2018 Vol. 54, No. 4 © Copyright by Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek Toruń 2018

ISSN 1732-6729

The hard copy is an original version

Prenumeratę instytucjonalną można zamawiać w oddziałach firmy Kolporter S.A. na terenie całego kraju. Informacje pod numerem infolinii 801 205 555 lub na stronie internetowej http://www.kolporter-spolka-akcyjna.com.pl/prenumerata.asp

WYDAWNICTWO ADAM MARSZAŁEK, ul. Lubicka 44, 87-100 Toruń tel./fax 56 648 50 70; tel. 56 660 81 60, 56 664 22 35 e-mail: [email protected] www.marszalek.com.pl

Drukarnia, ul. Warszawska 54, 87–148 Łysomice, tel. 56 678 34 78 CONTENTS

Stanisław Juszczyk Editor’s Preface �� 11

SOCIAL PEDAGOGY Jolita Dudaitė Literacy Change as a Result of the Education Reform: Comparison Among the Post-Soviet Countries �� 17 Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur Identity Behaviours of Australian and European Communities of Schools with Polish as the Teaching Language – a Comparative Study �� 29 Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Karina Leksy Cyberbullying as a New Problematic Behaviour Presented by Polish Youth �� 41 Hyoung-Jin Moon, Jong-ho Nam Study of the Effect of Chinese Confucian Ideas on Korean Youth Education and Culture and Teaching Method – Based on the Data of University Students �� 51 Katarzyna Kącka, Bartłomiej Michalak, Joanna Piechowiak-Lamparska Publication Effectiveness of Academia Employees in Poland: A Case Study �� 62 Anna Brosch Sharenting – Why Do Parents Violate Their Children’s Privacy? �� 75 Joanna Smyła The Professional Consequences of Shaping a Sexual Image Among Girls in the Social and Educational Processes �� 86 Katarzyna Krasoń Marginalisation of Culture and Aesthetics in the Polish School Seen through the Eyes of Its Students �� 98 4 Contents

Olena Lapuzina, Yuri Romanov, Lidiya Lisachuk Professional Ethics as an Important Part of Engineer Training in Technical Higher Education Institutions �� 110 Isiaka Abdulaziz, AlexanderOlushola Iyekolo, AbdulrasaqOlatunji Balogun Causes and Management Strategies of Violent Activities in Tertiary Education Institutions in North-Central Nigeria �� 122 Olena Ionova, Svitlana Luparenko, Wiktoriia Partola, Oksana Gres Waldorf Approaches to Organization of the Pedagogical Process and Their Influence on the Quality of Education of Ukrainian Junior Schoolchildren �� 135 Nuri Wulandari, Johan W de Jager Students’ Expectations of Higher Educational Experience in Public vs. Private Universities in Indonesia �� 146 Dorota Anna Siemieniecka, Bronisław Franciszek Siemieniecki Cyberspace in the Perspective of Cognitive Pedagogy �� 157

GENERAL DIDACTICS Beata Mazepa-Domagała Pictorial Preferences of Adults as Primary Intermediaries in the Contact Between a Child and an Illustration/Literary Illustration – Empirical Perspective �� 171 Myeong Hwan Kim, Yongseung Han, Sang Hyun Han Should We Let Them Play or Not? �� 182 Alicja Gałązka, Magdalena Trinder Creating a ‘Positive Environment’ Through Drama in the EFL Classroom �� 193 Amalija Žakelj Process Approach to Learning and Teaching Mathematics �� 206

PEDEUTOLOGY Jolanta Szempruch Feeling of Professional Burnout in Teachers of Secondary Schools �� 219 Contents 5

Roman Kroufek, Vlastimil Chytrý, Miriam Uhrinová The Effect of the Type of the Finished High School on the Nature Relatedness of Pre-service Primary Teachers �� 231

SPECIAL PEDAGOGY Robert Sabo, Katarína Vančíková, Terézia Vaníková, Denisa Šukolová Social Representations of Inclusive School from the Point of View of Slovak Education Actors �� 247

METHODOLOGY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES Stanisław Juszczyk A Role of Critical Questions in Preparing a Scientific Article �� 261 Slawomir Pasikowski The Problem of Matching Rating Scales in Educational Measurement of Variables Modelled as Sets of Oppositional Pairs �� 271

SOCIOLOGY Montserrat Simó-Solsona, Katarzyna Juszczyk-Frelkiewicz Welfare State Support for Families: a Comparative Family Policies Analysis in Poland and Spain �� 285

REVIEWERS Reviewers of the Manuscripts Sent from the Czech Republic, Poland, the Slovak Republic, and from the Whole World to “The New Educational Review” in 2018 �� 301

CONTRIBUTORS

Abdulaziz Isiaka PhD., Department of Social Sciences E-mail: abdulaziz.i@unilorin. Education, Faculty of Education, University edu.ng of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria Balogun PhD., Department of Social Sciences Abdulrasaq Education, Faculty of Education, University Olatunji of Ilorin, Ilorin Nigeria Borzucka- PhD., Dr hab., Department of Social E-mail: katarzyna.borzucka- Sitkiewicz Pedagogy, University of Silesia in Katowice, [email protected] Katarzyna Poland Brosch Anna PhD, Department of Early Education and E-mail: [email protected]. Media Pedagogy, University of Silesia in pl, Web Site: www.annabrosch. Katowice, Poland pl Chytrý Vlastimil PhD., Department of preschool & primary E-mail: [email protected], education, Faculty of Education, University Website: https://www.pf.ujep. of J. E. Purkyně, Ústí nad Labem, Czech cz/cs/kontakt/vlastimil-chytry Republic Dudaitė Jolita Mykolas Romeris University, Vilnius, Lithuania Gałązka Alicja PhD., Dr hab., Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland Han Sang Hyun PhD., Namseoul University, Seobuk-gu, Email: [email protected] Cheonan-si, Chungcheongnam-do, Republic of Korea Han Yongseung PhD., University of North Georgia, Email: yongseung.han@ung. Watkinsville, GA 30677, USA edu Ionova Olena Professor, PhD., Department of Natural- E-mail: elenaionova25@ukr. Mathematical Disciplines, Kharkiv net, H. S. Skovoroda National Pedagogical University, Kharkiv, Ukraine Iyekolo Alexander PhD., Department of Social Sciences Olushola Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria Juszczyk Professor, Faculty of Pedagogy and E-mail: stanislaw.juszczyk@ Stanisław Psychology, University of Silesia in us.edu.pl Katowice, Poland Juszczyk PhD., University of Silesia in Katowice, E-mail: katarzyna.juszczyk@ ‑Frelkiewicz Faculty of Social Sciences, Institute of us.edu.pl Katarzyna Sociology, Katowice, Poland Kącka Katarzyna PhD, Faculty of Political Sciences and E-mail: [email protected] International Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland 8 Contributors

Kim Myeong PhD., Purdue University Fort Wayne, Fort Email: myeonghwan.kim@ Hwan Wayne, IN 46805, USA pfw.edu Krasoń Katarzyna Professor, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland Kroufek Roman PhD., Department of preschool & primary E-mail: [email protected], education, Faculty of Education, University Website: https://www.pf.ujep. of J. E. Purkyně, Ústí nad Labem, Czech cz/cs/kontakt/roman-kroufek Republic Lapuzina Olena PhD., National Technical University E-mail: [email protected], Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute, Kharkiv, Website: http://web.kpi. Ukraine kharkov.ua/ken/60-2/ employees-of-the-department/ Leksy Karina PhD., Department of Social Pedagogy, E-mail: [email protected] University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland Lisachuk Lidiya PhD., National Technical University E-mail: lnlisachuk@gmail. Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute, Kharkiv, com, Website: http://web.kpi. Ukraine kharkov.ua/ken/60-2/ employees-of-the-department/ Luparenko PhD., Department of General Pedagogy E-mail: svetlana.luparenko@ Svitlana and Pedagogy of Higher Education, gmail.com Kharkiv H. S. Skovoroda National Pedagogical University, Kharkiv, Ukraine Mazepa- PhD., Dr hab., Faculty of Pedagogy and E-mail: beata.mazepa- Domagała Beata Psychology, University of Silesia in [email protected] Katowice, Poland Michalak Professor, Faculty of Political Sciences and E-mail: Bartlomiej.Michalak@ Bartłomiej International Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus umk.pl University, Toruń, Poland Moon PhD., Professor, DongDuk Women’s E-mail: [email protected] Hyoung‑Jin University, Seoul, South Korea Nam Jong-h PhD., Assistant Professor, Hankuk Univer- E-mail: [email protected] sity of Foreign Studies, Yongin, South Korea Ogrodzka-Mazur Prof. PhD., Dr hab., University of Silesia in E-mail: [email protected] Ewa Katowice, Faculty of Ethnology and Educational Science, Institute of Education, Poland Oksana Gres PhD Candidate, Department of Natural- E-mail: [email protected] Mathematical Disciplines, Kharkiv H. S. Skovoroda National Pedagogical University, Kharkiv, Ukraine Partola Viktoriia PhD Candidate, Department of Natural- E-mail: kumano.yoshisuke@ Mathematical Disciplines, Kharkiv shizuoka.ac.jp H. S. Skovoroda National Pedagogical University, Kharkiv, Ukraine, E-mail: [email protected] Contributors 9

Pasikowski PhD., Department of Educational Studies, E-mail: slawomir. Sławomir Faculty of Educational Science, University [email protected] of Lodz, Poland Piechowiak PhD., Faculty of Political Sciences and E-mail: [email protected] ‑Lamparska International Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus Joanna University, Toruń, Poland Romanov Yuri PhD., National Technical University E-mail: yu.aleks63@gmail. Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute, Kharkiv, com, Website: http://web.kpi. Ukraine kharkov.ua/kgn/department- of-humanities/the-teaching- staff-of-the-department/ Sabo Robert Slovakia Siemieniecka PhD., Dr hab., Department of Disability E-mail: [email protected] Dorota Anna Studies, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland Siemieniecki Professor, Faculty of Education, Nicolaus E-mail: [email protected] Bronisław Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland Franciszek Simó-Solsona PhD., University of Barcelona, Faculty of E-mail: [email protected] Montserrat Economics and Business Department of Sociology, Barcelona, Spain Smyła Joanna The Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce, Poland Šukolová Denisa Slovakia Szempruch Professor, The Jan Kochanowski University Jolanta in Kielce, Poland Trinder University of Rzeszow, Poland Magdalena Uhrinová Miriam PhD., Department of preschool and E-mail: miriam.uhrinova@ elementary education, Faculty of Education, ku.sk, Website: http://ludia. Catholic university in Ružomberok, ku.sk/person. Slovakia xhtml?id=miriam.uhrinova@ ku.sk Vančíková Slovakia Katarína Vaníková Terézia Slovakia W de Jager Johan Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa Wulandari Nuri Indonesia Banking School, Jakarta, Indonesia Žakelj Amalija PhD., Uiversity of Primorska, Faculty of E-mail: amalija.zakelj@pef. Education, Koper, Slovenija upr.si 10 Contributors Stanisław Juszczyk

Editor’s Preface

The fourth number ofThe New Educational Review in 2018 is the fifty-forth issue of our journal since the start of its foundation in 2003. In this issue there are mainly papers from: the Czech Republic, Indonesia, Lithuania, Nigeria, Poland, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Ukraine, and the USA, because our journal is open for presentation of scientific papers from all over the world. In the present issue the International Editors’ Board have proposed the following subject sessions: Social Pedagogy, General Didactics, Pedeutology, Special Pedagogy, Methodology of Social Sciences, and Sociology. In the subject session “Social Pedagogy” we publish thirteen articles. The purpose of the article by Jolita Dudaitė is to compare the results of education reforms of the post-Soviet countries based on the population literacy considered as a result of former learning. The study by Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur comprises the presentation of an authorial approach to cultural identity, viewed from the perspective of the communities (consisting of children, parents and teachers) of schools with Polish as the teaching language in Australia and some selected Euro- pean countries (Austria, France, the Czech Republic). In their work, Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz and Karina Leksy refer to the analysis of behaviours being a demonstration of cyberbullying and the described research was conducted in conformity with the quantity-quality paradigm. The aim of the research described by Hyoung-Jin Moon and Jong-ho Nam is to examine the current status of Chi- nese Confucian ideas that have affected Korean youth culture and to draw up more effective education models. In their paper, Katarzyna Kącka, Bartłomiej Michalak and Joanna Piechowiak-Lamparska analyse correlations between selected factors such as an employee’s academic title and position in a scientific unit’s hierarchy or their teaching load and their scientific effectiveness as measured by publications. In her article, Anna Brosch presents a theoretical analysis of the concept of sharenting, emphasizing its role in violating children’s privacy. The paper by 12 Stanisław Juszczyk

Joanna Smyła concerns the problem of developing a sexual image among girls during socialization and education as well as its consequences for their position in society an in the job market. In her work, Katarzyna Krasoń presents the results of an Internet questionnaire examining high school graduates’ (general education high schools and technical schools) perceptions on aesthetical and cultural education in the institutional context. Olena Lapuzina, Yuri Romanov and Lidiya Lisachuk show how university teachers could help future engineers acquire their skills in techno ethics, ecological ethics, computer ethics skills, etc., by teaching an interactive course “Professional Ethics for Engineers”. Isiaka Abdulaziz and his co-workers describe the causes and management strategies of violent activities in tertiary education institutions in North-Central Nigeria. In their study, Olena Ionova and her co-workers determine the influence of Waldorf approaches to the organization of the pedagogical process on the quality of education of Ukrainian junior schoolchildren. The study presented by Nuri Wulandari and Johan W de Jager tries to apply a student-customer orientation questionnaire to investigate differences between student expectations of their educational experience in public vs. private universities. Dorota Anna Siemieniecka and Bronisław Franciszek Siemieniecki discuss the problems of human functioning in cyberspace seen from the perspective of cognitive pedagogy. In the subject session “General Didactics” we publish four articles. The article by Beata Mazepa-Domagała contains reflections on the pictorial character of our environment; it presents the underlying assumptions of the strategy of recognizing image preferences related to book illustration and trends in the preferences of adult intermediaries in the area of book illustration in the aspect of areas of image realization and artistic quality recognized as the dominant elements of imaging. The purpose of the study by Myeong Hwan Kim, Yongseung Ham, and Sang Hyun Han is to gauge the effect of video games and its correlation with college entrance- exam scores. In their paper, Alicja Gałązka and Magdalena Trinder establish the influence of drama on the creation of a positive educational environment, taking into consideration such variable factors as: feeling of security, feeling of identity, sense of belonging, sense of purpose, feeling of competence, and through this an improvement in language competence. In the research by Amalija Žakelj, the question is answered of what impact the implementation of the process approach to learning and teaching mathematics has on the learner’s knowledge, which can be tested and assessed. In the subject session “Pedeutology” we publish two articles. The article by Jolanta Szempruch presents the results of research on the feelings of professional burnout in teachers of secondary schools. In their paper, Roman Kroufek, Vlasti- Editor’s Preface 13 mil Chytrý and Miriam Uhrinová deal with an individual’s nature relatedness and a selected significant variable which may have an effect on it. In the subject session “Special Pedagogy” we publish a paper by Robert Sabo and his co-workers, which identifies social representations of inclusive school from the point of view of Slovak education actors. In the subject session “Methodology of Social Sciences” we publish two papers. Stanisław Juszczyk presents a hermeneutical analysis of academic texts related to the methodological criticism of individual elements of the structure of designed quantitative research, published in the form of articles, chapters in collective works and monographs. In the paper by Sławomir Pasikowski, the validity of educational measurements of characteristics modelled in the structure of oppositional pairs is determined, among other things, by matching the rating scale to the properties of the operationalised variables. In the subject session “Sociology” we present an article by Montse Simó-Solsona and Katarzyna Juszczyk-Frelkiewicz, which focuses on the analysis of contemporary family policies in selected programs and actions in Spain and Poland.

We hope that this edition, like previous ones, will encourage new readers not only from the Central European countries to participate in an open international discussion. On behalf of the International Editors’ Board I would like to invite representatives of different pedagogical sub-disciplines and related sciences to publish their texts in The New Educational Review, according to the formal as well as essential requirements placed on our website: www.educationalrev.us.edu. pl – For Authors.

Social Pedagogy

Jolita Dudaitė Lithuania

Literacy Change as a Result of the Education Reform: Comparison Among the Post-Soviet Countries

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.01

Abstract In 1989 – 1991, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, it was an auspicious moment for structural changes in education systems in the new independent countries, which had been under control of the Soviet government for a long time. About three decades have passed since the beginning of the education reforms in the post-Soviet countries and several generations who studied within the framework of the reformed systems starting from the first grade have already grown up. Therefore, it is relevant to estimate the results of the reforms. One of the possible measures for estimating the results of the education system or education reform is the change in population literacy within certain education systems. The purpose of the article is to compare the results of education reforms of the post-Soviet countries based on the population literacy considered as a result of former learning. The data of the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) organised by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) are used for literacy comparison. The OECD PIAAC survey databases of Lithuania, Estonia, Russia, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Slovenia were used for comparison of the results of the reforms implemented in the post-Soviet countries. Data analysis showed that at the lower and upper secondary education levels, the most positive results of the education reform were observed in Lithuania, while in Russia, the results were negative.

Keywords: PIAAC, education reform, literacy, post-Soviet countries 18 Jolita Dudaitė

Introduction

Over the last decades, in both developed and developing countries, education reform has become one of the key political matters. Improvement of the education quality becomes increasingly valued as a source of international economic competitiveness (Maroy, 2008), and it is agreed that such economic competitiveness is beto- ken by better educated population/employees (Zajda, 2009). Moreover, high quality of education has become a synonym for sustainable development of a country. Education reform is generally defined as change in one or more aspects of the education system: goals and tasks, policy-making and management system or power structures, funding and budget processes, system organisation, education content, pedagogy, social relations of teaching and learning, assessment and rewards (Gaziel, 2010). The change in education is intended for modeling future society change by responding to newly emerging/comprehended values. The fall of the Soviet Union in 1989 – 1991 enabled 28 new countries to implement structural changes in their education systems, which had been controlled by the Soviet government for a long time (Khavenson and Carnoy, 2016). In many post-Soviet countries, the education reform began around 1988 and celebrates its thirtieth anniversary this year. From a historical point of view, the end of the 20th century was particularly opportune and important time for the education reform in the post-Soviet countries: the restoration of independence of the countries created the necessity of systematic reform covering all fields of education. With the essential change in the political situation, the post-Soviet countries had to develop fundamentally new education systems instead of adapting them in one way or another. The literature analysis of the post-Soviet education changes in the societies of the Eastern and Central Europe during the transition period implies that the reforms implemented in the societies of the former Soviet republics and countries controlled by the Soviet government after 1989 – 1991 were clearly focused on the dissolution of the communist ideology and on the necessity to validate the new countries (Silova, 2004). New education systems had to be created gradually by disproving and essentially changing the former Soviet education framework – its structure, values, content, methods and principles. The literature analysis shows that academic effects of the education reforms of these countries are considered positive but secondary compared to the political and ideological goals set for the reforms (Silova, Johnson and Heyneman, 2007). Taking into account that about three decades have already passed and several generations who studied within the framework of the reformed systems start- Literacy Change as a Result of the Education Reform 19 ing from the first grade have already grown up, it is important and relevant to estimate the results of these reforms. One – although not the only one – of the measures to estimate the results of the education system or education reform is change in literacy and competencies of population brought up by certain education systems. It is obvious that population literacy is determined not only by the education system implemented in a given country, but also by informal learning and social environment (which is particularly rapidly changing as it happened in the post-Soviet countries). However, change in population literacy can, to a certain extent, be considered as one of the indicators of the education reform results, albeit an approximate one. The purpose of this paper is to compare the results of the education reforms of the post-Soviet countries based on the change in population literacy which is regarded as a result of former learning. The data of the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) organised by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) are used for literacy comparison. The OECD PIAAC survey is one of the major international education surveys designed for the estimation of adults’ literacy. Literacy and education system efficiency are usually analysed in the student/school context. The novelty of this analysis is the use of data concerning the literacy of adults instead of schoolchildren for the comparison of the results of the education reforms. Attempts to find similar analysis in the scientific literature proved fruitless. The question posed in the survey is: In which post-Soviet countries did the education reforms condition the greatest positive change in population literacy? The education reforms of the post-Soviet countries, their specific goals and implementation are not analysed in this article. The focus is on the change in population literacy as one of the possible indicators of the results of the education reforms, irrespective of philosophies of specific education reforms in the post-So- viet countries.

Concept of literacy

The results of the education reforms can be estimated by various dimensions, yet unambiguous consideration of the effect of the reform is rather difficult and perhaps even impossible. In terms of education, any estimation is often based on academic achievement. In terms of school, literacy is one of the forms of learning achievement. However, adult literacy can be considered as a result of the previous learning, when a person was a participant in the education system. Literacy 20 Jolita Dudaitė comparison of different age groups can be considered as one of the possibilities to compare the efficiency of different education systems within which adults of certain age groups studied. Such a comparison is obviously not too accurate because literacy is determined not only by the education system but also by social environment. However, education system undoubtedly contributes substantially to literacy. The majority of international surveys of education which are focused on literacy estimate various components of literacy: numeracy, science literacy, ICT literacy, reading literacy, etc. However, the most frequent components of literacy covered by all international surveys on education are reading literacy and numeracy, which are often described as “basic” skills, in that they provide a “foundation” on which the development of other competencies rests. The reading literacy and numeracy is also covered by the PIAAC survey, the data of which are used for the analysis provided in this article. In this article, the analysis of literacy is carried out in terms of these two particular aspects. The PIAAC survey defines the reading literacy (referred to simply as “literacy”) as the ability to understand, evaluate, use and engage with written texts to participate in society, to achieve one’s goals, and to develop one’s knowledge and potential. Reading literacy encompasses a range of skills from the decoding of written words and sentences to the comprehension, interpretation, and evaluation of complex texts. It does not, however, involve the production of text (i.e., writing) (OECD, 2016b). With the view of highlighting the growing importance of digital measures, which play a significant role in generating and compiling texts and providing access to the texts, the PIAAC developers decided that the texts must be provided to the survey participants in electronic format (only those who lacked computer skills could perform the tests in paper form). The electronic texts differ from the texts provided in paper form not only because they are displayed on computer or smartphone screens; the difference lies in many other important features, such as the possibility to add hypertext links to supplementary documents, possibility to add various navigation tools (scroll bars, menus, etc.) and to make it interactive. The PIAAC survey was the first in the world to include these particular technological innovations in literacy tests. In the PIAAC survey, numeracy is defined as the ability to access, use, interpret and communicate mathematical information and ideas in order to engage in and manage the mathematical demands of a range of situations in adult life. Numeracy involves managing a situation or solving a problem in a real context, by responding to mathematical content, information or ideas represented in multiple ways (OECD, 2016b). Although success in performing numeracy tasks partly depends on the ability to read and comprehend the text, Literacy Change as a Result of the Education Reform 21 in the PIAAC survey, numeracy covers more than just arithmetic skills: while carrying out the tasks, the participant should comprehend the text and properly perform the tasks by identifying the required information in the text.

