălnaca, Tău, Turdaș B - wooden churches with the nave roof made of Gârda de Sus, Poșaga Geogel shingles and the tower roof de Sus made of corrugated iron; C - wooden churches with Copand, Dealu Geoagiului, Fărău (in the the roof of the nave and of Arieșeni, Lăzești, premises of the Monastery „Sfânta Treime” - the tower made of corrugated Runc, Sartăș „The Holy Trinity”), Sânbenedic iron; D - wooden churches with the nave roof made of tiles Băgău, Bârlești, Cojocani, Fărău, Întregalde,
and the tower roof made of Noșlac, Șilea corrugated iron; E - wooden churches with the nave roof made of asbestos Lunca Largă cement tiles and the tower roof made of corrugated iron. 228 Ștefan BAIAS, Maria GOZNER, Grigore Vasile HERMAN, Florin Miron MĂDUŢA
50.00% 45.5%
40.00% 36.4% 36.4% 31.8% 30.00% 18.2% 20.00% 18.2% 9.0% 10.00% 4.5% 0.0% 0.0% 0.00% D.B.Mures D.B. Aries
C. with the roof of the nave and of the tower made of shingles C. with the nave roof made of shingles and the tower roof made of corrugated iron C. with the roof of the nave and of the tower made of corrugated iron C. with the nave roof made of tiles and the tower roof made of corrugated iron C. with the nave roof made of asbestos cement tiles and the tower roof made of corrugated iron * C – wooden churches Figure 7. Typology of the wooden churches ranked as historic monuments depending on the type of the roof
Table 6. Typology of the wooden churches ranked as historic monuments depending on the shape of the bell tower helmet (Data source: Data collected on the ground between 2014-2015) Wooden churches located in cities and villages in the drainage basins of: Type Mureș Arieș A - wooden churches with round bell tower Săliștea (shingles) helmet; Alba Iulia (in the premises of the Monastery „Sfântul Ioan Botezătorul” - „Saint John the Baptist”) (shingles), Copand (corrugated iron), Fărău (corrugated iron), Fărău (in the B - wooden churches premises of the Monastery „Sfânta Treime” - Lupșa (shingles), Runc with quadrilateral bell „The Holy Trinity”) (corrugated iron), Găbud (corrugated iron) tower helmet; (shingles), Ghirbom (shingles), Lunca Mureșului (shingles), Pianu de Sus (shingles), Sânbenedic (corrugated iron), Șilea (corrugated iron), Șpălnaca (shingles), Tău (shingles), Turdaș (shingles) C - wooden churches Băgău (corrugated iron), Noșlac (corrugated with hexagonal bell tower Sartăș (corrugated iron) iron), Sânbenedic (corrugated iron) helmet; Arieșeni (corrugated iron), Gârda de Sus (corrugated Alba Iulia (shingles), Bârlești (corrugated iron), Goiești (shingles), D - wooden churches iron), Cojocani (corrugated iron), Dealu Lăzești (corrugated iron), with octagonal bell tower Geoagiului (corrugated iron), Geogel Lunca Largă (corrugated helmet. (corrugated iron), Întregalde (corrugated iron) iron), Poșaga de Sus (corrugated iron), Sub Piatră (shingles)
The bell tower, with ridge turret and a long helmet, stands above the pronaos and shelters the semantron and the bells, two important means of communication in the village life (Godea, 1996). During the on-the-ground research, we have identified four categories of churches, depending on the shape of the bell-tower helmet: A - wooden churches with round bell tower Typology of Wooden Churches in the Drainage Basins of Mureș and Arieș, Alba County 229 helmet; B - wooden churches with quadrilateral bell tower helmet; C- wooden churches with hexagonal bell tower helmet and D - wooden churches with octagonal bell tower helmet. The wooden churches with quadrilateral bell tower helmet are predominant in the drainage basin of Mureș (54,5%), while in the drainage basin of Arieș, 70% of the wooden churches have an octagonal bell tower helmet (table 6 and figure 8).
80.00% 70.0% 70.00% 60.00% 54.5% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 27.4% 20.0% 20.00% 13.6% 10.0% 10.00% 4.5% 0.0% 0.00% D.B.Mures D.B.Aries C. with round bell tower helmet C. with quadrilateral bell tower helmet C. with hexagonal bell tower helmet C. with octagonal bell tower helmet
* C – wooden churches Figure 8. Typology of the wooden churches ranked as historic monuments depending on the shape of the bell tower helmet
In order to realize the graph of the figure 8 for the drainage basin of Arieș, the calculations took into account 10 wooden churches, because the wooden church of Valea Larga does not have a bell tower. The figures 9 - 41 below present the wooden churches classified as historic monuments in descending order by height. The tallest wooden church ranked as historic monument (22 m) is situated in the drainage basin of Arieș, in Arieșeni, while the smallest church (5 m), is situated in the drainage basin of Mureș, in the village Șilea, commune Fărău.
TYPOLOGY OF WOODEN CHURCHES RANKED AS HISTORIC MONUMENT DEPENDING ON HEIGHT Following the on-the-ground research, we have found out that 13 of the wooden churches ranked as historic monuments are inactive, without liturgical activity.
Figure 9. Arieșeni (22 m) Figure 10. Sânbenedic (17 m) Figure 11. Goiești (17 m) 2
2 https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_Goie%C8%99ti (date of visit: 02.08.2015) 230 Ștefan BAIAS, Maria GOZNER, Grigore Vasile HERMAN, Florin Miron MĂDUŢA
Figure 12. Gârda de Sus (17 m) Figure 13. Fărău (16 m) Figure 14. Alba Iulia (in the premises of the Monastery „Sfântul Ioan Botezătorul” – „Saint John the Baptist”) (16 m)
Figure 15. Alba Iulia (15 m) Figure 16. Lunca Mureșului (15 m) Figure 17. Noșlac (15 m)
Figure 18. Sartăș (15 m)3 Figure 19. Lazesti (15 m)4 Figure 20. Lupșa (15 m)
Figure 21. Întregalde (13,5 m) Figure 22. Cojocani (13 m) Figure 23. Geogel (13 m)5
3 https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_Sart%C4%83%C8%99 (date of visit: 02.08.2015) 4 https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_L%C4%83ze%C8%99ti (date of visit: 02.08.2015) 5 https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_Geogel (date of visit: 02.08.2015) Typology of Wooden Churches in the Drainage Basins of Mureș and Arieș, Alba County 231
Figure 24. Lunca Largă (12 m)6 Figure 25. Sub Piatră (12m)7 Figure 26. Băgău (12 m)
Figure 27. Bârlești (11 m) Figure 28. Dealu Geoagiului (10 m) Figure 29. Copand (10 m)
Figure 30. Poșaga de Sus (10 m)8 Figure 31. Săliștea (10m) Figure 32. Runc (10 m)9
Figure 33. Ghirbom (9 m) Figure 34. Pianu de Sus (7,5 m) Figure 35. Turdaș (6,5 m)
6 https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_Lunca_Larg%C4%83 (date of visit: 02.08.2015) 7 https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_Sub_Piatr%C4%83 (date of visit: 02.08.2015) 8 https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_Belioara (date of visit: 02.08.2015) 9 https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_Runc ( date of visit: 02.08.2015) 232 Ștefan BAIAS, Maria GOZNER, Grigore Vasile HERMAN, Florin Miron MĂDUŢA
Figure 37. Fărău (in the premises Figure 38. Șpălnaca (6 m) Figure 36. Găbud (6 m) of the Monastery „Sfânta Treime” – “The Holy Trinity”) (6 m)
Figure 39. Tău (6 m) 10 Figure 40. Valea Largă (6 m) 11 Figure 41. Șilea (5 m)
CONCLUSIONS The 33 wooden churches classified as historic monuments in the drainage basins of Mureș and Arieș, in Alba County are of special interest due to their diversity, historic and aesthetic value, but also because of the possibilities to have them valorized. Situated on elevated points, they have a range of characteristics: entrance on the south side and on the west side, adorned portal, the porch on the south, west, north side or on all the sides; the majority of the churches have wooden walls, the nave and tower roof made of shingles and a tower bell with quadrilateral or octagonal helmet. The tallest wooden church ranked as historic monument is situated in Arieșeni (22 m), while the smallest church is situated in the village Șilea (5 m). In order to harness their true potential, further detailed studies are necessary to provide a richer and more important amount of knowledge regarding the interventions and the modifications undergone by the wooden churches, their current state and the possibilities to preserve these monuments. This cultural heritage transmitted from one generation to the next, integral part of the Romanian people emerged since ancient times in this Transylvanian area, is the living proof of the adaptive capacity and of the continuity facing the continuous development of the economy and the renewal of the surrounding world. This is why the tourist valorisation of these „pearls” of the popular architecture is called for, by their inclusion in the national and international tourist circuits.
REFERENCES
Anghel G., Măhăra G., Anghel Emilia (1982), Ghid turistic al județului Alba, Editura Sport-Turism, București. Boţan C.N. (2010), Țara Moţilor. Studiu de geografie regională, Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj Napoca. Armaș Iuliana (2006), Teorie și metodologie geografică, Editura Fundației România de Mâine, București.
10 https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_T%C4%83u (date of visit: 02.08.2015) 11 http://cimec.ro/scripts/Monumente/Biserici/sel.asp?Lang=RO&nr=7&NrSel=2&ID=19249 (date of visit: 02.08.2015) Typology of Wooden Churches in the Drainage Basins of Mureș and Arieș, Alba County 233
Baias Ș. (2013), Identificarea, evaluarea și valorificarea patrimoniului cultural de lemn din județul Bihor-teză de doctorat, Universitatea din Oradea, Oradea. Baias Ş. (2012), Typological aspects concerning the wooden churches of the Silvaniei Land, în Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Editura Universităţii din Oradea, Oradea, pp. 137-144. Clifford N., French, S. Valentine G. (2010), Key methods in Geography, Second Edition, Publisher SAGE Publications Ltd., London. Cocean P. (2005), Geografie Regională, Editura Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca. Cristache-Panait Ioana (1987), Biserici de lemn, monumente istorice din Episcopia Alba Iuliei, Mărturii de continuitate și creație românească, Alba Iulia, Editura Episcopiei Ortodoxe Române a Alba Iuliei. Cristache-Panait Ioana (1993), Arhitectura de lemn din Transilvania, 1. Județele Alba, Mureș și Harghita, București: Editura Museion. ISBN 973-95328-9-6. Godea I. (1977), Caracteristici ale culturii populare din Bihor, Editura Sport-Turism, București. Godea I. (2008), Biserici de lemn din Europa, Editura CD Press, Bucureşti. Ianoș I. (2000), Sisteme teritoriale, Editura Tehnică, București. Ilieş A. (coord.), Baias Ş., Baias Iuliana, Blaga L., Buhaş S., Chiriac A., Ciocan J., Dăncuş M., Deac Anca, Dragoş P., Dumitrescu Ghe., Gaceu O., Godea I., Gozner Maria, Grama V., Herman G., Hodor N., Hurley P., Ilieş A., Ilieş Dorina, Ilieş Gabriela, Ilieş M., Josan Ioana, Leşe G., Măduţa F., Mojolic Diana, Morar C., Olaru M., Staşac M., Stupariu M., Sturza Amalia, Ştefănescu B., Tătar Corina, Vârnav R., Vlaicu M., Wendt J. (2014), Crişana - Maramureş, Atlas Geografic al patrimoniului turistic, Editura Universităţii din Oradea, ISBN 978-606-10-12-96-5, Oradea. Kothari C. R. (2004), Research methodology: methods & tehniques, Second Edition, Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., New Delhi, India. Mocan Mirela (2011), Țara Moților: elemente de monografie, Editura Vertical, Alba Iulia. Mocean I., Cenar I. (1980), Județele patriei: Alba, Editura Sport-Turism, București. Opriș I., Bodea-Bonfert Mihaela, Porumb M. (2001), Monumente istorice de pe Valea Arieșului - itinerarii culturale, Oscar Print, București. Petrea D. (2005), Obiect, metodă şi cunoaştere geografică, Editura Universităţii din Oradea, Oradea. Tătar Corina Florina, Herman G.V. (2013), Identity encounters. host-guest interractions in the Land of Moți (Romania), în Geojurnal of Tourism and Geosites, Year VI, no.1, p.66-74, Editura Universităţii din Oradea, Oradea. Veal A.J. (2006), Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: A Practical Guide, Financial Times-Prentice Hall/Pearson Education, Harlow. https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserici_de_lemn_din_Alba https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_Goie%C8%99ti https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_Sart%C4%83%C8%99 https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_L%C4%83ze%C8%99ti https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_Geogel https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_Lunca_Larg%C4%83 https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_Sub_Piatr%C4%83 https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_Belioara https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_Runc https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biserica_de_lemn_din_T%C4%83u http://cimec.ro/scripts/Monumente/Biserici/sel.asp?Lang=RO&nr=7&NrSel=2&ID=19249
Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online Octomber 15, 2015 November 01, 2015 November 16, 2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea – Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 234-241 ISSN 1454-2749, E-ISSN 2065-1619 Article no. 252110-690
CONTRIBUTION OF REMOTE SENSING IN THE ANALYSIS OF THE DYNAMICS OF CHOTTS AND SEBKHAS: CASE OF THE ENDOREIC AREA OF GADAIN (NORTHEAST OF ALGERIA)
Rabah BOUHATA Université El Hadj Lakhdar, Laboratoire „risques naturels et aménagement du territoire” Batna, Algérie, e-mail: [email protected]
Mahdi KALLA Université El Hadj Lakhdar, Laboratoire „risques naturels et aménagement du territoire” Batna, Algérie, e-mail: [email protected]
Aida BENSEKHRIA Université El Hadj Lakhdar, Laboratoire „risques naturels et aménagement du territoire” Batna, Algérie, e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: The highlands of Eastern Algeria are characterized by an endorheism namely a local base level that does not allow the water system to get to the sea. The Area of chotts and sabkhas of Gadain region can be considered as an area of degradation lands due to the dynamics of sabkhas and chotts that are localized and installed on large areas on one hand and accelerated anthropogenic pressure on the other hand. This dynamic often presents special large extension, this study requires accurate and geo localized information's. The analysis of the dynamics of chotts and sabkhas based on medium resolution satellite images on two different dates (Landsat TM 1987 and TM 2009) specializes (mapping) and evaluates this dynamic. The comparison of the results provides an overview of the affected areas by the dynamics of sabkhas and chotts and their direction for 22 years.
Key words: Sebkha, chott, endorheic, dynamic, Gadain
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INTRODUCTION The process of degradation of agricultural land by soil salinization is one of the desertification forms in Algeria and the world, where itself covers nearly 500 000 Ha / year according to the figures of FAO, 2005. It overlaps with endorheic arid and semi-arid areas. Recent studies on spatial sebkhas and chotts (Douaoui et al., 2007; Hachicha, 2007; Benchallal et al., 2009; Stephen et al., 2012) show some dynamic and expansion as a result of natural causes (topography, climate regime, ... etc.) on one hand and under human pressure on the others (Bouhata, 2015). The highland regions of eastern Algeria are characterized by a local base level endorheism that does not allow the water system to get to the sea. These endorheic areas of closed
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
Contribution of Remote Sensing in the Analysis of the Dynamics of Chotts… 235 or semi-closed morphological character localize receptors spaces and surface runoff collectors coming simultaneously from many basins. The interactions between these vulnerable areas, arid and semi-arid climate regime and socialization pressures directly contribute to the acceleration of ecosystem degradation process (Bouhata, 2015). The chotts and sebkhas area of Gadain region belongs to those areas and considered as an area of land degradation (salinization) due to the dynamic of chotts and sebkhas settled over large areas (Bouhata, 2008). This degradation leads to a new situation characterized by the decrease of agricultural land in a very fast way and it may reach an uncontrollable and irreversible threshold. Mapping of land use in this plain requires a synchronous study of surfaces and their uses. This study is based on a good knowledge of the existing land, that is why it is necessary to develop monitoring and management strategies of the environment and the agriculture, based on technological performance (Garouani et al.,1993; Benmessoud, 2011). The application of remote sensing has made it possible to study land use in less time, at lower cost and with a greater accuracy (Kachhwaha, 1985). Currently the Landsat satellite imagery is an important source of information for observing the earth surface due to its digital repetitive nature and also availability. The objective of this study is the analysis of the spatiotemporal evolution of land use, particularly the dynamics of sebkhas and chotts using the processing of two different Landsat satellite images dates (1987 and 2009).
PRESENTATION OF THE STUDY AREA The study area is part of the southern Constantine high plains of eastern Algeria, which constitute a vast corridor mostly dominated by two mountains ranges: Aures massif to the south and Constantine mountains range to the north, a few kilometers north of Batna city. It is defined between the ranges of coordinates; Longitude: 6°12'15'' E and 6°29'50" E, Latitude: 35°55'51"N and 35°40'50" N. According to ANRH, it belongs to the watershed of Constantine high plains (07-03) (figure 1).
Figure 1. Location of the study area according to (l'Agence Nationale des Ressources Hydriques ANRH) distribution 236 Rabah BOUHATA, Mahdi KALA, Aida BENSEKHRIA
Located at an altitude of (784 m to 1246 m), the study area is characterized by an impressive platitude whose slope rarely exceeds 5%. The area is spread on a surface of (348 km2 )representing 46% of the total surface. This favors the presence of endorheism resulted in a multitude of Sebkhas and chotts that occupying the center of the plain (Ben Azzouz, 1986). In geologic term, the presence quaternary formations (sebkha soil, salted lemons...etc) and Triassic formations (colorful marls and gypsum breccias), significantly contribute to the salt character of these endorheic spaces. Generally, due to the semi-arid climate we can only find steppe and halophytic species that are resistant to soil salinity, mostly presented by a characteristic vegetation of large clumps Artiplex or Salsolaceae (Bouhata, 2008).
MATERIALS AND METHODS We used for this diachronic study two Landsat TM satellite images of 30x30 m resolution, the first dating (August 19th, 1987), the second dated (August 6th, 2009). The choice of this period coincide with very low vegetation cover and accumulation of salts on the soil surface after a long drought (Bouhata, 2015). Two images of equal dimensions (970 x 900 pixels) were extracted according to the above raw images. We opted for a color composite of channels 4, 3, 2, which allows us to identify the different units of Land Use cleanly compared to other colored compositions. Based on visual interpretations and also good knowledge of the reality on the ground, from several missions on field using a GPS to locate some parcels images (figure 2).
Figure 2. Map of the GPS readings and sampling frame Contribution of Remote Sensing in the Analysis of the Dynamics of Chotts… 237
We defined six land cover classes (sebkha, Chott, bare soil, forest, agriculture and cereals). A supervised classification based on the method of maximum likelihood, was used on the previous two colored composition images using the image processing software (ENVI 4.5). This method is considered as a powerful technique for classification. The rule of the decision of this method is based on the probability of a pixel belonging to a given category (Fojstng, 1999) and (Omar, 2014). Confusion matrix to validate the relevance and quality of our classifications (Benmessaoud et al., 2009; Bensaid, 2003), illustrate this performance (table 1 and 2); the average performance of classifications is 80.3% for the classification of TM 1987 and 85.2% for the classification of the TM 2009.
