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Key Personalities EVERY CITIZEN A SOLDIER: THE U.S. ARMY’S CAMPAIGN FOR UNIVERSAL MILITARY TRAINING FOLLOWING WORLD WAR II by William A. Taylor Bachelor of Science, May 22, 1998, United States Naval Academy Master of Arts, December 20, 1998, University of Maryland Master of Arts, May 16, 2003, Georgetown University Master of Philosophy, May 17, 2009, The George Washington University A Dissertation Submitted to The Faculty of Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 16, 2010 Dissertation Directed by Ronald H. Spector Professor of History The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University certifies that William A. Taylor has passed the final examination for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy as of March 22, 2010. This is the final and approved form of the dissertation. EVERY CITIZEN A SOLDIER: THE U.S. ARMY’S CAMPAIGN FOR UNIVERSAL MILITARY TRAINING FOLLOWING WORLD WAR II William A. Taylor Dissertation Research Committee: Ronald H. Spector, Professor of History, Dissertation Director Edward D. Berkowitz, Professor of History, Committee Member Leo P. Ribuffo, Professor of History, Committee Member ii © Copyright 2010 by William A. Taylor All rights reserved iii To my parents Richard A. Taylor and L. Diane Taylor iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many individuals have contributed to the completion of this work. I wish to acknowledge them. My dissertation advisor, Professor Ronald H. Spector, willingly gave his time and thoughtful advice to this project. My dissertation committee members Dr. Lawrence J. Korb and Professor Edward D. Berkowitz were both helpful. Dr. Korb graciously took time from his busy schedule at the Center for American Progress to participate in an academic process and provided helpful insight into the actual workings of defense policy. Professor Berkowitz provided his notes on Wilbur J. Cohen’s role on the President’s Advisory Commission on Universal Training and also imparted a fascination with Hollywood that I will take with me from the university. Professors Leo P. Ribuffo and William H. Becker served as additional readers and offered considerable guidance. My previous work at other institutions also helped to prepare me for this undertaking. Professor Jon T. Sumida at the University of Maryland, College Park taught me the rigors of deciphering policy choices and shaped my understanding of strategy— especially Clausewitz. Professor Craig L. Symonds at the United States Naval Academy first introduced me to historical scholarship. The staffs at various archives and libraries were helpful in guiding me through a maze of primary sources. Richard L. Boylan at the National Archives at College Park, Maryland, assisted me in getting started and introduced me to the pertinent Army records. Randy Sowell at the Harry S. Truman Library in Independence, Missouri, aided me in finding records detailing the inner workings of the Truman administration and the records of the President’s Advisory Commission on Universal Training. Two dear friends, Ronald P. Wisdom and Lieutenant v Commander Brian J. Haggerty, opened their homes to me during my research at the Truman Library. My parents, Richard A. Taylor and L. Diane Taylor, to whom I dedicate this work, offered immeasurable assistance throughout. Most importantly, my wife Renee deserves special thanks. She patiently endured not only my incessant fascination with events long past, but also my working full-time as well. As a result of both work and school, she shouldered an extra share of family responsibilities caring for our two wonderful children, Madison and Benjamin. She carried the burden gracefully and was a constant source of encouragement. Without her patience, this work never would have been completed. Even with such a supportive cast around me, I alone am responsible for any errors contained in this work. vi Abstract of Dissertation EVERY CITIZEN A SOLDIER: THE U.S. ARMY’S CAMPAIGN FOR UNIVERSAL MILITARY TRAINING FOLLOWING WORLD WAR II Beginning in 1943, U.S. Army leaders such as John M. Palmer, Walter L. Weible, George C. Marshall, and John J. McCloy mounted a sustained and vigorous campaign to establish a system of universal military training in America. Fearful of repeating the rapid demobilization and severe budget cuts that had accompanied peace following World War I, these Army leaders saw UMT as the basis for their postwar plans. As a result, they marketed UMT extensively and aggressively. The core justification for UMT was its strategic rationale based on improving mobilization through the creation of a General Reserve. However, boosters of UMT found that their attempts to overcome the objections voiced by many educators, labor leaders, and clergy often had unintended consequences. In 1945, the campaign became politicized as President Truman championed UMT for reasons that differed from the purely strategic conception Army leaders had created. President Truman portrayed UMT as improving national health, combating illiteracy, and inculcating citizenship. Army leaders focused their attention on establishing the UMT Experimental Unit at Fort Knox, Kentucky, to fine-tune implementation and to demonstrate the program’s utility to the nation. President Truman established a Presidential Advisory Commission composed of well-known civilians who unanimously advocated UMT. Focus then shifted to the potential impact UMT would have on American society. One specific example was concern over the program’s impact on race relations. Since Army leaders proposed the majority of the training camps in the South, vii critics questioned whether UMT would promote segregation in a new and unprecedented way. In 1948, the campaign for UMT climaxed as supporters attempted to seize on heightened international tensions as a rationale to pass UMT legislation without delay. Such appeals cut two ways. In the end, advocates had to admit that their primary goal contributed little to immediate national security. A weary but alarmed Congress approved selective service instead of UMT as the short-term answer for the Army’s manpower dilemma. This paradox resulted in advocates of UMT begrudgingly accepting selective service because it was the more efficient although less democratic option available. viii CONTENTS Dedication ........................................................................................................................ iv Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................. v Abstract of Dissertation .................................................................................................. vii Foreword ............................................................................................................................ x Key Personalities ......................................................................................................... xviii Timeline ......................................................................................................................... xxi List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................... xxii A Note on Sources ....................................................................................................... xxiii Chapter 1. A Grave Decision ...................................................................................................... 1 2. The Spirit of 1920 ................................................................................................... 25 3. The Basis for All Plans ........................................................................................... 44 4. Target No. 1: U.S.A. ............................................................................................... 54 5. Preaching the Gospel .............................................................................................. 67 6. A Pig in a Poke ..................................................................................................... 107 7. A Matter of Broad Policy ...................................................................................... 141 8. The Fort Knox Experiment ................................................................................... 162 9. A Program for National Security .......................................................................... 182 10. The Normal Way of Life ....................................................................................... 203 11. A Shock throughout the Civilized World ............................................................. 220 12. The Paradox of Preparedness ................................................................................ 248 Selected Bibliography .................................................................................................... 253 ix FOREWORD I often remember a story my grandfather told me when I was a child. As soon as America formally entered World War II, he wanted desperately to enlist. Being only seventeen years old, he had to obtain the approval of his parents. After a good deal of pleading and probably a little arm twisting, he finally convinced them to sign his paperwork and dutifully reported to the local recruiting office. After waiting in line for what seemed like hours, he finally made his way to the front where he timidly stood looking up at a raised table. It was from behind this fortified position that a board
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