Research Methodology

Analysis of the academic effects of the education reforms of the post-Soviet countries is complicated because of the lack of reliable and comparable data on students’ achievements in the Soviet times. The post-Soviet countries started participating in the international surveys of education, the results of which can be compared across countries, only after the fall of the Soviet Union, e.g., Lithuania, Latvia, Russia and Slovakia participated in the international mathematics and science survey IEA TIMSS for the first time in 1995. Part of the post-Soviet countries have not participated in any international surveys of education yet. It was decided that the data of the OECD PIAAC Survey of Adult Skills should be used for the analysis as this is the largest international survey of education focused on adult literacy ever conducted. Seven post-Soviet countries participated in the PIAAC survey: Lithuania, Estonia, Russia, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Slovenia. The PIAAC tests and questionnaires databases of the said countries were used for the analysis; these databases contain data compiled in 2012 – 2015. Detailed description of the methodology, basis of the constructs of the data compilation instruments, logic of sampling, ethical guidelines of the PIAAC survey is provided in the following OECD PIAAC technical reports: Technical Report of the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) (2013), Technical Report of the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) (Second Edition) (2016a), Literacy, Numeracy and Problem Solving in Technology-Rich Environments – Framework for the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (2012).

PIAAC survey sample The respondents of the OECD PIAAC survey were persons aged 16 – 65. The samples of the respondents among the countries were as follows: Poland – 9366, Estonia – 7632, the Czech Republic – 6102, Slovakia – 5723, Slovenia – 5331, Lithuania – 5093, and Russia – 3892. The number of respondents representing the said seven countries in the PIAAC survey totalled 43,139.

Analysis sample In order to estimate the results of the education reforms, the survey participants must be selected correctly. Two clusters of participants were selected 22 Jolita Dudaitė for the analysis. The first cluster includes persons who studied in the reformed school from the first grade, i.e., those who have not experienced the Soviet education system. This cluster excludes persons who were still studying during the PIAAC survey (at least the majority of them had already completed their studies). Therefore, the first cluster is designed of persons aged 25 – 34. The second cluster includes persons whose entire school education was provided within the framework of the Soviet education system and who had not experienced any manifestation of the last education reform. Therefore, the second cluster is designed of persons aged 45 – 65. These two clusters represent the post- and pre-reform education systems of a country. In addition to the selection of the appropriate age groups, it is also important to take into account the respondents’ achieved education level. In terms of literacy, the entire 25 – 34 age group cannot be compared with the entire 45 – 65 age group as these two clusters contain different proportions of persons with different education levels. In the younger age cluster, there are more persons with a higher level of education completed than in the older age cluster. Therefore, it was decided to analyse only the data of the respondents with the following two lowest levels of educational attainment: lower secondary education (ISCED 2 and lower) and upper secondary education (ISCED 3). They best represent the education system of a given country. As regards the post-secondary non-tertiary and tertiary education (ISCED 4 and higher), the attainment thereof usually includes studies abroad (the Erasmus programmes and other student mobility), and thus this education is not appropriate for reliable estimation of the effects of the education system of a specific country. Moreover, the education reforms of the post-Soviet countries took the longest to implement and had the greatest emphasis at the general education school level.

Methods of analysis Test results in two fields studied by the PIACC – reading literacy and numeracy, as well as the questionnaire questions about the highest level of education completed and age were used for the analysis. Descriptive statistics methods were applied for the analysis by using IBM SPSS Statistics 24. The analysis does not employ strict methods of statistical analysis because conclusions are made by comparing the countries, considering the fact that such estimation of the results of the education reforms is approximate as population literacy is not only the reflection of the education reform but only its part. The analysis was carried out by using weights which allow for reliable comparison of results among the countries. In the PIAAC survey, literacy is measured on a 500-point scale. Literacy Change as a Result of the Education Reform 23

Research Results

The comparison of the reading literacy and numeracy results of the respondents with lower secondary education between two age clusters is presented in Figures 1 and 2.

Reading Literacy. Lower Secondary Education

270

260

250

240

230

220

210

200 Russia Sovakia Czech Rep. Estonia Lithuania Poland Sovenia

25–34 45–65

Figure 1. Comparison of the reading literacy results of the respondents with lower secondary education between two age clusters

Numeracy. Lower Secondary Education

260

250

240

230

220

210

200 Russia Sovakia Czech Rep. Estonia Poland LithuaniaSovenia

25–34 45–65

Figure 2. Comparison of the numeracy results of the respondents with lower secondary education between two age clusters 24 Jolita Dudaitė

The figures show that in the Soviet education system cluster (45 – 65 age group), the highest results in both reading literacy and numeracy were observed for the Russian respondents, while the lowest – for the Slovenian respondents. In the reformed education system cluster (25 – 34 age group), the highest results were recorded in the Czech Republic, the lowest – in Slovenia. The comparison between the Soviet education system cluster and the reformed education system cluster reveals that the reading literacy and numeracy results of the younger generation of Russia and Slovakia are lower than those of the older generation. As for the remaining countries, the situation was the opposite: the reading literacy and numeracy results of the younger generation were higher than those of the older generation. In terms of numeracy, the difference in the results of the Lithuanian respondents between the two age clusters is particularly big (41 points). Therefore, it could be stated that the effect of the education reforms for lower secondary education in the Czech Republic, Estonia, Poland, Lithuania and Slovenia was positive, while in Russia and Slovakia – negative. The comparison of the reading literacy and numeracy results of the respondents with upper secondary education between two age clusters is presented in Figures 3 and 4.

Reading Literacy. Upper Secondary Education

285 280 275 270 265 260 255 250 245 240 Sovakia Russia Czech Rep. Estonia Lithuania Poland Sovenia

25–34 45–65

Figure 3. Comparison of the reading literacy results of the respondents with upper secondary education between two age clusters Literacy Change as a Result of the Education Reform 25

Numeracy. Upper Secondary Education

285 280 275 270 265 260 255 250 245 240 Sovakia RussiaCzech Rep. EstoniaSovenia Poland Lithuania

25–34 45–65

Figure 4. Comparison of the numeracy results of the respondents with upper secondary education between two age clusters

In the Soviet education system cluster (45 – 65 age group), the highest results in reading literacy were observed for Slovakia and Russia, in numeracy – for Slovakia, while the lowest results in both reading literacy and numeracy were recorded in Slovenia. In the reformed education system cluster (25 – 34 age group), the highest results in both reading literacy and numeracy were recorded in the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Estonia, while the lowest – in Poland. The comparison between the Soviet education system cluster and the reformed education system cluster provides similar results as in the case of lower secondary education. The results of the younger generation of Russia are lower than those of the older generation; the results of the younger generation of Slovakia are higher compared to lower secondary education this time, yet in terms of numeracy, the difference between the results is not considerable. As for the remaining countries, the results of the younger generation in both reading literacy and numeracy are significantly higher than those of the older generation. The difference in the results is particularly significant between the younger and older generations of Estonia, Slovenia and Lithuania. It is worth comparing the results of the Soviet education system cluster with those of the reformed education system cluster in a summarized manner. Figure 5 shows the summarized data concerning reading literacy and numeracy, presenting the difference in points between the Soviet education system cluster and the reformed education system. 26 Jolita Dudaitė

Summarized dierence in results

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Poland EstoniaCzech Rep. Slovenia -20 Lithuania -40 Slovakia -60 Russia -80

Lower Secondary Upper Secondary

Figure 5. Overall difference in the reading literacy and numeracy results between the Soviet education system cluster (45 – 65 age group) and the reformed education system cluster (25 – 34 age group)

Figure 5 shows that the most significant positive effect of the education reform at the lower and upper secondary education levels was observed in Lithuania (94 points), the least significant positive effect – in Poland (43 points). In Russia, a negative effect of the education reform was observed at the lower and upper secondary education levels (63 points). In Slovakia, both positive and negative effects of the education reform were observed: the negative effect was observed at the lower secondary education level (33 points), while at the upper secondary education level, the effect was positive but weak (9 points).

Conclusions

1. The most positive results of the education reform at the lower secondary education level were obtained in Lithuania, the least positive – in Poland, the most negative – in Russia. 2. The most positive results of the education reform at the upper secondary education level were recorded in Slovenia, the least positive – in Slovakia, while negative results were obtained only in Russia. Literacy Change as a Result of the Education Reform 27

3. In summary, at the lower and upper secondary education levels, the most positive results of the education reform were observed in Lithuania, while in Russia, the results of the education reform were negative.

Limitations

The analysis of the results of the education reform was carried out in terms of the population literacy change. It is obvious that the literacy change is just one of the possible measures for estimating the results of the reform. Moreover, the degree of population literacy is determined not only by the education system, it is influenced by other factors as well. It would be relevant to estimate the results of the reform in other ways; this offers great opportunities for a series of further surveys. The presented article provides a detailed analysis of only two components of literacy – reading literacy and numeracy. Although reading literacy and numeracy are fundamental components of literacy, they do not fully cover the concept of literacy. It would be important to analyse population literacy and its change in a wider range of aspects. However, such work is limited by the actual data collected in the OECD PIAAC survey. The comparison of the education reform results did not cover all post-Soviet countries, but only the ones the data on which are available in the OECD PIAAC survey databases. Other post-Soviet countries did not participate in this survey and did not carry out the estimation of population literacy. There has been no survey of adult literacy other than PIAAC survey so far. This article provides an initial analysis of population literacy change as a result of education reform, which tends to focus on providing summarized results of literacy changes. More detailed analysis could be a further step in this subject.

References Gaziel, H.H. (2010). Why Educational Reforms Fail: The Emergence and Failure of an Edu- cational Reform: A Case Study from Israel. In: Zajda J. (eds). Globalisation, Ideology and Education Policy Reforms. Globalisation, Comparative Education and Policy Research, vol. 11. Springer, Dordrecht. Khavenson, T., & Carnoy, M. (2016). The unintended and intended academic consequences of educational reforms: the cases of Post-Soviet Estonia, Latvia and Russia. Oxford Review Of Education, 42(2), 178 – 199. doi:10.1080/03054985.2016.1157063. 28 Jolita Dudaitė

Maroy, Ch. (2008). The new regulation forms of educational systems in Europe: towards a post bureaucratic regime. In N.C. Soguel & P. Jaccard (Eds.). Governance and performance of education systems (pp. 13 – 33). Dordrecht: Springer. OECD (2012). Literacy, Numeracy and Problem Solving in Technology-Rich Environments – Framework for the OECD Survey of Adult Skills, , OECD Publishing. OECD (2013). Technical Report of the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), OECD Publishing. OECD (2016a). Technical Report of the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) (Second Edition), OECD Publishing. OECD (2016b). The Survey of Adult Skills. Reader‘s companion (Second edition), OECD Publishing. Silova, I. (2004). Adopting the language of the new allies. In G. Steiner-Khamsi (Ed.). The global politics of educational borrowing (pp. 75 – 87). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Silova, I., Johnson, M.S., Heyneman, S.P. (2007). Education and the crisis of social cohesion in Azerbaijan and Central Asia. Comparative Education Review, 51, 159 – 180. Zajda, J. (2009). The politics of education reforms. Dordrecht: Springer. Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur Poland

Identity Behaviours of Australian and European Communities of Schools with Polish as the Teaching Language – a Comparative Study

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.02

Abstract The study comprises the presentation of an authorial approach to cultural identity, viewed from the perspective of the communities (consisting of children, parents and teachers) of schools with Polish as the teaching language in Australia and some selected European countries (Austria, France, the Czech Republic). In reference to the culturalistic model of identity, the characteristics of the most frequent identity behaviours of these communities were provided in the ethnic, national, integrative and mixed dimension. The author also indicates the contemporary contexts of identity shaping, which are determined by migration processes and multiculturalism. By formulating the most important conclusions resulting from the research, the need is indicated for implementing intercultural education in schools with Polish as the teaching language. Among other things, this will enhance the shaping of a multidimensional feeling of identity.

Keywords: identity, feeling of identity, identity behaviours, schools with Polish as the teaching language, comparative study

Introduction

In Polish pedagogy, there are not many studies of social, cultural and educational functioning of children in culturally diversified environments. The current knowledge in this field, presented mostly within comparative pedagogy, most fre- 30 Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur quently consists in presenting expert opinions on the situation of school education of majority and/or minority groups in particular countries as well as the applied solutions. Some significant works in this field (e.g., Lewowicki, Nikitorowicz, Szczurek-Boruta, 2010) concern school education and sociocultural phenomena taking place in Polish borderlands, most often described in reference to children and youth. Viewing the educational situation of Polish learners, their parents and teachers from the social, the cultural and pedagogical perspective of Australia and selected European countries provides the opportunity to capture the differences and sim- ilarities in the ways of implementing intercultural education (or its lack). Such a type of research is inevitably associated with the reflection upon the way in which contemporary humanity understands cultural dimensions, their role in human life and the extent to which they shape individual and social cultural identity. Schools educating in Polish function in Europe and in the world within educational systems of other countries. These countries have different history, experiences, conditions of life and dominating patterns of social functioning. This largely determines the perception and comprehension of various identity fields and the related behaviour patterns.

The theoretical and methodological assumptions of the research

What was applied in the pedagogical analysis of children’s education in Polish schools abroad were the theoretical conceptualizations, referring to Jerzy Nikitor- owicz’s (1) concept of intercultural education (2009, pp. 282 – 296), Paweł Boski’s (2) cultural model of acquiring biculturalism and his (3) concept of cultural distance (1995, pp. 143 – 162). What has become an important perspective in the search for regularities ruling the shaping of the feeling of identity in changing conditions of cultural diversity is Tadeusz Lewowicki’s (4) theory of identity behaviours. All the six fields (elements) of identity distinguished here are important determinants of identity behaviours (Lewowicki, 2018, pp. 191 – 205). Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used in the research procedure –ethnographic observation, individual narrative interviews with children, questionnaire studies among teachers and parents and document analysis. The studies were conducted over the period 2012–2017 in schools educating in Polish in Australia (Perth) and some selected European countries (Austria – Vienna; France – Paris; the Czech Republic – Prague, Czech Cieszyn). The research Identity Behaviours of Australian and European Communities 31 involved 509 learners – 318 (62.5%) from primary school (138 from lower and 180 from higher grades) and 191 (37.5%) from lower-secondary schools – grades 1 – 3. 204 parents participated in the studies – 126 (62%) parents of primary school learners and 78 (38%) of lower-secondary school learners. In many cases, the parents answered the questionnaires jointly, which provided data concerning, e.g., education and mixed marriages (from 319 participants) or the length of their stay abroad (from 345 respondents). The group of teachers was the smallest and consisted of 19 respondents. This is an effect of a small number of teachers working in schools with Polish as the teaching language and of the tendency to treat participation in studies with unwillingness, which can be noticed in the case of both teachers and school head teachers.

Identity behaviours of the communities of schools educating in Polish – research results

The functioning of children, their parents and teachers from Polish schools abroad is associated with the natural feeling of belonging to a particular social group (including the national or cultural one of the country of residence) and enables self-identification, which is the basis for differentiating between Me-Us and Others-Them. Formed at many differently ordered platforms, the outer (attributing the identity) and/or inner (self-identifying) character of identification shapes the feeling of identity. What was applied in individual talks and questionnaires was a scale measuring self-assessment in the field of national identification. The scale assumes that both children and parents might experience various intensity of the feeling of identity, which involves: weak identity (Polish identity is weaker than Australian/Austrian/ Czech/French or the opposite), mixed balanced identity (no dominating identity – feeling both a Pole and an Australian/Austrian/Czech/French) and a strong feeling of identity (domination of one homogeneous Polish/Australian/Austrian/Czech/ French identity), which reflects the identification–alienation behaviour patterns.

Children

The examined children from the grades (cf., Figure 1) declare different intensity levels of their feeling of identity, which is determined by the environment of the 32 Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur country of their permanent or temporary residence, their age and the length of stay abroad. 55% of the children from Australia and over a half of the learners living in Austria (59%), France (71%) and the Czech Republic in Prague (77%) manifest Polish identity, the intensity of which increases with age. The respondents’ declarations reflect the emotional character of national identification and cultural bonds with the “private” homeland as well as strong identification with the Polish minority (this aims at preserving their own identity). The ethnocentric (inherited) identity manifested by the children does not entail depreciation of the culture of the country of residence. Numerous responses of the examined children indicate making endless comparisons of both cultures – the native and the culture of the country of current residence. This takes place in the situation where both the family environment and the school with Polish as the teaching language enhance identification with the values of the native Polish culture. Therefore, the respondents’ declarations seem to suggest natural ethnocentrism, resulting from the acquisition of the so-called habitual cultural competences.

33% of the learners in Australia, 25% in Austria, 21% in France and 9% in Prague define their identity in the category “I feel equally Polish and Australian/ Austrian/French/Czech”. The mixed balanced identity declared by them may confirm the feeling of dual national identity and strong identification with two cultures (biculturalism). The data obtained, owing to the conducted ethnographic observations and interviews, additionally indicate in this subgroup of learners the shaping of two identity types –integrated and dispersed identity. The former combines the elements of the learners’ personal system of values with the values of the cultures of groups to which they belong and in the life of which they take part consciously and reflectively. This type of identity is manifested by most of the children born abroad (85%). Dispersed identity results from the confrontation of inherited identity with the new and changing cultural reality, through which the learners acquire their awareness of belonging to many groups existing “next to” each other. Such identity was declared by significantly fewer respondents (15%) among those whose stay abroad had lasted 1–5 years. The children’s communities are also explored in the dimension of homogeneous Australian (11%), Austrian (17%), French (8%) and Czech identity (learners from Prague – 14%). The learners’ identification with the national culture of the majority group indicates the occurring changes in the criterial and correlative identity attributes, which are determined by other factors than family socialization and culturation. Individual talks with the learners also confirm the incidence of the lack of identification both with their own ethnic minority and with the national culture of the country of residence (children living in Prague). Despite the feeling of specific alienation, in this case, the final declarations tend to indicate the latter. Having compared all the surveyed environments, it can be stated that in Austria the children declare Polish identity significantly more often1 than their peers from the Czech Republic – Czech Cieszyn (χ2 = 18.3; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.26) and that they declare dual identity more frequently than the learners from Prague (χ2 = 4.4; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.15). However, they choose the identity of the country of residence significantly less often than the children from Czech Cieszyn (χ2 = 9.76; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.19) and Polish identity than their peers from Prague (χ2 = 4.23; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.15). In the French environment, the examined children differ significantly only from the learners from Czech Cieszyn – they more often declare Polish identity (χ2 = 36.8; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.38) and less often declare dual identity (χ2 = 5.32; p < 0.05;

1 All the differences between the results in which p < 0.05 are statistically significant. 34 Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur

Φ = 0.14) and the identity of the country of residence (χ2 = 24.3; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.31). Among the Czech respondents, the learners from Prague significantly more often indicate Polish identity (χ2 = 22.3; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.37) and dual identity (χ2 = 8.93; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.23), but they choose the identity of the country of residence (χ2 = 4.62; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.17) less frequently than the children from Czech Cieszyn. Yet, the learners from the Polish-Czech borderland significantly more often declare the identity of the country of residence (χ2 = 6.58; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.2) and less often – Polish identity (χ2 = 6.21; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.19) than their peers from Australia. These statistically confirmed differences indicate a distinct image of national identifications, mostly of the learners from Czech Cieszyn. Their characteristic feature is one-sidedness – local rooting and strong bonds with Zaolzie and Cieszyn Silesia. The specific historical, sociocultural, and economic determinants of the Polish-Czech borderland have been more broadly discussed in the intercultural pedagogical studies conducted in this environment for over 28 years2. Comparing these results to the earlier research in this environment (T. Lewowicki, E. Ogrodzka-Mazur, A. Szczurek-Boruta, 2009), currently – fewer children (about 15%) declare the feeling of dual national identity and they tend to choose the homogeneous Czech nationality (an increase by 12%). The reasons for this situation might be sought in various factors – yet, the observations show that the learners’ feeling of dual national identity or their declaring Czech identity is mostly shaped by the education system. They attend schools with Polish as the teaching language but the teachers implement the Czech curricula there. Simultaneous learning of Polish and Czech – and hence close cognitive and emotional contact with both cultures (occurring also in Polish and Czech non-school cultural and educational institutions) causes shrinking of the distance between them and (as regards correlative identity attributes) enables easier accul- turation. This process is also occurring in the other investigated environments but does not show such intensity. The children consider themselves Poles, but they also express the feeling of dual national (Polish-Australian, Polish-Austrian, Polish-French) identity. However, more frequently than their peers from Czech

2 So far, 75 volumes have been published in the series “Edukacja Międzykulturowa /Inter- cultural Education/”, prepared by the Social Team for Research into Borderland Education and Culture and the Department and Chair of General Pedagogy of the Faculty of Ethnology and Education in Cieszyn (University of Silesia), supervised by Tadeusz Lewowicki. Identity Behaviours of Australian and European Communities 35

Cieszyn, they associate their life and educational plans with their present country of residence, where they hope for more chances for “better” life than in Poland.

Parents and teachers

Contrary to the examined learners, their parents (cf., Figure 2) declare similar intensity of their feeling of identity, which does not differentiate depending on the environment of the native country or country of residence (apart from the parents from Australia and Czech Cieszyn), the age and the length of their stay abroad. All the examined parents living in Austria and the Czech Republic (Prague) and 92% of the parents in France and 67% in Australia manifest their feeling of Polish identity and strong identification with the Polish minority group. As in the case of their children, the ethnocentric identity declared by the parents does not mean depreciation of the culture of the country of residence, which is confirmed by numerous responses in the questionnaires and individual talks. The respondents also indicate making comparisons of both cultures and confirm that the regular contact with the Polish school and church (Australia, Austria and France) as well as with other organizations run by the local Polish community enhances their identification with the native Polish culture. The majority of the examined parents currently living in Australia (Perth) and in big European capital cities (Paris, Prague, Vienna) were born in Poland, where their feeling of national identity was shaped over many years of natural experience of belonging to the family, school, peer or religious community. According to the standpoints of many researchers exploring the issues of identity, this type of identification entails some imprinted permanence and unchangeability, even though it constitutes a dynamic whole. Each change in this area is hardly negotiable and is assessed in ethical and moral categories. Therefore, it should not surprise that the respondents declared the feeling of Polish identity. On the other hand, it is important that parents have a positive attitude to the culture of the country of their present residence and that they are gradually decreasing the cultural distance, which they also notice. Having compared all the environments, it can be stated that the parents in Austria declare Polish identity significantly more often than the parents from Czech Cieszyn ( χ2 = 20.0; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.42) and Australia (χ2 = 12.7; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.45). However, they indicate dual identity significantly less often than the parents from Czech Cieszyn ( χ2 = 20.0; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.42) and Australia (χ2 = 12.7; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.45). Moreover, they indicate the identity of the country of residence 36 Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur

Legend: a – Polish, b – Polish and of country of residence but rather Polish; c – Polish and of country of residence equally; d – Polish and of country of residence but rather of country of residence; e – of country of residence Source: own elaboration. Figure 2. The declared feeling of identity of the surveyed parents (percentages) significantly more often than the parents from Czech Cieszyn (χ2 = 6.31; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.24). In the French environment, the parents declare Polish identity significantly more often than the parents from Australia (χ2 = 8.8; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.3) and they choose dual identity less often than the Australian parents as well (χ2 = 8.8; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.33). In the Czech environment, the parents from Prague declare Polish identity significantly more often than the parents from Australia (χ2 = 4.03; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.32) and from Czech Cieszyn (χ2 = 6.4; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.27). Yet, they indicate less frequently the identity of the country of residence (χ2 = 8.0; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.27) and dual identity (χ2 = 4.03; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.32) than the parents from Australia. The parents from Czech Cieszyn declare significantly more often the identity of the country of residence than the parents from Australia (χ2 = 8.0; p < 0.05; Φ = 0.27). Similarly to their children, the declarations of the parents from Czech Cieszyn concerning their feeling of identity were aggregated in three groups: 33% declared Identity Behaviours of Australian and European Communities 37 homogeneous Polish (Silesian, Zaolzie) identity, 26% balanced Polish and Czech identity and 17% homogeneous Czech identity. In the Australian environment, two aggregations appeared, which comprised 67% of declarations of homogeneous Polish identity and 33% of balanced Polish and Australian identity. The intensity of the parents’ national identifications is lower than in the case of these parents’ children – yet, this indicates evident changes also in the environment of the parents, who are now entering nationally and/or religiously mixed marriages with growing frequency (Sussex, Zubrzycki, 1985; Smolicz, 2001, pp. 27 – 41). As the majority of the parents, the last of the surveyed communities – the teachers working in schools with Polish as the teaching language – declare the feeling of only Polish identity in Austria and the Czech Republic (Prague), Polish identity (50%) or Polish and that of the country of residence (50%) to the same extent in Australia, and in Czech Cieszyn – Polish identity (62%) or Polish and that of the country of residence, but rather Polish (38%) (cf., Figure 3).