Table 1. Image classification confusion matrix TM 1987
Table 2. Image classification confusion matrix TM 2009
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The analysis results to determine the occupancy percentages for each class are shown in the table (table 3) where Figure (figure 3) shows the comparison of the percentages of each soil occupation of unity between the two dates. 238 Rabah BOUHATA, Mahdi KALA, Aida BENSEKHRIA
Table 3. Percentage and surface of land use units
Figure 3. Comparison between surfaces occupancy units soil (1987-2009)
The observation and analysis of previous results show an extension in: sebkhas 9%, chotts 0.8%, and bare soils 5.5%; a regression of agricultural and cereals surfaces 16.5%, which indicates the phenomenon of land degradation and the decline of agricultural activities in this region. Visual analysis of thematic maps of the resulting soil occupancy of the two previous classifications (figure 4 and 5), allows us to compare the state of surface spatial occupation on one hand and analysis the dynamics of sebkhas and chotts on the other hand. We notice a big visible change concerns the surfaces of classes (sebkhas, bare soil and cereals) representing the largest surface in the study area between 1987 and 2009. These changes result from the interaction of climatic deterioration, the endorheic nature and the impact of rapid socialization of these vulnerable areas. The strong growth of sebkhas surfaces (over 30 km²) during 22 years is explained by the influence of human impact. In the Northeast of the study area, the degradation of artificial forest because of diseases attacking the Aleppo pine and the lack of development indicate the onset of rocky outcrops and formation of Triassic. At the Tinsilt sebkha, the degradation of development work which were realized during the colonial period or the forest conservation works of Souk Naaman city in 1982 accelerate the progress of these sebkha and chotts to the neighboring farmland; Which changes the type of farming activities (cereals) to commercial crops resistant to soil salinity such as Tobacco. Therefore, this change is reflected in the reduction occupied areas by cereals (more than 15% or 55 km²), even the current agriculture policy geared to irrigated vegetable crops, where yield and profits are strong, largely contributes to the deduction of cereal surfaces and the percentage raising the of bare soil (more than 5.5% or 19 km²). Moreover, the installation of Batna airport in the center of this area and the development of all kinds of road networks, especially their poor constructions (figure 6); contribute to the growth and the creation of a new sebkhas like Felenta sebkha in the south east of the study area. Contribution of Remote Sensing in the Analysis of the Dynamics of Chotts… 239
Figure 4. Thematic map of land use in 1987
Figure 5. Thematic map of land use in 2009 240 Rabah BOUHATA, Mahdi KALA, Aida BENSEKHRIA
The spreading and dynamics of sebkhas chotts surfaces correspond to a loss of agricultural land and increase the vulnerability of these areas to desertification problems in general. The field clues are shown in both (figure 7 and 8). And the results obtained by processing satellite images show the rapid appearance of the ecosystem degradation process.
Figure 6. Stagnant surface water on poorly constructed roadsides (Photoes taken by Bouhata)
Figure 7. The lateral dynamics of sebkhas and chotts (Photoes taken by Bouhata, July 2013)
Figure 8. The disappearance of halophytes in the proportion of very high salt (Photoes taken by Bouhata, July 2013) Contribution of Remote Sensing in the Analysis of the Dynamics of Chotts… 241
CONCLUSION The degradation of farm land due to the dynamic of chotts and sebkhas is a major problem in all endorheic highlands areas of the eastern Algeria. The monitoring of this dynamic and its evaluation by conventional cartographic means remains difficult because of the update period which takes several months. For this reason, the mapping capabilities of Earth observation systems by satellites (Landsat) that provide regularly updatable and synchronic information have become indispensable. The study shows that surfaces of sebkhas and chotts catastrophically increased between summer 1987 and summer 2009 in the region of Gadain. This transgression is an indicator of a fast degradation of the ecosystem. It leads to an irreversible situation and very difficult to correct either on the local or regional scale of development, if not taken the immediate and necessary provisions that are based on the understanding and the analysis of the different ecosystem factors using the new geomatics techniques.
REFERENCES
Ben azzouzn M.T. (1986), Recherche géomorphologiques dans les hautes plaines de l’est algérien: la sebkha Tarf (Algérie); thèse doctorat, Université de Paris 1 Sorbonne, France. Benchallal A., Oukil A., Belhadj-aissa A. (2009), Identification et détection, par imagerie satellite, de la dégradation des sols par la salinité dans la cuvette d’Ouargla, sud Algérie, JAS09 de l'AUF Alger Novembre 2009. Benmessaoud H., (2011), Use of images alsat1 for the implementation of maps land in semi-arid area - Case of the aurés region (Algeria), Analele Universității din Oradea, Seria Geografie, Editura Universităţii din Oradea, Oradea Times (2011), pp. 16-22. Benmessaoud H., Kalla M., Driddi H. (2009), Évolution de l’occupation des sols et désertification dans le sud des Aurès (Algérie), Mappemonde no. 94 -2. Bensaid A., Smahib Z., Iftenect., Benzinehd S. (2003), Utilisation de la télédétection et dessig pour l'aide à la surveillance du risque de dégradation des parcours steppiques, Télédétection, vol. 3, n° 5, p. 387–402. Bouhata R. (2008), Analyse de la dynamique des sebkhas et son impact sur la vulnérabilité au risque d’inondation dans les dépressions endoréiques situées entre Zana et Madghassen à l’aide de l’imagerie satellitaire LANDSAT, Mémoire de magister- université Hadj Lakhdar Batna, p.160. Bouhata R. (2015), use of landsat tm for mapping land use in the endorheic area - case of gadaine plain (eastern Algeria). Analele Universității din Oradea, Seria Geografie, Editura Universităţii din Oradea, Oradea, no. 2/2014 (December), pp. 101-107. Bouhata R., (2015), Application des techniques de géomatique dans l’analyse de la vulnérabilité des zones endoréiques (Hauts Plateaux de l’Est Algérien - Case de la plaine de Gadaine et ses bordures), Thèse de doctorat en Aménagement du territoire, Université Hadj Lakhdar, 197 p. Douaoui A., Hartani T. (2007), Impact de l’irrigation par les eaux souterraines sur la dégradation des sols de la plaine du Bas-Chéliff, Actes du troisième atelier régional du projet Sirma, Nabeul, Tunisie, 4-7 juin 2007. Étienne L., Dahech S., Beltrando G., Daoud A. (2012), Dynamiques récentes des sebkhas littorales de l’archipel des kerkennah (tunisie centroméridionale: Apport de la télédétection. Télédétection, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 273-281. Fojstng E., (1999), Contribution de la Morphologie mathématique à la cartographie de l’occupation du sol a partir d’image SPOT (Région de l’extrême Nord-Cameroum), Rapport de doctoral en télédétection, Réseau télédétection, AUPELF - UREF, p. 91. Garouani A. et al., (1993), Cartographie de l’occupation du sol et des zones humides par télédétection dans la basse vallée de la Medjerda (Tunisie), Cinquième journées scientifiques du réseau de la télédétection d’AUPELF - UREF, Tunisie, 21-24 Septembre 1993, p.163-170. Hachicha M. (2007), Les sols salés et leur mise en valeur en Tunisie, Sécheresse vol. 18, no. 1, p 45-50. Kachhwala T.S. (1985), Temporal monitoring of forest land for change detection and forest cover mapping through satellite remote sensing, Proceedings of the 6th Asian Conference on Remote Sensing Hyderabad, pp 77–83. Khalid Omar Murtaza, Shakil A. Romshoo (2014), Determining the Suitability and Accuracy of Various Statistical Algorithms for Satellite Data Classification, International journal of geomatics and geosciences, Volume 4, No 4, pp 585-599. *** (2015), Annuaire statistique de la FAO
Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online September 25, 2015 November 15, 2015 December 03, 2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 242-252 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252111-693
AN ASSESSMENT OF HOUSING AND NEIGHBOURHOOD QUALITY CONDITION IN ILESA, NIGERIA
Adewale Olufunlola YOADE Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Wesley University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 507 Ondo, Ondo State, Nigeria, e-mail: [email protected]
Olabisi Omowumi ADEYEMI Department of Town and Regional Planning Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria e-mail: [email protected]
Babawale A. ADEYEMI Department of Geography, Adeyemi College of Education Ondo, Ondo State, Nigeria e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: Quality housing is the goal of all localities; such assurance reflects a community’s ability to respond to the needs of its citizens, as well as to accommodate growth and economic development. This paper focuses its study onhousing and neighbourhood quality condition in Ilesa, Nigeria.Data for the study were generated from both primary and secondary sources.204 households were surveyed using multi-stage sampling. Information was obtained on basic socioeconomic, housing and environmental characteristics of the respondent‘s household. The study reveals that more than half 54.3% of the respondents have open drainage in their neighbourhood, 33.8% have covered/buried drainage while the remaining 11.9% have soak away in their buildings. The finding reveals that 45.6% of the respondents are inherited occupier if their building, 34.4% of them is tenancy while the remaining 20.0% are owner occupier. However, positive and direct relationship exists between income and housing type (p = 0.000; r = 0.711), educational attainment (p = 0.000; r = 0.647) and type of toilet (p = 0.000; r = 0.556). It was recommended among others that there should be activation in the senses embraces the emergence of citizens who will be aware of their environmental problems, who will believe changes are not only possible but feasible, and who will have a keen desire to change and accept changes.The paper therefore concludes that if the trend continues sustainable development in the area will remain unattainable.
Key words: housing, neighbourhood, environment, quality and urban
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INTRODUCTION The most visible and obvious consequences of urbanisation in developing countries, such as Nigeria, is often rapid deterioration of urban housing and living conditions (UNCHS, 2014). This is traceable to the fact that urbanisation leads to explosive population growth, which is
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
An Assessment of Housing and Neighbourhood Quality… 243 occasioned by a phenomenal leap in the quantitative housing needs of the populace (Akkufo, 2006). The housing needs are not matched by effective demand since the large majority of the populace does not have the wherewithal for adequate housing. In Nigeria, the rate of provision of new housing stock has lagged severely behind the rate of population growth resulting in staggering housing deficit (Agbola, 2006) requiring an annual production of more than 70,000 housing units to cope with the population trend (Agbola, 2006; Adedibu, 1980; Egbunjobi, 1987; Jelili et al., 2006; Mabogunje, 1990). However, rapid increase in the population of urban centres has resulted in an increase in the cost of living because of higher demand on urban commodities. There is a dearth and high cost of urban land, and high cost of housing, which is often in short supply and out of the economic reach of the majority of the urban households (Olayiwola et al., 2006). The urban centres are populated by a large mass of people on low wage and who face irregular employment. This segment of the urban population is indeed poor, and is constrained to limited, insufficient, crowded, cold and dirty shelter and a generally degraded environment (Mabogunje, 1980; Olotuah, 2006; Onokerhoraye, 1995). These are the urban poor who are subjected to a life characterized by precarious conditions of nutrition and health, little or poor material possessions (UNHS, 2008; World Bank, 1995). Wahab (1990) has succinctly shown that most urban centres in Nigeria are characterized by high densities of buildings, the crowding of large numbers of people into those buildings, lack of space for open air living between houses, poor health, substandard housing, and acute environmental and sanitary problems. Therefore, resulting to shortage of affordable and decent accommodation for the urban poor is thus a major housing problem in Nigeria. Studies have shown the deplorable conditions of urban housing in Nigeria (Egunjobi, 1987; Jelili et al., 2006; Mabogunje, 1980; Olotuah, 2006; Yoade, 2012). The studies affirm that 75% of the dwelling units in urban centres in Nigeria are substandard and the dwellings are sited in slums. The inadequacy of the quality of most of urban housing stems mainly from the poor physical state of the buildings. The studies further show that the buildings are often unsafe and insecure and do not provide adequate shelter from the elements of weather. This paper examines to what extent the level of housing and neighbourhood quality condition of anemerging but traditional city in a typical African setting is capable of bringing about sustainable development. With a specific focus on Ilesa, Nigeria; hopefully, this work will add to the general body of knowledgeand aid effective physical planning policy formulation for Nigerian and Third World cities.
STUDY AREA Ilesha city is one of the ancient cities in the Yoruba kingdom of the South Western Nigeria, in Osun State, with a population of about 334,000 (2008 population Census). Formerly a caravan trade centre, Ilesha is today an agricultural and commercial city. Cocoa, kola nuts, palm oil, and yams are exported from there. There is an abundance of alluvial gold deposit in Ilesa. Ilesha was the capital of the Ilesha kingdom of the Oyo Empire. After Oyo's collapse in the early 19th century, Ilesha became subject to Ibadan before it was taken by the British in 1893. The town is now divided into two local governments, which were established in 1991 (see figures 1 and 2). The two local governments are Ilesa East and Ilesa West Local Governments and their headquarters are at Iyemogun and Ereja respectively. Ilesa East has eleven (11) administrative wards while Ilesa West has ten (10) administrative wards which represent the residential districts. The residential districts consist of the central core which is traditional in its setting and pattern and the new residential areas. The central core is made up of compound houses, where all members of the extended family lived together. A cursory analysis shows that like most Yoruba cities, the highest concentration of the poor is found in the core area. As the city grew away from the traditional core, new residential areas are formed which are made up of houses and apartments owned by individuals or rented by families (Ayoola & Amole, 2014). 244 Adewale Olufunlola YOADE, Olabisi Omowumi ADEYEMI, Babawale ADEYEMI
Figure 1. Map of Ilesa showing the study area (2015)
LITERATURE REVIEW URBAN GROWTH IN NIGERIA Urbanization is defined as the agglomeration of people in relatively large number at a particular spot of the earth surface (Onyemelukue, 1977). Conversely, another school of thought believes that urbanization is not about the population size, but must satisfy certain conditions like modernization, physical and economic development, as well as the heterogeneity in occupation (Oyeleye, 2013). The index of urbanization in Nigeria which is the population increase is mainly caused by rural-urban migration and not by natural increase. Many researchers see rural-urban migration in urbanization process as the genesis of the resultant problems of urbanization in any part of the world (Onokerhoraye, 1995; Wahab et al., 1990; Olotuah, 2006). Urban growth is the rate of growth of an urban population. Urban growth refers to growth that makes intensive use of land for the location of buildings and impermeable surfaces to such a degree. Urbanization is mainly caused by urban growth, which could be due to natural population growth, reclassification of urban and rural system and rural-urban migration (Agbola, 2006). Studies have shown that the rapid rate of urbanization in Nigeria and the consequential explosion of urban population have not been matched by a corresponding commensurate change in social, economic and technological development (Mabogubje, 1990). Also, industrialization and modernization which are intertwined with urbanization have led to the diminished functions of the various institutions in Nigerian urban centres. The challenges of urbanization are felt in all most all the aspects of urban centres. Two of these challenges are discussed below: - housing and Urbanization: Many researchers have described the conditions of the housing where over 60% of urban dwellers live in Nigeria as highly deplorable (Olotuah, 2006; Onokerhoraye, 1995; Wahab et al., 1990). High rates of overcrowding, substandard buildings, and infrastructural inadequacies have been reported in all the urban centres in Nigeria (Adedibu, 1980; Onibokun, 1987). Thus, over 60% of the urban dwellers live in slums characterized with over-crowding, poor An Assessment of Housing and Neighbourhood Quality… 245 sanitary conditions, lack or inadequate basic facilities and amenities, crimes and poverty among other things. Urbanization therefore influences building collapse, as the demand for more commercial, industrial and residential activities is very high due to the population growth of urban centres (Owoeye & Omole, 2012). - environmental problems and urbanization: The major challenge of urbanization in Nigerian Urban centres are environmental problems. Environmental problems in the urban centres have resulted to many health problems in Nigeria, and they also have a negative effect on the overall economy of the country. Improper wastes management has made the societal fabric of many urban centres in Nigeria to be very unsightly. Slums developments in urban centres also deplete the physical environment, increases crimes and violence. The environmental problems in urban centres outweigh the experience in the countryside, as the environmental problems are seen as the results of human activities which are higher in the urban centres (Owoeye & Omole, 2012).
MATERIALS AND METHODS It is of great importance to discuss the socio-economic background of the residents’ of the Ilesa, Nigeria before we present the details of the study. Both primary and secondary sources were adopted for this study. For primary data, questionnaire was administered on the residents of the two local governments in the study area. Thus, Ilesa was stratified into three residential zones, namely core, transition and sub-urban. The core areaconsists of the Oba's palace, the traditional market place, referred to as "Oja Oba" andsurrounded by many residential units. Next to the core area is the transition zone, whilethe outermost part is the suburb or newly developed residential area or outskirt. For the survey, these residential areas were classified into three zones, namely; A, Band C, respectively (Jiboye, 2010). For questionnaire administration, one ward in each residential zone of all the selected local government areas was sampled randomly. Through this method, residents from six political wards cutting across the three different residential zones in the study were surveyed (figure 1). Presented in table 1 are the selected wards according to their respective residential zone and local government area. Systematic sampling technique was used in selecting residents to be sampled. The first building was chosen randomly. Subsequent unit of investigation was every 20th residential building in each ward, representing 5% of all residential buildings in the selected wards of the study area. The target person for the survey was the household head. In all, 204 households were surveyed by the aid of questionnaire. However, 160 copies of the questionnaire were successfully retrieved for analysis (table 1).
Table 1. Distribution of Political Wards into Residential Zones Source: NPC, 2012
Residential Zone and Sampled Wards Total Total No of Core Transition Older Suburb Newer Suburb LGA No of Wards Total Total Total Total Wards Wards Wards Wards No of No of No of No of Wards Sample Sampled Sampled Sampled Sampled Wards Wards Wards Wards d Ilesa East 5 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 11 4 Ilesa 4 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 10 4 West Total 9 2 6 2 4 2 2 2 21 8
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF THE RESIDENTS IN THE STUDY AREA The sample demonstrated the socio-economic features of the dwellers in Ilesa with significant influence on the settings of the area. Findings on marital status reveals that majority 246 Adewale Olufunlola YOADE, Olabisi Omowumi ADEYEMI, Babawale ADEYEMI
(95.0%) of the respondents were married while few (5.0%) were single. This implies that most dwellers in the study area were married and only minority of them are unmarried. It was revealed from the finding that majority (56.9%) of the respondents were male while few (43.1%) were female. This implies that information supplied for this research was gender balance by the respondents. Table 2. Source: Field Survey, 2014 Marital Status Frequency Percentage Single 08 5.0 Married 152 95.0 Total 160 100.0 Gender Male 123 76.9 Female 37 23.1 Total 160 100.0 Education Attainment Primary 80 50.0 Secondary 69 43.1 Tertiary 11 6.9 Total 160 100.0 Monthly Incomes Less than 10,000 50 31.3 10,000 t0 19,999 71 44.4 20,000 & above 39 24.3 Total 160 100.0 Age Less than 21yrs 14 8.8 21 t0 40yrs 22 13.8 41 to 60yrs 37 23.1 61 & above 87 54.3 Total 160 100.0 Occupation Schooling 03 1.9 Artisan/craft 57 35.6 Public servant 10 6.3 Private/self-employed 73 45.6 Retiree 17 10.6 Total 160 100.0 Years of living in this area Below 10years 20 12.5 10 – 20 years 44 27.5 20 years & above 96 60.0 Total 160 100.0 Household size 1 – 3 23 14.3 4 – 6 34 21.3 7 & above 103 64.4 Total 160 100.0 An Assessment of Housing and Neighbourhood Quality… 247
The study reveals that half 50.0% of the respondents have primary education while 43.1% had secondary education. The remaining 6.9% had tertiary education. This implies that majority of the respondents in the study area had either primary or secondary education. The proportion of respondents with tertiary education was few and this can be attributed to their level of education to reside somewhere else.The fact that many of these residents’ were illiterates could mean that the people in the study area may have serious attachment to the area. This could also have serious implication on the house they live as well as their environment. The study reveals that 44.4% of the respondents earned between 10,000 to 19,999 on a monthly basis, 31.3% earned less than 10,000 and remaining 24.3% earned 20,00 and above in a month. The finding reveals that majority 54.3% of the respondents are 60 years of age and above, 23.1% are between 41 to 60 years, 13.8% are between 21 to 40 years and just 8.8% of the respondents are less than 21years.This showed the extent to which the aged predominantly dominate the study area. The study reveals that 45.6% of the respondents are private/self-employed, 35.6% are artisan/craft, 10.6% are retiree while the remaining 6.3% are public servant. This implies that majority of the respondents are self-employed and artisan while few proportion are public servant and retiree. Information revealed on the occupational pattern may have serious implication on the houses they live and the entire environment in which they inhabits. The finding reveals that most 60.0% of the respondents have been living in the area 20 year and above, 27.5% of the respondents have been living between 10 to 20 years while 12.5% of the respondents have been living in the area less than 10 years ago. This implies that majority of the respondents have been residing in the study area more than 20 years ago and they are familiar with the whole environment. Household with 7 and above member have higher percentage (64.4%), household between 4 to 6 members have 21.3% while household between 1 to 3 members have 14.3 (table 2).
HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS The variables of the physical and environmental characteristics of the traditional core area that were discussed include the land-use type, type of dwelling units, age of the building, building usage, among others. In specific terms, details of these are detailed below. It is evident from the finding that Brazilian house have higher percentage of 51.2%, compound house have 35.6%, flat have 11.3% while duplex have just 1.9%. Residential land-use is paramount in the study area; this was because 68.8% of the land was used for residential activities alone, while 20.6% of the land is dedicated for commercial activities, 8.1% of the housing use is for mixed-uses i.e. they are for mixture of residential and commercial activities while just 2.5% is for institutional use. The finding reveals that 38.8% of the wall is mud, 29.3% is made by burnt brick, 25.6% is made by concrete brick while just 6.3% is made of normal brick. This can be attributed for the fact that most of the buildings have been built many years ago before the era of modern day civilization and low-income some of the respondents might also be reason. The finding reveals that majority 67.6% of the respondents have pit latrine with slab in their house, 16.3% have no toilet at all, 9.2% make use of bucket system (short-put) and remaining 6.9% make use of water closet in their buildings. This can be attributed for the fact that many of the buildings have been built many years ago and their owner did not built in compliance to planning standard. Majority 83.1% of the respondents locate their toilet outside their building while the remaining 16.9% have their toilet inside their buildings. This implies that most residents does not make room for toilet facilities at the initial stage but later deem it necessary and site it at the back of their building. Also, oral interview conducted shows that some even use dump site as their toilet. More than three-fifth 66.3% of the respondents locate their bathroom outside their building, 31.2% have their bathroom inside the building while the remaining 2.5% did not have bathroom at all in their buildings. This implies that most residents have their bathroom 248 Adewale Olufunlola YOADE, Olabisi Omowumi ADEYEMI, Babawale ADEYEMI outside the building and some did not make room for that thereby engage in early hour or late hour bathing especially at the core area of the study area. The study reveals that more than half 54.3% of the respondents have open drainage in their neighbourhood, 33.8% have covered/buried drainage while the remaining 11.9% have soak away in their buildings. This implies that majority of the respondents in the study area have open drainage in their environment. The finding reveals that 45.6% of the respondents are inherited occupier if their building, 34.4% of them is tenancy while the remaining 20.0% are owner occupier. This implies that most of the respondents in the study area are either inherited occupier or tenancy which cannot afford to build their own building except for residents’ at the newly developed area. Close to four-fifth 74.4% of the respondents depend on water from well while 19.3% depend on bore hole. Also, 5.0% depend on water supply from vendor while remaining 1.3% depends on pipe-borne-water. This implies that majority of the respondents in the study area did not have access to drinkable water because they did not have pipe-born-water in most part of the study area. Majority 91.9% of the respondents depend solely on power supply from Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) while the remaining 8.1% depend on power from generator. It can be deduced from the study that there is epileptic power supply from the PHCH and many respondents did not afford to buy their own generator set for personal use. Findings on the road network reveal that 25.0% of the respondents stated that the road network of the study is very bad while 31.2% of them stated that the road is bad. Also, 21.3% of the respondents’ stated that the road network is fairly good, 14.4% stated that is good while the remaining 8.1% of the respondent stated that the road is very good. This implies that majority of the respondents in the study area stated that the access road in their neighbourhood is bad which need urgent attention of the concerned authority (table 3).
Table 3. Source: Field Survey, 2014 Housing type Compound house 57 35.6 Brazilian house 82 51.2 Flat 18 11.3 Duplex 03 1.9 Total 160 100.0 Housing use Residential 110 68.8 Commercial 33 20.6 Institutional 04 2.5 Mixed-uses 13 8.1 Total 160 100.0 Housing wall Mud 62 38.8 Burnt l brick 47 29.3 Concrete block 41 25.6 Normal brick 10 6.3 Total 160 100.0 Type of toilet Pit latrine with slab 108 67.6 Water closet 11 6.9 No toilet 26 16.3 Bucket system (short-put) 15 9.2 Total 160 100.0 An Assessment of Housing and Neighbourhood Quality… 249
Location of toilet Inside building 27 16.9 Outside building 133 83.1 Total 160 100.0 Location of bathroom Inside 50 31.2 Outside 106 66.3 No bathroom 04 2.5 Total 160 100.0 Type of drainage Open drainage 54 54.3 Covered/buried drainage 19 33.8 Soak away 87 11.9 Total 160 100.0 Household status Owner occupier 32 20.0 Inherited occupier 73 45.6 Tenancy 55 34.4 Total 160 100.0 Sources of water supply Bore hole 31 19.3 Well 119 74.4 Pipe-borne-water 02 1.3 Vendor 08 5.0 Total 160 100.0 Electricity PHCN 147 91.9 Generator 13 8.1 Total 160 100.0 Road network Very good 13 8.1 Good 23 14.4 Fairly good 34 21.3 Bad 50 31.2 Very bad 40 25.0 Total 160 100.0
CORRELATION OF THE EFFECTS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESIDENTS’ ON HOUSING AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION IN ILESA, NIGERIA The result of the relationship between socio-economic and housing condition of the residents’ was conducted using Pearson correlation with P<0.01 significant level. As revealed in table 4 there was a positive and direct relationship between income and six out of the seven tested variables. Of high significance among them are the relationships that income has with housing type (0.711), housing use (0.556) and housing wall (0.373). What this implies is that income positively influenced the type of house they live, the wall of the building and the use of such house. Since income has great impact on the type of houses they live, those with higher income tends to live in better apartment than their counterpart with lower income. 250 Adewale Olufunlola YOADE, Olabisi Omowumi ADEYEMI, Babawale ADEYEMI
The study also showed that number of people who claimed to have tertiary education was said to have significantly influenced on the type of building the live. They either live in few flat apartments or duplex we have in the study area (0.789). The study revealed that age has significant impact on the type of houses they inhabits (0.482). Those respondent that area older live in Brazilian house while those that are still younger can be found in other type of the houses in the study area (see table 4).
Table 4. Correlation matrixes the effect of socio-economic characteristics of Residents’ on Housing and Environmental Condition in Ilesa West Local Government Source: Author’s field report, 2014 Average Education Age Housing Housing Housing Type of Location monthly attainment type use wall toilet of income of bathroom CBO Average monthly 1.00 income of CBO Education attainment .647** 1.00 Age .-523 .610** 1.00 Housing type .711** .658** .482** 1.00 Housing use .556** -.031 -.059 .000 1.00 Housing wall .373** .430** .150 .454** .025 1.00 Type of toilet .047 .179 -.073 .082 .078 .475** 1.00 Location of bathroom .007 .184 -.048 .140 .153 .565** .838** 1.00
THE PATTERNOF HOUSINGQUALITY ILESA Table 5 explains the variation in the pattern of housing quality among the three residential areas in Ilesa. From the ANOVA test result, the sums of square betweenand within groups for the zones are 4512.78 and 40112.29 respectively. Also the meansquare between and within groups are 1450.63 and 14.35 respectively. These valuesyielded an "F". ratio of 38.623, which is significant at 0.01 probability level. These valuesthus implied that there is a significant difference in the pattern of housing quality amongthe three residential zones in the study area.
Table 5. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) Test for Housing quality in Ilesa Source: Computer Output P (*) Significant at 0.01 Sources of variation Sum of Mean Df F Sig Square Squares Between Groups 4512.78 1450.63 1 3 38.623 .000* Within Groups 40112.29 14.35 459 505 Total 48134.86 2601.09 460 507
Table 6. Multiple comparisons of mean values for housing quality in Ilesa Source: Computer Output P (*) Significant at 0.01 Hosing Zones Mean SD Mean Diff P Core Zone A 65.11 2.79 .679 Zone B 60.23 .000* .000* Transition Zone A 67.89 2.79 .679 Zone C 61.18 - 6 .123* .000* Sub-urb Zone A 63.10 7.29 .000* Zone B 62.36 6 .123* .000*
An Assessment of Housing and Neighbourhood Quality… 251
By comparing the overall housing quality among the zones in order to determine thezone with the highest or superior housing quality, a multiple comparison (post-hoc) test ofmean values was carried out using the Scheffe formula (Jiboye, 2010). The result in "Table 5" shows thatZone C has a greater mean value than the other zones. The mean difference of 7.29 and 6.123, significant at 0.01 probability levels were obtained between Zone C and Zones A andB respectively. This indicates a significant difference in the mean values of the differentzones, with Zone C having a superior or higher level of quality, followed by Zone B, whileZone A had the lowest level of residential quality. This finding suggests that the pattern of housing quality in Ilesa varies from one residential area to another (table 5 and 6).
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION This study has examined housing and neighbourhood quality condition in Ilesa, South- West, Nigeria. In doing this, it has examined housing and environmental characteristic of the study area and also the state of existing infrastructure in the study area. It has been established in this study that most of the buildings in the study area are in deplorable state which needs urgent attention and the whole environment are not good enough for human habitation. The immediate task, then, is the activation of these inhabitants. Activation in the senses embraces the emergence of citizens who will be aware of their environmental problems, who will believe changes are not only possible but feasible, and who will have a keen desire to change and accept changes.Also, environmental responsibility is comparably low among the people as they do not consciously take steps or actions to protect the environment.With a view to ensuring these, it is pertinent that the access of the people to social amenities and infrastructural facilities be enhanced.
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Oyeleye O.I. (2013), Challenges of Urbanization and Urban Growth in Nigeria, American Journal of Sustainable Cities and Society Issue 2, Vol. 1 Jan- Dec 2013 Available online on http://www.rspublication.com/ajscs/ajsas.html ISSN 2319 – 7277 Page 79. Onibokun A.G. (1987), Public Utilities and Social Services in Nigerian urban Centres: Problemsand Guides for Africa, IDRC, Canada and NISER, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Owoeye J.O., Omole F.K. (2012), Built Environment Decay and HealthSituation of Slum Dwellers in Residential Cores of Akure, Nigeria, American Journal of Human Ecology Vol. 1, No. 2, 2012, 33-39, ISSN 2167-9622 Print/ ISSN 2167-9630 Online © 2012 World Scholars. UNHSP (2008), The State of AFRICA Cities 2008, A Framework for Addressing Urban Challenges in Africa (UN- HABITAT); Michael Jones Software, Nairobi Kenya. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) (2014), An Urbanizing World: Global Report on Human Settlements, Oxford University Press. Wahab K.A., Adedokun L.A., Onibokun A.G. (1990), Urban Housing Conditions, Urban Housing in Nigeria. A. G. Onibokun (Ed) NISER, Ibadan, 144-173. World Bank (1995), Restoring Urban Nigeria A Strategy for restoring Urban Infrastructure and Services in Nigeria, World Bank, Washington. Yoade A.O. (2012), A Study of Socio-Cultural Challenges to Urban Renewal in Ile-Ife, Nigeri, Thesis for the master of Urban and Regional Planning, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online Octomber 15, 2015 November 15, 2015 December 03, 2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 253-260 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252112-691
THE INFLUENCE OF FIRMS STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ON THE DEGREE OF AGGLOMERATION ECONOMIES ENJOYED AMONGST FIRMS IN THE LAGOS REGION, NIGERIA
Adejompo FAGBOHUNKA Geography and Planning Sciences Department, PMB 001, AdekunleAjasin University, Akungba Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria, e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: Agglomeration economies is a potent tool in socio-economic revamping, rejuvenation and sustenance of regions, this is as a result of the impulse it transmitted through the multiplier effect it is capable of generated. Therefore, this paper underscores the influence of firms structural characteristics on the degree of agglomeration economies enjoyed amongst firms, using the Lagos region as a case study. The first stage in the collection of primary data involves the reconnaissance survey, thereafter one hundred and three questionnaire were administered in twelve industrial estates; one questionnaire in each of the firm. The paper reveals the following structural characteristics as germane to industrial enterprise; age of firms, areal plant size (m²), capacity utilization (in percentage), and Labour size and firms investment. The paper has also found out those agglomeration economies enjoyed ranges from transportation, labour, power supply, to joint water supply. The Roy’s Largest Root test employed to test for the significance of the canonical correlations at 0.05 significant levels shows the calculated F-value 3.5247 and the tabulated F-value 2.90. This suggests that the degree of agglomeration economies enjoyed by firms is significantly explained by the size and structural characteristics of the firms. The paper therefore recommends more and active government participation in the industrial scene, given the necessary support for the expansion of firm’s structural characteristics which will lead to increase agglomeration economies enjoyed by these firms.
Key words: agglomeration economies, firms, multiplier effect, structural characteristics
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INTRODUCTION Industrial agglomeration refers to the concentration of several industries in a given place or area. Such a concentration takes place because the area in question has the greatest location advantage over other areas, including the advantage of proximity to related industries. As stated earlier, manufacturing firms’ agglomerate in an industrial estate because of the infrastructural facilities like good roads, electricity and water supply, transport and communication well located industrial site with needed utilities, factory premises and other supportive facilities. The concentration of the production facilities of a single firm or across multiple firms in a single location generates cost-saving scale effects and often leads to further agglomeration of firms
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
254 Adejompo FAGBOHUNKA through an industrial location process (Weber, 1929; Venables, 2008). Such cost saving effects of agglomeration is often called agglomeration economies. Agglomerative activity can take many forms (Roller, 2007) and is often considered to result in either „localization“ or „urbanization“ (external) economies dependent upon the industrial composition of the cluster or complex. Localization economies involve economies amongst similar firms, while economies amongst unlike firms are known as urbanization economies. The latter form of agglomeration has received greater attention in the literature, often providing a mechanism for analyses of differential urban growth and optimal city size. Locating a firm in close proximity to similar types of firms or suppliers/demanders may have economic motivations in terms of enhanced productivity or reduced costs. The implied agglomeration, externalities or economies across firms in an industry or sector may be due to various forces, including a conglomeration of specialized inputs and informational or knowledge spillovers. That a firm locates in the midst of other manufacturing firms, allows it to employ specialist each of whom by devoting all his attention to a relatively small part of the company’s work, may do much to increase productivity. Collaboration in research and development also help the firms that agglomerate especially in the design and development of new products, which may seem to be a protracted and expensive undertaking by a single firm. Also, the provision of specialist maintenance services or training facilities or the development of a pool of labour with the skills appropriate to the industry has been made possible by the agglomeration of firms over space. Industrial location decisions of countries or regions entrepreneurs cannot be fully appreciated and properly assessed without taking into consideration the structural characteristics of the industries involved. This is why great attention has been paid to the structural aspects of manufacturing industries. The structural characteristics referred to in this chapter include the following: the type of establishment, the age of firms, estimated firms investment (in naira), the plant size (floor space square meters) and the labour force; indicated by number of employees.
CONCEPTUAL ISSUES/ LITERATURE REVIEW The concept of external/agglomeration economies has held a central place within geographical accounts of the spatial concentration of economic activity since Weber’s discussion of agglomeration Fagbohunka (2014). The existence of externalities and increasing returns to scale in production is the most important explanatory factor for the geographic concentration of firms. Even if individual firms face constant internal returns to scale, agglomeration may generate externalities that create productivity advancements for individual firms in a given locations and therefore lead to increasing returns to scale at an aggregate level. Many studies have shown that agglomeration economics can affect productivity levels of local firms and boost the economic performance of a region (Atkenson, 2010; Beason, 1987; Feser, 2003, 1988; Henderson, 2003; Moomaw, 1988; Bottazi & Peri, 2007). They tested the degree to which productivity increases with industry size (locationalization economies) or city size (urbanization economics). In addition Wheeler & Mody, 1992; Reis & Traca, 2009; Bos & Kroetter, 2011; found that agglomeration economics are positively associated with firms investments and location decisions. Positive spillovers or agglomeration economics are often called thick market effects. Krugman (1991) has argued that concentration of economic activity has its benefits. So having production and resources already concentrated on region very likely gives region a competitiveness advantage. Industrial structure has two basic elements which are: the physical and the organizational. The physical elements can be divided into the spatial/ physical aspect which is the distribution of industrial activity to specific location and non-spatial aspect which includes the raw material sourcing, the labour force, sources of labour gross output and value added by manufacture. The organizational structure includes the nature of control and ownership structure.
THE STUDY AREA AND THE METHODS The Lagos region is situated along the south west of Nigeria, approximately between latitudes 6027’ and 6037’ north of the equator and longitudes 3015’ and 3047’ east of Greenwich The Influence of Firms Structural Characteristics on the Degree… 255 meridian, with a land area of about 1,088 km², covers about 32 percent of the land area of Lagos state. About 20 percent of this area is made up of Lagoons and mangrove swamps. Lagos region is the leading, industrial, commercial, financial and maritime nerve-centre of the country. Over 60 percent of all commercial transactions in Nigeria are carried out or finalized in the Lagos region. About 70 percent of the total value of industrial investments in Nigeria is in the Lagos region. Over 65 percent of the country’s industrial employment is concentrated in this region, leaving the remaining 35 percent in other parts of the country. The core of the state and a highly urbanized local government areas consisting of Lagos Island, Lagos Mainland, Surulere, Apapa and Eti-Osa. The centre and most developed of this chain of Island is Lagos Island.The Lagos state population figure for the 2006 national population census is 8,048,430. The first stage in the collection of primary data was the reconnaissance survey of the study area, while total sampling method was employed in the questionnaire administration. One hundred and three questionnaires were administered in twelve industrial estates; one questionnaire in each of the firm, connoting that all the firms in the industrial estates was successfully covered in the questionnaire administration.
FINDINGS AGE OF ESTABLISHMENT The age of firms presented in figure 1 shows that out of the 103 (100%) firms, only two (1.94%) firms were established between 1956 and 1960. Another 3 (2.9%) firms were established between 1961 and 1965, while four (3.9%) firms were established between 1966 and 1970. The number of firms established increased to five (4.9%) in 1971-1975, while six (5.8%) firms were established between 1976 and 1980. Also the number of firms established between 1981 and 1985 increased to 8 (7.8%), 10 (9.7%) firms between 1986 and 1990 and 14 (13.6%) between 1991- 1995. Furthermore, the number of firms established between 1996 and 2000 were 11(10.61), whereas the eight (7.8%) where established between 2001 and 2005. Also, 11 (10.6%) where established between 2006 and 2010, and 12 (11.7%) between 2011 and 2014. The number of firms established has shown a steady increase especially between 1956 and 1990, it decline slightly in 1991 and 1995 and rise again between 2006 and 2010.