Observation of the behaviours and classes conducted by the teachers from the school with Polish as the teaching language in Paris, who did not take part in the questionnaire, as well as their individual statements, might suggest a similar tendency – choosing Polish national identity. Teachers working in Polish educational institutions abroad constitute a group of professionals from whom, due to the specificity of their jobs, the implementation of many tasks specified in developmental plans of schools are required (Ogrodz- ka-Mazur, 2016, pp. 54 – 86). These tasks mostly entail developing learners’ feeling of national identity and cultural sensitizing to Others. This results from children’s attending majority schools and from parental expectations. Despite the difficulty which these tasks cause, undertaking them in educational practice provides opportunities for shaping authentic intercultural relations in the investigated environments.

Conclusions

The outlined characteristics of identity behaviours among the communities of schools with Polish as the teaching language in Australia and some European countries makes it possible to formulate a few most important conclusions: – The surveyed learners manifest different levels of intensity in their feeling of identity and these levels differ depending on the environment of the country of permanent or temporary residence, their age and duration of their stay abroad. The differences point to the currently noticeable tendency to identify the young generation with various communities – of their native country, local, or – more broadly – European or supra-European ones. Constructing children’s identity by themselves means drifting apart from the homogeneous dimension towards discovering and conscious choice of enriched, multidimensional identity. As regards the applied culturalization strategies, what seems to be a characteristic feature of 70% of the examined learners from Austria, France and the Czech Republic (Prague) is the integrative profile, manifested in the positive attitude and willingness to preserve their own cultural heritage, as well as in the openness and active participation in the life of the receiving society. Due to different historical, economic and sociocultural determinants, their peers from Australia and the Czech Republic (Czech Cieszyn) more often feel Poles and Australians/Czechs to the same extent and they favour the ethnic character of the culturalization strategies which they Identity Behaviours of Australian and European Communities 39

choose. Interpreting the obtained research results in the context of the theory of identity behaviours, it should be stated that – from the angle of children’s functioning in culturally diversified environments – special significance is to be attributed to the first field, comprising their (also national) identification with a particular territory and social environment. In the sphere of language, belonging to the second field of identity, the learners show behaviours which confirm a need for good command of the native language and its dialects, as well as a need for using the majority language (English, German, French, Czech) in daily social situations. Therefore, the bilingualism/multilingualism they acquire most frequently has the “additive” character and enables high competence in both/all used languages as well as integrative communication. The surveyed children’s identity behaviours also refer to the fourth field, associated with the economic condition and living standards of the group, which specify the level of fulfilling their needs. The children’s expectations are to a large extent related to the life in the country of residence and/or in other European countries (learners from Prague). As in the case of the children from Czech Cieszyn, they are also associated with life and educational plans fulfilled in Poland. – The majority of the parents and teachers from schools with Polish as the teaching language in Europe manifest the feeling of Polish identity and strong identification with the Polish minority group. As in the case of the examined children, the ethnocentric identity declared by them does not mean depre- ciating the culture of the country of residence. This is confirmed by their culturalization strategies, the profile of which is integrative – involving mutually balanced levels of ethnic and national indicators concerning identity, knowledge and use of languages or social contacts. Due to different motives of migration and the longest stay abroad (16–20 years and more), the identity behaviours of the parents and teachers from Australia are characterized by their identification both with the Polish minority group and with the majority group of the country of residence. In reference to Boski’s levels of integration, the cultural identity declared by adults and their identity behaviours indicate positive valuing of biculturalism, acquisition of bilingual competences, and in some cases (parents from Australia and Austria) – language and religious syncretism. 40 Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur

References Boski, P. (1995). National identity of Poles in and out of the motherland: implications for European (trans-cultural) integration. Journal for Mental Changes: Perspective of Economic, Political and Social Integration, 2, 143 – 162. Lewowicki, T. (2018). Manifestations of permanence and changeability in different spheres of spiritual life – a few generalizations with the Theory of Identity Behaviours in the background. In: T. Lewowicki, E. Ogrodzka-Mazur, B. Chojnacka-Synaszko, U. Kla- jmon-Lech (eds). Spheres of spiritual life – a study on permanence and changeability of identity behaviours in borderland communities. Munich: LINCOM Academic Publishers, 191 – 205. Lewowicki, T., Ogrodzka-Mazur, E., & Szczurek-Boruta, A. (eds) (2009). Poczucie tożsamości i stosunek młodzieży do wybranych kwestii społecznych – studium z pogran- icza polsko-czeskiego [Youth’s feeling of identity and attitude toward selected social issues – a study from the Polish-Czech borderland] . Cieszyn – Warszawa – Toruń: Wydział Etnologii i Nauk o Edukacji Uniwersytetu Śląskiego, Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna ZNP w Warszawie, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek. Lewowicki, T., Nikitorowicz, J., & Szczurek-Boruta, A. (eds) (2010). Szkolnictwo z polskim językiem nauczania w państwach europejskich – stan, problemy i perspektywy [School education with Polish as the teaching language in European countries –condition, problems and prospects]. Białystok – Cieszyn – Warszawa: Uniwersytet w Białymstoku, Wydział Etnologii i Nauk o Edukacji Uniwersytetu Śląskiego, Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna ZNP w Warszawie, Stowarzyszenie Wspierania Edukacji Międzykulturowej. Nikitorowicz, J. (2009). Edukacja regionalna i międzykulturowa [Regional and intercultural education]. Warszawa: WAiP. Ogrodzka-Mazur, E. (2016). The specificity of educating young learners in the culturally diversified environment. In: E. Ogrodzka-Mazur, A. Szafrańska-Gajdzica, B. Grabowska, & Ł. Kwadrans. Education of children and youth in culturally diverse environments: experiences – problems – prospects. Munich: LINCOM Academic Publishers, 54 – 86. Smolicz J.J. (2001). Globalization and cultural dynamics in a multiethnic state: Australian multiculturalism from an international perspective. Dialogue and Universalism, 11 – 12, 27 – 41. Sussex, R., & Zubrzycki, J. (eds) (1985). Polish people and culture in Australia. Canberra: Department of Demography, Institute of Advanced Studies, The Australian National University. Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Karina Leksy Poland

Cyberbullying as a New Problematic Behaviour Presented by Polish Youth

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.03

Abstract The domination of new technologies in the lives of children and the youth leads to its consideration in the context of threats and a potential negative influence on adolescents’ functioning. Considering various threats occurring in the virtual space, first of all it is indicated that the Internet, due to apparent anonymity, is often the space of mutual aggression, mocking and attempts to discredit other net users. The presented study refers to the analysis of behaviours being a demonstration of cyberbullying. The research was conducted in conformity with the quantity-quality paradigm. It involved a method of diagnostic survey using the technique of a questionnaire and documents analysis. As the conducted study showed, cyberbullying is a phenomenon which often occurs among contemporary teenagers. The examined persons were most often victims or witnesses of verbal aggression in the net.

Keywords: new technologies, Internet, cyberbullying, youth

Introduction

Undoubtedly, new media, especially the Internet, are an important environment of young people’s lives and the virtual world often becomes for them “more real than the real one”. It is even indicated that an adolescent creates for him/her a specific culture, the determinant of which is permanent and intensive use of mobile phones, computers and the Internet (Peker, Eroglu, Ada, 2012, pp. 185 – 206). The 42 Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Karina Leksy domination of new technologies in the lives of children and the youth leads to its consideration in the context of threats and a potential negative influence on the adolescents’ functioning. Great freedom of the use of the Internet, the lack of clearly set borders and control of adults make a teenager to the largest extent exposed to negative behaviours in the net, such as aggression, stalking and threatening (Lazuras, Barkoukis, Ourda, Tsorbatzoudis, 2013, pp. 881 – 887). Considering various threats occurring in the virtual space, first of all it is indicated that the Internet due to apparent anonymity is often the space of mutual aggression, mocking and attempts at discrediting other net users. Such behaviours are described as cyberbullying and although this phenomenon has been known for approximately a decade, at present the scale of its occurrence is extremely high and on the world scale it ranges from 10% to 53% depending on the accepted definition of cyberbullying and the respondents’ age group (Guo , 2016, p. 432). Cyberbullying is defined as “a new dimension of bullying that includes delib- erate and attitudes of an individual or a group that damage others through the use of information and communication technologies” (Langos, 2015, p. 106 – 123). The phenomenon is also defined as “the willful use of electronic technology (e.g., instant messaging, chat rooms, e-mail and text messages) as a means through which aggressive activities (e.g., threatening, harassing, disrespecting, or socially excluding another) are carried out deliberately and repeatedly toward a specific individual or group of individuals” (Hinduja, Patchin, 2007, pp. 89 – 112). Online bulling can be realized by using: emails, cell phones, pagers, instant messaging, short message services, internet chatrooms, blogs, forums, social network websites, websites and cameras (Beyazit, Şimşek, Ayhan, 2017, p. 1512). Moreover, this phenomenon is demonstrated in the following behaviours: insulting, victimisation, denigrating, spoofing, revealing secrets, exclusion, cyber-persecution, the so-called happy slapping, which is provoking or attacking a chosen person and recording this event with a mobile phone camera. The consequences of cyberviolence often exceed the internet space. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), cyberbullying has become a problem of public health, against which preventive measures should be taken (Electronic Aggression: Technology and Youth Violence. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016). Research confirms that aggression in the internet causes negative physical and psychical consequences in all persons involved in it (Isenberger, 2016). At the same time, it is emphasized that the consequences for public health are the most serious ones (Miller, 2017, p. 385). Researchers indicate that victims of cyberbullying are characterized by such features as: low self-esteem, anxiety, loneliness, disappointment, sadness, fear, anger, psychotic symptoms, hos- Cyberbullying as a New Problematic Behaviour Presented by Polish Youth 43 tility and a high stress level. Such persons also demonstrate somatic symptoms and worse interpersonal relations (Donegan, 2012, pp. 33 – 42; Litwiller, Brausch, 2013, pp. 675 – 684). Also, the influence of cyberbullying on academic achievement and functioning in the school environment should be noted. Research indicates that the victims of persecution in the Internet have poorer achievements in learning, they lack motivation for learning at school, they miss classes more often and they perceive school as a place that does not provide a sense of security (Notar, Padgett, Roden, 2013, pp. 1 – 9). Moreover, the victims of net aggression are in a group of risk of: depression, self-injuries and other forms of self-damage, suicidal thoughts and attempts (Pappas, 2015; Com. Twenge, 2017). It is worth noting the most serious psychological consequence of cyberviolence, which is suicide. According to P. Hin- duja and J.W. Patchin (2018), the victims of cyberattacks were almost twice more prone to suicidal attempts than those who did not experience violence in the net. What is more, the phenomenon of cyberviolence leads – indirectly or directly – to so many suicides that recently a concept of “cyberbullicide” has emerged (Hinduja, Patchin, 2010, pp. 206 – 216). Although cyberbullicide is not a standard among the cyberviolence victims, it is still such a serious problem that prophylactic and measures increasing social awareness in this scope should be taken (Miller, 2017, p. 388).

Research Methodology

The results described in this article constitute a part of a broader research project, the purpose of which was to determine characteristics of behaviours undertaken in the virtual space by pupils of Polish junior secondary schools as well as determination of potential social and health consequences of such behaviours. The presented excerpt of studies refers to the analysis of behaviours being a demonstration of cyberbullying. The study was conducted in conformity with the quantity-quality paradigm. The quantity research was of diagnostic-verification nature, which means that the research questions had a form both of questions about variables and about relations between the variables. The study involved a method of diagnostic survey using the technique of a questionnaire and documents analysis. The author’s survey questionnaire was used to conduct the research and it consisted of 41 questions, including 28 semi-open cafeteria questions, 4 closed cafeteria questions (rank order questions), 8 questions using the Likert scale (rating scale questions) and 1 open question (Thomas, 2013, pp. 207 – 217). Before proceeding to the stage of proper research, a pilot study was conducted. Thanks to the pilot study, necessary 44 Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Karina Leksy modifications of the research tool were made – some wordings were made more precise and small alterations were introduced in a few cafeterias. The obtained data were subjected to quantity and quality analysis. Program Statistica 12 was used to conduct statistical analysis. Within the frames of the quality paradigm, the technique of documents analysis was applied. Within the frames of the quality paradigm, the document analysis technique was applied. Within its frames, the contents of educational-prophylactic programmes in schools where the quantity research was conducted, in the context of issues concerning young people’s behaviour in the Internet and potential threats related to them, including cyberbullying and its consequences, were analyzed. The selection of persons for the studies was of non-probability nature (Thomas, 2013), and the selection criterion was the respondents’ age. The research sample was a sample representative of the Silesia Province. 390 junior secondary school pupils from two schools located in urbanistically diversified areas were included. 164 persons were pupils of a small town school (under 10,000 inhabitants) and 226 persons attended a school in a big city (over 100,000 inhabitants). The respondents’ age ranged from 13 to 16 and the largest group were 14-year-olds and 15-year-olds (82 and 74 pupils, respectively). Among the respondents there were 198 girls and 186 boys, and 6 respondents did not specify their sex. Over 85% of the respondents used the Internet every day, doing it in various places, but most often at home and school. On days off, a vast majority of the respondents spent over 3 hours a day in the net, whereas on working days almost 40% of the respondents did so. Various devices were used to surf the net, not only computers or laptops, but first of all mobile phones as well as TVs, game consoles, iPads, etc.

Research Results

Due to the more and more spread phenomenon of cyberbullying among teenagers, this issue was one of the most important ones in the presented research. First of all it was verified if the respondents had encountered negative behaviours in the net at all. The obtained results showed that that as many as 56.7% of the participants often encountered such behaviours and 33.9% of the junior secondary school pupils encountered them but they were individual cases. Summing up the above percentages, it was discovered that 90.6% of the teenage respondents were witnesses, victims or perpetrators of cyberviolence, which proves that this phenomenon is an urgent, current and very widespread problem. Cyberbullying as a New Problematic Behaviour Presented by Polish Youth 45

The next issue in the analyzed context was to check precisely what negative behaviours in the net were most often encountered by the examined youth. Similar results (over 70%) were obtained in the case of three kinds of behaviours: using vulgar words (77.2%), insulting other people (72.1%), and making fun of them (70.3%). An important issue were also negative, offensive comments under photos of Internet users, since this problem was mentioned by 53.0% of the respondents. It is also worth noting that as many as 35.6% of the pupils pointed out, among negative behaviours in the net, publishing discrediting photos of other people without their consent and knowledge, which undoubtedly demonstrates the seriousness and significant spread of such behaviours. The study also aimed at establishing whether there were statistically significant differences regarding the respondents’ sex with reference to negative behaviours which they encounter in the Internet. Generally, it was found that the girls and boys equally often encountered negative behaviours in the net, but the type of such behaviours was different, which was verified with test χ². Such behaviours as: insulting others, making fun of and negative and offensive comments under other people’s photos. While conducting the research, an attempt was also made to determine if the respondents had ever been cyberviolence perpetrators. Based on the obtained data, it can be stated that over three quarters (76.3%) of the respondents claimed that they had never put other people in bad light. Only 14.2% admitted that they had written something negative about another person on the Internet (e.g., criticizing looks or behaviour). A small percentage of the examined pupils also admitted that they had made fun of other users of the net and written vulgar things about them (10% and 9.8% respectively). Among other answers, such ones were found that confirmed that they had written negative things about other people on the net, such as “yes, unfortunately, I did it once”, “I was writing but with consent of the other person and for fun”, “once I placed an ugly photo of another person but I removed it”. However, the majority of the answers in the category “other” prove that the respondents rather try to avoid such situations. Based on the conducted analysis of the obtained results, it can be stated that 32.3% of the pupils have never been a victim of aggression in cyberspace and 26.9% do not recall such a situation. At the same time, summing up the answers confirming such negative experiences it turns out that the majority of the respondents have become a victim of some oppressive situation on the Internet (in total, 83% of indications to negative behaviours towards the respondents). In this context, the most commonly indicated behaviour was mocking (23.5%) and vulgar words (22.7%). Less often, in the case of 13.0% of the respondents, the person was negatively assessed based on a photo placed on the Internet and almost the same 46 Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Karina Leksy number of persons (12.9%) admitted that their photo had been placed in the net without their consent. The respondents’ answers in the “other” category also prove that there is a problem with the so-called hating. Among them there were: “they impersonated me”; “hates on ask”; “yes, somebody impersonated me”; “someone wrote to me that he/she saw my naked pictures on the Internet”. One subject of the analysis in the presented research were the feelings of the respondents facing situations hurting them in the net. However, the results obtained in this field show that 45.2% of the respondents did not worry about such situations at all. One may wonder whether the obtained result is a consequence of common occurrence of unpleasant situations in the net (e.g., negative comments, mocking, insulting other people, etc.) and treating them as a standard, or perhaps the relations and bonds on the Internet are so weak, impermanent and insignificant that young people do not care about unpleasant situations which take place in the virtual space. At the same time, 34.7% of the pupils declare that they feel sadness in such situations and 23.8% – anger. There were also many answers in the “other”. category Among them, a lot of people wrote that they had never encountered such situations, whereas the persons who had had such experiences claimed: “I felt like demolishing inanimate objects”; “being superior to someone who offended me”; “compassion regarding the mental level of the person who insulted me”; “I laugh at stupidity of such people”; “it is for fun”; “laughter; “joy”; “indifference”; “it was not important to me”. The authors of the research tried to find out how young people dealt with unpleasant situations which they encountered in the net. In answer to the above issue, 39.0% of the junior secondary schools pupils declared that they did nothing whereas a little fewer persons (33.8%) tried not to worry about such situations and not to think about them though it may be very hard. Almost a quarter of the respondents (24.3%) try to find some activity to do (e.g., they relax, go for a walk, do sports), 21.0% of the respondents in similar situations confided in their friends, 15.8% presented the existing situation to their parents and only 4.1% of the pupils asked their tutors or teachers for help. In the case of this question, a number of different answers appeared. Many respondents declared that in such a situation they did not care about it at all (“I do not worry about it”; “It doesn’t bother me”; “I don’t give a damn”; “I do not care”; “I do not care about it so I do nothing in such a situation”; “I don’t give a toss”) or got involved in interactive games (“I play CS:GO”; “XBOX”; “I play computer games”; “I play CSA”). Some of them declared that they attempted to get back at the person who caused cyberviolence, e.g.: “I call a group of a few people and then either we meet this person in the real world or we press him/her on the Internet. No one pushes me around”; “I give a ban”; Cyberbullying as a New Problematic Behaviour Presented by Polish Youth 47

“they get a ban”. Moreover, the respondents coped with unpleasant situations and emotions looking for other people’s support (e.g., “I try writing with my friends about positive things”; “I ask my friend to comfort me”; “I say it to my sister”) or taking up favourite activities (e.g., “I dance:; “I read, listen to music, fulfill my passions, write stories”). Within the frames of the research, also prophylactic-educational programmes of the school where the research was conducted were analyzed. In the school in Bytom, among the areas of prophylactic impacts there were issues, among others, connected with “Prophylactics of phonoholism and threats in the net”. The basis for conducting psycho-educational classes was the diagnosis of the phenomenon made on the basis of a survey test. Next, a class was held on: cyberviolence, stalking, addiction to the Internet and computer games and sexting, using the film of Fundacja Dajemy Dzieciom Siłę (We Give Children Strength Foundation), titled “Forever”. The implementers of the impacts were form teachers and a school pedagogue. Additionally, the pupils participated in a presentation on criminal liability of pupils, a psycho-educational class was organized for parents and an action procedure in the case of cyberviolence was prepared. In turn, in the school in Ożarowice, within the frames of Educational-Prophylactic Programme, a prophylactic class was held, which concerned, among other things: threats connected with new media overuse, safety in the net, dealing with the Internet “hate”, legal aspects of using the Internet (regulations of using blogs, forums and other Internet tools) and consequences of negative behaviours in cyberspace. The school also participated in the “Safe in the Net” programme (sieciaki.pl). Moreover, the conducted educational-prophylactic classes aimed at strengthening pupils’ self-esteem and emphasizing the significance of positive life experiences inoffline reality, as well as teaching to express one’s own emotions and dealing with stress in a constructive manner. The above contents were implemented within form periods and IT classes and their implementers were form teachers, IT teachers and a school pedagogue.