Figure 1. Ages of Firms Source: Author’s Analysis, 2015
Figure 2 depicts the areal size of plants, 41 (39.8%) firms have their areal size less than 500 square meters, while 32 (31.1%) firms were in the category of 500-1000 square metres, 21 (20.4%) firms have areal size ranging from 1001-2000 square meters, six (5.8%) firms have areal size between 2001-3000 square meters, three (2.9%) have their areal size greater than 3000 square meters. Majority of the firms have their areal size less than 500 square metre. 256 Adejompo FAGBOHUNKA
Figure 2. Areal Plant Size Source: Author’s Analysis, 2015
CAPACITY UTILIZATION OF FIRMS Fig. 3 reveals the capacity utilization of firms. None of the firms have their capacity utilization less than 21%, 4(3.9%) firms have their capacity utilization between 21-40%, while, 10 (9.7%) firms have between 41-60%, 35 (34%) firms have between 61-80%, and 54 (52.4%) have their capacity utilization between 81-100%. This indicates that majority of the firms have their capacity utilization between 81-100%.
Figure 3. Firms Capacity Utilization Source: Author’s Analysis, 2015
FIRM’S INVESTMENT Figure 4 Shows the estimated firms investment. Out of 103 (100%) firms, nine (8.7%) firms invested less than N1m, 12 (11.7%) firms invested between N1m -50m naira, four (3.9%) firms invested between N51m -N 100 while, eight (7.8%) firms invested between N 101m- N150m, also, 11 (11%) firms invested between N 151m - N 200m and 59 (57%) firms invested above N200m. It is apparent that many of the firms invested above N200m; this also points to the fact that most of the firms are large scale industries, federal government 1990 opined that large scale industries are those firms having above 750,000.00 investments. The Influence of Firms Structural Characteristics on the Degree… 257
Figure 4. Firms Investment in Naira Source: Author’s Analysis, 2015
Table 1 reveal that 38 (36.9%) firms have less than six management staff, 46 (44.7%) have between 6 and 10 management staff, 12 (11.7%) have between 11and 14; 4 (3.9%) have between 15 and 19 management staff, only two (1.9%) have between 20 and 24 only, one (0.97%) have between 25 and 29 management staff.
Table 1. The Management Size of Firms Source: Author’s Analysis, 2015 Management Staff Frequency Percentage < 6 38 36.9 6-10 46 44.7 11-14 12 11.7 15-19 4 3.9 20-24 2 1.9 25 and above 1 0.97 Total 103 100
Table 2 depicts the auxiliary, clerical and operational/technical staff , 73 (70.9%) firms have less than 51, 24 (23.3%) firms have between 51-100, only one (0.97%) firm have between 101-150, while 2 firms (1.9%) have between 151-200, only one (0.97%) firms have between 201- 250, 251-300 respectively, also, one (0.97%) have above 300.
Table 2. The Firms Auxiliary /Clerical and Operational Staff Source: Author’s Analysis, 2015 Auxilliary/Clerical and Operational Frequency Percentage Staff < 51 73 70.9 51-100 24 23.3 101-150 1 0.97 151-200 2 1.9 201-250 1 0.97 251-300 1 0.97 300 and above 1 0.97 Total 103 100 258 Adejompo FAGBOHUNKA
AGGLOMERATION FOREDEALS AMONGST FIRMS IN 2014 Figure 5 shows the agglomeration benefits in year 2014. There is significant variation in the agglomeration benefits amongst the firms. Seventy nine (76.7%) firms enjoyed <10% savings in telecommunication, whereas 20 (19.4%) firms enjoyed < 10 % savings as a result of access to financial institution. Also 3 (3%) firms enjoyed between 41 and 50% savings as a result of water supply, while 25 (24.3%) firms enjoyed between 41 and 50% due to Access to financial institution. It is vivid from the figure that access to financial institution was the most dominant, while none of the firms realized above 90% savings.
Figure 5. Agglomeration Benefits amongst Firms in 2014
The hypothesis which states that: The degree of agglomeration economies enjoyed by firms is not determined by the structural characteristic of firms is tested using the canonical correlation statistical technique. The canonical correlation equation is given by, CVY1 = a1Y1+a2Y2 + … + amYmCVX1 = b1X1+ b2X2 +…+ bpXp. Y’s = Agglomeration economies, forming the dependent variables, where Y1= Joint Transportation (Savings accruing from joint transportation (transportation economies) Y2 = Joint Power supply (Savings accruing from joint use of power (power economies) Y3 = Joint Raw Material Purchase/Supply (Savings accruing from joint Raw materials purchase (input economies) Y4 = Collaboration in Research and Development (Savings accruing from joint R & D measured as a percentage monetary savings from R&D) Y5 = Joint Labour Supply (Savings accruing from wage rate (Labour economies i.e. reduction in the cost of Labour) Y6 = Joint Water Supply (Savings accruing from joint water supply measured as a percentage reduction in the cost of water supply). Y7 = Joint waste treatment (Savings accruing from joint waste treatment) Y8 = Joint Security (Savings accruing from joint security services). Y9 = Joint Telecommunication (Savings accruing from joint telecommunication). Y10 = Joint Ports & Shipping (Savings accruing from joint ports and shipping) Y11= Access to Financial institution (Savings accruing from access to financial Institution). While X’s = Structural characteristics, forming the independent variables. Where The Influence of Firms Structural Characteristics on the Degree… 259
X1= Age of Firms (Years) X2 = Areal plant size (m2) X3 = Capacity utilization (in percentage) X4 = Labour Size (Number of workers) X5 = Firms Investment (the monetary value) Table 4 shows the result of Canonical Correlation Analysis of agglomeration economies and structural characteristics of firms. It reveals that agglomeration economies have a stronger variation coefficient, with r value of 0.9009, r2 value of 0.87 and 87% variance, while the structural characteristics has r value of 0.8381, r2 value of 0.70 and 70% of variance. The Roy’s Largest Root Test depicted in table 5 was employed to test for the significance of the canonical correlations at 0.05 significant levels; result of the test shows the calculated F- value 3.5247 and the tabulated F-value 2.90. Since the calculated F-value is greater than the tabulated value. The null hypothesis is therefore rejected while the alternative hypothesis which states that the degree of agglomeration economies is determined by the structural characteristics of firms is accepted. This suggests that the degree of agglomeration economies enjoyed by firms is significantly explained by the size and structural characteristics of the firms.
Table 4. Summary of result of Canonical Correlation Analysis Source: Author’s Analysis, 2015
Canonical Variables Correlation r2% of variance Decision (r) Set I Accept H1 Y1- 11 0.9009 0.81 81% Set II X111 – X555 0.8381 0.70 70%
Table 5. Roy’s Largest Root Test of Significant Source: Author’s Analysis, 2015
R dfr dfc Level of Significant Calc. F Tab. F. Decision 0.9009 11 9 5% 3.5247 2.90 H1 is accepted 0.8381
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The paper has examined the influence of firm’s structural characteristic on the degree of agglomeration economies enjoyed amongst firms. The firm’s structural characteristics analyzed in relation to agglomeration economies ranges from ages of firms (years), Areal plant size (m²). Capacity utilization (%), Labour size (number of workers) to firm’s investment (monetary value). The paper reveals that the number of firms established shows a steady increase especially between 1945-1985, declining slightly in 1986 and 1995 and rise again between 1996-2005. Majority of the firms have their areal size less than 500 square metre and their capacity utilization between 81-100%. It is apparent that many of the firms are large scale, since most of the firms invested above N200m. Federal government 1990 has opined that large scale industries are those firms having above 750,000.00 investments. Seventy three firms have less than fifty one auxiliary/clerical and operational Staff, while 46 (44.7%) have between 6 and 10 management staff. The agglomeration economies enjoyed by firms includes; joint transportation, joint power supply, joint raw material purchase/supply, collaboration in research and development, joint labour supply, joint water supply, joint waste treatment, joint security, joint telecommunication, joint ports & shipping, access to financial institution. 260 Adejompo FAGBOHUNKA
The canonical correlation analysis carried out to test the influence of firms’ structural characteristics on the degree of agglomeration economies reveals that agglomeration economies have a stronger variation coefficient, while the Roy’s Largest Root test employed to test for the significance of the canonical correlations shows the calculated F-value 3.5247 and the tabulated F- value 2.90. This suggests that the degree of agglomeration economies enjoyed by firms is significantly explained by the size and structural characteristics of the firms. Hence, the structural characteristics of firms have a tremendous positive impact on the agglomeration economies enjoyed amongst firms. It could therefore be inferred that agglomeration economies if encouraged will help to boost the local economy, leading to industrial expansion which is a panacea to socio- economic development. The paper has reveals that improvement and overhauling of firms structural characteristic will help immensely in industrial revival, thriving, increase output, improved industrial relations and partnership and more importantly enjoyment of more agglomeration benefits. The paper therefore recommends more and active government participation in the industrial scene, given the necessary support for the expansion of firm’s structural characteristics through liberalization of the industrial location factors, enacting and implementing friendly labour laws and giving credit facilities to interested investors. These recommendations, if implemented will lead to increase agglomeration economies.
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Adejompo Fagbohunka (2014), Firms Location and Relative Importance of Location Factors Amongst Firms in the Lagos Region, Nigeria, Research on Humanities and Social Sciences Vol. 4, No. 8. Atkenson A., Burstein A. (2010), Innovation, Firm, Dynamics and International Trade, Journal of Political Economy, 118(3),433-484. Bos J., Koetter M. (2011), Technology clubs, R&D and Growth Patterns: Evidence from EU Manufacturing, Review of Economics and Statistics, 54(1), Pp. 187-194. Botazi L., Peri G. (2007), The International Dynamics of R & D and Innovation in the long run and in the Short Run, Economic Journal, 117(578), Pp. 486-511. Bottazi L., Peri G. (1999), Innovation, Demand and Knowledge Spillovers; Theory and Evidence from European Regions, Paper Prepared for the Conference on „Lessons from International Economics for International Economics”, June, 11 – 12, 1999, Cluster Center for International Business and Policy – Studienzetrum Gerzensee, pp.7-9. Feser E. (2003), A flexible test for agglomeration economics in two US Manufacturing Industries, Regional Science and Urban Economics, 31, 1-190. Fujita M., Krugman P., Venables A.J. (1999), The Spatial Economy. Cities, Regions and International Trade, Cambridge, Mass and London. Henderson V. (2003), Marshall’s Scale Economies, Journal of Urban Economics, 53, 1 -28. Krugman P. (1993), The Current case for Industrial Policy, In D. Salvatore (Eds); Protectionism and World Welfare Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Moomaw R.L. (1998), Agglomeration Economies: Localization or Urbanization; Urban Studies, 25, 150-161. Reis A.B., Traca (2009), Spillovers and Competitive pressure for long-run Innovation, European Economic Review, 52 (4), Pp. 589-610. Roller L.H. (2007), Why firms form (or Do Not form) RIVS, Economic Journal, 117(522), pp. 1122-44. Venables Anthony (2008), New Economic Geography: The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition Abstract. Weber A. (1929), Theory of the Location of Industries, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Wheeler D., Mody A. (1992), International Investment Location Decision: the case of U. S. Firms, Journal of International Economics, 33, 57-76.
Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online Octomber 05, 2015 November 17, 2015 December 04, 2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 261-268 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252113-698
USING GIS FOR CAVES MODELLING AND ANALYSIS. THE STUDY CASE OF ANINA MINING AREA (BANAT MOUNTAINS, ROMANIA)
Laurențiu ARTUGYAN West University of Timișoara, Department of Geography, Bld. V. Pârvan, No. 4 e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: GIS started to be used also in caves’ mapping, but the work in this area is quite less widespread as surface mapping. The aim of this paper is to present an approach to caves’ digital modelling and analysis, using GIS and geovisualization techniques. COMPASS program is a software package designed for editing, processing, analysing and visualizing data on computer mapping caves. The programs allow input caves, reviewing data, obtaining statistics on caves, view plans from different angles on the monitor, and finally these views can then be printed. In this paper, we obtain digital models for endokarstic landforms situated in a karstic area in the South-West of Romania. We convert the Speleological data from analog into digital data and then obtained a virtual model for 4 cavities. Modelling karst cavities using GIS software require certain advantages and disadvantages. As advantages we can observe the fact that employing such a program can export a cave modelling in various formats and can include the function of spatial analysis in various programs, and the introduction of such objects in the Web Free and accessible. The main drawback to COMPASS program is given the simplicity and the limitation in modelling caves’ galleries. This program gives the form of tubes, pipes, made from a variety of geometric shapes. For Anina Mining Area, where nowadays local authorities are trying to develop tourism as a branch of economic recovery, these digital data regarding the most important caves in the area could be very useful in the management plans and in the tourist strategies.
Key words: karst, GIS, cave modelling, Anina, Romania
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INTRODUCTION Before the 90s and before the Geographical Information Systems (GIS) period, maps on paper were probably the most used method to study geospatial data. In the 90s the scientific visualization offered the term „visualization" (Kraak, 2002). Goodchild (2000) talks about the limits of analog maps: (I) maps should be smooth, flat, (II) a map provides a single level of detail, (III) maps are static and (IV) the production of maps is generally slow. These limitations also apply to the 2D digital maps in his opinion. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are developed so as to represent real-world objects in cyberspace, virtual. Representations of the real world are made as close to the models created in the human mind (Bishr, 1998).
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
262 Laurențiu ARTUGYAN
Maps continue to be the base of navigation even in the virtual computer. A method of navigation closer to reality can be obtained by exploiting 3D data visualization, indeed, more sophisticated, and allowing users to interact with 3D modelled scenarios in the so-called „virtual reality". This „virtual reality" is a tool that has as aim to provide users with a system based on a computer system that deals with real or realistic, having a live interaction with the data represented (Catarci et al., 2002). Dimensional information needs grew and she continues to grow rapidly. Modelling reality with three-dimensional representations is preferred in practice because they increase the ability of scientists in the fields of Geosciences to analyse data and make determinations as accurate (Wu et al., 2008). The methods provided by Geographical Information Systems offer great flexibility and customization possibilities in the design of modern maps. Geovisualization, as a tool based on GIS techniques bring new ways to design maps and representations of the world around them (Longley et al., 2005). GIS started to be used also in caves’ mapping, but the work in this area is quite less widespread as surface mapping, based on software that is dealing with cave mapping and digital representations. Some works regarding GIS used in cave studies are done by Ohms and Reece (2002), Hung et al. (2002), Moyes (2002), Szukalski (2002), Harley et al. (2010). In Romania, GIS studies in the field of the caves we may say that are missing: Constantin (1998) with a GIS database proposal, Artugyan (2010) with a study regarding the connection of two caves in the Anina Mountains using GIS methods. We think that there exist many directions were GIS methods could be used in caves’ studies. The aim of this paper is to present an approach of caves’ digital modelling and analysis using GIS and geovisualization techniques. We must be aware that any description of reality is actually an abstraction of real world elements. Representations of real-world phenomena and objects are abstracted or by proxy, or by simplification, either by ignoring some features.
STUDY AREA The study area of this paper is situated in the South-West of Romania, in Caraș-Severin County. It is located in Banat Mountains, more precisely in a subunit of Banat Mountains called Anina Mountains, called after the town with the same name located in the centre of this mountain area. Reșița-Moldova Nouă Synclinorium is the place for classic getic sedimentary development and Anina is a town situated in the centre of this basin. In this area are thick sedimentary deposits (Mutihac & Ionesi, 1974). The karst of Reșița-Moldova Nouă Synclinorium is considered as a prototype of suspended karst plateaus (Onac, 2000). The faults, that are indicating a higher density in the area, are favourable in the karstification processes. The orientation of these tectonic features is indicating the main drainage direction and act as boundaries between the main karst systems in the region (Iurkiewicz et al., 1996). The field which represents the study case of this paper is situated in the centre of Anina Mountains. Anina Mining Area was the name given by Sencu (1977) for the area which is surrounded Anina town and it may be exploited by mining activities. Anina Mining Area, due to large areas covered with limestone, is symbolized by many karstic landforms, either open or underground. There are sinkholes, uvalas, poljes, springs, potholes, blind valleys, sinkholes valleys, dry valleys and karrens. On the other side, the underground landforms are represented by a high density of caves and vertical shafts.
DATA AND METHODS The data that we used in our study is based on materials as caves’ maps that were scanned and spatial referenced, GPS points marked in the field trips, topographical maps of scale at 1:25000 and aerial photos. Based on these materials we obtained the digital data regarding most important of the caves located in the Anina Mining Area. Our approach implies two perspectives: first - 2D perspective. This first perspective was done by overlapping DEM, topographic maps Using GIS for Caves Modelling and Analysis… 263 or aerial photographs over those digitized galleries. To get those digitized galleries, previous caves’ plans were Geo-referenced having as the source material the plans for those caves made by Vasile Sencu (1963 and 1964). The second perspective is about 3D modelling. It was based along the information pulled from the same cave plans, but this time as data of cave mapping in the field. After that, the data was introduced into a specialized program for karst cavities modelling, COMPASS Cave Survey. First, we scanned some plans for the most significant caves in this region. Then those caves were georeferenced, and digitized their galleries. This method was applied to obtain gallery's caves perspective on 2D and overlapping aerial photographs (figure 1a), topographic maps (figure 1b) and geological maps. These steps were developed in the ArcMap 10.
Figure 1. Buhui Cave overlapping aerial photographs (Source: ANCPI) (a) and topographic maps (b) (Source: Military Topographic Directorate)
For three-dimensional perspective representation of karst landforms belonging to modelling choice of four of the biggest and most beautiful karst cavities Anina Mountains: Buhui Cave, Plopa Cave, Ponor Cave and Mărghitaş Cave. Obtaining three-dimensional models of the caves were done using the COMPASS program. COMPASS program is a software package designed for editing, processing, analysing and visualizing data on computer mapping caves. The programs allow input caves, reviewing data, obtaining statistics on caves, view plans from different angles on the monitor, and finally these views can then be printed. In this suite of programs were introduced mapping data extracted from the scanned plans of the caves mentioned above. After scanning the caves plans, mapping data extraction followed exactly as would be done in this field by entering data specific mapping underground cave in the table (see example table 1), and then, these data have been entered in COMPASS. Data mapping refers to the distance from the starting point (station) and one destination (visa), distance (calculated in meters) of the visa to the left and right walls, distance from the cave ceiling, the distance the floor of the cave (if visa section is an area with rocks or other obstacles to the floor of the cave), the angle towards magnetic north and inclination to the starting point (measured in degrees) (Povară et al., 1982). 264 Laurențiu ARTUGYAN
Table 1. Example of a table for cave survey in the field Distance Distance Station Visa Distance Height Depth Azimuth Inclination Left Right 0 1 13.2 3 4.1 2 0 234 0 1 2 2.8 2 0.3 1.4 0 139 0 2 3 35 1.657 2 0.45 0 209 -2 3 4 34 2.2 1.2 1.1 0.5 145 -4
To give a spatial reference, we chose for assigning coordinates of stations/visas (start/stop in a cave mapping) of points drawn in COMPASS program. We introduced four extreme points’ coordinates and altitude relative to those points, and then we exported as shapefiles that cave model to use in ESRI programs.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The results are represented by digital models (2D and 3D) for 4 of the most representative caves in the Anina Mountains. Three-dimensional models, with all the minuses given the difficulty of modelling the data from the underground are interesting results especially due to the working methodology. For 3D models we obtain these models in COMPASS software (figure 2) and then we exported into Shapefile format to be able to use it also in ArcScene 10 (figure 3). In any virtual modelling we cannot avoid the introduction of errors in the model generated in the digital environment. The reality is very complex and especially karst underground environment. Although it was anticipated relatively large errors in 3D modelling caves, by correcting and reassessment of the process we managed to reduce the errors. This aspect was verified by overlapping digitized galleries in ArcMap with those polygons derived automatically by COMPASS software. We observe small errors in the model obtained automatically. This is due to the COMPASS program generates polygons and not smooth contours. The fact that the errors are relatively small and mainly generated within the COMPASS Cave Survey software could be notice by visual comparison between those two approaches manually digitized and automatically generated models, shown in figure 4a and figure 4b. Modelling karst cavities using GIS software require certain advantages and disadvantages. As advantages we can observe the fact that employing such a program can export a cave modelling in various formats and can include the function of spatial analysis in various programs, and the introduction of such objects in the Web Free and accessible.
Figure 2. Plopa Cave - 3D model in COMPASS software (colours are representing the depth of galleries) Using GIS for Caves Modelling and Analysis… 265
Figure 3. Plopa Cave - 3D model of in ArcScene 10 software (colours are representing the depth of galleries)
Figure 4. Differences between manual digitised galleries and those obtained using automatic modeling: Plopa Cave (a) and Ponor Cave (b) (Source of background image: ANCPI)
The main drawback to COMPASS program is given the simplicity and the limitation in modelling caves’ galleries. This program gives the form of tubes, pipes, made from a variety of geometric shapes. Due to these limitations in modelling, the visual aspect of caves is not the most aesthetic, but considering the difficulty in modelling the subsurface can say that is a success that can shape karst cavities using a computer and especially that we integrate these models in various other soft wares for analysis and visualization. 266 Laurențiu ARTUGYAN
Figure 5. Plopa Cave - distance from entrance in COMPASS Software
Figure 6. Plopa Cave - depth of galleries (pink is less depth - red is the maximum depth) Using GIS for Caves Modelling and Analysis… 267
With the COMPASS program, we can exploit various approaches from digital modelling perspective for caves. These functions of the COMPASS software can analyse various perspectives develop galleries of caves. Subsequently, these analyses related to distance from the entrance (figure 5), the depth of cave’s galleries (figure 6), cave morphology, evolution, can be implemented in developing management plans for these karst cavities and to tackle analysis regarding land use in the gallery development to avoid certain threats that are rising based on human activities at the surface. Geographic Information Systems have evolved from isolated GIS to systems with a high degree of interoperability. The original purpose of a Geographic Information System was to store, manipulate and maintain data that is directly related to the mission system users respectively, which were created data without question the data exchange between systems. But increasing need to share information with other institutions and reduce costs, it was the creation of tools to support not only the distribution and sharing of data, and interoperability between data and services (Laurini et al., 2005). The outcomes can be accessed also in Google Earth. The representations were loaded in. kml and. kmz on a Google site and following the instructions on the home page of this site, you can access representations of karst cavities. The link to the caves on this site is: https://sites.google.com/site/caveskml/system/app/pages/recentChanges.
CONCLUSIONS In this paper, we obtain digital models for endokarstic landforms situated in a karstic area in the South-West of Romania. We convert the Speleological data from analog into digital data and then obtained a virtual model for 4 cavities. Besides, we upload some of our results in one Google site, both in JPG format and kml format, with the main idea that open those caves in Google Earth. Based on this work we are able to observe the difference between manual representations of this underground landforms and the automated process. Having these digital models we are able to use those ones in more complex spatial analysis. We can integrate those models in analysis combined with topographical maps, aerial maps or Digital Elevation Models. In this way we are able to realize an integrated analysis in a karstic region, studying both the surface and subsurface landforms. Despite the strengths of GIS techniques, the quality and quantity of information available when we require shaping reality is real important. This makes the quality and character of data had some drawbacks that led to some limitations in this field. 3D caves modelling using GIS programs involve some loss of information, quantitative and especially qualitative. Quantitative, when we have a plan map in centimetres and then we should convert it into meters. There we lost at every transformation some units and certain errors will occur at the end. Qualitative loss covers issues on how to present the result of these three- dimensional modelling. The existing software currently on the market turns the cave into a burrow, in a series of tubes. And the most attractive elements of the caves can not be placed into a „pipeline". All the previously mentioned limitations of the study may be targets of future studies, the objective of developing new solutions for data acquisition and modelling caves using GIS- techniques and geovizualisation. In our future work we intend to enrich the number of caves in the digital approach, and also to develop new ideas regarding caves modelling and representation using GIS-techniques and geovisualization. Our study could be very useful for caves’ administrations in the study area and also for tourist’s perspectives regarding these caves. Besides, when you have a digital model, you are able to update this model with some new discover regarding the cave’s galleries, meaning less time consuming to draw the map from the beginning. This approach could be very useful for caving associations that are managing these sites. With such digital data regarding the location and development of cave’s galleries, territorial planning in karst areas could be easier done paying attention to the most vulnerable sites in these regions, naming here caves and their speleothems. 268 Laurențiu ARTUGYAN
For Anina Mining Area, where nowadays local authorities are trying to develop tourism as a branch of economic recovery, these digital data regarding the most important caves in the area could be very useful in the management plans and in the tourist strategies. Part of our results could be very useful in tourism promotion of the caves in the area as geomorphosites (Artugyan, 2014) because part of these results could be easily understood by the general public, due to the access using interfaces as Google Earth or ArcGIS Explorer Online.
Acknowledgments This work has been supported from the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133391, Project „Doctoral and Postdoctoral programs of excellence for highly qualified human resources training for research in the field of Life sciences, Environment and Earth Science”cofinanced by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational Program Human Resources Development 2007–2013.
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Artugyan L. (2010), Using GIS to show the connection between Buhui Cave and Cuptoare Cave, Aninei Mountains (Banat Mountains, Romania). Analele Universităţii de Vest din Timişoara, GEOGRAFIE, vol. XX, pp. 59-68. Artugyan L. (2014), Geomorphosites as a valuable resource for tourism development in a deprived area. The case study of Anina Karstic Region (Banat Mountains, Romania), Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie, Year XXIV, no. 2/2014 (December), pp. 89-100. Bishr Y. (1998), Overcoming the semantic and other barriers to GIS interoperability, International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 12:4, 299-314. Catarci T., d’Amore F., Janecek P., Spaccapietra S. (2002), Interacting with GIS: From Paper Cartography to Virtual Environments, Advanced Geographic Information Systems-Vol.I, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) Constantin S. (1998), Speleological databases - A GIS Approach, In: Proc. 2nd Intl. Symp, on Karst Water Resources, Kermanshah, Iran. Kraak M.J. (2002), Geovisualization illustrated, ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing, 57, 390–399, Elsevier. Harley, G.L., Reeder, P.P., Polk, J.S., Van Beynen, P.E. (2010), Developing a GIS- based inventory for the implementation of cave management protocols in Withlacoochee State Forest, Florida. Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, v. 72, no. 1, p. 35–42. DOI: 10.4311/jcks2008lsc0063 Hung L.Q., Dinh N.Q., Batelaan O., Tam V.T., Lagrou D. (2002), Remote sensing and GIS-based analysis of cave development in the Suoimuoi Catchment (Son La - NW Vietnam). Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 64(1): 23-33. Iurkiewicz A., Dragomir G., Rotaru A., Bădescu B. (1996), Karst systems in Banat Mountains (Reșița-Nera zone), Theoretical and Applied Karstology, vol. 9, 121-140. Laurini R., Yétongnon K., Bensliman D. (2005), GIS Interoperability, From Problems to Solutions, Advanced Geographic Information Systems – Vol.II, Enciclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS). Longley P.A., Goodchild M.F., Maguire D.J., Rhind D.W. (2005), Geographical Information Systems and Science, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, the Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, England, 517 pp. Mutihac V., Ionesi L. (1974), Geologia României, Editura Tehnică, București. Moyes H. (2002), The use of GIS in the spatial analysis of an archaeological cave site. Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 64(1): 9-16. Ohms R., Reece M. (2002). Using GIS to manage two large cave systems, Wind and Jewel Caves, South Dakota, Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 64(1): 4-8. Onac B. (2000), Geologia regiunilor carstice (Geology of Karst Terrains), Universitatea „Babes-Bolyai” Cluj-Napoca, Institutul de Speologie „Emil Racoviță” Cluj-Napoca. Orășeanu I., Iurkiewicz A. (2010), Karst Hydrogeology of Romania, Ed. Federația Română de Speologie, Oradea, 444 pp. Povară I., Goran C., Gutt W. (1982), Speologia-ghid practic, Ed.Sport-Turism, Bucureşti. Sencu V. (1963), Cercetǎri asupra carstului din jurul localităţii Anina (Banat) - Peşterile din bazinele pâraielor Anina şi Buhui, Probleme de Geografie, vol. X. Sencu V. (1964), Cercetări asupra carstului din partea sudică a localității Anina (Banat). Peșterile din bazinele pâraielor Steierdorf și Ponor, Studii și cercetări de geologie, geofizică și geografie, Tomul 11, p.140-162. Sencu V. (1977), Carstul din câmpul minier Anina, Studii și Cercetări de Geologie, Geofizică, Geografie, Tom XXIV, Nr. 2, p.199-212. Szukalski B.W. (2002), Introduction to cave and karst GIS. Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 64(1): 3. Wu Q., Xu H., Zhou W. (2008), Development of a 3D GIS and its application to karst areas, Environmental Geology, Volume 54, Number 5, 1037-1045, SpringerLink. http://www.fountainware.com/compass/ accessed at 20.03.2013.
Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online Octomber 29, 2015 November 17, 2015 December 04, 2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 269-275 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252114-685
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL SYSTEM’S VULNERABILITY OF THE EASTERN REGION OF PETROŞANI DEPRESSION AND GENERATION OF CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTS BY THE COAL EXPLOITATION ACTIVITY
Ciprian NIMARĂ University of Petroşani, Faculty of Mining, Department of Management, Environmental Engineering and Geology Petroşani, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
George-Bogdan TOFAN „Vasile Goldiş” Western University of Arad, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Engineering and Informatics, Department of Biology, Ecology and Geography, Baia Mare Branch, 5 Culturii Street, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: Eastern Region of Petroşani Depression is a complex intensely modified by coal mining activity, an activity that has increased the vulnerability of the system and the formation of critical environments which evolution over time is difficult to establish. Critical environments, seen as the product of environmental system malfunction caused by human intervention, takes the form of thresholds, characterized by phenomena of disorganization of information and energy that reduce or make disappear entirely the internal capacity of the system to self-regulate and to ensure a dynamic balance.
Key words: vulnerability, coal exploitation, Petroşani Depression, anthropic relief.
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INTRODUCTION Petroşani Depression is a lowered region of the Carpathians, limited to the North by the mountain ranges: Retezat and Şureanu, South and Southeast by Vâlcan and Parâng Mountains. It has an approximately guidance of NNE-SSW, stretching over a length of about 45 km and a width ranging from East to West to 9-12 km. In terms of morphometry, the region looks like a lowland area to frame the surrounding mountains. However, it is considered a high mountain depression with a bottomed hilly, with the lowest altitude of 556 m (at the confluence of the two Jiu Rivers) and the highest between 800 - 900 m, to the periphery in contact with the mountain frame (Pop, 2001; Ardeiu, 2004; Nimară, 2011). Working together for endogenous and exogenous factors have manifested in different forms from place to place, so the landscape was imposed by certain elements: structural, tectonic differential erosion etc. Within this perimeter regionalization, we distinguish a number of units and subunits, having both common elements and elements that differentiate them (Tufescu & Mocanu, 1964).
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
270 Ciprian NIMARĂ, George-Bogdan TOFAN
The evolution of the diversification fund constituted according to which issues have become more complex morphological (Lupu, 1967). Looking at the ratio of the overall shape of the basin, its morphology and structure, including tectonics, we find separating the two regions of the depression: Eastern Region and Western Region. Mining, the main economic activity in Petroşani Depression was a vital necessity of the development community in this micro-region, but which „products" could be seen both in the natural environment and social policy. The natural environment is highlighted by technogenic morphology varied in size, shape and morphogenetic processes.
COAL MINING ACTIVITY AND GENERATION OF VULNERABLE AREAS Anthropogenic modeling differs from the natural one by the degree of intensity of the expression, complexity and form of products, making irreversible changes to the territory by generating a high degree of vulnerability (Mac & Petrea, 2003; Mac, 1991, 2000, 2003; Anghel & Bilaşco, 2008; Anghel & Todică, 2008; Anghel, 2009; Irimuş et al., 2009, Creţu et al., 2013; Vlaicu et al., 2013). The areas with positive relief, modeled by human activity have been converted from the original form to a horizontal form and flat surfaces were raised by tens of meters. Following this feedback it generates a new spatial dimensioning and planning, resulting finally a relief appearance by inversions and critical environments. Unpredictability, uncertainty, seemingly determination and surprising character in building and succession states, is undeniable traits of a system on risk. They are indecisive character and versatility both ways to solve energy imbalances that occur on the evolutionary path of the system. Natural geomorphological modeling processes are represented by the river, wind, glacial, marine or ocean, and the tectonic system modeling. Anthropogenic processes that have a transformative effect of the relief and printing a certain print to the landscape are: agricultural processes and techniques, construction (buildings, roads), extraction and preparation of minerals, military actions etc (Nimară, 2010). A feature of the human impact is the layer with increased susceptibility to change, according to Hooke's theory, „human activity directly affects land area only on a limited layer", which size varies according to the type of human activities, it being called susceptible layer. Also, anthropic pressure introduces in the dynamics of the landscape a new chronological scale namely anthropic chronological scale. Using this scale, the response of relief - landscape torque, affected by specific human activity, in this case: mining, may be of the order of minutes until the years. We could say that human activity is the same as weather; occurs every day, is widespread and is in continuous change, affecting both the natural environment and human society by its manifestations (Wang et al., 2001; Ilieş et al., 2010). The social and economic evolution made by the transformations induced to the environmental components and its answer, can be seen by highlighting the relations between the environmental elements, seen in the field. As technological development and spatial extent of anthropogenic areas, there was an increase in conflicting relations with the natural environment. The type of occupied areas from different economic activities is shown in the following table 1.
Table 1. Type of occupied areas from different economic activities in Petroşani Depression
No. Occupied surface Percentage in depression area Indicatory crt. (ha) (%) 1 Agricultural area 31326 31,59 2 Forests 57015 57,50 3 Rivers and ponds 338 0,34 4 Other areas 10484 10,57
The extraction of solids is done both in underground and at surface. Both methods give strong negative influences in relief in two forms: Geomorphological System’s Vulnerability of the Eastern Region of Petroşani … 271
a) underground holes of various sizes and orientations (vertical or inclined galleries, large cavities with different geometries); b) surface cavities (craters, pits, excavation canals). The adjacent area of underground mining area is destabilized by mining exploitation, surface water or groundwater seepage, vibration (caused by blasts), explosions, mining transport, that the chance of risk are effective. Jiu Valley anthropogenic activity generates multiple and various changes in natural conditions, including high importance are those that adversely affect land (table 2). Inventory of economic activities generating such effects is the first step in the correct assessment of the types of the degradation which is supported by the land. A short list of these includes: coal mining extraction from underground and surface mining, tailings storage obtained from this, the land filling of household waste, forest logging activity.
Table 2. Affected are (ha) and percentage of it (%)
Activity Area (ha) Percentage (%) Sterile dumps 207.84 46.0 Preparation dumps 66.70 15.0 Municipal waste 7.50 2.0 Trenches and ravines 21.50 5.0 Slag deposits 20.00 4.0 Coal pits 94.18 21.0 Fractures and collapses 29.10 7.0 Total 446.82 100.0
Land degradation depends of the layer’s thickness. Exploiting the thin layers causes only slight incline surface diving without being affected the crops in the area. In case of thick layers, it manifests different stages of diving with intense layers rupture direction. It has been noticed the appearance of springs, drying up of lakes and wells and disappear of vegetal soil. The location of dumps and land deformations that occur have a direct consequence by burying topsoil. Exhibition changes present deviations from the overall average. From the comparative situation (figure 1 a, b), it appears that the biggest differences is realized by the Western exhibitions, followed by Eastern and Northern. Significant differences are recorded in the Southern exhibitions (Nimară, 2010).
Figure 1. Slope exhibition in the past (a) and present day (b) 272 Ciprian NIMARĂ, George-Bogdan TOFAN
Underground coal mining has great repercussions on the land surface by causing subsidence, rupture or collapse. These phenomena not only allow normal use of the land, for the initial goals, but also seriously affect the construction’s area (Hosu, 2003). The severity of the surface deformation is dependent on assistance from the ground, the level of stress and deformations arising and always has the effect of destroying the stability of the surrounding rock. Fractured rocks on the excavation’s perimeter are put in motion, moving into massive which is a function of their ability to fill the resulted gap. If it is very high, exceeding the capacity rock’s fragments to fill it and stop such phenomenon rock’s deformation, the movement can be transmitted to the ground surface (Nimară, 2010; Nimară, 2011). Exploitation of thinner coal layers, cause only sinking of the surfaces without compromising crop land; exploitation of thicker layers, where occur different diving areas in the direction of rupture layers, the consequences on land are radically altering their total use. Other undesirable consequences of this activity can be: the drying up of wells, the emergence of new springs, disturbance of groundwater or the formation of permanent lakes in the bottom of sinking areas. The affected areas by rupture and collapse of land because of the coal mining in Petroşani Mining Basin are presented in the following table (table 3).
Table 3. Areas affected by rupture and collapse of land because of the coal mining
Surface Volume Area Surface of influenced area (ha) (ha) (thousand m3) Petroşani 5,5 8571,9 14,54 Petrila 4,3 6701,6 11,36 Aninoasa 4,0 6234,1 10,57 Total 13,8 21507,6 36,47
IDENTIFICATION OF AFFECTED GEOMORPHOLOGIC RESOURCES In the anthropic mining relief following the triggered of geomorphologic processes are made relief microforms. The anthropic mining relief interests in duration of existence, typology, dispersion mode, surface modification complexity initial coverage of a complex, potential risk and induced effect. The affected areas with the highest vulnerability are: - Meadow and terrace of Maleia brook In the Northeast part of Petroşani Depression, in the vicinity of Petrila town, is located the dump perimeter (figure 2) which is being developed close to the mining premises and continues to the southern side of the Rusalin river and on the Northern side of Maleia brook. Both are tributary waters of East Jiu. The 2 East dump occupies an area of 2.10 ha and the land on where it is located the dump, was initially a plateau with a slow morphology, with small slopes not exceeding 10°, generally with a direction from South to North slope (table 4). The five branches of the dump are arranged from West to South in the following order: branch III, I, II, V and IV, with angles of 9o, 14o, 16o and 24o.