Discussion and Conclusions

As the conducted study showed, cyberbullying is a phenomenon which often occurs among contemporary teenagers. The examined persons were most often victims or witnesses of word aggression in the net. Unfortunately, taking into consideration the constantly growing availability of the Internet and new information-communication technologies, simultaneous spread of cyberbullying should be expected (Raskauskas, Stoltz, 2007, pp. 564 – 575). It is worth noting that the 48 Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Karina Leksy young people being in a situation of a cyberbullying victim tried to underestimate the existing situation or felt negative emotions (sadness, anger), but at the same time they did not take any preventive measures. Therefore, it seems that the teenagers treat the Internet aggression as a standard and their sensitivity to harming communication decreases, which leads to the situation when probably the analyzed phenomenon will spread. Taking into account the respondents’ lack of reaction to violence on the Inter- net, it is necessary to take actions aimed at, first of all, minimizing incidents and acts of hatred, to which any Internet user can be exposed. At the same time, due to the fact that the group most often involved in cyberbullying are teenagers, considering the critical moment of their development, the preventive measures should focus on them (Miller, 2017, pp. 385 – 386). Thus, first of all, it is important that young people should react to occurring incidents of cyberbullying (cf., https://www.stopbullying.gov/kids/what-you-can-do/index.html) and report them to adults – parents, tutors, teachers, the police. The role of adults in this context cannot be overestimated. Parental control is very important and lack of it makes teenagers more prone to cyberbullying (Fanti, Demetriou, Hawa, 2012, pp. 168 – 181; cf., Sengupta, Chaudhuri, 2011, pp. 284 – 290). At the same time, it is worth noting that the parents who cannot use information-communication technologies are usually unaware of both advantages and the risk connected with using the Internet by their children. It is also difficult for them to provide support when their child becomes a victim of cyberbullying (Monks, Mahdavi, Rix, 2016, pp. 39 – 48). Moreover, the research shows that the parents’ lack of knowledge and awareness of potential threats to which their children can be exposed on the Internet makes them underestimate them (Kasikci, Cagiltay, Karakus, Kursun, Ogan, 2014, pp. 230 – 243). Therefore, it is necessary to teach parents in order to pass the knowledge and make them aware of the threats connected with the net. Thus, schools should not only undertake educational activities directed to parents but also implement prophylactic programmes concerning cyberbullying (its matter, symptoms), emphasizing the consequences of the phenomenon both for its victims and perpetrators. Teachers and tutors should pay special attention to aggressive pupils and those demonstrating behaviour disorders in the offline world, as the research confirms that such persons will more often present similar behaviours in the net. People who behave aggressively outside the Internet, demonstrating behaviour disorders and having a positive attitude to aggression and violence should be quickly identified in order to take actions aimed at their moral development and introduction to pro-social standards and values. At the same time, due to the multiple conditioning of the discussed phenomenon, in Cyberbullying as a New Problematic Behaviour Presented by Polish Youth 49 order to prevent it or decrease its spread, universal solutions and strategies based on multi-system therapy, parental skills training, peers support programmes and intervention forms based on positive school atmosphere and family background (Guo, 2016, pp. 441 – 444) should be used. Finally, it is worth emphasizing that in the context of cyberbullying prophylactics, probably the most efficient prophylactic programmes will be those taking into account an individual, his/her personality features and perpetuated behaviour patterns, as well as the family environment, school atmosphere, peer pressure and a broader social context. Therefore, in the prevention of the phenomena, it is postulated to, first of all, use universal strategies and then take actions directed at a concrete individual and the features of the particular person which contribute to his/her becoming a victim or perpetrator of internet aggression (Guo, 2016, p. 444).

References Beyazit U., Şimşek Ş., Ayhan A.B.: An examination of the predictive factors of cyberbullying in adolescents. „Social Behavior and Personality” 2017, 45(9). Donegan R.: Bullying and cyberbullying: History, statistics, law, prevention and analysis. “The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications” 2012, 3. Electronic Aggression: Technology and Youth Violence. Centers for Disease Control and Pre- vention [http://www.cdc.gov./violenceprevention/youthviolence/electronicaggression/; accessed on 22.09.2016]. Fanti K.A., Demetriou A.G., Hawa V.V.: A longitudinal study of cyberbullying: Examining risk and protective factors. “European Journal of Developmental Psychology” 2012, 9. Guo S.: A meta-analysis of the predictors of cyberbullying perpetration and victimization. “Psychology in the Schools” 2016, vol. 53 (4). Hinduja S., Patchin J.: Offline consequences of online victimization. “Journal of School Violence” 2007, 6. Hinduja S., Patchin J.W.: Bullying, Cyberbullying, and Suicide. “Archives of Suicide Research” 2010, 14 [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/45289246_Bullying_Cyberbully- ing_and_Suicide; 22.03.2016] Hinduja S., Patchin J.W.: Cyberbullying Research Summary: Cyberbullying and Suicide. Cyberbullying Research Center [https://cyberbullying.org/cyberbullying_and_suicide; 22.03.2018] https://www.stopbullying.gov/kids/what-you-can-do/index.html (accessed on 22.03.2018). Isenberger E.: Causes For Counseling: The Degree to Which Cyber Bullying Affects Mental Health. SocialPolicy.org [http://socialpolicy.org/spring-2013/534-causes-for-counseling-the-degree-to-which-cyber-bullying-affects-mental-health-; 14.10.2016]. 50 Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz, Karina Leksy

Kasikci D.N., Cagiltay K., Karakus T., Kursun E., Ogan C.: The internet using habits and use of safe internet by children in Turkey and in Europe. “Education and Science” 2014, 39. Langos C.: Cyberbullying: The shades of harm. ”Psychiatry, Psychology and Law” 2015, 22 [accessed: https://doi.org/bshs]. Lazuras L., Barkoukis V, Ourda D., Tsorbatzoudis H.: A process model of cyberbullying in adolescence. “Computers in Human Behavior” 2013, 29 [accessed: https://doi.org/bsh4]. Litwiller B.J., Brausch A.M.: Cyber bullying and physical bullying in adolescent suicide: The role of violent behavior and substance use. “Journal of Youth and Adolescence” 2013, 42 [https://doi.org/bsh5]. Miller K.: Cyberbullying and its consequences: how cyberbullying is contorting the minds of victims and bullies alike, and the law’s limited available redress. “Southern California Interdisciplinary Law Journal” 2017, vol. 26 Issue 2. Monks C.P., Mahdavi J., Rix K.: The emergence of cyberbullying in childhood: Parent and teacher perspectives. “Psicologia Educativa” 2016, 22 [accessed: https://doi.org/bsh7]. Notar C.E., Padgett S.P., Roden J.R.: Cyberbullying: A review of the literature. „Universal Journal of Educational Research”. 2013, 1. Pappas S.: Cyberbullying on Social Media Linked to Teen Depression. LiveScience [http:// livescience.com/51294-cyberbullying-social-media-teen-depression.html; 22.06.2015]. 19. Peker A., Eroglu Y., Ada S.: The investigation of predictors of cyberbullying and cybervictimization in adolescents (In Turkish). “Abant Izzet Baysal University Journal of Education” 2012, 12. Raskauskas J., Stoltz A.D.: Involvement in traditional and electronic bullying among adolescents. “Developmental Psychology” 2007, 43. Sengupta A., Chaudhuri A.: Are social networking sites a source of online harassment for teens? Evidence from survey data. “Children and Youth Services Review” 2011, 33 [dostęp: https://doi.org/b55km2]. Thomas G.:How to do your research project. London 2013. Twenge J.M.: iGen. New York 2017. Hyoung-Jin Moon, Jong-ho Nam South Korea

Study of the Effect of Chinese Confucian Ideas on Korean Youth Education and Culture and Teaching Method – Based on the Data of University Students*

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.04

Abstract This study aims to examine the current status of Chinese Confucian ideas that have affected Korean youth culture and to draw up more effective education methods. A survey was conducted after teaching three different groups with the use of three teaching methods over two weeks. Before the experiment, Korean teenagers had preferred different teaching methods depending on their origins. However, after learning from the three teaching methods (cramming, mixed, and discussion teaching methods) for two weeks, the participants preferred the discussion method. Thus, the survey found that while Chinese Confucian ideas have a great influence on Korean youth, there is a possibility for change in preferred teaching methods.

Keywords: Chinese Confucian ideas, cramming teaching method, mixed teaching method, discussion teaching method

Introduction

The purpose of this study is to determine the most effective method for education after examining the influence of Chinese Confucian thought on Korean youth culture. In the section regarding the influence of Confucian thought, I analyze the

* This study was supported by the Hankuk University of Foreign Studies Research Fund of 2018. 52 Hyoung-Jin Moon, Jong-ho Nam junior high school textbook on morals and the high school textbook on ethics to reveal the degree of its influence in Korean education. I then analyze the data collected from administering quantitative and qualitative surveys to 90 students (30 students from each region) from three different universities (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Andong University, and Chonbuk National University) from Seoul, Gyeongsang Province, and Jeolla Province, respectively. Chinese Confucian thought was introduced in Korea after it had been created by Confucius, and has had a great influence on Korean mindsets and behaviors (Nam, Kim, & Kim, 2016). Traditionally, the Koreans accepted Confucian ideas as they were, without objection, because they admired Confucius’ philosophy. Thus, educational customs involved teachers giving lectures and students reciting the lessons of the teachers (Moon, 2011; 2013). Questions and discussions were not required for learning. If Confucius’ thought was interpreted differently, the students were punished (Lee, 1988). During the Chosun Dynasty, teachers were considered to be in the same class as parents, and greatly respected. As a result, what the teacher said was absolutely right. When studying at Seodang in the Chosun Dynasty, the teacher taught in front of the students and the students followed along, memorizing the lesson. The learning atmosphere was very rigid and it was difficult to satisfy students’ curiosity (Oh, 2003). This educational climate has been inherited and can still be seen. As a result, the educational climate in Korea continues to be one of teaching by rote, where teachers teach in front of students and the students accept the information as is. The presented paper aims to determine how this Confucian educational climate influenced Korean youth education culture and what kind of educational methods students prefer. In addition, I analyze junior high school and high school textbooks to see how Confucian thoughts are described. I also analyze how much emphasis is placed on the notion of absolute filial piety, the authority of fathers and teachers, as well as gender discrimination. I then explain teachers’ teaching methods. In addition, in order to increase the accuracy of the survey, I examine regional variations according to the degree of influence of Confucian thoughts after conducting three different educational methods (cramming teaching method (CTM), mixed teaching method of cramming and discussion (MTM), and discussion teaching method (DTM)). I also present the trends of the educational methods that the participants find most effective. Study of the Effect of Chinese Confucian Ideas 53

Research Methodology

The survey was conducted twice. First, questionnaires and qualitative surveys were conducted from July 10, 2018, to August 10, 2018. A lecture was conducted in three different ways over two weeks; I then examined the changes through research. The participants in the survey were 90 university students (30 students from each region) from Seoul (the capital of Korea), the Gyeongsang Province (the southeastern part), and the Jeolla Province (the southwestern part). As the paper examines the influence of Confucian ideas on youth culture and their relevance to educational methods in Korea, I divided the target area into the region where Confucianism elements remain the strongest (Gyeongsang Province), the region in which Western methods of education were quickly adopted (Seoul), and the middle area (Jeolla Province). The research method combines an analysis of the junior high school textbook on morals and high school textbook on ethics with surveys for students. I analyzed these textbooks to determine the degree of influence of Confucian thoughts, and investigated teachers’ educational methods to examine the degree of implementation of those Confucian methods. To examine the most effective educational methods, CTM, DTM, and MTM were used in lectures with the students being surveyed. The survey then asked university students from the three regions to select the most effective teaching method among the three (Moon, Nam, & Kim, 2014). CTM is a teaching method that is considered to be the closest to the Confucian educational method, since the teacher teaches in front of students and the students accept the lessons. DTM is considered to be the most open, in that it gives the students the most autonomy, and MTM is a mixture of cramming and debate. In the paper, I investigate the educational methods that are most preferred by the university students from the three regions and examine the relationship between education methods and Confucian thoughts.

The influence of Confucian ideas

Confucian ideas in the textbook In the textbook analysis, the high school ethics textbooks were used as a basis, and the junior high morals textbooks were also analyzed. The ethics and morals textbooks were analyzed because most Confucian ideas are described in them. 54 Hyoung-Jin Moon, Jong-ho Nam

First of all, in terms of filial duty, people usually cite the original text from Con- fucian scriptures. Although there are cases where people cite Buddhist scriptures known as “Parents’ Immense Grace,”1 most of the citations are from the key books that represent Confucianism, such as “Analects of Confucius,” “Mencius,” “Classic of R it e s ,” “ Sohak,” 2 “Myongshimbogam,” 3 and “Book of Filial Duty.”

Table 1. The contents of filial piety in morals and ethics textbooks of junior high schools and high schools (Choi, 2018).

Classifi- Original Contents Textbook cation Text Analects of A Sin of Impiety Toward One’s Morals in the First Year of Junior Confucius Parents High School Specific Contents of Traditional Morals in the Second Year of Morality Junior High School Mencius Five Kinds of Impieties Toward Morals in the First Year of Junior One’s Parents High School Classic of Thinking of Parents, Practicing Morals in the First Year of Junior Rites Good Deeds High School Body Given by Parents Morals in the First Year of Junior High School Supporting Parents Traditional Ethics in High School Sohak Manners Toward One’s Parents Morals in the First Year of Junior High School Five Kinds of Impieties Toward Morals in the Second Year of One’s Parents Junior High School Confucianism The Specific Practice of Filial Duty Traditional Ethics in High School Book of Family Ethics Morals in the First Year of Junior Filial Duty High School The Principle of Filial Duty Traditional Ethics in High School Keokmon- How to Practice Filial Duty Traditional Ethics in High School gyokeol by Serving Dead Ancestors Traditional Ethics in High School Yi I* Myongshim- The Importance of Home Morals in the Second Year of bogam Junior High School The Family Life of Ancestors Morals in the Third Year of Junior High School

1 A Buddhist scripture emphasizing the depth of parental grace 2 A book created to teach Confucianism for children at the age of about 8 3 A book compiled with a fine collection of Confucian scholars’ writings to educate children Study of the Effect of Chinese Confucian Ideas 55

Classifi- Original Contents Textbook cation Text Parents’ Ten Kinds of Graces of Parents Morals in the Second Year of Immense Junior High School Grace Ten Kinds of Graces of Parents Traditional Ethics in High School That Should Be Rewarded Buddhism Serving Dead Ancestors Traditional Ethics in High School

* A book written by Yulgok Yi I (1536 – 1584), a Confucian scholar of the Joseon Dynasty, to teach Neo-Confucianism (1577).

Table 1 refers to filial piety, which is often mentioned in junior high school morals textbooks as well as high school ethics textbooks. This trend is also reflected in elementary school morals textbooks. In other words, Korean teens’ thoughts and behaviors are deeply influenced by acquiring Confucianism for a total of 10 years, with similar content from the third grade through the third year in junior high school to the third year in high school. In the textbooks, filial piety is defined as “the right things for a child to do for his/her parents.” Indicative of a good heart and human nature, it is stressed that filial piety should be expanded from the level of neighbors and society to the level of the nation. In other words, the textbook states that children should expand the filial duty toward their parents to respecting their neighbors; they should form a cooperative community in society, have a sense of belonging to the nation, and develop a universal love for mankind. According to the junior high school morals textbook, “People should be devoted to their parents, and brothers should be friendly” (Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, 2008a; 2008b) and if filial piety conflicts with loyalty, filial piety should be prioritized, since a lack of filial piety is disloyalty (Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, 2008c). Filial piety and loyalty are identified, considering that “If you are not loyal to the king, it is a lack of filial piety; if you go to war and do not win fame, you are not filled with filial piety” (Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, 2008a). These textbooks reflect the notion of the core idea of Confucianism, i.e., “Home and country are one.” It also defines the father and the king in the same position and rationalizes patriarchy. High school ethics textbooks also emphasize the importance of filial piety. “Having a peaceful family and having friendship in brotherhood,” “respecting the elderly and keeping order in society,” and “being proud as the nation’s people and loving mankind” are also defined as filial piety in the textbooks (Namkung, 2014). 56 Hyoung-Jin Moon, Jong-ho Nam

Such descriptions encourage students to put more emphasis on parents than on themselves, and on groups rather than on individuals. Consequently, they emphasize obedience over personality. In Korea, these textbooks have educated students to practice Confucian thinking by teaching Confucian ethics over a decade of self-formation (Choi, 2014). In the “High School ethics” textbook, conjugal relations are explained by the principle of Yin-Yang (Namkung et al., 2014; Byun et al., 2014; Cho et al., 2014; Jung et al., 2014). It states that men and women should be defined as yang and yin respectively, and that they should be mutually harmonized (Kim, 2018; Kim, 2017). This view, however, reveals the limitation of viewing gender relations as a vertical relationship rather than an equality relationship, as it contains the ideology of Dong, Jung-Seo, in which yin and yang are seen as the relationship between master and servant (the principal and the subordinate) and yang governs yin (Fung, 1992). Meanwhile, the meaning of marriage is described as “the beginning of the marriage of the descendants,” referring to the Confucian book, “Classic of Rites.” The book emphasizes the importance of chastity among married couples by stating that the customs of discrimination against women have existed for a long time and that women were not allowed to remarry in the Chosun Dynasty (Jung et al., 2014). This idea inculcates the traditional patriarchal concept to students by defining marital fidelity as the woman’s duty, along with loyalty to the king and filial piety to parents (Lee, 2014). The idea of equating filial piety with loyalty develops into the concept of equating the teacher with the father and the king (Kim, 2015). The notion that one should honor one’s teacher as if he were filial to one’s parents was absolute to the authority of the teacher. As can be seen in the proverb, “Do not step on the shadows of the teacher,” the teacher’s authority was sacrosanct. In general education in the Chosun Dynasty, the teacher read first and students followed. Questions and discussions were not necessary because students were required to memorize the scriptures mentioned by Confucius. There was a high chance that students would pass when they recited the Confucian scriptures in the civil service exams. In the Chosun Dynasty, they adopted memorization as a very effective educational method. These teaching methods have been passed on to modern times, eventually becoming CTM, wherein teachers teach in front of students and students take notes. Teachers were accustomed to using this teaching method because that was how they learned. Students are comfortable using this method, since they are accustomed to it. CTM is a prime example of how Confucian ideas have influenced Korean teaching methods. Study of the Effect of Chinese Confucian Ideas 57

Most preferred teaching method I asked 90 students who participated in the survey what their favorite teaching method was. Results show that the students of the Gyeongsang Province preferred CTM, those from the Jeolla Province preferred MTM, and those from the Seoul area preferred DTM.

Table 2. Which teaching method was most effective for you? (n=90)

Category CTM DTM MTM Seoul 21% 48% 31% Gyeongsang Province 43% 28% 29% Jeolla Province 14% 40% 46%

For the students from the Gyeongsang Province, the reason why they preferred the CTM was that they had learned Chinese characters since an early age, so the method of memorization was easy and familiar. Since they studied in both junior high and high school in this way, they preferred memorization, even after entering college. The Andong area is the part of Korea where Confucian customs still have the strongest hold and where Sadoang Chinese character education is still being implemented. On the other hand, the students from the Jeolla Province preferred MTM (46%). The qualitative survey showed that the students relied on the teacher’s explanation, preferring the MTM because they do not have many academies in rural areas. The Jeolla Province is a region which is rich in grain and has a history of being robbed by officials, which has developed a sense of criticism in the population. The students from Seoul preferred the DTM. It is believed that Seoul, the nation’s capital city, has quickly embraced Western methods of education and the students were exposed to educational methods that have allowed them to freely engage in discussions in schools and private academies since childhood.

Research Results

Three teaching methods were implemented over two weeks from August 13 to August 27, 2018, to examine the changing process of the most preferred and most effective teaching method. Three lectures were given to the students from three universities in three different regions using three teaching methods. Each teaching method was conducted for two hours on three subjects. 58 Hyoung-Jin Moon, Jong-ho Nam

For example, in CTM, Korean history was divided into the Three Kingdoms Period (57BCE-676CE), Unified Silla (676 – 935CE), Goryeo Dynasty (918 – 1392), the Joseon Dynasty (1392 – 1910), and the Japanese occupation (1910 – 1945); the students were to memorize the important events after the explanations. They were asked to memorize the years of the major events in history and were not allowed any questions or discussions. In MTM, after the Korean culture was explained (Moon, 2012), the students were allowed to ask questions and to engage in discussions. After explaining the three topics, such as with the questions, “What are the meanings of traditional wedding dresses?”, “Why did the Koreans enjoy white clothes?”, and “Why did the Koreans use Ondol (a traditional heating system)?”, they could freely ask questions. Finally, in DTM, I asked them to discuss three topics: “What is the staple food for the Koreans?”, “Why do the Koreans cry out loud when people die?”, and “Why do the Koreans like to do things quickly?” After teaching Korean history and culture through the three teaching methods for a total of 16 hours over a period of two weeks, I asked the students to determine the most effective method and broke down the data according to the place of origin, noting the extent to which the Confucian teaching method remains.

Table 3. What is the most effective teaching method for you? (n=90)

Category CTM DTM MTM Seoul 11% 58% 31% Gyeongsang Province 28% 30% 42% Jeolla Province 12% 52% 36%

What is noteworthy is that the preferred teaching method for the students changed compared to their preferences before conducting the three experimental teaching methods. After the experiment, the students in the Gyeongsang Province (42%) liked MTM the most, while those in Seoul (58%) and the Jeolla Province (52%) preferred DTM. Table 4. Changing trends in the most effective teaching method (n=90)

CTM DTM MTM Category b a b a b a Seoul 21% 11% 48% 58% 31% 31% Gyeongsang Province 43% 28% 28% 30% 29% 42% Jeolla Province 14% 12% 40% 52% 46% 36%

Note: Before survey = b, After survey = a Study of the Effect of Chinese Confucian Ideas 59

These changes appeared to vary from region to region. In the case of the Gyeongsang Province, the most preferred method was CTM (43%) before the experiment. However, that changed to MTM (42%) after it. CTM decreased dramatically, from 43% to 28%, while MTM increased from 29% to 42%. In the Jeolla Province, the most preferred method (46%) was MTM before the experiment, but DTM was the most preferred (52%) after the experiment. MTM decreased by 10% and DTM increased by 9%. In the Seoul area, in the both pre-experiment (48%) and post-experiment (58%) results, the students preferred DTM. Although they preferred DTM both before and after the experiment, the preference increased by 10%. Analysis of the results of this survey shows that preferences in the Gyeongsang Province changed from CTM to MTM, while those in the Jeolla Province changed from MTM to DTM. In other words, the Gyeongsang Province students, who had long been exposed to the Confucian education system, were transformed into students who preferred MTM, who can solve questions and pique curiosity. It can be seen that those from the Jeolla Province were easily converted into those who preferred a discussion culture because they reported a combination of CTM and DTM preferences. In sum, Confucian ideas are affecting not only the educational environment but also the way Korean youth learn. The results showed that the students prefer CTM, and even after being exposed to an environment with free questions and debates, they switched to preferring DTM through a change in preference to MTM, rather than undergoing a drastic change.