Table 4. Type of degraded land from the Petrila mining perimeter
No. Type of degraded land Surface (ha) crt. 1 Degraded land by subsidence phenomena 0.28 2 Degraded land by erosin phenomena (gullies and ravines) 0.10 3 Land with excessive surface erosion 7.01 4 Partly degraded land with grass surface 4.51 5 Submerged degraded land 6.21 6 Plateau 3.02 7 Degraded land with marsh phenomena 1.48 Geomorphological System’s Vulnerability of the Eastern Region of Petroşani … 273
Figure 2. Structural and functional modification of geomorphologic environment in the area of Petrila town (Source: www.google.com/earth) - Arsului Valley In the Arsului Valley sector, related to Lonea mining area, there are frequent collapses, subsidence with negative influences on larger areas than the mine site (figure 4). The subsidence phenomenon is a physical-mechanical mechanism that occurs as a result of the generation of gaps in rocks deposits. Loose of sedimentary deposits induce a redistribution of masses and rearrangement of layers so it results the deformation of the original topographic surface. The process is manifested by the appearance of sinks with different amplitudes. In the adjacent areas of the new made small depression appear humps and cracks that portend the extension of settlement. The mechanism of this process is manifested differently, depending on the reservoir (thickness and inclination of the layers, the physical and mechanical properties of rocks, tectonic, hydrological and geological situation, local mining technologies etc.) In the sector of the valley (photo 2, 3), is visible the topographic surface deformation due to the collapse of the roof directly after mining extraction of mass blocks III, IV, VII, Layer 3. - Defor Valley The affected valley sector by mining is an area of 12.56 ha, located in the Eastern part of Jieţ River.
Figure 3. Transversal section through Defor coal pit 274 Ciprian NIMARĂ, George-Bogdan TOFAN
Following the discontinuation of mining in the coal pit in 1990, the Defor brook which was diverted during mining works, resumed the old course and the water accumulate in the coal pit, forming a lake with dimensions of 250/170 m, a depth of 20-25 m, water table elevation standing at 745,92 m (figure 3). As a result of mining in the studied area, the main areas where land can trigger mass movements are Defor coal pit (figure 5) and Defor dump. Factors that contribute to triggering of landslides in the area are: - cracks and gullies formed by runoff water from precipitation; - water accumulated in the coal pit; - exploitation of groundwater.
Figure 4. Subsidence phenomena in Lonea area Figure 5. Collapse at the Defor coal pit
Figure 6. Products of concentrated erosion, Defor coal pit
Due to concentrated flow of water from precipitation on the slopes of the coal pit, arise a series of gullies that lead to instability in the affected areas (figure 6).
CONCLUSIONS Through the activities of mining and minerals processing, spaces in relative equilibrium, change their dynamics through a regressive acceleration, generating other landscapes which operate in a high degree of entropy. Geomorphologic elements are modified new superficial formations are created and accelerates the soil physicochemical processes. In the Eastern region of Geomorphological System’s Vulnerability of the Eastern Region of Petroşani … 275
Petroşani Depression, can be seen that the most active geomorphologic phenomena and the most important are the erosion and mass movement of materials, but which can be considered a destabilizing factor only in the case of gullies and ravines formed on the routes of sterile dumps and in the areas where the forest is cut. Erosion appears due to rainwater after a mismanagement of anthropogenic relief find favorable conditions for development by focusing of leaks, poorly compacted substrates and steep slopes. These phenomena worsen over time if necessary measures are not taken, while other geomorphologic processes tend to a natural balance. The most vulnerable areas are: meadow and terrace of Maleia brook, Arsului Valley and Defor Valley.
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Anghel T., Todică S. (2008), Quantitative Assessment of Soil Erosion Using GIS Empirical Methods. A Comparative Study between the Motru Mining Area and the Suceviţa Catchment, Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie, TOM XVIII, No. 1, Editura Universităţii din Oradea, Oradea. Anghel T., Bilaşco S. (2008), The Motru Mining Basin-GIS Application on Sheet Erosion, Geographia Napocensis, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţa, Nr. 1, Cluj-Napoca. Anghel T. (2009), Strategii de reabilitare a reliefului antropic generat de exploatările miniere. Studiu de caz: Bazinul Motru, Teză de doctorat, Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca. Ardeiu M. (2004), Spaţiul geografic al Depresiunii Petroşani, Teză de doctorat, Universitatea „Babeş-Bolyai”, Facultatea de Geografie, Cluj Napoca. Creţu C., Herman G.V., Ile M. (2013), The Impact of the Mining Exploitations from Budoi on the Natural Environment, Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie, TOM XXIII, no. 1, Editura Universităţii din Oradea, Oradea. Hosu Maria (2003), Impactul activităţilor miniere asupra reliefului şi riscul geomorfologic indus, Revista Riscuri şi catastrofe, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj Napoca. Ilieş Dorina Camelia, Dehoorne O., Blaga L., Baias Şt. (2010), Some Considerations Regarding the Anthropic Geomorphostructures Resulting from Mining Activities in Central-Western Sector of Metaliferi Mountains (Apuseni Mountains, Hunedoara County, Romania), Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie, TOM XX, No. 1, Editura Universităţii din Oradea, Oradea. Irimuş I.A., Anghel T., Oncu M. (2009), The Implications of Mining Activities in the Change of Environmental Conditions from Motru Mining Basin, Soil Science, vol. XLIII, nr. 1, seria a III-a, Editura Solness, Cluj-Napoca. Lupu Silvia (1967), Procesele şi formele actuale de versant în Depresiunea Petroşani, Studia UBB, Geologie-Geografie, nr. 2, Cluj-Napoca. Mac I. (1991), Mineritul în Masivul Toroioaga (Maramureş) şi impactul său asupra mediului înconjurător, Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie, Year I, Editura Universităţii din Oradea, Oradea. Mac I. (2000), Geografie generală, Editura Europontic, Cluj-Napoca. Mac I. (2003), Ştiinţa mediului, Editura Europontic, Cluj-Napoca. Mac I., Petrea D. (2003), Sisteme geografice la risc, Riscuri şi catastrofe, Editura Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj Napoca. Nimară C. (2010), Hazards generated by human activities in the North-East of Petroşani Mountain Valley, Analele Universităţii din Petroşani, Mining Engineering, vol. 11, Petroşani. Nimară C. (2011), Cercetări privind reintegrarea peisagistică a arealelor afectate antropic din cadrul bazinului minier Petroşani, Teză de doctorat, Universitatea din Petroşani, Facultatea de Mine, Petroşani. Pop P.Gr. (2006), Carpaţii şi Subcarpaţii României, Edit. Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca. Tufescu V., Mocanu C. (1964), Depresiunea Petroşanilor-Valea Jiului, Editura Ştiinţifică, Bucureşti. Vlaicu Popa M.E., Pleşea V., Nimară C. (2013), The Concept of Sustainable Development Through Economic Growth and Diversification of the Labour Market in the Industrial Areas Affected by Restructuring, Annals of the „Constantin Brâncuşi” University of Târgu Jiu, Economy Series, Issue 3/2013, Târgu-Jiu. Wang Y., et al. (2001), Landscape ecological planning and design of degraded mining land, Land degradation and development. *** (1987), Geografia României III, Carpaţii Româneşti şi Depresiunea Transilvaniei, Editura Academiei RSR, Bucureşti. *** (2010), Planul de amenajare a teritoriului zonal Valea Jiului. *** www.google.com/earth
Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online July 17, 2015 November 17, 2015 December 07, 2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 276-286 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252115-700
CRUISE SHIP TOURISM ON THE DANUBE RIVER. CASE STUDY: CAPITALIZATION OF DELTAIC TOURISM POTENTIAL
Elena IRINCU University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning – PhD candidate, 1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
Rodica PETREA University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning – CSAT, 1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
Norbert RACZ University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning – PhD candidate, 1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
Angela BULZAN (SAV) University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning – PhD candidate, 1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
Luminița FILIMON University of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning – CSAT, 1 University St., 410087, Oradea, Romania, e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: Over the past two decades, river cruise tourism has witnessed a strong development, being preferred by more tourists each year, to the detriment of other forms of tourism. The presence of a plethora of attractive resources, concentrated along the inland waterways represents a particular offer for tourism development, through proper planning. However, in Romania, river cruise tourism is still incipient, even though cruises on the Danube are available, on a regular basis, since the 1970s. This research focuses on cruise ship tourism on the Danube, in particularly on the deltaic sector; with the Romanian ship MS Delta Star as a case study. Following, a brief presentation of the evolution of this type of tourism on the Danube River and its peculiarities on the Romanian sector, especially in the Danube Delta, was made. The assessment framework of the tourism potential of the Danube Delta at the level of administrative-territorial units was developed by applying the methodology from the National Spatial Plan. After correlating the results of the assessment with the current capitalization of tourism potential of the delta by the cruise ship included in the study, it is highlighted the need for optimizing the structure of the offer for this tourism sector. Identifying the most valuable elements of the Danube Delta, in terms of touristical attractions,
Corresponding Author http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
Cruise Ship Tourism on the Danube River. Case Study: … 277
and including them to future itineraries for tourists on cruise ships guarantees a better capitalization of the tourism potential attracting therefore, a greater number of tourists.
Key words: MS Delta Star, Danube Delta, assessment of touristic potential
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INTRODUCTION Along the rivers concentrates significant natural and anthropogenic resources that are increasingly capitalized for tourism purposes as well. Adequate planning ensures for certain, their efficient capitalization and an important flow of tourists. Cruise tourism has experienced significant growth lately (Dowling, 2006) and recent studies show that the development of this type of tourism will be even more significant in the future (Parker, 2013; Gogonea & Zaharia, 2013). Worldwide cruise ship tourism on inland waterways is mainly focused on three centers: in Europe, in Africa, on the Nile River and in Asia on Yangtze River (Dragin et al., 2009). In Europe, the Danube is the river with the densest traffic of cruise ships, which increases year by year. Only in 2009, from the 209 cruise ships operating in Europe, 115 were traveling on the Danube (Market observation for Inland Navigation in Europe, 2010). In Romania, a country that has 1075 km of the lower Danube and presents a high potential for cruise ship tourism development, this economic branch does not have the same success as in other European countries. Cruises on Danube are intended especially for foreign tourists although, lately, an attempt to launch it on the Romanian market was made. 1 The main cause remains the inadequate capitalization of the valuable and unique resources, such as those that can be found in the Danube Delta. Therefore, this paper focuses on analyzing the peculiarities of cruise tourism on the Danube, with a case study underlying the touristical offer of MS Delta Star cruise ship in the Danube Delta. Following the assessment of tourism potential of the Danube Delta we propose the improvement of the touristical offer structure, by identifying and incorporating the most valuable sources of attraction in the delta, to the proposed itineraries for tourists on cruise ships.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Since the purpose of the paper is to identify the most valuable elements for touristic attraction throughout the delta and to include them to the proposed itineraries for the cruise ship tourists, an assessment of the tourism potential of the delta was made. Therefore, it is necessary to undertake a method for tourism potential assessment that allows us to estimate the value of tourism resources in the Danube Delta Region. Nevertheless, the assessment highlights the extent of the current capitalization of the touristic resources by MS Delta Star cruise ship passengers. In the literature there are various methods to assess tourism potential (Șandru, 1970; Iordan & Nicolescu, 1971; Ciangă, 1998; Cocean, 1999; Ielenicz & Comănescu, 2006, 2009; Iațu & Bulai, 2011), that considers from a different perspective the criteria for assessment, but each of these methods presents difficulties when it comes to applying them (Ivana, 2012). In the same time, in recent years, a great number of studies focused on the assessment of touristic potential of a region or another, for different purposes (Bențe & Bențe, 2010; Cocean, 2010; Ciurea et al., 2011;
1http://www.wall-street.ro/articol/Turism/182911/turistii-romani-pot-calatori-in-premiera-in-croaziere-all-inclusive-de-7- nopti-pe-dunare.html 278 Elena IRINCU, Rodica PETREA, Norbert RACZ, Angela BULZAN, Luminiţa FILIMON
Letos & Muntele, 2011; Boengiu, 2012; Ivana, 2012; Bâtea, 2014; Cocean, 2014) and several doctoral thesis focused their analysis on this concept as well. The methodology undertaken in the study is based on the National Spatial Plan (2007), drafted by the Ministry of Tourism and Public Works and represents an analysis of the tourism potential at country level, based on quantitative indicators. The items considered for tourist zoning of the national territory are natural tourism potential, anthropic tourism potential, general infrastructure and specific tourism infrastructure. The assessment was made at ATU level according to the methodology outlined in the National Spatial Plan. Following this analysis, it was noted that this methodology has a more general character; in order to apply it properly for the studied area, some adjustments were made. Therefore, tourism potential was estimated by summing the values of natural tourism potential (40 points) and anthropic tourism potential (20 points) with specific tourism infrastructure (20 points) and technical infrastructure (20 points), after the method presented by Albu (2007). In the same time some items that were under analysis in the original methodology have undergone some adjustments as well. Within the natural touristic resources, for the natural framework a total of nine elements: topography, the existence in ATU of natural attractions - scientific reserves and nature’s monuments, clime, hydrography, forests (and endemic flora), natural reserves, fauna, landscape were analysed. To all these was added an indicator on pollution (Boengiu, 2012). In assessing the anthropic potential, indicators of cultural-historic potential (architectural monuments, memorials, museums, cultural events, traditional gastronomy, traditional customs and festivals) were assessed. It is necessary to specify that for some of the indicators in this section the approach was based on the National Register of Historic Monuments. The results of resource assessment were classified according to the score obtained by each component. A hierarchy of the administrative units in the Delta was distinguished, highlighting three classes of values, medium potential (25-50 points), high potential (50-75 points) and very high or extraordinary potential (75-100 points).
EVOLUTION OF CRUISE SHIP TOURISM ON THE DANUBE RIVER The European rivers have always been transport corridors for economic or touristic purposes, and cruise ship tourism is nowadays the main form of tourism that takes place on rivers (Erfurt-Cooper, 2009). Forming the northern border of the Roman Empire and used for trade, transport and energy, Danube has kept its position of major economic corridor along the centuries (Erfurt-Cooper, 2009). The second longest river in Europe crosses, along the 2857 km, no less than 10 states, four capital cities, 19 European countries being tributaries of the Danube’s basin. Hence, the interest in cruise tourism has grown each year, for example, the demand in cruises on the Danube increased by 20% between 2003 and 2004 (Dickinger & Zins, 2006). A 2010 report, Market observation for Inland Navigation in Europe, notes that the Danube and the Rhine are the most important rivers in the European cruise market, followed by Moselle, Main, Elbe, Rhone, Seine and Saone (Market observation for inland navigation in Europe, 2010). The same report mentions that, of the 209 cruise ships operating in Europe at that time 96% were found on these rivers, the remaining 4% were operating on rivers in Spain, Portugal, Italy, Poland and Sweden (Market observation for inland navigation in Europe, 2010). Cruise Ship Tourism on the Danube River. Case Study: … 279
Regular ship traffic on the Danube has been ongoing since 1696, the first route being Passau - Vienna (Skoff, 2010). In 1818 the first steamship sailed on the Danube (between Vienna and Linz), which led to the creation of the first package tour in 1830 (Danube Tourist Commission) and first „all inclusive” Danube cruise package in 1886 (Skoff, 2010). Thus began the era of river transportation for tourism purposes, facilitated by the first convention that guarantee the free movement along the river since 1838 (Reinalda, 2009). Inland waterway traffic has increased significantly in the last two decades, from 13 cruise ships in 1992 to 75 vessels and 140,000 passengers in 2003, reaching 115 cruise lines and 220,000 passengers in 2009 (Danube Tourist Commission; Skoff, 2010). Table 1 captures the annual evolution of passenger and cruise ships on the Danube River; in only 12 years the number doubled, reaching 155 ships and 300,000 passengers in 2014 (Buchmüller, 2015). Following the construction of the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal in 1992, the number of cruises has grown each year, and the Danube has become navigable on more than 87% of its total length (Danube Region Strategy).
Table 1. Annual number of cabin cruises and passengers on Danube River between 2002 and 2014 2 (Data source: Skoff, 2010; Buchmüller, 2015) Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2014 Cabin cruisers 60 75 84 99 101 105 109 115 155 Passengers 119 140 150 155 190 196 214 220 300 (thousands)
The first tourist packages for cruises on the Danube developed by a Romanian travel agency were launched only in 2000 (Gherțoiu, 2014), and the first Romanian vessel performing cruises on the Danube and on international waters after 1990 is the ship „Prince Constantin” (Mazilu, 2012), relaunched in 1991 under the name of Delta Star. Despite all this, the product has not been sold for the Romanian tourists, not until 2015 when is launched the first cruise intended to fill this gap, on the route Fetești - Mila 23 - Sulina. 3 On the Romanian sector of the Danube (on which are located 115 villages and 20 cities) cruise ships stop at the Iron Gates, in the Danube Gorge, at Giurgiu, where the passenger are transported to Bucharest (optional trip) and at Tulcea, Mila 35 and Sulina, where tours of varying lengths are organized in order to visit the Danube Delta.
MS DELTA STAR CRUISE SHIP Danube Delta holds a great and diversified tourism potential. The unique landscape, mosaic of ecosystems, several archeological vestiges, historical and architectural monuments, ethnographic and cultural elements but also gastronomy, are only few of the landmarks that emphasizes the uniqueness of the Danube Delta and its relevance, as one of the most representative tourism area of our country. Moreover, it is one of the areas that recorded annually, a growing number of tourists, especially foreigners. Bucurescu (2011) illustrates the dynamics of tourism in the Danube Delta, noting that a
2 www.icpdr.org 3 http://www.wall-street.ro/articol/Turism/182911/turistii-romani-pot-calatori-in-premiera-in-croaziere-all-inclusive-de-7- nopti-pe-dunare.html 280 Elena IRINCU, Rodica PETREA, Norbert RACZ, Angela BULZAN, Luminiţa FILIMON number of indicators (number of tourist structures, the number of accommodation units, etc.) of tourism in the area doubled between 2001 and 2009 (Bucurescu, 2011). The cruise ship MS Delta Star, along with MS Danube Star cruise ship is among the first Romanian ships performing cruises on the Danube River. The river cruise ships owned by „Steaua Dunarii Turism International” are the only Romanian passenger ships operating at this moment. MS Delta Star has a length of 107.3 m, width of 12.8 m and height above water reaches 7.3m. The vessel has an accommodation capacity of 170 passengers in 88 rooms, which are served by 50-54 crew members. Most tourists on MS Delta Star are from german-speaking countries, especially Germany, and 80% of the tourists are seniors, aged between 55 and 90 years old. River cruises are organized from early April to late October of each year. MS Danube Star cruises from Passau (Germany) / Engelhartszell (Austria), depending on water levels of the Danube in Passau, to Budapest and back through Melk - Vienna - Bratislava. The entire trip takes about a week. MS Delta Star cruises 2.227 kilometers on the Danube, from Passau / Engelhartszell to the Danube Delta and back, through Melk - Vienna - Bratislava - Budapest - Mohacs - Belgrade - Novi Sad – Iron Gates - Giurgiu (optional transfer to Bucharest for sightseeing) - Ruse and Mila 35 in the Danube Delta (15 days in total). Further, the passengers have the option go on trips with smaller ships in the Danube Delta, on two routes, route 1 (1-4 hrs), Sfantu Gheorghe Branch - Tulcea - North Sireasa and back, or on the 2nd route (1 - 5.3 hrs), Tulcea - Mila 35 - Sireasa - Trofilca - Nebunu Lake - Periteasca - Mila 35 and back to Tulcea.
ASSESSMENT OF TOURISM POTENTIAL IN THE DANUBE DELTA ASSESSMENT OF NATURAL TOURISTIC POTENTIAL Danube Delta’s outstanding and diverse natural landscape makes it one of the most important regions for the preservation of biodiversity in south-eastern Europe. The traditional deltaic landscape is a mosaic of different biotopes, continental levees, river sandbanks (fluvial and fluvial-marine levees), a complex network of river channels, lakes and swamps that create valuable habitats for a large number of fauna species. In addition, the vegetation has created an outstanding landscape, through its uniqueness, density and valuable plant communities (Gâștescu & Știucă, 2008). All of these features create a spectacular deltaic landscape, and its complexity is reflected by the synergy of all physical-geographical factors. The assessment of the touristic potential of the natural environment was undertaken according to the role that the analyzed components may have in fostering tourism development. After applying the methodology and carrying out the corresponding analysis, it was revealed that the administrative-territorial units of the Danube Delta present a great natural touristic potential. The values assigned slightly vary from one ATU to another, depending on certain factors, better represented in some administrative units than in others (table 2). According to the analysis, a high potential, close to the maximum was noted in the ATUs that benefit of the presence of scientific reserves and monuments of nature (the 11 strictly protected areas). Thus, the ATUs that stood out are Sfântu Gheorghe (39 points), Chilia (38.5 points) and C.A. Rosetti (38.5 points).
ASSESSMENT OF ANTHROPIC TOURISTIC POTENTIAL Within the assessment of the tourism potential in the Danube Delta, the factors that determine the ranking of the ATUs are the anthropic resources and infrastructure assets, given the high value of the natural capital throughout the delta. In this regard Sulina, the only urban area in Cruise Ship Tourism on the Danube River. Case Study: … 281 the delta, stands out with a total of 17 points (table 2). This value is reflected in the diversity of architectural monuments (the Old Lighthouse, the Palace European Commission of the Danube etc.), commemorative monuments (multi-confessional cemetery - Muslim, Catholic, Hebrew, Orthodox and cosmopolite - notable figures for Sulina and of various nationalities) and cultural events.
ASSESSMENT OF SPECIFIC TOURISM INFRASTRUCTURE Tourism infrastructure represents an indicator that expresses the extent to which the touristic potential of a territorial unit is capitalized. This indicator can also provide other information, especially about the social and economic components of the territorial unit and it is a key factor underlying the development of tourism activities (Cocean & Deszi, 2009). From the analysis performed it was revealed that tourism infrastructure is relatively well represented in the Danube Delta, but there are significant differences between the basic territorial units. Thus, in the ATUs located in the northern part of the delta, the accommodation offer is very limited, lacking in almost all ATUs, except Chilia, where the obtained score is also very low (3.5 points) (table 2). In the southern part of the delta tourism infrastructure is well represented, the highest score was registered in Sulina (15.5 points) and Crisan (12.5 points). Thus, the predominant tourism infrastructures are the boarding houses (Chilia Veche) and three star hotels (Sulina and Crisan).
ASSESSMENT OF TECHNICAL INFRASTRUCTURE The lack of certain infrastructure elements (communication routes, public utilities, telecommunications) in the territory leads to the inhibition of local development in general, and the tourism industry in particular. The physical and geographical characteristics of the Danube Delta do not allow construction of major road infrastructure.
Table 2. Tourism potential at ATU level in Danube Delta (Data source: author’s calculation based on the National Spatial Plan methodology) Natural Anthropic Danube Delta Specific tourism Technical touristic touristic Total ATU infrastructure infrastructure potential potential Ceatalchioi 30.5 2 0.5 3.5 36.5 Chilia Veche 38.5 2 3.5 4.6 48.7 Pardina 30.5 2 0.5 4 37 C.A. Rosetti 38.5 2 0.5 2.5 43.5 Crișan 38.5 3 12.5 5.8 59.8 Maliuc 36.5 2 9 5.2 52.7 Sf. Gheorghe 39 3 10.5 9.5 62 Sulina 35 17 15.5 12.5 80 Score 40 20 20 20 100
The communal roads inside the delta are inadequate and most of them become impracticable at certain times because they depend on water levels in the delta. The only existing roads connect, on the southern bank of Chlia eight villages (Pătlăgeanca, Sălceni, Ceatalchioi, Plauru, Pardina, Tatanir, Ostrovu Tătaru, Câșlița), in the eastern part of the delta, a road connecting four other villages (Periprava, Letea, CA Rosetti, Sfiştofca, Cardon) and one city 282 Elena IRINCU, Rodica PETREA, Norbert RACZ, Angela BULZAN, Luminiţa FILIMON
(Sulina), a communal road that connects Sulina - Sf. Gheorghe on the marine levee, and the shortest route in the delta linking two villages, Crişan and Caraorman. The assessment of this indicator assigned the highest score to Sulina due to its virtue as maritime and fluvial port, as well as for the urban and communication infrastructure which are satisfactory compared with other localities in the delta. The minimum score reveals the low potential of technical infrastructure particularly in the villages CA Rosetti (2.5 points), Ceatalchioi (3.5 points) Pardina (4 points), Chilia Veche (4.6 points) (table 2).
TOURISM POTENTIAL CAPITALIZED BY MS DELTA STAR CRUISE SHIP Tourism resources and infrastructure analysis provides an overview of the tourism potential of the Danube Delta. The sum of the scores obtained from the evaluation of natural resources, anthropic resources, specific touristic infrastructure and technical infrastructure, emphasizes the potential for tourism development of the administrative-territorial units in the studied area. According to the performed assessment, a hierarchy of the ATUs was established, based on the potential for tourism development (figure 1). The administrative-territorial units of the Danube Delta falls into the following categories: ATUs with very high or extraordinary potential (Sulina), ATUs with high potential (Sf. Gheorghe Crisan, CA Rosetti, Maliuc, Chilia Veche) and ATUs with medium potential (Ceatalchioi, Pardina) (figure 1).
Figure 1. Tourism potential at ATU level in Danube Delta (Data source: based on the table 1)
After eight days of navigating on the Danube, the ship MS Delta Star, ends its route at the entrance to the Danube Delta, at Mila 35, where starts back towards Passau/ Engelhartszell. The vessel cannot forward into the delta, mainly because of the low levels of Danube during the drought, but also due to some administrative aspects. Cruise Ship Tourism on the Danube River. Case Study: … 283
Figure 2. Tours in the Danube Delta available for the MS Delta Star passengers (Data source: PATZ Danube Delta and Ortofoto 2010) 4
4 http://geoportal.ancpi.ro/geoportal/viewer/index.html 284 Elena IRINCU, Rodica PETREA, Norbert RACZ, Angela BULZAN, Luminiţa FILIMON
Accessing the package that includes the incursion into the Danube Delta is made by passengers before and during the cruise. In general, even if they are elderly persons the passengers are interested in visiting the delta, hoping to observe, besides the wonderful landscapes the typical deltaic fauna as well. The organized tours have a length of 1-4 hours (1st tour) and 1-5 hours (2nd tour). The route is Tulcea – Sf Gheorghe branch – Sireasa- Tulcea and Tulcea- Sf. Gheorghe branch - Mila 35 – Trofilca - Sireasa - Suntea - Nebunu Lake- Periteasca - Lunca - Mila 35 and Tulcea (figure 2). The routes available for the MS Delta Star passengers are illustrated above (figure 2) and it is clear that the two routes include only to some extent attractions of great value in the delta. The current capitalization of tourism potential is carried out on a relatively negligible area, both quantitatively and qualitatively. The current routes take place within an ATU with remarkable natural potential, but the experience in the delta of the passengers on the ship MS Delta Star doesn’t include any anthropic resources. The crossed path does not cover any traditional deltaic settlement and presents very low levels of infrastructure (both technical and touristic). Processing such an assessment of the tourist attractions enables an optimal selection and new itineraries might emerge. In order to properly capitalize the touristic resources the following are suggested: extending the time spent in the delta, to at least one or two days, for some of the most attractive resources to be visited; the development of alternative itineraries, preferably thematic itineraries, that will include the most valuable touristical attractions, revealed by the results of the assessments carried out; promoting the Danube Delta among the passengers and offering them adequate information during their journey to ensure appropriate route choice; development of tour packages that provide the possibility for constructing custom routes.
CONCLUSIONS Nowadays, inland waterway cruise tourism has witnessed a strong development, not that much in Romania, were is still incipient due to improper capitalization of valuable and unique tourism resources, such as those found in the Danube Delta. Danube cruises are organized from early April to late October of each year. The cruise ships MS Delta Star and MS Danube Star are the only Romanian cabin cruise ships on the Danube, navigating from Passau (Germany) / Engelhartszell (Austria) to the Danube Delta. The current capitalization of the tourist potential of the Danube Delta through the optional trip in the delta is performed on a relatively negligible perimeter, both quantitatively and qualitatively. The tours available for the MS Delta Star ship passengers have a length of 1-4 hours (1st tour) and 1-5 hours (2nd tour). The route is Tulcea - Sf. Gheorghe branch - Sireasa - Tulcea and Tulcea - Sf. Gheorghe branch - Mila 35 - Trofilca - Sireasa - Suntea - Nebunu Lake - Periteasca- Lunca - Mila 35 and Tulcea (figure 2). The analysis presented emphasizes that there is a poor correlation between the exceptional tourism potential of the Danube Delta and an adequate capitalization through the optional trips organised by MS Delta Star. The superficial capitalization of tourism resources in the delta does not provide outstanding experiences, to meet the expectations of tourists. To identify the most valuable attractions of touristic interest in the Delta and including them to the itineraries proposed for the tourists on cruise ships, an assessment of the tourism potential of the Danube Delta was processed, at ATU level, according to the methodology outlined in the National Spatial Plan. Following the application of the methodology described above and
Cruise Ship Tourism on the Danube River. Case Study: … 285 the related analysis was emphasized that the administrative-territorial unit of Danube Delta that has the greatest potential is Sulina, which this is not currently included in the organized tours. In order to properly capitalize the touristic resources, the ranking of tourist attractions enables their optimal selection and the inclusion in future itineraries for the cruise ships tourists. By identifying and including the most valuable resources of touristical attraction in the itineraries for river cruise ship tourists is facilitated the construction of a proper structure of the touristical offer in this industry.
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Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online November 05, 2015 November 27, 2015 December 11, 2015
Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Seria Geografie Year XXV, no. 2/2015 (December), pp. 287-298 ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409 Article no. 252116-701
USING CARTOGRAPHIC DOCUMENTS AND GIS FOR FOLLOWING THE EVOLUTION OF THE PONDS - AREA OF CEFA AND MĂDĂRAS COMMUNES - (BIHOR, ROMANIA)
Ribana LINC Universitaty of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning,g e-mail: [email protected]
Liviu BUCUR Universitaty of Oradea, Department of Geography, Tourism and Territorial Planning, e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: Starting from the problems of identifying some of the pond names in the Crisurilor Plain, which over time have been mentioned by various authors by different acronyms, we wanted to identify and locate them by studying maps and cadastral plans dating from the late 19th century until present. Using modern means of mapping (GIS) we superimposed a very wide range of cartographic materials and studied a wide range of textual documents that have succeeded to clarify the changes that these ponds have suffered over time.
Key words: cartography, Western Plains, hydrography, ponds,
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INTRODUCTION Crisurilor Plain has been a sector which favored the development of lacustrine basins. Due to an accumulation of natural factors (areas of almost flat land, often swampy, where groundwater is near to the surface, and the rainfall water stagnates a long time in micro-depressions, reduced possibilities of rivers to discharge water coming from flash floods - slow flowing and low transport capacity). Some anthropogenic causes were added (creating artificial obstacles in the river beds through water mills dams, hemp melt etc). Since the nineteenth century, has been added the construction of a dense network of canals with the main function to remove excess water, but which later on were to provide and supply water to lacustrine accumulations and to the former paddy fields, vegetable gardens or for irrigation purposes (Blidaru et al., 1962; Vancea, 1969; Măhăra, 1977; Pop, 2005). This area plains were taken up, especially in the second half of the twentieth century, in a vast dam and drainage building project after which most of them entered the agricultural circuit. However, „in some areas remaining with moisture excess, even after drainage works were carried out, a series of ponds were set up, among them standing out those of Cefa (about 700 ha), Inand, Homorog and Tămaşda (last in the Crisului Negru Plain), with intensive carp culture" (Pop, 2005). It should be mentioned that currently there are no rice fields, their place being taken between 1950-1960 by some of the ponds in question (Mărţihaz / Mădăras) or there are other categories of use of these lands. http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
288 Ribana LINC, Bucur LIVIU
In this paper we intend to look at the evolution of basins designed for fish farming in the lower plains of Salonta, following data from cartographic documents but also some textual sources, because at a certain point, looking at several information sources, we noticed they did not match, and on some maps that are currently in circulation (publicly or operated by local county governments) there are inaccuracies. The accumulation that drew our attention and over which hangs a hint of general bewilderment is „Inand" and which in the A.B.A. Cris (Oradea) (by Oradea Crisuri Waters Administration) current documents appears to be non-permanent, but some thematic maps in use, show it as a water surface. The other reservoirs designed for fish farming (Cefa, Mădăras, Mărţihaz, Homorog) are presented with variable surfaces from one source to another. Table 1 shows the data heterogeneity, but we have also found that there is some confusion about hydronyms that generated the current ambiguous situation. After consulting a series of documents and maps, a number of inaccuracies were found. Thus, on the territory of Cefa commune, there appears a pond (pond, lake) „Inand" with a large surface and permanent water surface, although there is no such an accumulation in that location and the documents of ABA Cris - Oradea shows a non-permanent water surface that covers an area of more than 200 ha farm land. Another inconsistent element appears on the territory of Mădăras commune, where a pond with a fairly large area, positioned to the south of Radvan forest, has different names, Mădăras or Mărţihaz or Rădvani (?), or maybe, at some point, the name „Inand" might have also referred to this pond (although the areas which appear in the literature are different from smaller to larger). There are also still a lot of pools on these maps, taken from topographic maps, that have no longer water. Based on the premise that the map is not any conventional image, but a means of transmitting dimensions and various information and must convince the user that they are accurate, we are trying to clarify the situation and, as far as possible, to convince the authors of those maps to make the necessary corrections.
Table 1. Surfaces of lacustrine basins (ha) used for intensive fish farming in the area Cefa-Mădăras, from different sources Gr. Pop, Orthophoto Name of V. Rusu Ig.Berindei A.B.A.- map Building Gr. Posea ponds (1968), Gr. Pop Crişuri, Internet (GIS year1 (1997) P. Gâştescu (1972) Oradea calculated (1971) area, ha) Cefa 1905-1945 598 670 670 735,8 598 521,9 Complex expansion Non- permanent Inand 1981 - 164 200 acummulati 164 Farmland on (257 ha) Interval Cogged up, Mărţihaz 1950-1960 - - - 215,0 - farmland ? Interval Mădăras 1950-1960 30 30 30 30 - ? Homorog 1960 95 105 105 104,75 95/105 19,17
MATERIAL AND METHODS The work methodology was based on the use of existing cartographic documents we had access to, topographic maps (1962, reprinted in 1996), a 1:10 000 scale topographic plan, thematic maps in circulation, data from ABA-Cris (Oradea ) and the communes Cefa and Mădăras GUPs (2000 and 2007) and ended with the study of the orthophotomap (2009, 2010). In parallel, we also
1 By ABA Crişuri-Oradea Using Cartographic Documents and GIS for Following the Evolution… 289 looked at written information provided by textual references (Galatz, 1896; Blidaru et al. 1962; Vancea, 1969; Pop, 1968; Măhăra,1977; Gâştescu,1971; Posea, 1977; Caraiman, 1995; Crișan, 2007), but we have talked with the fish farming engineers and with inhabitants of the two villages.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Brief presentation based on textual bibliography In 1962 a team of hydrologists published a monograph of the hydrological improvement works in Romania, but for the Crisurilor Plain only the works on dams and canals were presented (Blidaru et al., 1962). Between 1968 -1977, a few geographers from Oradea, joined by P. Gâştescu and Gr. Posea, published papers that contain different drawings for the area in question. Thus: - in 1968, Gr. P. Pop and Viorica Rusu wrote an article that presented an outline of the positions of fish ponds which shows unequivocally the existence of four fish accumulation (figure 1): Cefa Mădăras taking, Homorog; - 1971, P. Gâştescu, presenting the ponds in Salonta Plain, shows an outline similar to that of Gr. P. Pop, with four „artificial lakes" Cefa Mădăras, Inand, Homorog (figure. 2); - in 1972, Ig. Berindei and Gr. P. Pop, presenting the Bihor County hydrography, dedicate several lines to this area which presents again four lakes (Cefa, Mădăras, Inand, Homorog); - later, in 1977, Gh. Măhăra, when presenting the hydrography of the Crisurilor Plain has another drawing, on which only three lakes appear (figure 3): L. Cefa L. Inand, L. Homorog; - there are also references to this complex made by Gr. Posea (1977), but only textually, without any drawings: „Cefa lake complex (670 ha) with 16 lakes, complex Inand (200 ha), lakes from Mădăras (30 ha), Homorog (105 ha)".
Figure 1. Location of fisheries in Crisurilor Plain in 1967 Figure 2. Artificial Lakes in Crişurilor Plain (Source: Gr. P.Pop, Viorica Rusu, 1968) (Source: P. Gâştescu, 1971) 290 Ribana LINC, Bucur LIVIU
We have found no other references in technical literature, to these fish farming water accruals, until 1995 when Gh. Caraiman published a monographic work on intensive fish farming in the Crișurilor Plain. Here, there is a drawing showing the „location of fish farms in the Crișurilor Plain, belonging to the Întreprinderea Piscicolă Cefa" where, just to make things even more complicated, three such ponds are located: Cefa Homorog and ... Rădvani (!) (figure 4). The information on the internet, present the same lacustrine basins and areas taken from the authors mentioned above. In 2007, I. Crișan published a historical work dedicated to Cefa, where he briefly reviewed the natural environment, but refers only to Cefa Fishery Complex.
Presentation of the cartographic material It is generally known that Crisurilor Plain was covered by numerous marshes, some with very large areas. A Franciscan map (1863), highlights the hydrographic situation of the land at that time. The area of interest is studded by numerous swamps, strongly meandering courses of the main brooks, but there were also representations of some early hydrological works (sectors of dams along currently overflowing rivers, especially for the protection of the cores of the villages). These territories, like the whole Crisului Plain, experienced catastrophic flooding over villages and inhabitants in the years: 1864, 1869, 1871, 1873, 1874, 1875 (Gallacz, 1896).
Figure 4. Location of fish farms in Crisurilor Figure 3. Waters of the Crisurilor Plain Plain, belonging to I.P. Cefa (Source: Gh. Măhăra, 1977) (Source: Gh. Caraiman, 1995)
Between 1884 - 1886 very detailed plotting plans were made for the whole territory under study. From these plans we can see that land surfaces occupied today by lacustrine areas, were then grazing fields, called Rădvani Puszta. The territorial administrative units at the time were differently shaped than they are at the present, which is why we considered useful for their reconstruction based on cartographic materials, to observe how they could influence the name of the units lacustrine that were to be established (figure 5). The master drawing plans for the two communes bring nothing new to the content of the old maps. In addition, a sheet of the map showing the western area of the communes was drawn in 1921 and two sheets, showing the eastern part of the area were carried out in 1953, so we gave up using them.