Conclusion

I examined Chinese Confucian thoughts and the most effective teaching method for Korean youth culture. First, I analyzed Confucian thoughts in junior high school morals and high school ethics textbooks. Confucianism, including such concepts as filial piety, loyalty, patriarchy, and gender discrimination, was widely described in them. Korean teenagers naturally acquire Confucian core ideas by studying Confucianism for about 10 years from elementary school to high school. In this study, the preference of CTM is the most powerful influence of Confucian thoughts on Korean education culture. If one looks at filial piety in the textbooks, Confucian ideas account for as much as 80%, with the exception of “Parents’ Immense Grace,” a Buddhist ideology. These Confucian ideas had the students accept the teacher’s teachings as they were and 60 Hyoung-Jin Moon, Jong-ho Nam made it difficult to ask questions or point out problems. The results showed that CTM was the most preferred choice in the Gyeongsang Province, where traditional Confucian ideas remained, while free DTM was preferred in Seoul, the most open area, and MTM in the Jeolla Province, the intermediate area. However, after conducting lessons using three teaching methods over two weeks, changes were evident in the Gyeongsang and Jeolla Provinces. In the Gyeongsang area, the preference was changed from CTM to MTM, and in the Jeolla area, it shifted from MTM to DTM. In Seoul, it was found that the students preferred the discussion culture, as they had before. The most preferred teaching method for the Korean youth in this survey was DTM, which allows them to freely express their opinions. However, when we look at the trends of change, we can see that the students do not come to prefer DTM directly, but prefer DTM after changing from CTM to MTM. In conclusion, it can be seen that the influence of Chinese Confucian thoughts on the Korean educational culture influenced CTM (accepting the teacher’s teaching as is), but after the introduction of Western culture, the culture has been transformed into a discussion culture.

References Byun, Sunyong et al. (2014). High school life and ethics. Seoul: Genius Education, 72 – 73. Cho, Sungmin et al. (2014). High school life and ethics. Seoul: Bisang Education, 85. Choi, Moon-Ki (2014). Hyo education through moral and ethical education in Korean secondary schools, The Korean Studies Association.Journal of Korean Ethics Studies, 96, 36 – 41. Choi, Moon-Ki (2018). Critical analysis on contents related to “Hyo”: By moral and ethics text books, The Korean Studies Association. Journal of Korean Hyo Studies, 11, 72 – 73. Fung, Yu lan (1992). A short history of Chinese philosophy. Beijing: Ichinabook. Jung, Changwoo et al. (2014). High school life and ethics. Seoul: Miraeen, 81 – 82. Kim, Dae-Yong (2015). The reargument of traditional ethics in Korean moral textbooks. The Korean Journal of History of Education, 37 (4), 14 – 18. Kim, Dae-Yong (2017). The recognition of gender equality and its undemocratic aspect in the Korean moral textbooks. The Korean Journal of Philosophy of Education, 39 (1), 11 – 17. Kim, Minjae (2018). Study on the re-illumination of “Confucian Marital Relationship” and its methods for moral educational utilization: Focus on the life and ethics subject. The Journal of Educational Research, 71, 77 – 79. Lee, Eun-Soon (1988). A study on the party strifes in late Joseon period. Seoul: Ilchokak, 150 – 165. Study of the Effect of Chinese Confucian Ideas 61

Lee, Sookin (2014). History of fidelity. Seoul: Blue History, 14. Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, Junior High School, 1st year. (2008a). Morals. Seoul: Gihaksa, 152 – 185; 166 – 173. Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, Junior High School, 2nd year. (2008b). Morals. Seoul: Gihaksa, 113 – 120. Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, Junior High School, 3rd year. (2008c). Morals. Seoul: Gihaksa, 134 – 163. Moon, Hyoung-jin (2011). Exploration of various educational measures for Chinese students in teaching modern and contemporary Korean history. Chinese Research, 51, 25 – 45. Moon, Hyoung-jin (2012). The necessity and effectiveness of teaching the history of Joseon Dynasty to Chinese students studying in Korea. Chinese Research, 54, 59 – 81. Moon, Hyoung-jin (2013). An investigation of diverse educational measures for the teaching of Korean history to Chinese students studying in Korea. History and Culture Research, 45, 300 – 301. Moon, Hyoung-jin, Nam, Jong-ho, & Kim, Yongdeog (2014). New measures for the improvement of history education for Chinese students in South Korea. The New Educational Review, 37 (3), 54 – 55. Nam, Jong-ho, Kim, Insik & Kim, Yongdeog (2016). Social science education offered by Chinese departments in Korean universities. The New Educational Review, 44 (2), 17 – 18. Namkung, Dalhwa et al. (2014). High school life and ethics. Seoul: Kyohaksa, 88, 92 – 107. Oh, Ju-Seok (2003). Special lecture in Korea. Seoul: Prunyoksa Publishers, 18 – 40. Park, Sung-Kyu (1999). Chinese philosophy. Seoul: Kachi, 39. Katarzyna Kącka, Bartłomiej Michalak, Joanna Piechowiak-Lamparska Poland

Publication Effectiveness of Academia Employees in Poland: A Case Study

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.05

Abstract Effectiveness in publishing is currently the most important criterion in the process of the evaluation of scientific and research units in Poland. In the national evaluations system for such units, this criterion has the largest relative impact on their final assessment and rating, on the basis of which, in turn, financial resources are allocated. The key question in this context was what factors are correlated with publication effectiveness of employees in the domain of science? The aim of the analysis was to determine correlations between selected factors such as an employee’s academic title and position in a scientific unit’s hierarchy or their teaching load and their scientific effectiveness as measured by publications. The study was conducted on the entire staff population of the Faculty of Political Sciences and International Studies at Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń. As a result, it was found that the selected factors only to a marginal degree were correlated with publication effectiveness in the group studied.

Keywords: evaluation of scientific research, publication impact, social sciences and the humanities

Introduction

Evaluation of scientific research is one of the most frequently discussed problems in both scientometrics and studies in higher education. The topics covered as part of this broad discussion range from the discussion of existing evaluation systems and implementations of various models in different countries (Bloch & Schneider, 2016; Publication Effectiveness of Academia Employees in Poland 63

Hicks, 2012) to research on identifying the most effective and impactful publication models. Scholars’ attitudes toward the evaluation process and its impact on their later careers are also subject to analysis (Rousseau & Rousseau, 2017; Jeran, Kącka & Piechowiak-Lamparska, 2017; Kącka, Michalak & Piechowiak-Lamparska, 2018). Researchers also quite keenly turn to the topic of (broadly understood) scientific performance indicators in attempts to define their role in the process of the evaluation of scientific research in selected countries (Fukuzawa, 2017; Prathap, 2017). In our study, the key issue was the impact of the scholarship work of individual researchers and the factors that might be correlated with it. The purpose of this study was to determine the existence and, if it is confirmed, the nature of the correlation between the impact of researchers’ publications and selected factors such as professional degree or title, and teaching load. The last step in the research was analysis of the results according to the principles and requirements of the Polish model of evaluation of scientific units (Comprehensive Evaluation of Scientific Units), which determines the overall ranking of scientific publications submitted for evaluation by an institution based on journal or channel prestige and parametric impact. The study is based on a detailed analysis of the structure of scholarship work and the variables of the complete population of employees of the Faculty of Political Sciences and International Studies (FPSIS), Nicolaus Copernicus University (NCU) in Toruń (Poland). Due to a relatively small sample, the results of the analysis cannot be extrapolated onto the entire scientific community in Poland. Nevertheless, the sample size allows for the research to be considered as a case study, which may be an interesting contribution to any research focused on scholars and research units at a national level, as well as to studies analyzing particular domains of science or disciplines. The basic research question put forward in this paper is: Are selected factors, such as professional degree or title, and teaching load correlated with the impact of scholarship work of individual researchers? The answer is particularly interesting since the presented study is a pioneering one – so far, no results of multi-variate analyses focused on links between a scholar’s publications’ impact and selected variables have been published.

Research Methodology

Materials and variables The following data sets were used to perform the presented analysis: 1. Scientific publications of the staff of FPSIS (2013 – 2016, parametric evaluation period). 64 Katarzyna Kącka, Bartłomiej Michalak, Joanna Piechowiak-Lamparska

2. Information on key traits of researchers employed by FPSIS: position of an employee in the academic hierarchy as defined by their academic degree or title as recognized in Poland [Master’s, PhD, PhD Hab. (a post-doctoral title), Full Professor], and teaching load (an employee’s number of teaching hours in an academic year). 3. Specific point scores obtained by individual employees were calculated on the basis of publication data from the Expertus system (Bibliography of publications of employees and doctoral students at NCU). The publications were catalogued and aggregated according to the division provided for in the Ministry of Science and Higher Education Regulation (2016). Next, they were assigned parametric points in accordance with the same Regulation and the Catalog of Scientific Periodicals with a full history of their position in the published catalogs of scientific periodicals in the years 2013 – 2016 and corresponding points to be awarded (2017).

Objectives of the study The purpose of the study was to determine the existence of (and if existing, the nature of) a correlation between selected socio-demographic variables (independent variables) and the publication impact of researchers employed at the FPSIS as measured by relevant points awarded by MSHE for scientific publications of the unit’s employees depending on their ranking as part of the process of parametric evaluation of scientific and research units in Poland (dependent variable). The following specific research questions were posed: Q1. Is there a statistically significant relationship between an employee’s place in the scientific hierarchy and the impact achieved by their publications in terms of impactful points obtained during the evaluation, and if so, is it positively or negatively correlated? Q2. Is there a statistically significant relationship between an employee’s teaching load and the impact achieved by their publications in terms of relevant points awarded in the evaluation process, and if so, is it positively or negatively correlated? These questions led us to the below suggested interlinked answers (research hypotheses): H1. There is a negative and statistically significant relationship between an employee’s place in the unit’s scientific hierarchy and his/her total relevant (impactful) points scored for their publications. Research on the relationship between the scientific title held (or position occu- pied in the academic hierarchy) by a scholar and their productivity and impact Publication Effectiveness of Academia Employees in Poland 65 of their publications has been ongoing for many years (Puuska, 2010; Sabharwal, 2013). Results of a study carried out in Italy on a population of nearly 12,000 full professors (Abramo, D’Angelo & Murgia, 2015) clearly show that the position (title) held by an academic significantly differentiates productivity of researchers in terms of publications and resulting impactfulness of their scholarly work. A similar correlation was determined by Jung (2014) in his research focusing on the Korean scientific community. Jung indicates that scientific productivity is variable to a significant degree and dependent on the career stage where the scholars in question find themselves. He also notes discernible differences between various scientific disciplines. Evaluation of one’s scientific performance – specifically, of the impact and quality of one’s scientific publications – is the basis for gaining more advanced degrees and titles. Here, our hypothesis is that the lower the position of an employee in the scientific hierarchy, the more points they would strive to obtain. Several factors would be conducive to such starting-level researchers obtaining a larger number of points for publications. The first is the desire for rapid professional advancement, gaining prestige and recognition in the research community. The second factor is having a good understanding of the evaluation system for scientific publications, which should foster the development of an individual’s publication strategies (e.g., submitting papers exclusively to high-impact journals with a global reach) and their effective implementation. H2. There is a negative and statistically significant relationship between an employee’s teaching load and the number of impactful (relevant) points scored. Similarly as in the case of family obligations, no attempt has been made thus far to investigate the correlation between productivity of academic staff in terms of publications and their teaching load. As mentioned, Cronin & Meho (2007) point out the fact that the model of scientific activity changes with age, and well-established researchers place more emphasis on didactics – especially teaching a new generation of young academics. No one, however, has thus far undertaken a detailed and comprehensive analysis of how the number of teaching hours impacts on employees’ productivity in the academia. In our study, we hypothesized that among FPSIS employees the teaching load is indeed a differentiating factor as concerns productivity expressed in the number of publications. We do understand that in practice, an employee burdened with overtime teaching hours will be less productive and publish less frequently. Success in the academic world, as measured by the publications impact and influence, is, however, conditioned by many more factors than just the number of teaching 66 Katarzyna Kącka, Bartłomiej Michalak, Joanna Piechowiak-Lamparska hours and other didactical obligations. It may depend on, e.g., personality traits (diligence, industry), other contributions to the academic world (involvement in management of a given unit, serving as editor for scientific journals, conference organization), etc. More diligent employees can perform at equally high levels both in terms of scholarship and their didactical work.

Characteristics of the data set The collected data set consists of 61 units of enquiry (61 academic employees of the FPSIS), and the analyzed data are mostly quantitative variables. All dependent variables referring to employee publication impact (as expressed by the number of relevant points obtained during the unit evaluation process) are ratio variables. The “degree or academic title” variable, describing the position of an employee in the scientific hierarchy, is an ordinal variable. This gave us an opportunity to analyze and test the statistical significance of the collected data using tools such as regression analysis and correlation coefficients (R-Pearson and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient). The analyzed data set is not a representative sample, but can be treated as an independent and discrete population, thus giving the authors an opportunity to treat their research as a case study.

Table 1. Characteristics of the analyzed population

Variables N % Degree or academic title: Master’s 0 0 PhD 29 47.54 PhD Hab. 22 36.07 Full professor 10 16.39 Total 61 100

Source: Own analysis.

Research Results

General characteristics of FPSIS employees’ scholarly output Statistical analysis of the studied data set shows its wide variability, both regarding the total point scores per employee, as well as in the case of relevant (impactful) points only (Table 2). Publication Effectiveness of Academia Employees in Poland 67

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of total point scores obtained by employees for publication activity

Descriptives Statistic Std. Error Points by Mean 110.481 9.9289 the MSHE 95% Confidence Interval for Lower Bound 90.620 Mean Upper Bound 130.342 5% Trimmed Mean 102.136 Median 98.667 Variance 6013.511 Std. Deviation 77.5468 Minimum 13.0 Maximum 454.5 Range 441.5 Interquartile Range 87.0 Skewness 2.110 .306 Kurtosis 6.782 .604 Relevant Mean 41.852 4.9233 (impactful) 95% Confidence Interval for Lower Bound 32.004 points Mean Upper Bound 51.701 5% Trimmed Mean 37.528 Median 36.333 Variance 1478.570 Std. Deviation 38.4522 Minimum .0 Maximum 178.5 Range 178.5 Interquartile Range 31.0 Skewness 1.804 .306 Kurtosis 3.964 .604

Source: Own analysis.

The range between the lowest and the highest point score awarded to an employee was 441.5, and in the case of parametrically relevant (impactful) points, the range was 178.5. The box plot graph (Figure 1) shows two outlier observations in the former and six in the latter case. The classical variation coefficients for the 68 Katarzyna Kącka, Bartłomiej Michalak, Joanna Piechowiak-Lamparska

Source: Own analysis. Figure 1. Analysis of the number of total points obtained by an employee versus the number of relevant (impactful) points analyzed data were 69.6% and 91.9%, which means that with such variability, the arithmetic mean cannot be used as a good measure of the central tendency for this set. For this reason, the median was used as such measure in all further analyses. Analysis of the employees’ points scores from the point of view of the scientific evaluation process of FPSIS showed that the Faculty reported 1200 publications with a total value of more than 7800 points (1077 publications merited points scores according to the MSHE regulation). From this total, 177 of the highest-rated publications were taken into account in the final parametric questionnaire. The cut-off point for publications taken into consideration in the evaluation process was 12 points. The average number of points per publication submitted by FPSIS was 6.6. Finally, the ratio of the number of relevant (impactful) points (i.e., points for publications that were taken into account in the unit’s final evaluation questionnaire) to irrelevant (lost) points was 2010 to 3802. Analysis of the employee Publication Effectiveness of Academia Employees in Poland 69 publications impact against the structure of scholarly output of FPSIS as a whole (Table 2) allows for drawing the following conclusions: •• 10 employees had zero fully parametrically relevant (impactful) publications, •• 34 employees had 1 – 2 such publications, •• 7 employees had 3 relevant (impactful) publications, •• 10 employees had over 3 publications in that category. Taking into account only the relevant (impactful) point scores earned by the FPSIS employees, it was determined that: •• 8 employees contributed 0 points to the total final score of the unit, •• 7 scholars earned 8 – 15 points, •• 31 researchers brought 25 – 50 points for the unit, •• 15 employees contributed over 50 points to the score, out of whom 5 were responsible for more than 100 points each.

Table 3. Structure of overall scholarly output of FPSIS employees

Number Type of publication Total points of publications Articles in journals (List A) 4 70 Articles in journals ( List B) 252 2367 Articles in journals (List C) 26 293 Scientific monographs 64 1551 Editing of multi-author monographic publications 107 510 Chapters in multi-author monographs 399 1715 Total 852 6506

Source: Own analysis.

Verification of research hypotheses The main purpose of the study was to verify the hypotheses posited as possible answers to the research questions formulated. H1. There is a negative and statistically significant relationship between an employee’s place in the unit’s scientific hierarchy and the total relevant (impactful) points scored for their publications. Analysis of the correlation between the position of an employee in the Faculty structure (Table 4) as manifested by the hierarchy of degrees and academic titles held by the employee (independent ordinal variable) and the number of relevant (impactful) points scored (dependent ratio variable) carried out using the Spear- 70 Katarzyna Kącka, Bartłomiej Michalak, Joanna Piechowiak-Lamparska man rank correlation coefficient s(r ) showed no statistical significance (p>0.05). This does not allow for a full verification of H4. However, the comparison of median values sheds more light on the matter.

Table 4. Analysis of correlation between the position of an FPSIS employee in the academic hierarchy and the number of relevant (impactful) points scored for publications

Report Points by the Relevant (impact- Irrelevant (lost) Degree or academic title MSHE ful) points points PhD Sum 3223.6 1320.5 1639.1 Median 94.500 39.000 40.000 Mean 111.159 45.534 56.521 Std. Deviation 71.5579 39.0398 43.3127 N 29 29 29 PhD Sum 2229.3 755.2 1414.1 Hab. Median 82.833 25.500 50.167 Mean 101.331 34.326 64.278 Std. Deviation 91.1180 38.7090 56.9637 N 22 22 22 Full Sum 1286.4 477.3 749.1 profes- Median 142.667 32.500 65.500 sor Mean 128.643 47.733 74.910 Std. Deviation 64.9185 37.3984 42.9733 N 10 10 10 Total Sum 6739.3 2553.0 3802.3 Median 98.667 36.333 49.237 Mean 110.481 41.852 62.333 Std. Deviation 77.5468 38.4522 48.2933 N 61 61 61

Source: Own analysis.

Employees with a doctoral (PhD) degree obtained the most points, both total and as relevant (impactful) points, compared to those holding a post-doctoral degree (PhD Hab.) and the title of full professor. Holders of a PhD Hab. degree obtained the lowest results. Publication Effectiveness of Academia Employees in Poland 71

It seems, therefore, that the hypothesis that the lower an employee’s position is in the scientific hierarchy, the more points they obtain for their publication is only partially true, specifically, it holds only as regarding the variable of impactful (relevant) points scored. Full professors show a significantly higher number of total points scored, but overall, their publications are much less impactful parametrically (as measured by relevant points). The group of PhD Hab. employees recorded the lowest scores. This conclusion is somewhat surprising and raises the need for more thorough research into the matter. H2. There is a negative and statistically significant relationship between an employee’s teaching load and the number of impactful (relevant) points scored. The use of regression analysis (for the independent variable of teaching load and the dependent variable of total points scored for publications) to test the above hypothesis has led to surprising conclusions. First and foremost, a large teaching load did not negatively impact on the employee’s performance in terms of points earned for publications. We have in fact observed the opposite effect (Figures 2a, b, c, d). Among all the regression models tested using the curve estimation function in the SPSS software, the best-fit and most statistically significant (p<0.05) model turned out to be the S-shaped curve regression model. It should still be noted that its coefficient of determination is still not particularly high (R Square = 0.308). For the dependent variable “impactful (relevant) points scored,” the linear regression model turned out to be statistically significant (p<0.05). However, its coefficient of determination is negligible (R Square=0.079).

Model Summary R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of the Square Estimate .555 .308 .296 .573

(a) The independent variable is teaching hours (teaching load).

ANOVA Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Regression 8488 1 8488 25822 .000 Residual 19,065 58 .329 Total 27,553 59

(b) The independent variable is teaching hours (teaching load). 72 Katarzyna Kącka, Bartłomiej Michalak, Joanna Piechowiak-Lamparska

Coefficients Unstandardized Coeffi- Standardized cients Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 / Teachung hours -931,149 183,241 -.555 -5,082 .000 (Constant) 5,116 .146 35,060 .000

(d)

Figures 2 a, b, c, d. Analysis of the correlation between teaching load of an employee and number of points obtained for publications Publication Effectiveness of Academia Employees in Poland 73

Regression analysis did not allow for an unambiguous verification of the formulated hypothesis. The regression model does not link the number of points scored to the number of teaching hours. However, looking at the scatter plot, it is quite clear that a larger teaching load does not interfere with earning a large number of points. The record setters (two outlier observations) had a high number of teaching hours. In turn, people with few teaching hours also obtained only a small number of points. Accordingly, based on the data analyzed, it cannot be said that a large number of teaching hours always translates into a high number of points earned, but it can be stated that a smaller teaching load is not conducive to obtaining a larger number of points for one’s publications.

Conclusions

The purpose of the presented analysis was to determine the correlation between a scholar’s publication impact (expressed as a number of relevant points scored for the unit in the evaluation process) and selected factors such as a degree or academic title and teaching load. We presented the analysis in the context of principles and requirements of the Polish model of evaluation of scientific units, as it is the most decisive framework shaping scientific policies of individual research units. Being aware of the advantages (coverage of an entire population) as well as flaws of the conducted study (small and non-representative sample of the population of researchers in Poland), we can confidently state that our detailed analysis of the publications structure and variables of the employees of FPSIS has allowed us to draw interesting conclusions. The socio-demographic factors considered in the study have shown relatively weak with the number of impactful (relevant) points earned by the Faculty employees for their publications. However, it is particularly worthwhile to look into the detailed results. An important factor turned out to be also the researcher’s position in the scientific hierarchy, i.e., the degree or academic title they hold. The study showed that although the employees at lower hierarchy levels in the Faculty structure had a better ratio of relevant (impactful) points to total ones in the evaluation process, the holders of a full professor title turned out to be more effective in terms of total points scored. The result of the analysis of the relationship between teaching load and the number of impactful (relevant) points scored was particularly interesting. It allowed us to conclude that with personal diligence, the impact and high frequency of publications can go hand in hand with a significant teaching load. 74 Katarzyna Kącka, Bartłomiej Michalak, Joanna Piechowiak-Lamparska

References Abramo, G., D’Angelo, C.A., & Murgia, G. (2015). The combined effects of age and sen- iority on research performance of full professors. Science and Public Policy, 43(3), 1 – 19. doi:10.1093/scipol/scv037. Bloch, C., & Schneider, J.W. (2016). Performance-based funding models and researcher behavior: An analysis of the influence of the Norwegian Publication Indicator at the individual level. Research Evaluation, 25(4), 371 – 382. doi:10.1093/reseval/rvv047. Cronin, B., & Meho, I. (2007). Timelines of creativity: A study of intellectual innovators in information science. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technol- ogy, 58(13), 1948 – 1959. doi:10.1002/asi.20667. Engels, T.C., Ossenblok, T.L., & Spruyt, E.H. (2012). Changing publication patterns in the social sciences and humanities, 2000 – 2009. Scientometrics, 93(2), 373 – 390. doi:10.1007/ s11192 – 012 – 0680 – 2. Fukuzawa, N., (2017). Characteristics of papers published in journals: An analysis of open access journals, country of publication, and languages used. Scientometrics, 112(2), 1007 – 1023. doi:10.1007/s11192 – 017 – 2414-y. Hicks, D. (2012). Performance-based university research funding systems. Research Policy, 41(2), 251 – 261. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2011.09.007. Jeran, A., Kącka, K., & Piechowiak-Lamparska, J. (2017). Publication efficiency in science. suggestions on measures and their application using the case of Poland and Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń. The New Educational Review, 49(3), 138 – 153. doi: 10.15804/tner.2017.49.3.11. Jung, J. (2014). Research productivity by career stage among Korean academics. Tertiary Education and Management, 20(2), 85 – 105. doi:10.1080/13583883.2014.889206. Kącka, K. Michalak, B., & Piechowiak-Lamparska, J. (2018). Impact of scholarly publications and the selected socio-demographic factors. The New Educational Review, 52(2), 165–177. doi: 10.15804/tner.2018.52.2.13. Prathap, G. (2017). Making scientometric sense out of NIRF scores. Current Science, 112(6), 1240 – 1242. doi:10.18520/cs/v112/i06/1240 – 1242. Puuska, H.M. (2010). Effects of scholar’s gender and professional position on publishing productivity in different publication types. Analysis of a Finnish university.Scientometrics , 82(2), 419 – 437. doi:10.1007/s11192 – 009 – 0037 – 7. Rousseau, S., & Rousseau, R. (2017). Being metric-wise: Heterogeneity in bibliometric knowledge. El Profesional de la Información, 26(3), 480 – 487. doi:org/10.3145/epi.2017.may.14. Rozporządzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego z dnia 12 grudnia 2016 r. w sprawie przyznawania kategorii naukowej jednostkom naukowym i uczelniom, w których zgodnie z ich statutami nie wyodrębniono podstawowych jednostek organizacyjnych. Dziennik Ustaw, poz. 2154 [Regulation of the Minister of Science and Higher Education of 12 December 2016 on granting of scientific ranks to scientific units and universities in which, pursuant to their statutes, core organizational units have not been delimited, Journal of Laws, item 2154]. Sabharwal, M. (2013). Comparing research productivity across disciplines and career stages. Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice, 15(2), 141 – 163. doi:10.108 0/13876988.2013.785149. Anna Brosch Poland

Sharenting – Why Do Parents Violate Their Children’s Privacy?

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.06

Abstract This paper presents a theoretical analysis of the concept of sharenting, emphasizing its role in violating children’s privacy. Mechanisms of online self-disclosure are also analyzed, especially regarding parents’ activities consisting of posting information about their children online. Lack of legal regulations regarding the protection of children’s privacy online was also pointed out. Finally, a model of sharenting was developed, which was the basis for establishing a framework of the conceptualization of a research project on sharenting.

Keywords: children’s privacy, self-disclosure, sharenting

Introduction

Social networking sites (SNSs) have become significant platforms for human interactions and the presentation of the Self in the sense of making public a personal image, narrative or description, which was featured high on the research agenda of cybercultural and digital media scholars (cf., Dominick, 1999; Cheung, 2000; Van Dijk., 2009). But very often parents use SNSs not only to share information about their own lives, but also to discuss their children’s lives and share personal information about their children (Business Wire, 2010). The phenomenon of sharing and disclosing intimate information about children by their parents through SNSs is growing rapidly. Social networking sites, especially Facebook, are being flooded by a growing number of information and photos portraying 76 Anna Brosch children in different daily situations, even very intimate, e.g., sitting on the potty. Many new parents revel in posting silly and cute pictures of their infants online as an expression of affection. As an example, in the United States, 92% of children under the age of two have some sort of presence in the social media, and one-third make their debut online before they are one day old (Duggan, Lenhart, Lampe & Ellison, 2015). According to AVG Technologies research conducted in 2010, on average, children acquire a digital identity by the age of six months (AVG Tech- nologies, 2010). However parents very often shape their children’s digital identity even before their birth, by posting sonogram images of their unborn children (Brosch, 2016). The term “sharenting”, coined from “share” and “parenting”, neatly captures this activity. Thus, the question arises: How is it possible that parents violate their children’s privacy so thoughtlessly? Perhaps it is a way in which parents celebrate the lives of their children, but on the other hand, nobody knows its consequences for the children in the future. Therefore, sharenting has become a subject of research by increasing numbers of scholars worldwide, but the knowledge of this phenomenon is still meagre.

The motives of disclosing on social media

Although there is a variety of different types of social networking sites (SNSs), e.g., Facebook, Twitter or MySpace, in fact each of them offers users a unique opportunity to communicate with a large number of people without the need to invest too much time or effort. Therefore, researchers identify several benefits -con nected with disclosing information about private life on SNSs. A number of studies have indicated the convenience of establishing and maintaining relationships as one of the most important benefits from online self-disclosure (cf., Hui, Tan & Goh, 2006; Gibbs, Ellison & Heino, 2006; Cheung, Lee & Chan, 2015). Building and supporting new relationships is certainly connected with the need for accumu- lating social capital (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007). A significant element of participation in SNSs is also the possibility of self-presentation by sharing photos, belonging to different groups or building communities based on similar interests (Boyd, 2007; Gibbs et al., 2006). This active self-disclosing behavior can also be of hedonistic nature, based on intrinsic motivation referring to “doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable” (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 55). Some authors argue that enjoyment is more powerful than perceived usefulness (Krasnova, Spiekermann, Koroleva & Hildebrand 2010). According to traditional Sharenting – Why Do Parents Violate Their Children’s Privacy 77 interpersonal communication theory such as social penetration theory, there is a linear increase in the breadth and depth of self-disclosure over time (Altman & Taylor, 1973). In this regard, SNS users present themselves through photos, stories, etc., expecting that their SNS friends will do the same to deepen their familiarity. In other words, this reciprocal process of self-disclosure is expected to increase intimacy between SNS users. Self-disclosure is usually measured taking into account two dimensions – the breadth and depth of shared information. The breadth refers to the amount of disclosed information, which includes the frequency and duration of disclosed contents, whereas the depth reflects the level of intimacy, which is associated with the user’s honesty, accuracy and intention (Wheeles & Grotz, 1976). With regard to sharenting, research has shown that while parents have concerns about their children’s privacy, they still see benefits from sharing information about them because of the social support they receive (Kumar & Schoenebeck, 2015). Social networking sites allow parents to share their own experiences with parenting, through answering questions and sharing information about their own children. But on the other hand, their children are growing up with a conviction that sharing personal details is natural practice. Thus, when they become parents in the future, they will incline even more to self-disclosure than their parents (Brosch, 2016). However, still little is known about parents’ underlying decision process, which makes them share details about their children’s life and also their strategies to diminish the risks for their children.

Sharenting – the definition problem

Undoubtedly, defining terms is one of the most thankless tasks in science, because a few always will have a different view on a given problem or find the definition in some way wanting. However, clarification of a term is of considerable value in avoiding confusion among scholars investigating the same, or similar, phenomena and is necessary in the development of theory, as well. Taking into account the term “sharenting,” researchers attempt to establish parents’ motives or range of activities connected with disclosing information about children, rather than focus on the true essence of the phenomenon being defined. Moreover, they usually rely on dictionary definitions or do not define it at all. It must be emphasized that in dictionaries the term “sharenting” is defined so generally that no element indicate directly what this phenomenon actually is. For example, in Collins Dictionary “sharenting” is defined as “the habitual use of social 78 Anna Brosch media to share news, images, etc., of one’s children” (Collins Dictionary online). Urban Dictionary defines “sharenting” in a similar way: “When parents share too much of their children’s information, pictures and private moments online, mostly on Facebook” (Urban Dictionary online). Thus, based on these definitions, scholars define “sharenting” usually as “a term used to describe the ways many parents share details about their children’s lives online” (Steinberg, 2017). This way of defining “sharenting”, although used in many sources (e.g., Blum-Ross, Living- stone, 2017; Steinberg, 2017), is so general and vague that it serves little scientific purpose and rises some doubts. As rightly pointed out by Phoebe Maltz Bovy, two criteria need to be met to talk about sharenting: the presence of a mass audience and the possibility of identifying the child (2013). In fact, sharenting does not refer to communication between family members or friends, even if parents share with them an enormous amount of information or pictures connected with their children. Sharenting does not also deal with anonymous sharing of information or photos concerning children, because in this case the recognition of the child is impossible. One more important factor should be taken into consideration during defining the term “sharenting” – the possible risk for children. Some researchers report new phenomena as consequences of sharenting, such as digital kidnapping (O’Neill, 2015) or online pedophilia (Durkin & Bryant, 1999; Jenkins, 2001), but in fact sharenting is seldom associated with such tragic circumstances. But there is no doubt that parents in this way infringe their children’s right to privacy, which can put them in danger now and in the future. Obviously, today it is impossible to predict the consequences of such a kind of parents’ activity. Anyway, the fundamental risk of sharenting is associated with losing privacy by the child. What is more, by posting news about their child online parents lose their ability to control its future fate. Taking the above into account, the term “sharenting” should be defined as:Mak - ing public by parents a lot of detailed information about their children in the form of photos, videos and posts through social media, which violate children’s privacy.

Towards a model of sharenting

Sharenting basically concerns publicizing a large amount of information. How- ever, in many cases it is enough to post only one inappropriate photo to humiliate the child. Is that sharenting then, or not? For example, in April, 2017, the court ruled the first judgment on sharenting in Poland. A father was sentenced to 3 months’ imprisonment for posting only one photo of his son on Facebook. In this Sharenting – Why Do Parents Violate Their Children’s Privacy 79 photo, the naked 2 years old boy was holding a bottle of beer in one hand and his genitals in the other (Szczurowska, 2017). This shows how important not only the amount is but also the content of the posted information. Moreover, the questions arise: How much information needs to be posted to speak about sharenting? After all, thousands of photos showing a child’s everyday life posted on the Web will not hurt the child as much as only one embarrassing picture. Moreover, should this activity be characterized by regularity or is posting hundreds of photos at once enough? And finally, how to measure the level of sharenting? It seems that to measure the level of sharenting, four dimensions should be taken into account: the amount, frequency, content and viewers of the posted information about the child. The total score of these dimensions can determine the level of sharenting, which will allow for comparing parents with respect to their level of sharenting. The amount and frequency of posted information allows for establishing the level of parents’ activity in sharenting. In this case, the form of this information is not important, although there is no doubt that posting photos of children is the most popular activity in this field. By analyzing the content of posted information, it is possible to establish the level of intimacy of the disclosed information. As shown by research, the information about children disclosed by parents ranged from lighthearted anecdotes, through reports of their everyday life to disclosing the children’s secrets or embarrassing them (Steinberg, 2017; Jomhari, Gonzalez & Kurniawan, 2009; Brosch, 2016). This information can determine the child’s well-being in the future. As Bovy emphasizes: “A child might sympathize with writing about his illness, but not about that time when he was three and wet the bed” (2013). However, sometimes not the picture itself can ridicule a child, but the commentary on it. For example, one mother posted on Facebook a picture of her baby, whose face was grimed with a brown substance (chocolate). Maybe such a photo seems to be funny, but the comment on it written by one of the users – I hope it’s chocolate! – simply ridicules the child. The last dimension of sharenting concerns the audience. It is associated with the number of friends on SNSs and profile privacy settings, which can establish who in fact can watch posted information. Sharenting basically refers to invisible audience. Public accounts allow everyone, undoubtedly, to see posted contents. However, even limiting the audience to the friends very often is not enough, because it is impossible to be a close friend with thousands of people from the contact list. To summarize, the model of sharenting includes four elements: the amount, frequency, content of posted information and the audience. Only insightful anal- 80 Anna Brosch ysis of these dimensions allows for establishing the true level of sharenting and classifying parents with regard to their tendency to disclose information about their children online.

Children’s right to privacy

As the topic of privacy is of considerable interest to a wide variety of disciplines, there is extensive literature on this issue. However, the term “privacy” is very difficult to define. As Judith Jarvis Thomson has rightly pointed out, “the right to privacy is that nobody seems to have any very clear idea what it is” (Thomson, 1975, p. 295). Irwin Altman emphasizes the role of privacy in the interpersonal boundary control process (Altman, 1976, p. 7). Alan Westin (1967) defines privacy as “the claim of individuals, groups, or institutions to determine for themselves when, how and to what extent information about them is communicated to others” (p. 7). In general, privacy is associated with the possibility of using different patterns of verbal and nonverbal mechanisms to make themselves more or less accessible to others. Thus, privacy is determined by two opposite poles – the need to withhold information about oneself to prevent the loss of privacy on the one hand, and the need for self-disclosure to maintain social relationships with others. In the online environments, this tension between these two poles has become more salient than ever. Adam N. Joinson indicates that the sense of anonymity is the key factor of disclosing online, which allows users greater freedom in expressing thoughts and feelings (Joinson, 2001). What is more, this issue is much more complicated with regard to children’s privacy. Currently, in most countries (cf., Kumar & Schoenebeck, 2015; Steinberg, 2017), including Poland, no policy secures children’s right to online privacy, leaving in the parent’s hands the decision what kind of information about their children can be shared. From the Polish legal standpoint, children under 13 years of age do not have legal capacity, so they cannot make decisions whether and what kind of information about them can be shared online. What is more, they also cannot create an account on SNSs. As parents are the gatekeepers of personal information of their children, they are obliged to protect their children from harm online (COPPA, 2012). But on the other hand, only parents are allowed to decide whether and how much information will be contributed to SNS. Therefore, although parents are the first line of defense to protect their children’s privacy, in many cases they are not indeed (Keenan, Sharenting – Why Do Parents Violate Their Children’s Privacy 81

2012). What is more, when parents share information about their children online, they do so without their children’s consent. From the age of 13, the child has a right to decide whether and what kind of their personal information can be shared online by parents.

Planned research project on sharenting1

The aim of the planned project is to determine the relationship between the level of sharenting and parents’ tendency to self-disclosure, as well as their age, sex and activity on Facebook. As the high level of self-disclosure can give parents a sense that “privacy is no longer a social norm” (Johnson, 2010), it will be considered as a key factor of sharenting. The first step was to define the concept of sharenting and determine its aspects, such as form, amount, content and frequency of posted information, which was discussed in the section above. Based on the points assigned to each activity, it will be possible to specify the level of sharenting. To evaluate the level of parents’ self-disclosure, a Self-disclosure Questionnaire will be developed, consisting of 3 subscales. It will provide the total score of the self-disclosure level and three sub- scores referring to different levels of the depth (intimacy) of shared information. The all-Poland research will be conducted among approx. 1000 parents of children at preschool age. To select a representative sample of the population, a cluster random sampling will be used, where clusters will be all kindergartens in Poland. As every research project, also this one is subject to limitations. Firstly, the research sample will consist of parents of children at pre-school age living in Poland. By doing so, parents of children under 3 will be excluded, although in fact this group of children is the most frequently at risk of sharenting. This limitation is caused by accessibility of parents. As the planned research will be all-Poland, it is only possible to select a sample of parents whose children attend kindergarten. After all, it is virtually impossible to reach parents outside the kindergarten when research is conducted on such a large scale. As previous research did not provide adequate insights into the true extent of sharenting and its relationship with such variables as age, sex, activity on Facebook

1 This research is supported by the National Science Centre, Poland. Project titled: Zakres i uwarunkowania zjawiska “sharenting” wśród rodziców na portalu społecznościowym Face- book /The range and causes of the “sharenting” phenomenon among parents on Facebook/. No. 2017/01/X/HS6/00612. 82 Anna Brosch and, above all, the level of parents’ self-disclosure, a quantitative approach will be adopted, which is associated with the positivist paradigm. This constitutes the second limitation of the project. Unlike qualitative methods, quantitative research does not allow for finding the deeper meaning of parents’ behavior. But given that sharenting is still an emerging phenomenon in research, quantitative research with its generalizability allows for statistical calculations and drawing conclusions. Thus, statistical analysis will make it possible to discover complex causal relationships and to determine to what extent individual variables influence the level of sharenting.

Conclusion

Information shared on the Internet has the potential to remain long after posting it without senders’ control. Therefore, disclosures made during childhood may have a potential influence on the children’s future lifetime. As pointed out in this paper, parents are obligated to protect their children’s privacy online, but in many cases their online activity has an opposite effect. While existing research provides some valuable insights into specific determinants of sharenting, parents still seem to be unaware of the consequences of their openness online. So, in the absence of other protection, also the media have a responsibility for publishing material that could damage a child’s long-term personal or professional prospects. Although significant progress has been made in the scientific studies on the phenomenon of sharenting so far, it is not enough and the question of why parents exhibit their children online is still open. Therefore, research planned within the project will partially fill in this gap and make a useful contribution to the field of social science.

Acknowledgment The publication has been prepared as part of the project titled: Zakres i uwarunkowania zjawiska “sharenting” wśród rodziców na portalu społecznościowym Facebook /The range and causes of the “sharenting” phenomenon among parents on Facebook/, financed by the National Science Centre, Poland. No. 2017/01/X/HS6/00612. Sharenting – Why Do Parents Violate Their Children’s Privacy 83

References Altman, I. & Taylor, A. (1973). Social penetration: the development of interpersonal relationships. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Altman, I. (1976). Privacy: A Conceptual Analysis, Environment and Behavior, 8(1), pp.7 – 30. AVG Technologies (2010). AVG Digital Diaries: Digital Birth. Retrieved 12/10/2018, from http://www.avgdigitaldiaries.com/post/6874613434/digital-birth-research-results-and-reflections Blum-Ross, A. & Livingstone, S. (2017). Sharenting, parent blogging, and the boundaries of the digital self. Popular Communication, 15(2), pp. 110 – 25 Boyd, D. (2007). Why Youth (Heart) Social Network Sites: The Role of Networked Publics in Teenage Social Life. In: D. Buckingham (Ed.). Youth, Identity, and Digital Media. Cambridge: MIT Press, pp.119 – 142. Brosch, A. (2016). When the Child is born into the Internet: Sharenting as a growing trend among parents on Facebook. The New Educational Review, 43(1), pp. 225 – 235. ISSN: 1732 – 6729. Business Wire (2010). Digital Birth: Welcome to the Online World. Retrieved 12/10/2018, from http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20101006006722/en/Digital-Birth-On- line-World . Cheung, C. (2000). A Home on the Web: Presentations of Self on Personal Homepages. In: D. Gauntlett (Ed.), Web. Studies – Rewiring media studies for the digital studies. London: Arnold. Cheung, C., Lee, Z.W.Y. & Chan, T.K.H. (2015). Self-disclosure in social networking sites: The role of perceived cost, perceived benefits and social influence. Information Research, 25(2), pp. 279 – 300. Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), 15 U.S.C. 6501 – 6506 (2012). Dominick, R.J. (1999). Who Do You Think You Are? Personal Home Pages and Self-Pres- entation on the World Wide Web. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 76(4), pp. 646 – 658. Duggan, M., Lenhart, A., Lampe, C. & Ellison, N.B. (2015). Parents and Social Media. Pew Research Center. Internet & Technology. Retrieved 1/10/2018, from http://www. pewinternet.org/2015/07/16/parents-and-social-media/ Durkin, K.F. & Bryant, C.D. (1999). Propagandizing pederasty: A thematic analysis of on-line exculpatory accounts of unrepentant pedophiles. Deviant Behavior, 20, pp. 103 – 127. Ellison, N.B., Steinfield, C. & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook “friends:” Social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. Journal of Computer-Me- diated Communication 12(4), pp. 1143 – 1168. Gibbs, J.L., Ellison, N.B. & Heino, R.D. (2006). Self-Presentation in Online Personals, Communication Research, 33(2), pp. 152 – 177. Hui, K-L., Tan, B.C.Y. & Goh, C-Y. (2006). Online Information Disclosure: Motivators and Measurements, ACM Transactions on Internet Technology 6(4), pp. 415 – 441 84 Anna Brosch

Jenkins, P. (2001). Beyond tolerance: Child pornography on the Internet. New York: New York University Press. Johnson, B.(2010). Privacy no longer a social norm, says Facebook founder. The Guardian. Retrieved 22/10/2018, from http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2010/jan/11/ facebook-privacy Joinson, A.N. (2001). Self-disclosure in computer-mediated communication: The role of self-awareness and visual anonymity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31, pp. 177 – 192. Jomhari, N., Gonzalez, V.M. & Kurniawan S.H. (2009). See the apple of my eye: baby storytelling in social space. In: Celebrating People and Technology. Proceedings of HCI 2009. A. Blackwell (Ed.). Churchill College Cambridge, United Kingdom. pp. 238 – 243. Retrieved 19/12/2015, from http://www.bcs.org/upload/pdf/ewic_hci09_paper29.pdf.; Keenan, J. (2012). Thanks, Mom, for Not Telling the World I Pulled a Knife on You. The New York Times.Retrieved 19/10/2018, from https://parenting.blogs.nytimes. com/2012/12/27/thanks-mom-for-not-telling-the-world-i-pulled-a-knife-on-you/ Krasnova, H., Spiekermann, S., Koroleva, K. & Hildebrand, T. (2010). Online social networks: Why we disclose. Journal of Information Technology, 25(2), pp. 109 – 125, DOI: 10.1057/jit.2010.6 Kumar, P. & Schoenebeck, S. (2015). The modern day baby book: Enacting good mothering and stewarding privacy on Facebook. In Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing, ACM, pp. 1302 – 1312. Maltz Bovy, P. (2013). The Ethical Implications of Parents Writing About Their Kids. The Atlantic. Retrieved 10/10/2018, from http://www.theatlantic.com/sexes/archive /2013/01/the-ethical-implications-of-parents-writingabout-their-kids/267170/ . O’Neill, J. (2015). The Disturbing Facebook Trend of Stolen Kids Photos, March 3, Retrieved 19/12/2017, from https://www.yahoo.com/parenting/mom-my-son-was-digitally-kid- napped-what-112545291567.html Ryan, R.M. & Deci, E.L. (2000). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, pp. 54 – 67, DOI:10.1006/ ceps.1999.1020. Sharenting. In: Collins Dictionary. Retrieved 1/08/2018, from https://www.collinsdiction- ary.com/dictionary/english/sharenting Sharenting. In: Urban Dictionary. Retrieved 1/08/2018, from https://www.urbandictionary. com/define.php?term=Sharenting Steinberg, S.B. (2017), Sharenting: Children’s Privacy in the Age of Social Media. Emory Law Journal, 839(66), pp. 839 – 884. Szczurowska, M. (2017), Pierwszy w Polsce wyrok za umieszczanie kompromitujących zdjęć dzieci na Facebooku /The first sentence in Poland for posting embarrassing photos of children on Facebook/. SocialPress. Retrieved 19/10/2018, from https://socialpress. pl/2017/04/pierwszy-w-polsce-wyrok-za-umieszczanie-kompromitujacych-zdjec-dzieci-na-facebooku. Thomson, J.J. (1975). The Right to Privacy,Philosophy & Public Affairs, 4, pp. 295 – 314. Sharenting – Why Do Parents Violate Their Children’s Privacy 85

Van Dijk J.A.G.M. (2009). Users like you? Theorizing agency in user-generated content. Media, Culture & Society, 31(1), pp. 41 – 58. Westin, A. (1967). Privacy and Freedom. New York: Atheneum. Wheeless, L.R. & Grotz, J. (1976). Conceptualization and measurement of reported self-disclosure. Human Communication Research, 2(4), pp. 338 – 346. Joanna Smyła Poland

The Professional Consequences of Shaping a Sexual Image Among Girls in the Social and Educational Processes

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.07

Abstract This article concerns a significant problem of developing a sexual image among girls during socialization and education as well as its consequences for their position in society and in the job market. Provided analyses deal with the differences between boys and girls with regard to the theory of social construction and they emphasise the role of environmental factors in shaping a sexual image on the part of an individual. The results of research on young females’ situation in the job market conducted among young women and employers have also been discussed by the author with relation to this issue.