Using Cartographic Documents and GIS for Following the Evolution… 291
Figure 5. Reconstitution of territorial administrative boundaries of 1886 based on cadastral plans made during 1884 -1886
CEFA
MĂDĂRAS
Figure 6. Sample from the topographic map at scale 1: 25 000 (year 1996) with some of the ponds on it
292 Ribana LINC, Bucur LIVIU
Figure 7. Fragment of the territory of Cefa and Figure 8. Fragment of the territorry of Cefa and Mădăras communes on the black and white Mădăras communes topographic map at scale 1: 25 000 (year 1962) on the cadastral map at scale 1:50 000 on which the former rice padddies ae marked...some of them converted to ponds
Figure 9. Fragment of the territoy of Cefa and Mădăras communes on the topographic plan at scale 1:10 000 Using Cartographic Documents and GIS for Following the Evolution… 293
The next cartographic document used is the scale 1:25 000 topographic map (1996) (figure 6). On this map, three longitudinally disposed lacustrine accumulations are highlighted, but none of them is named: the northern one is without any doubt Cefa, the southern one is Homorog and we can assume that the one in the middle is Mărţihaz. Another, small, accumulation is shown between Cefa and Mărţihaz, but close to the village Inand there is only a small blue spot (possibly a very small „pond"), which keeps the question on: why in the textual bibliography Inand pond appears with an area of about 200 ha?! (see table 1). And another question: where is the pond Mădăras? However, on the black and white topographic map of 1962, to the north of Mărţihaz (?) accumulation, there are large areas planted with rice (figure 7), the elderly villagers with whom we spoke, as well as a local fish farming engineer, told us that at some point just north of the current accumulation Mărţihaz (?), a paddy had been converted into a pond which was called Mădăras (!) with an area of about 40 hectares and belonging to CAP (Collective Agricultural Cooperative) Mădăras. After learning this, we looked on the cadastral map of 1979 at scale 1: 50 000 (figure 8) and, it appears indeed marked, a small reservoir north of the median pond (Mărţihaz?) which had a smaller area at that time. Further on, we took the topographic plan at scale 1: 10 000 (1971) (figure 9) and for the first time, there appears a fishpond called Mădăras (!!!), but which is actually the median accumulation on the other maps, only here it has a name. On the hydrographic map of Bihor County (1982), at scale 1: 200 000 we found another inconsistency: Cefa lake complex is called „Inand enclosure" but the median lake has a name this time (Mărţihaz enclosure) (figure 10).
Figure 10. Fragment of the territory of Cefa and Mădăras communes On the hydrographic map of Bihor County (year 1982) 294 Ribana LINC, Bucur LIVIU
Also in 1982, OCAOTA (Directorate General for Agriculture and Food Industry Bihor - Office of Cadastre and Land Management and crop rotation) produced plans at scale 1:10.000. These plans aimed at mapping the use of land (Land Cadastre). Here, we can see that what is called „Mărţihaz enclosure" on the hydrographic map, on these plans are called Mădăras fishery and for the first time, the name Rădvani appears (figure 11). The total area of lacustrine basin is 210 ha. As we approached the present times, we looked at the GUPs of the two communes, at the integration into the administrative area (figure 12). On the territory of Cefa, the little accumulation in the vicinity of the village Inand can no longer be seen in the drawings and on the territory of Mădăras commune (figure 13), the situation is unchanged, it is still not clear whether the fish farming pond southern to Rădvani forest is called Mărţihaz or has another name (Rădvani fishery is the name that also circulates). But because topographical background is given by the map of 1962, the former rice paddies can be seen.The last cartographic document we are using is the orthophoto mapping (the year 2009 for the northern half and 2010 for the southern one) (figure 14). Watching satellite imagery, things partly clarify: there is no pond close to the village Inand (yet, there is a small „pond", but irrelevant), the presence of crop land is clear.
Figure 11. Fragment of map, scale 1:10 000 made by OCAOTA in 1982 Using Cartographic Documents and GIS for Following the Evolution… 295
Figure 12. Drawn piece from Cefa commune GUP (year 2000)
Figure 13. Drawn piece taken from the GUP of Mădăras commune (year 2007)
Then, in terms of the median accumulation (Mărţihaz?), we have found that, for now, it has no water, and the accumulation Homorog is in place. Also, the many small ponds that appear on 296 Ribana LINC, Bucur LIVIU topographical maps and have been taken (by virtue of inertia?) later on various thematic maps, over time they went eutrophic and clogged or were drained, entering the agricultural circuit.
Figura 14. Identification of actual water basins on the area of Cefa and Mădăras communes, using orthophotomap
CONCLUSIONS Following the several pages and cartographic images presented, we can draw the following conclusions: - by some local and county government offices there are thematic maps with location and toponymy problems for the area of Cefa and Mădăras communes, and from here, in various ways, reached wider circulation; - literature still persists in ambiguity regarding the hydronyms „Inand", „Mădăras", „Mărţihaz", „Rădvani", which creates trouble locating them and perhaps led to the wrong elaboration of the thematic maps mentioned above; - topographic maps at different scales and GUPs of the two communes bring no further clarifications regarding the hydronyms mentioned; Using Cartographic Documents and GIS for Following the Evolution… 297
- we were able to identify Mădăras pond on the plan at scale 1: 10,000 (year 1971) which reads „Mădăras fishery", as well as drawings made in 1982 by OCOTA, but its position shows that it`s also about the median accumulation; - we couldn`t find any Inand accumulation on any map. Possibly, the median accumulation could have been called „Inand" at some time.... it`s absolutely, because this accumulation is one time referred to as having a large area (167 or 200 ha), and another time as having a small area (30 ha) (see table 1). The only certainty is that this accumulation is close to the village with the same name (Inand) where there is only a non-permanent accumulation with the role of mitigating floods; - moreover, even if Table 1 mentions five fishponds, on all cartographic images only three can be identified, certain as name are only Cefa and Homorog. We believe that all other hydronyms (Inand, Mădăras, Mărţihaz, Rădvani) refers to the median accumulation;
Figure 15. Elements of hydrography in Cefa and Mădăraş communes (Legend: roads, railroads, forest, non-permanent accumulation, mapped lakes, water surface, rivers, village core, administrative limits) 298 Ribana LINC, Bucur LIVIU
- the orthophotomap highlights the fact that, when photographing the land, terrain, only Cefa and Homorog complexes had water; - the surfaces of these lacustrine basins have varied over time, we believe because of the following reasons: - initially, Cefa complex had a smaller area (see Table 1), and afterwards it grew by taking in other lands with humidity excess, „... the first ponds (about year 1905, there is no documentary certainty) were designed to the limit of LIBARDI agricultural farm with an area of 150 ha, located to the west of the current fishery ...The area that would later take in the expanded farm, at the time, was planted with irrigated meadow" (Caraiman, 1995). - currently the fish farming have greatly diminished their water area due to technical reasons (for rotation - case of Cefa complex) or economic reasons, translated by unprofitable operation, in which the body of water started to push back (to clogging) by invading hard vegetation represented, especially, by reed and bulrush, such as Mărţihaz pond. Therefore, although we were on the field several times, talked to locals, officials from the two communities and with representatives of ABA Cris - Oradea as well as after studying older or newer bibliography, we have come to the strange (!) conclusion that the real situation is hardly known. At the end, we present a draft map (figure 15) that shows the current situation of these ponds, as we see it. We choose the name „Mărţihaz” for the median lacustrine basin, because it is located closer to the village with the same name than Mădăras village, although the literature does not really make use of this hydronym (except the „water cadastre"). The name „Rădvani" occurs sporadically in the literature and we believe it is desirable to eliminate (gradually) other parallel names, to avoid confusion. We are totally against the hydronym „Inand”, because on the territory of Cefa commune and in the proximity of Inand village there is no accumulation, and to transfer the designation to another commune is, at least, out of place.
REFERENCES
Aurel Anca (2008), Monografia comunei Dobreşti, judeţul Bihor, Editura Augusta Art Press, Timisoara. Berindei Ig., Pop P.Gr. (1972), Judeţul Bihor, Editura Acad. R.S.R., Bucureşti. Berindei Ig., Măhăra Gh., Pop P. Gr., Posea Aurora (1977), Câmpia Crişurilor, Crişul Repede, Ţara Beiuşului, Editura Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti. Blidaru V., Georgescu, I., Gheorghiu M., Vlădescu D. (1962), Hidroamelioraţiile în Republica Populară Romînă. Monografie, Ed. Agro-Silvică de Stat, Bucureşti. Caraiman Gh. (1995), Tradiţii şi experienţe în creşterea intensivă a peştilor de cultură din Câmpia Crişurilor, Muzeul Ţării Crişurilor, Oradea. Crişan I. (2007), Cefa. De la începuturi până în secolul al XVII-lea, Ed. Muzeului Ţării Crişurilor, Oradea. Gallacz I. (1896), Monografia lucrărilor de apărare a văii Crişurilor şi Bereteului, Manuscris, Arhiva Administraţiei Naţionale a Îmbunătăţirilor Funciare (ANIF), Direcţia Someş-Crişuri, Oradea. Gâştescu P. (1971), Lacurile din România. Limnologie regională, Ed. Acad. Republicii Socialiste România, Bucureşti Pop, P. Gr., Rusu, Viorica (1968), Consideraţii economico-geografice asupra pisciculturii din Câmpia Crişurilor, Lucr. Ştiinţ., vol. II, Inst. Ped. Oradea Pop, P. Gr. (2005), Dealurile de Vest şi Câmpia de Vest, Editura Universităţii din Oradea, Oradea. Posea Gr. (1997), Câmpia de Vest a României, Ed. Fundaţiei „România de Mâine”, Bucureşti. Vancea V. (1969), Influenţa factorului uman privind modificarea reţelei hidrografice în bazinul mijlociu şi inferior al Crişului Alb, Lucrorile Ştiinţifice, Seria A, Instutul Pedagogic, Oradea. *** (1962), Harta topografică la scara 1: 25 000, DTM, Bucureşti. *** (1996), Harta topografică la scara 1: 25 000, DTM, Bucureşti. *** (1971), Planul topografic la scara 1:10 000, Inst. de Geodezie, Fotogrammetrie, Cartografie şi Organizarea Teritoriului, Bucureşti. *** (1979), Harta cadastrală la scara 1:50 000, Inst. de Geodezie, Fotogrammetrie, Cartografie şi Organizarea Teritoriului, Bucureşti. *** (2000), Planul urbanistic general al comunei Cefa. Incadrarea în teritoriul administrativ, Primăria comunei Cefa. *** (2007), Planul urbanistic general al comunei Mădăras, Incadrarea în teritoriul administrativ, Primăria comunei Mădăras.
Submitted: Revised: Accepted and published online November 05, 2015 November 27, 2015 December 11, 2015
Book Review
GEORGE-BOGDAN TOFAN (2013) BILBOR COMMUNE. GEOGRAPHIC AND TOURIST MAP Scale: 1: 60 000, with text depicting the geographic features and touristic sites of the area, in Romanian and English, PrintPlazzaTypography, Cluj-Napoca, ISBN 978-973-0-14528-1.
GEORGE-BOGDAN TOFAN (2014) TULGHEŞ COMMUNE. GEOGRAPHIC AND TOURIST MAP Scale: 1: 50 000, with text depicting the geographic features and touristic sites of the area, in Romanian and English, PrintPlazzaTypography, Cluj-Napoca, ISBN 978-973-0-15599-0.
GEORGE-BOGDAN TOFAN, ADRIAN NIŢĂ (2015) BORSEC. GEOGRAPHIC AND TOURIST MAP Scale: 1: 30 000, with text depicting the geographic features and touristic sites of the area, in Romanian, English and Hungarian, DHM Typography, Bucureşti, ISBN 978-973-0-18656-7.
I would like to present the consecutive publication of three tourist maps that focus on a less „visible” area, the small depressions located within the Eastern Carpathians. This scientific endeavour, made by Lecturer George-Bogdan TOFAN, PhD, continues the theme and the region studied in his PhD thesis from 2012, titled „Depresiunile mici, factori şi componentă a umanizării (antropizării) Grupei Centrale a Carpaţilor Orientali. Studiu de caz: Componenta nordică a ulucului depresionar (Drăgoiasa- Glodu-Bilbor-Secu-Borsec-Corbu-Tulgheş)”, under the coordination of prof. Nicolae CIANGĂ, PhD, from the Faculty of Geography, „Babeş- Bolyai” University Cluj-Napoca. In 2013, after the publication of said study at the Presa Universitară Clujeană, the first tourist map, depicting the author’s place of birth (Bilbor commune), scale 1: 60 000, was printed. The map’s size is 48 x 68 cm, with five parallel and one perpendicular fold, at 11.5 x 24 cm. The main cover also contains a suggestive image, taken by the author, which emphasizes the central part of Bilbor Depression. Following a positive feedback, an year later (2014), with the support and financial backing of the local authorities of Tulgheş, the author managed to publish, at the PrintPlazza Press Cluj-Napoca, The Tourist Map of Tulgheş Commune, at a 1:50 000 scale, the cartographic material following the exact same model as the
http://istgeorelint.uoradea.ro/Reviste/Anale/anale.htm
300 Book Review previous map. The only difference is that the front cover contains the title in Romanian and English, as well as the coat of arms of Tulgheş. The front cover also contains a photograph, depicting the current view of the commune’s centre. The photo was taken in 2013, during a promotional project (triff.ro). In 2015 a third and last tourist map, that of Borsec, was published at DHM Bucureşti Press, being much more complex than the previous two, at a 1: 30 000 scale. The map size is still 48 x 68 cm, but its folding structure is different (17 x 24 cm). The co- author of this map is Lecturer Adrian NIŢĂ, who worked as a cartographer as well for all three cartographic materials. These maps were thought and designed to be easy to read, without an overload of conventional signs, thus enhancing the user experience. Each map contains an excellent medallion, at a large scale, which allows for an precise position of tourist sites. Furthermore, besides the graphical clarity and quality, there is a bilingual legend (Romanian/English), the different text fonts used and the proper colour pallette fulfilling not only the academic valences, but also the practical attributes of such material. Two of the three maps contain a small text on their backside regarding the geographic features and the touristic sites found in the area, in Romanian and English (Bilbor and Tulgheş), while the map for Borsec contains an additional body of text in Hungarian, as the settlement has a large Hungarian population. The translation into English was carried out by Bogdan-Nicolae PĂCURAR, PhD, while the translation into Hungarian (only for the tourist map of Borsec) by prof. Aladár FARKAS. The photographs were taken by János CSATLÓS. The main features presented are the natural touristic potential (geographic location, geological structure, terrain features, climate, hydrography, flora, fauna) as well as the man-made heritage and characteristics (population and settlements, access routes, accommodation, tourist trails), followed by a few references that captured different views of the area. I believe that all three maps have a positive practical impact, which can contribute to the development of spa and curative tourism as well as rural tourism (agricultural tourism) in the area. In the near future, the town of Borsec might even receive the long lost national interest resort certification, once the Multifunctional Spa Complex opens, which will provide, besides the usual treatment, possibilities for rest and relaxation for all people, all year round. Book Review 301
In conclusion, I would like to emphasize the importance and the integrated nature of these cartographic materials, with real and practical applications in territorial development and planning, and acting as genuine „visiting cards” for the promotion and increase of touristic visibility of the area, nationally as well as internationally, taking into account that the mineral water name of BORSEC is the strongest Romanian brand.
Martin Olaru, PhD
Departament of Geography
West University of Timişoara
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C O N T E N T S
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CORE AREA OF ILE-IFE, NIGERIA Adewale Olufunlola YOADE (Art#252101-681) ...... 137
TOWARDS A RESILIENT ENERGY SYSTEM IN EASTERN ROMANIA – FROM FOSSIL FUELS TO RENEWABLE
SOURCES Alexandru BĂNICĂ, Marinela ISTRATE (Art#252102-682) ...... 148
THE USAGE OF TECHNOLOGIES IN TERRESTRIAL MEASUREMENTS FOR HAZARD MAPS Dan VELE, Mircea ALEXE, Ioan STOIAN (Art#252103-671) ...... 157
THE DYNAMICS OF THE MINOR RIVERBED OF TESLUI RIVER IN RELATION TO THE HUMAN FACTOR (1910-
2008) - CASE STUDY: REȘCA - FĂRCAȘELE DE JOS SECTOR Gabriel VELCU, Gabriela Adina MOROȘANU (Art#252104-684) ...... 168
THE NATIONAL STRUCTURE OF MARAMUREŞ COUNTY AT THE 20TH OCTOBER 2011 CENSUS George-Bogdan TOFAN, Bogdan-Nicolae PĂCURAR, Adrian NIŢĂ (Art#252105-680) ...... 177
THE REGRESSION MODEL IN THE FORECAST OF TRAVEL DEMAND IN AKURE, NIGERIA Ogunbodede E.F., Ale A.S. (Art#252106-688) ...... 186
WINE ROAD - AN INSTRUMENT FOR THE VALORISATION OF WINE TOURISM POTENTIAL. CASE STUDY:
ALBA COUNTY VINEYARDS Mihaela UNGUREANU (Art#252107-683) ...... 195
ANALYSIS OF URBAN SPRAWL PHENOMENON IN BATNA CITY (ALGERIA) BY REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUE Hadda DRIDI, Abdelhalim BENDIB, Mahdi KALLA (Art#252108-689) ...... 211
TYPOLOGY OF WOODEN CHURCHES IN THE DRAINAGE BASINS OF MUREȘ AND ARIEȘ, ALBA COUNTY Ștefan BAIAS, Maria GOZNER, Grigore Vasile HERMAN, Florin Miron MĂDUȚA (Art#252109-696) ...... 221
CONTRIBUTION OF REMOTE SENSING IN THE ANALYSIS OF THE DYNAMICS OF CHOTTS AND SEBKHAS:
CASE OF THE ENDOREIC AREA OF GADAIN (NORTHEAST OF ALGERIA) Rabah BOUHATA, Mahdi KALLA, Aida BENSEKHRIA (Art#252110-690) ...... 234
AN ASSESSMENT OF HOUSING AND NEIGHBOURHOOD QUALITY CONDITION IN ILESA, NIGERIA Adewale Olufunlola YOADE, Olabisi Omowumi ADEYEMI, Babawale A. ADEYEMI (Art#252110-690) ...... 242
THE INFLUENCE OF FIRMS STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS ON THE DEGREE OF AGGLOMERATION
ECONOMIES ENJOYED AMONGST FIRMS IN THE LAGOS REGION, NIGERIA Adejompo FAGBOHUNKA (Art#252112-691) ...... 253
USING GIS FOR CAVES MODELLING AND ANALYSIS. THE STUDY CASE OF ANINA MINING AREA (BANAT
MOUNTAINS, ROMANIA) Laurențiu ARTUGYAN (Art#252113-698) ...... 261
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL SYSTEM’S VULNERABILITY OF THE EASTERN REGION OF PETROŞANI DEPRESSION
AND GENERATION OF CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTS BY THE COAL EXPLOITATION ACTIVITY Ciprian NIMARĂ, George-Bogdan TOFAN (Art#252114-685) ...... 269
CRUISE SHIP TOURISM ON THE DANUBE RIVER. CASE STUDY: CAPITALIZATION OF DELTAIC TOURISM
POTENTIAL Elena IRINCU, Rodica PETREA, Norbert RACZ, Angela BULZAN (SAV), Luminița FILIMON (Art#252115-700) ...... 276
USING CARTOGRAPHIC DOCUMENTS AND GIS FOR FOLLOWING THE EVOLUTION OF THE PONDS - AREA OF
CEFA AND MĂDĂRAS COMMUNES - (BIHOR, ROMANIA) Ribana LINC, Liviu BUCUR (Art#252116-701) ...... 287
Book review by Martin OLARU (Art#252217-686) ...... 299
ISSN 1221-1273, E-ISSN 2065-3409