Keywords: gender, socialization, education, the job market

Introduction

The issues presented in this article concern the development of a sexual image among girls during the processes of socialization and education as well as its consequences for their subsequent functioning in the job market, which are comprised in the area of social construction analysis. The question of sex can be interpreted in various ways. One of them is essentialism, considering masculinity and femininity to be “natural” biological features and dealing with physiological and anatomical sex traits. Another one is social construction itself, claiming that the difference is caused by various social and The Professional Consequences of Shaping a Sexual Image Among Girls 87 cultural interactions in relation to men and women ( L., Brannon, 1999; C.M., Renzetti, D.J., Curran 2003). The school environment plays an influential role in developing a sexual image among children, by being a crucial place of social interaction and as such providing them with the context necessary for shaping their identity.

Theoretical background

The social construction theory has been popularised in sociology by P.L. Berger and T. Luckman (1966) in a book titled The Social Construction of Reality . The authors emphasise the fact that “society is a human product. Society is an objective reality. A human being is its product”. The social construction theory differs from other theories by claiming that an individual actively creates their insights while drawing upon the cultural output. The social construction theory is incorporated in the interest area of philosophy, in which – according to the exogenous perspective – individual insights reflect the world, whereas according to the endogenous perspective, the knowledge about the world is acquired through sensual experiencing reality or thinking about those experiences (K.J., Gergen, 1982). As for psychology, K. Lewin’s theory is especially worth considering. In his view, an individual’s way of behaviour results from the function of features belonging to man and environment. It is quite different from the theories of behaviourism and psychoanalysis, the former one connecting the behavioural manners only with exterior factors and events, and the latter claiming that behaviour can be conditioned by personal qualities exclusively. It can be stated that biological traits determine sex at birth, but its social shape is realised in the socialisation and education processes. That is why biology ought to be treated as the starting point, which should not be underestimated. However, this is the social and cultural factors which make biological traits meaningful. The definition ofgender existing in literature emphasises the importance of environmental factors for the development of a sexual image on the part of an individual. The termgender was introduced to psychology by R. Unger (1979). It determined the behaviour patterns perceived as suitable for men and women. In sociology, this definition, popularised by A. Oakley (1972), differentiated between the terms: biological and cultural sex, both of which accommodated features characteristic of human personality and behaviour determined on the basis of their biological sex, as well as of the value of society that they refer to. The concept of gender was defined by C. Sherif (1982, p. 376) as “the outline being used 88 Joanna Smyła for a social categorisation of individuals”. This outline is one of the methods for understanding and perceiving men and women (Bem, S.L. 1987). It allows for ordering the information about men and women. It may happen, however, that the expectations and ideas referring to a given gender can confirm the gender stereotypes developed by society. Such stereotypical perception of men and women by society affects their functioning in many spheres such as social, professional, and family life, as well as it may lead to position or role conflict. Conflict of that type may be seen especially vividly in the case of a contemporary woman, who frequently faces considerable difficulties by fulfilling her numerous duties concerning social, professional and family life. Social expectations towards women prioritise the role of mother and wife over the professional one. Due to the internalisation of the behavioural patterns acquired in the socialisation process taking place at home and at school, some women do not decide to undertake the efforts to find employment, while others resign from their professional life in the course of time. Women’s careers may also be delayed by their plans connected with starting a family and maternity. Nowadays, however, more and more young women decide to postpone their plans connected with starting a family and giving birth to their first child because of their desire to establish their position in the job market.

Research

Research General Background Social construction has been used in the research on gender. The term gender was first used by R.J. Stoller (1968) in the research on shaping sexual identity during the postnatal period. In this research, it is worth remembering about the differences between men and women. According to some scientists, the differences emerging in the research based on comparing men and women are interpreted to the detriment of women and treated as their defects. This phenomenon, called the error of androcentrism, prevails in the whole society. A woman is regarded to be inferior, since the standards are determined by men, their behavioural patterns and traits. Adopting this line of reasoning places women and their values in a worse social position than men (L., Brannon, 1999). On the one hand, while studying gender one must not exclude the sex differences, but on the other, excessive emphasising of those differences may be a source of sexual discrimination. C.M. Renzetti and D.J. Curran also confirm this phe- The Professional Consequences of Shaping a Sexual Image Among Girls 89 nomenon, claiming that “numerous differences between men and women may be acknowledged, yet the fact that one sex is discriminated against the other due to those differences is socially unjust”.

Research Question and Methodology Carrying out theoretical analysis and empirical research, I was looking for the answer to the question: What is the source of the differences between men and women? When do they start developing? How does the development of the differences affect the functioning of an individual in society and in the job market? Gender differences between men and women already start to develop in the family environment and they are continued at school. That is why it is absolutely crucial to comprehend the consequences of the so-called gender practice for girls’ and boys’ growth and their functioning in mature lives. What makes this issue even more significant is that the achievements of both sexes are observed to differ accordingly, as well as there are differences in creating the identity on the part of boys and girls. Women and men begin to accept their roles mainly due to the process of family socialization, school education and creating individual behaviour patterns by the media. The results of recent research confirm that children acquire suitable personality traits and behavioural modes characteristic of a given sex during their upbringing and education, which relates to creating stereotypical male and female images (L. Brannon, 1999; E. Kaschack, 1996). That is why, the consequences of socialization and gender education for women’s social and professional situation have been made the main subject of my dissertation. In the 1970s, the issue of women’s exclusion from professional life became widely popular. In the American “Wall Street Journal,” the concept of glass ceiling appeared for the first time (C., Hymowitz, T.C., Schellhardt 1986). It meant an invisible obstacle separating women from reaching the highest steps in the professional career and, in turn, prevented their promotion (L., Brannon, 1999). Needless to say, the above-mentioned concept concerns the implied obstacles being encountered by women in executive positions, who realise that the promotion perspectives are inaccessible for them. An article presenting various methods of acquiring the information about women’s family status as being applied during job interviews appeared in the already quoted “Wall Street Journal” (A.E., Barkeley, 1989, p. 14). In 2004, “The Wall Street Journal” published another article about women in the top professional positions, which alleged that the “glass ceiling” already belonged to the past” (C., Hymowitz, 2004 p. 1). 90 Joanna Smyła

There are, however, some questions which remain unanswered: Is the way to the top easier than it used to be? How many paths and of what kind lead to the top? What costs does climbing to the very top of professional careers involve? There are women that succeed in accomplishing their aims no matter how difficult it may be. Some of them must overcome numerous impediments, those easily noticed and those which are hard to identify. Inequalities in treating both sexes are prevalent in every society. They exist in such areas as: private, domestic, professional and public ones. The fundamental principle of the European Union is that women and men have equal rights as regards taking equivalent jobs. Even though discrimination of women is officially prohibited, it still exists in various spheres of social life (political, professional, economic, educational, domestic, etc.). The spheres where it is especially visible are the workplace and home. Discrimination of women by employers frequently takes place at the recruitment stage. Not only are women expected to be well-educated, highly skilled and qualified, but also they must be dispositional and mobile. Even if they fulfil all these requirements, they are offered worse employment conditions and lower salaries.

Research Results Over the period 2010 – 2014, the situation of young women in the Subcarpathian job market was analysed as part of my research. I surveyed 291 employed and unemployed women at the age from 25 to 34, as well as 45 employers, who evaluated the employment conditions of women in the job market. In my research, I applied a diagnostic survey and the technique of opinion poll and interview. The female employees’ posts were analysed. The most numerous group consisted of office workers’ posts (26.9%), teachers (12.5%), shop assistants (8.8%), and accountants (6.3%). It is noticeable that the surveyed women are usually employed in feminized professions. Only a tiny proportion of women work in managerial posts (5.6%) or as customer advisors (5.6%). The surveyed women described their experiences connected with searching for a job. They evaluated the situation in which a potential employer rejects their applications for various reasons (Table 1). Both working and unemployed women failed to get employment due to lack of professional experience (55% and 71.8%, respectively). Employers express their expectations concerning necessary job experience on the part of applicants. The unemployed women were often not competent or qualified enough (63.4%), which less frequently related to the employed female respondents (34.4%). Approximately one in three unemployed The Professional Consequences of Shaping a Sexual Image Among Girls 91 11 8.4 5 3.82 2 1.5 4 3.1 4 3.1 5 3.8 12 9.2 12 9.2 9 6.9 8 6.1 - 14 unem ployed 8.8 7 4.4 4 2.5 6 3.8 3 1.9 4 2.5 10 6.3 10 6.3 11 6.9 7 4.4 - Hard to say to Hard 37 em ployed 28.2 41 31.3 75 57.3 73 55.7 10 7.6 7 5.3 46 35.1 49 37.4 55 42.0 57 43.5 - 65 unem ployed 40.6 68 42.5 96 60.0 107 66.9 36 22.5 48 30.0 65 40.6 81 50.6 71 44.4 67 41.9 - 39 Definitely not em ployed 29.8 49 37.4 45 34.4 42 32.1 23 17.6 36 27.5 54 41.2 53 40.5 38 29.0 42 32.1 - 53 unem ployed 33.1 53 33.1 49 30.6 38 23.8 33 20.6 53 33.1 61 38.1 63 39.4 49 30.6 57 35.6 - Rather not Rather 25 em ployed 19.1 28 21.4 7 5.3 9 6.9 45 34.4 49 37.4 9 6.9 14 10.7 22 16.8 18 13.7 - 20 unem ployed 12.5 21 13.1 9 5.6 4 2.5 44 27.5 34 21.3 14 8.8 1 0.6 20 12.5 21 13.1 - Rather yes Rather Women surveyed the causes of to employers rejection by according Women 19 em ployed 14.5 8 6.1 2 1.5 3 2.3 49 37.4 34 26.0 10 7.6 1 0.8 7 5.3 6 4.6 - 8 unem ployed 5.0 11 6.9 2 1.3 5 3.1 44 27,5 21 13.1 10 6.3 5 3.1 9 5.6 8 5.0 The reasons for which women were not accepted by employers by not accepted were which women for reasons The - L Definitely yes Definitely em ployed % L % L % L % L % L % L % L % L % L % Table 1. Table - - - employers The reasons for for reasons The women’s rejection by rejection by women’s Age Sex Health condition Ancestry Lack of expe work rience high competenc Too qualifications es, competenc low Too qualifications es, Appearance Plans of starting a family ofPlans extending a family the data do not make a total of 100 due to the possibility of a few answers giving possibility the of to a total make 100 due not do the data : Nr. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Note 92 Joanna Smyła women was rejected by an employer due to her age (33.6%) and her plans connected with starting a family (31.0%). The unemployed women were more frequently rejected than the working ones (27.5% and 20%, respectively). The rarest reasons for which the women were turned down by their employers were: health condition (90.6% of employed, 91.7% of unemployed ones), ancestry (90.7% of employed, 87.8% of unemployed ones), appearance (90% of employed, 77.9% of unemployed ones), too high competences or qualifications (78.7% of employed, 76.3% of unemployed ones). Employers admit that sex is taken into consideration while choosing employees for the executive, administrative and support posts (service), as shown in Table 2 and Figure 1. It is confirmed that sex is important especially while choosing applicants for the executive posts (48.9% of the respondents). Employers are more willing to accept men for these posts (51.1%) than women (8.9%), whereas for 40% of respondents, sex does not make a difference. More thorough analyses show a discrepancy between general declarations and real preferences of some employers with regard to the sex of potential employees. It is especially noticeable in the case of executive posts. Only 26.7% of the respondents admit that they take sex into consideration during the recruitment process, while for 66.7% of them it seems to be meaningless, yet another group (6.7%) does not mind. Further analysis reveals, however, that 31.1% of the respondents would choose a male employee for administrative posts and only 26.7% of them – a female one. Thus, more than a half of the employers favour a particular sex over the other while choosing candidates for administrative posts. As far as post-recruitment support is concerned, employers are consistent in their choices. For more than a half of them it is meaningless and those who take this category into consideration would rather employ men (26.7%) than women (17.8%).

Table 2. The importance of gender while recruiting candidates for particular posts according to employers

Employers surveyed according to their claim that sex plays a role while recruiting candidates for particular posts Nr Post yes no don’t know L % L % L % 1 Executive 22 48.9 20 44.4 3 6.7 2 Administrative 12 26.7 30 66.7 3 6.7 3 Support (service) 16 35.6 25 55.6 4 8.9 The Professional Consequences of Shaping a Sexual Image Among Girls 93

Figure 1. Gender preferred by employers during recruitment for different posts

Salary disparities are the next example of men’s and women’s differentiated treatment in the job market. 64.4% of the tested employers realise the difference between the salaries of men and women employed in Subcarpathian workplaces. All the respondents who notice the salary disparities claim that this is men who earn more while holding executive posts (cf., Figure 2). It is alarming that as many as 89.7% of the employers pointing out the salary differences in relation to both sexes report that men earn more in the support posts, and 72.4% of them report that men earn more in the administrative ones.

Figure 2. Salary disparities between men and women in the opinion of employers realising them (64.4% of the total) 94 Joanna Smyła

The employers’ unfavourable opinions are eased by the evaluation of the working women, the majority of whom positively assess the basic pay of men and women in their workplaces. Most working women (64.4%) claim that women’s pay rates are equal to men’s ones, while 28.1% of them say that women are less paid than men in similar jobs. Very seldom do the women admit they receive a higher salary (3.1%). Employment of women is connected with maternity (Figure 3). The more children women possess, the more exposed they are to long-term unemployment, lasting more than 12 months. The women having three children remain unemployed for the longest time period (77.8%), and none of them is unemployed for less than half a year. Similarly, the women having two children often remain unemployed for longer than a year (68.4% of the respondents), they are unemployed for three months the least frequently (5.3%).

Figure 3. The number of children vs. unemployment period (%)

Discussion

The economic and social situation of women is strictly connected with family socialisation and shaping the sexual image in childhood during school education. Social construction representatives emphasise the fact that men and women achieve their identities during the socialisation process at home and at school. It is also the time when the child’s self-esteem is developed. Only when it is high, does it facilitate the learning process. Unfortunately, girls often consider their cognitive competences to be lower than both their IQ test results and grades prove them to The Professional Consequences of Shaping a Sexual Image Among Girls 95 be. Girls tend to underestimate their possibilities and exclude themselves from achieving success. On the other hand, boys usually have the reciprocal optimistic tendency. They are more willing to attribute their successes to the abilities they possess. Consequently, girls’ low self-esteem related to the possibility of achieving success creates a development barrier, whereas high self-esteem generally possessed by boys stimulates their growth. Women’s low self-esteem results in their resignation from pursuing a socio-professional career. In literature, it has been explained by two concepts: glamour gap and reality gap. The former shows a connection between youngsters’ dreams, their real achievements and self-esteem. Thanks to their higher self-esteem, boys more often dream of splendid professions at every stage of adolescence. The reality gap concept consists in sexual differences with regard to the perception of one’s living possibilities. Due to their earlier mat- uration, girls sooner become aware of their real living possibilities, including their dream impracticability. In contrast, boys reckon that “everything is possible” (Ch. H., Sommers, 1994). The processes of institutionalised socialisation and education considerably affect boys’ and girls’ personalities as well as their future lives. Teachers still apply stereotypical behaviour in didactics and education, and their activities, confirming sexual stereotypes and excluding female students was defined by Coppock (1995, p.56) as “sexual politics in everyday school life”. Not only does teachers’ behaviour develop the stereotypical image of students’ future lives, but they also influence students’ prospective functioning. The child is required to turn its attention to gender and to adopt a particular role, which is “a mode of behaviours expected and supported by society, being displayed by an individual in given situations” (L. , Brannon, 1999). According to psychologists, a child at the age from12 to 18 months is already categorised as belonging to a specific cultural sex, and at the age of three it possesses a fully developed gender pattern (E., Kaschack, 1996). Having acquired, in the process of education and socialisation, the knowledge of traits and behaviours characteristic of their sex, women and men begin to realise the roles attributed to them.

Conclusion

Girls’ and boys’ socialisation experiences affect their educational accomplish- ments and determine their way of functioning in society, family and at work. That is why, it is essential to modify traditional socialisation training, which greatly limits young women’s aspirations and prevents them from achieving success in 96 Joanna Smyła different spheres of life. Every human undergoes constant external interactions. Other people’s activities trigger particular reactions on the part of an individual. One of the primary human rights guaranteed by all the European Union countries is the equality of men and women during their vocational education and advancement, working conditions as well as functioning in the job market. It is also necessary to enable women to reconcile their private, family and professional life as well as to increasingly engage men in the process of looking after children (Report on equality between women and men, 2005, p. 13). For this purpose, specific measures ought to be undertaken. There is a need to spread the knowledge of sexual stereotype mechanisms and their consequences, hindering to a great extend the functioning of both men and women in society, family and the labour market. It is certain that every human being would like to have a clearly defined identity, free of any generalisations and schedules. Developing a positive attitude of young people to themselves and to each other as well as towards the surrounding reality, high self-esteem and respect for the opposite sex are thus of the utmost importance. In fact, contemporary women are often employed in executive posts proving that the difficulties and obstacles appearing on their way to professional advancement are possible to overcome. However hard it may seem, it is becoming more and more likely for women to pursue their careers and get upper managerial positions. Lots of various ways full of impediments might lead to one aim. Not all women are able to get through, but there are also some of them who succeed due to their abilities or mere luck. Whatever the reason, however, it should always be acknowledged as their great achievement, which used to be unattainable not so long before.

References Barkeley, A.E. (1989). Job interviewer’s dirty little secret, “Wall Street Journal”, 20.03.1989, pp. 1, 14. Bem, S.L. (1987). Gender schema theory and the romantic tradition [w:] Schaver P., Hen- drick C., (red.), Sex and gender: Review of personality and social psychology, Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Bem, S.L., (1985).Androgyny and Gender Schema Theory: a Conceptual and Empirical Integration. In: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, red. T.B. Sonderegger, “Psychology and gender”, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln NE. Berger, P.L., Luckman, T. (1966). The Social Construction of Reality: a Treatise in the Sociol- ogy of Knowledge, New York, p. 61. Brannon L. (1999), Psychological Perspectives, Second Edition, Allyn & Bacon, a Pearson Education Company. The Professional Consequences of Shaping a Sexual Image Among Girls 97

Coppock, V., Haydon, D. Richter, I. (1995). The Illusions of “Post-feminism”. New Women, Old Myths, London . Gergen, K.J. (1982). Toward transformation in social knowledge, New York, Springen – Verlag. Hymowitz, C. (2004). Through the glass ceiling, “Wall Street Journal”, 8.11.2004, p. 1. Hymowitz, C., Schellhardt T.C., (1986). The Glass ceiling. Why women can’t seem to break the invisible barrier that blocks them from top jobs, “Wall Street Journal”, 24.03.1986, special supplement, 1, 4. Kaschack, E., (1996). Engendered Lives. A New Psychology of Women’s Experience, Published by arrangement with Basic Books, Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social science, New York, Harper. Mead, M., (2005). Preface. In: Patterns of Culture, red. R. Benedict, Routledge&Kegan Paul Ltd, London. Oakley, A. (1972). Sex, Gender and Society, Temple Smith, London. Renzetti C.M., Curran D.J. (2003), Women, men and society, 5th Edition, Allyn & Bacon, Pearson Education Company. Report on equality between women and men, European Commission, Belgium 2005, s. 13. Sherif, C.W. (1982). Needed Concepts in the Study of Gender Identity, “Psychology of Women Quarterly”, no. 6. Sommers, Ch. H. (1994). Who Stole Feminism? The Self Esteem Study. How Women Have Betrayed Women, Simon & Schuster, New York, p. 140. Stoller, R.J. (1968). Sex and Gender, Science House, New York 1968. Unger, R.K. (1979). Toward a Redefinition of Sex and Gender, “American Psychologist”, 1979, no. 34. Katarzyna Krasoń Poland

Marginalisation of Culture and Aesthetics in the Polish School Seen through the Eyes of Its Students

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.08

Abstract The article presents the results of an Internet questionnaire examining high school graduates’ (general education high schools and technical high schools) perceptions on aesthetical and cultural education in the institutional context. The study was based on students’ narratives gathered by means of a purpose-designed interview questionnaire using the methodology of interpretive anthropology in relation to the perspective of an ‘insider’ or a ‘local’. The results were further organised accordingly with the strategy of horizonalisation, which made it possible to construct a model encompassing all the participants’ contributions.

Keywords: culture, education, qualitative research

Introduction

Clifford Geertz emphasises the significance of culture, pointing to its forma- tional dimension. He finds it impossible for the human brain to be controlled only internally. He claims that, in addition to its autonomy, the brain does need coevo- lution with culture. It is immersion in culture which conditions a human being’s development (Geertz, 2001, pp. 203 – 217). Moreover, culture provides background for the cognition of events accompanying human development, even though it proves to be no driving force itself. On the contrary, social events, behaviours, Marginalisation of Culture and Aesthetics in the Polish School 99 institutions or processes result from culture. Culture constitutes a context and enables a description of reality (Geertz, 1973, p.14). From this perspective, culture appears as a dimension shedding light on the reality we exist in. The school, with its intended mission of providing suitable conditions for students to grow and develop their potential, is also located in this dimension. Thus, culture, as an object and element of the school’s functioning, becomes a substance of the environment, making it easier or, alas, more difficult for the young person to grow. The aim of the study is to present students’ opinions concerning shortcomings and errors in aesthetic and cultural education at school. I found it important to establish whether participants in public education perceive planned enculturation-oriented activities in terms of shortcomings and needs to be addressed or whether they think that their schools handle the subject properly.

Research method

According to Umberto Eco, research in aesthetics and on aesthetics ought to be structured basing on a bipolar relation between the precise and the unquantifiable. He understands aesthetics as a discipline capable of designing its own methods and research tools (Eco, 1990, pp. 62 – 78). This is why the presented study adopts Geertz’s ideas, i.e., showing aesthetical education through information provided by students, subjective and marked by personal experience (as cited in: Russell T. McCutcheon). For this is students, immersed in the school’s reality, who are the most knowledgeable in this study’s subject. Thus, we can see the school’s aesthetical education “through local eyes” (Geertz, 2000), reaching interpretive anthropology, focusing on an interpretation of culture performed by a person (here: a participant in education). In our case, however, each respondent to the questionnaire will become a researcher interpreting culture (aesthetics). Therefore, we are dealing with a research approach involving participation, as an insider becomes a researcher (Headland, Pike, Harris, 1990). This is what enables us to apply a particular type of data collection, where the data becomes substance of thick description (Geertz, 1973, pp. 3 – 30) or grounded theory (Gibson, Hartman, 2014). The next step is further interpretation of the narration. This time it will be performed by a researcher from outside the school (here: the present author). Then, in line with Moustakas’ horizonalization (Moustakas, 1994, p. 96), the students’ responses will be clustered into sub-themes, which in turn will be used to form core themes. Horizonalization is treated as a way of finding meaningful units (invariant horizons). 100 Katarzyna Krasoń

The responses were gathered via a purpose-made internet questionnaire, in which each informant had a chance to create quite an extensive narration. 201 responses were collected electronically from recent graduates (ones who graduated from high school in 2017, the year this study was carried out). The large number of responses prompted the introduction of quantitative data into the analysis, rendering the study exceeding the limits of purely interpretive (qualitative) research. Therefore, the mixed-method research approach (Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, Turner, pp. 112 – 133) was applied. The way the respondents structured their narrations allowed for annotating the material with relevant codes and, further, categories. This, in turn, facilitated a presentation of empirical data free from repetitions, the latter being otherwise unavoidable in such a number of respondents. In order to provide clear examples, the narrations will be presented in an intentional, representative selection. The introduction to the questionnaire contained a graph showing a model of the complex basis for aesthetical education. The components of cultural/aesthetical education are shown in Figure 1, further developed or corrected in the questionnaire by the respondents.

Values respected Everyday in school education functional/dysfunctional • creativity as family, first contacts a value with culture Knowledge – • innovativeness being familiar • glorification Texts of culture with of individualism literature, music, A student’s personality contemporary • respecting visual art traits and needs cultural accepted rules • deficit(s) phenomena of conduct • an excess the ability to of experiences analyse a musical, visual, or theatrical work of art • self-expression Interpretive education (verbal and non-verbal – • caring for freedom clothes, hairstyle) of interpretation • sharing experience Cultural • dialogism, meeting • influence on environment education • caring for the feeling • need for aesthetic of agency experiences

A conscious The ability to use language addressee and means of aesthetic and cultural communication, learnt at school

Figure 1. A model of components present in aesthetic/cultural education

1 The model is a modified version of the graph in: Krasoń, p 49. Marginalisation of Culture and Aesthetics in the Polish School 101

Placing this model at the beginning of the questionnaire proved an effective way of directing the data collection process. It appeared that the respondents analysed the figure in rather much detail. The responses received in the electronic form were most informative and offered honest reflection.

Results

Let us begin with pointing to the significance of particular components of cultural/aesthetic education. The sum total of the graduates’ choices is presented in Table 1. Out of the components presented in Figure 1, the respondents could choose 4 which were significant to them.

Table 1. High school graduates’ choices considering key components of the cultural and aesthetical school education model

Number of partic- Component ipants who chose Percentage the component One’s own personality traits 62 30.8 % Family and first contacts with culture 144 71.6 % School education 126 62.7 % The media and cultural institutions 101 50.2 % Knowledge 84 41.8 % Texts of culture, music, literature, visual arts 162 80.6 % Values respected in school education 53 26.4 % The aesthetics of space at schools, their rooms, 10 5.0 % the buildings and their surroundings Others 3 1.5 %

Source: own research

Analysis of the responses reveals that the youth ascribed much less significance to satisfying their own needs (the constituents of the “one’s own personality traits” category) – less than 31%. Meanwhile, the young adults group found contact with texts of culture to be the most significant. Unfortunately, the aesthetics of school space were located at the bottom of the list. However, the fact that the students ascribed low significance to this factor results from institutional negligence. Most interestingly, the graduates emphasised the significance of family and the first 102 Katarzyna Krasoń contact with culture experienced at home. School education came third – this comes as uplifting news. Let us then examine the way our young respondents evaluated this component in more detail (Table 2).

Table 2. Deficits and negligence in school aesthetic and cultural education experienced by the respondents/graduates

Exemplary descriptions Themes/Code Knowledge of culture was neglected at school. Instead of teaching us how to Lack of knowl- behave, those lessons were giving us worthless information about the coun- edge try’s architecture. There was also little attention paid to cultural institutions, of culture which is why only rarely did we go to the theatre, cinema, museum and opera In my opinion, the aesthetics of the building and of certain rooms was Neglected neglected, e.g., water started dripping from one room’s ceiling as there were aesthetics of the holes in the roof. Most rooms needed renovation, there was fungus on some building walls, which made us unwilling to participate in classes One had to follow the proper answer key, which contributes to a lack of Lack of em- freedom of interpretation powerment and Possibility of one’s own style within a permitted range, if somebody crossed individualism the “line/norm” they were warned and it was negated It was rarely that we went, e.g., to see a play BECAUSE a ‘dry’ and theoretical lesson is important, something could be missed and we would be behind schedule, which would be a crime The will to express myself in words, but also non-verbally in clothes, hairstyle, Lack of em- and manner – in my school, there was a precise model of a student – what powerment and a student should look like, how they should behave, what they should say. individualism It was forbidden, e.g., to dye your hair red or to wear trousers with holes in Dress code them. This led to students’ escalating their individuality and becoming hostile unification towards the teachers. The school’s regulations were constantly violated. In consequence, another component was disappearing, and that was individuality, which is the unique and the unrepeatable in any person Mandatory texts of culture and literary texts were discussed. Non-mandatory Only obligatory texts, which might sometimes help to understand better, to broaden cultural content knowledge and education. School education – limited possibility of one’s own interpretation, little possibility of expressing one’s own opinion about cultural works Individualism was rather unwelcome, which is why persons looking different Lack of indi- were objects of mockery. Education was limited to passing on knowledge vidualism in about a given text of culture or author, it was difficult to make anyone inter- self-presenta- ested due to lack of time for details. There was no talk of aesthetics, I think tion that lack of aesthetic, ‘clean’ interiors in schools causes difficulty learning in Ugly school the lessons. Marginalisation of Culture and Aesthetics in the Polish School 103

Exemplary descriptions Themes/Code My traits – the school had strict rules of appearance and behaviour. There was Lack of feeling a ban on nail painting, visible hair colouring, or clothes showing too much skin. of sense and This significantly limited the students’ self-expression. It made a person who agency looked controversial draw even more attention to themselves. Individualism School education – unfortunately, while interpreting poems and paintings, we in self-presenta- did not have much freedom, we had to learn how to think schematically. It was tion banned most limiting and resulted in lack of creative thinking Family, first contact with culture – The teacher was not aware that many Lack of interest people did not have too much knowledge about culture because at home that in students’ knowledge was not passed on too much. The consequence of this was that the families students were often unable to understand more difficult issues connected with culture In my school, strong emphasis was put on the best marks or attendance possi- Didactic pres- ble. This led to a neglect of students as humans who, in addition to studying for sure tests, have other interests, passions they would like to develop. In consequence, Neglect of time had to be spent doing homework and studying, which made it impossible passions to work on self-realisation, working out one’s own opinion, gaining different Lack of em- life experiences and sharing them with others. Additionally, it was not possible powerment and to express oneself in words or hardly anyone felt like doing it, as it was more self-expression important for us to learn certain material and ‘pour’ the knowledge onto paper In my school, you couldn’t express yourself fully through clothes, hairstyle or Lack of indi- manner because of the obligatory uniforms at school. Moreover, the school had vidualism in a hierarchy of subjects and a division into sciences and humanities. According self-presenta- to the system, the most important subjects were those useful for efficient function tioning in society. The above division meant that once a student was classified Lack of empow- as a scientific mind, subjects such as Polish, history or civics were lost for him erment In my school, the only element which was not neglected, but appeared quite Lack of par- rarely, was the realisation of need for aesthetic experiences by field trips to ticipation in various cultural institutions. Because we rarely went on cultural outings, we had culture no contact, for example, with professional theatre, real art available for everyone. I find it important to be well-versed in areas of culture and to know how to behave in different cultural institutions. This kind of outings allow also for planting in yourself a passion for culture and art. I think that in some people it might cause a lack of interest in going to cultural places, because they were not doing it during education The consequence was an unsatisfied need and, at the same time, students’ Lack of par- prejudice towards certain teachers, which made the students less active in ticipation in class, they did not want to cooperate with a given teacher in any way. The culture aspect of contact with higher culture, i.e., theatre or opera trips, was neglected or rarely introduced into cultural education. Such trips would normally happen once or twice throughout the whole education process. This is why now, as an adult, I do not feel fascinated by this type of culture and I find it difficult in reception 104 Katarzyna Krasoń

Exemplary descriptions Themes/Code The will to express oneself – uniforms at school; everybody looking the Lack of em- same and an attempt at expressing oneself through different clothes or origi- powerment in nal hairstyle punished with official reprimand. self-presenta- Only academic achievement (special competitions for the best students) is tion promoted and appreciated, while artistic achievement, in different fields, e.g., Marginalisation music, visual arts, dance, etc., connected with youth creativity and culture, is of art neglected and not appreciated Respect towards who I am, which resulted in lack of a real sense of freedom Lack of empow- and expressing one’s own opinion. Individual identity of students, who were erment often unable to present their own opinions and presented the school’s opin- Individualism ions. The head teacher’s opinions on every cultural subject were imposed on in self-presenta- the students. Individual traits of each student, the head teacher paid special tion banned attention to each student’s clothes. Innovativeness was not welcome Family, first contacts with culture: teachers demanded for some cul- Lack of interest ture-forming traits to have been learnt at home, yet it was not always that in the student’s simple. In the high school environment, there are students from different family and their homes, who have different emotional situations. I think that it has significant habitus. consequences because the culture one learns at home is very important, it is a certain basis for the way one behaves but teachers should approach the issue more individually while talking about culture. School education: in high school, especially before the final examination, we Lack of empow- did not have a chance to create our own interpretation in a lesson because erment we had to follow the answer key, which was to make us sure that we pass the exam. I was not happy about that as I think that everyone has a right to their own interpretation. The consequence of the lack of this component is narrowing the student’s imagination and blocking their own opinion on a subject Flawed methods, an example of Journalism classes could be given. We had Faulty realisa- no chance of learning about the journalist’s work. We never learnt what a job tion of contents in a publishing house or TV looks like, we did not even observe. Therefore, the lessons were not effective, as we only listened to dry facts There was no innovativeness. The school looked like in the 90s, even the Outdated computers dated back to that period! How can you teach the youth, prepare school equip- them for life, if the computer room can act as a time machine? There were ment even out-of-date Windows versions! What are the consequences? One could state that there was no progress in our learning. Personally, I missed but a pinch of modernity, teachers’ cooperation with the media (…), new teaching methods. I regret that rarely did school adjust to Confucius’ words : “Tell me and I forget, show me and I remember, let me do it and I understand.” In consequence, most of the lessons were boring (please do not mistake it with the content) and the students ceased to be interested, which in turn made our peers stop studying such subjects Marginalisation of Culture and Aesthetics in the Polish School 105

Exemplary descriptions Themes/Code In my school, there were very few trips to cultural institutions. This is why Lack of par- students treated the subject of Knowledge of Culture as uninteresting and ticipation in tedious because their only association with it was ‘dry’ studying. They could culture not see the beauty of culture because they did not experience it in direct Neglect of stu- contact. I also think that in my school there was a lack of extracurricular dents’ potential activities such as theatre or music clubs. This is why the students were unable to develop their passions, which would help them get to know culture better and provide some distraction from studying At school, you could not have a different opinion on some subject, you had to Lack of empow- fit into the ‘key’, which is given and you could not interpret anything in your erment own way. Eventually, students could not be bothered to express their own Lack of knowl- opinions. edge In the first year of technical high school we had the Knowledge of Cul- ture subject, yet the lessons were conducted in a manner discouraging the students. Additionally, you could not really discuss any subject because you had to fit the teacher’s opinion. In my opinion, this resulted in the students’ prejudice towards any classes connected with culture. In high school we almost never interpreted texts of culture together, which was a significant issue, as the students sometimes required assistance or any Neglect of dis- guidance whatsoever in order to understand. In consequence, nobody was covering oneself prepared for the exam in Polish literature and very many people gave up through a text taking the exam at all because they knew they would not handle the material of culture and interpretation of a work of culture

Source: own research

It seems that in their narrations the students refer to four levels in which they observe serious shortcomings resulting in the marginalisation of culture and aesthetics. However, their reports also brought about other, deeply concerning realisations. Young adults evaluate school rather critically (let us add that they do so with a delay of a kind – graduating from high schools in the year the study was being carried out). They did not have to worry about potential consequences of their words, but on the other hand, they were looking at education from a sentimental perspective. Among all the criticisms, lack of empowerment appears in the foreground. The constituents of this element are: suspending one’s own opinion, respecting the possibility of everyone having their separate opinion and respecting its significance. Representing independent viewpoints was found inadmissible, threatening the apologetics of the answer key, which guarantees exam success. Moreover, the youth’s viewpoint was not taken into account in the design of curricula or lesson scope. This is why the respondents signalled a neglect 106 Katarzyna Krasoń of students’ potential, their passions and obstructing creativity, sense of meaning and agency. No wonder the youth accept certain strategies – to survive, to pass, without any greater hope for the contents of the curriculum to prove useful. The respondents signalled that caustic education completely wasted the potential for discovering oneself through a text of culture. It means that all things connected with reflexive, intersubjective perception of art, giving the perceiver a chance for change, self-reflection, an attempt at an actual understanding of the world. Another meaningful aspect is how the youth feel that school and teachers are not interested in the students’ cultural habitus they bring from their family homes. The teachers surely know the situation of their students, but they do not respect the duty to provide equal opportunity for all, which is left to the institutional organs of education. The judgment of young adults, in turn, is not very uplifting either. They emphasise that school does not provide knowledge about culture, it does not inspire interest in culture, it displays flaws in presenting content, referring to a degenerated version of functionalism, without satisfying the student’s cultural needs. There is an interesting issue concerning personal culture, and it refers to all the subjects of education. Figure 2 presents the students’ responses according to the themes contributing to the horizonalisation of data. The 4 horizons which were singled out are: perception of school education, the meaning of family, experiences connected with need satisfaction, and experiencing aesthetics. In the students’ narratives, satisfying students’ needs was often discussed in terms of aesthetics, especially a particular type of deprivation of liberty at school pertaining to self-presentation. Let us add that, by experiencing and living in the school reality, the respondents developed a conviction that a ban on independent self-presentation is a threat to individuality, freedom of self-expression, and repression of personality-related processes. Nobody negotiates the dress code with the youth, which makes them feel incapacitated. This might be the deadliest sin of the institution – depriving its stakeholders of the right to empowerment, having their own opinions, respecting their opinions and evaluations. The respondents also wrote about school space aesthetics – they observed that an ugly school does not create an atmosphere suitable for learning while faulty colour arrangement scares students off and has an adverse effect on their mood. Sometimes one can even observe embarrassment caused by the likelihood of ‘my school’ not being chosen by prospective students due to deficits in its image. This is not only a mistake from the perspective of the school’s marketing strategy, but also a reason for lack of identification with the place in which the youth spend almost a half their active time. The young respondents observe the overload and messi- Marginalisation of Culture and Aesthetics in the Polish School 107

•Lack of knowledge of culture • Lack of interest in the student’s •Lack of participation in culture family and theirhabitus aimed •Only obligatory content at creating equal cultural •Didactic pressure opportunities •Faulty realisation of contents •Marginalisation of art

perception of the meaning school of family curriculum

experiences related experiencing to satisfying visual students’ aesthetics needs

•Lack of self-expression • Lack of individualism Lack of empowerment in self-presentation and creativity •Neglect of students’ • Lack of empowerment potential in self-presentation • Ascesis-driven lack of aesthetics of •Neglect of self- discovery • Uniﬁcation of dress code the building and classrooms through texts of culture • Uniﬁcation of the • Uninspiring surroundings •Denial of individualism, lack of community • Rubbish space – excess of things respect for individuality • Ugly school – faulty marketing •Marginalisation of talents • Outdated school equipment •Neglect of passions

Source: own research Figure 2. Horizons ascribed to deficits and negligence of aesthetic education in the eyes of students/graduates ness of space, shabby walls, missing door handles or modern electronic equipment. Thus, the opinion of our experts-students, experiencing school aesthetics and experiencing culture through it, is not an optimistic one. It is important, however, that there were also responses indicating good practices or even exemplary dimensions of aesthetical education. While there was only a small number of them, these responses show that a proper organisation of education and the space it takes place in is possible. The following narration is a proof: 108 Katarzyna Krasoń

“I think that the best approach to cultural education could be found in my junior high school, which had Creative Activity Classes. Those classes had extra subjects: Education for Creativity – theatre and Education for Creativity – humanities. In those lessons, we learnt about theoretical aspects of interpreting works of art, we watched films, learnt to interpret them (…), we worked on various projects related to theatre or work on a film set. We kept going to the theatre, to the cinema, to various cultural institutions, museums. We took part in various workshops on theatre, film, visual arts, graffiti, and many others (…) In the classrooms ascribed to the creative activity lessons, we could hang our works, modify the room space (…) We learnt how to express our opinions and support them with arguments. We could express ourselves with clothes, appearance”.

However idyllic this vision may be, I do not find it unattainable. The emergence of creative classes does indeed sanction the necessity to treat the student as a part- ner in education and not an object of influence. How different is this example from the narration by the student from the Journalism class (quoted in Table 2). That earlier narration shows us that the youth have never even touched upon the essence of the profession, learning the history of journalism rather than how to be a journalist. It could be assumed that if those students had had a say in shaping the curriculum, it would have looked differently, would have put more emphasis on experiencing work on preparing a text or reportage, also in a narration different from verbal. Now it is high time the students had a voice and – most importantly – high time we learned how to listen to this voice. Let this thought seal the presented deliberations.

References Eco, U. (1990). La definizione dell’arte. Milano: Ugo Mursia Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures: selected essays. New York: Basic Books Geertz, C. (2000). Local Knowledge: Further Essays In Interpretive Anthropology. New York: Basic Books Geertz, C. (2001). Available Light: Anthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics. Princeton: Princeton University Press Gibson, B., Hartman, J. (2014). Rediscovering Grounded Theory. London: Sage Publications Headland, T.N., Pike, K.L., Harris, M.Ed. (1990). Emic and Ethics: The Insider/Outsider Debate. Newbury Park: Sage Publications Johnson, R.B., Onwuegbuzie, A.J., Turner, L.A. (2007). Toward a Definition of Mixed Meth- ods Research, „Journal of Mixed Methods Research” 2007, vol. 1, nr 2 Krasoń, K. (2013). Cielesność aktu tworzenia w teatrze ruchu. Integracja sztuki i edukacji Marginalisation of Culture and Aesthetics in the Polish School 109

w rozwoju i transgresji potencjału człowieka [Corporeality of the creative act In the theatre of movement. Integration of art and education in the development and transgression of human potential]. Kraków: “Universitas” McCutcheon, R.T. (1999). Theoretical Background: Insides, Outsides, and The Scholar of Religion. In: The Insider/Outsider Problem in the Study of Religion. Ed. Russell T. McCutcheon. London: Cassell Academic Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological Research Methods. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publi- cations Olena Lapuzina, Yuri Romanov, Lidiya Lisachuk Ukraine

Professional Ethics as an Important Part of Engineer Training in Technical Higher Education Institutions

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.09

Abstract This article underscores the importance of professional ethics studies for future engineers in a modern education system. The purpose of the research was to show how university teachers could help future engineers acquire their skills in techno ethics, ecological ethics, computer ethics skills, etc., by teaching an interactive course “Professional Ethics for Engineers”. The research was conducted using data obtained from 418 university students and 88 engineers. The results of the completion of the course made it possible to conclude that the case study method would become an effective tool to form future engineers’ professional needs, interests, opinions, life values, and positive world outlook.

Keywords: professional ethics, techno ethics, ecological ethics, computer ethics, modern engineer training, higher technical education

Introduction

Many scientists confirm that the development of modern science, information technologies, globalization, and business consequences of industrial activity may adversely affect the environment and human life. Entrepreneurs’ activity, which has the only purpose of making a profit, despite the means to achieve it (corrup- tion, theft of intellectual property, pollution of environment, etc.), may also have a negative influence (Mouton, Malan, Kimppa, Venter, 2015; DeMarco, 2017). Professional Ethics as an Important Part of Engineer Training 111

In modern global economics, a positive outcome depends on the initiative, competences, and level of professional training. When there is a freedom of actions, it is important to learn how one can use this freedom ethically, correctly and comply with the accepted norms of business relations (Saat, Bakar, Rafai, Amin, 2012). Due to the wide spread information technologies, global environmental problems aggravate, and global professional engineers’ activity is being increased significantly (Karim, Zamzuri, Nor, 2009). Poor results of innovation provision and the lack of regulations create conflicts in social relations (Bond, 2009). Along with the growth of technical strength and the use of innovative technologies, there is a crisis in environmental, social, and cultural spheres, due to the disastrous lag in the development of an ethical society. The relationship between economic success and observance of norms of professional ethics can be formulated as follows: Economics has moral premise and professional ethics has economic consequences. Otherwise, there are also economic conditions of professional ethics and moral consequences of economics. Professional ethics is a practical value, not a theoretical one. Professional ethics is aimed at resolving practical issues, not at moral grounds, versatile and based on existing and generally recognized moral values (Wang, Zhang, Zhu, 2015). According to this, it was necessary to develop an overall context, in which activities in the market could be evaluated from the ethical point of view. Thus, many well-known enterprises and companies accepted new ideas, developed codes of professional conduct, organized centers of professional ethics, business ethics societies, and committees of businessmen and engineers. Problems of professionals who possess the norms of professional ethics is a subject of the pedagogical research of many international scholars (Krishna, Dangayach, Jain, 2012; Kerta, Uz, Gecu, 2012; Pereira, Brisson, Prada, Paiva, Bellotti, Kravcik, Klamma, 2012; Farahani, Farahani, 2014; Behroozi, Qasemi, Fadaiyan, 2014; Gülcan, 2015; Miloradova, Ishkov, 2015, etc.). Professional ethics is already part of the curricula of many universities and business schools all over the world (Verrax, 2017). The practice of market economy requires special training of new generation professional engineers, who will be not only high-level professionals, but also moral, decent, strong-willed and highly cultured members of society. The high level of creativity and the ability to advertise partners and potential customers ethically, convince them of the competitiveness of their products are also very important. Nowadays, engineer training with a focus on professional activities in a relatively narrow field does not correspond to the modern social demands or needs of the labor market. Adding the current educational paradigm with ethical components has become an urgent need of society (Holtzhausen, 2015). 112 Olena Lapuzina, Yuri Romanov, Lidiya Lisachuk

The ability to resolve this problem successfully creates, in turn, the need for theoretical and experimental research-pedagogical conditions and their effective pedagogical techniques instilling professional ethics in future professionals. It is essential that the moral and ethical paradigm will be an integral part of engineers’ education for serving society and ensuring its prosperity because the results of engineering activity penetrate the economic, scientific, social, and humanitarian spheres. An engineer is obliged to care about the comfort, safety, and environmental friendliness of the products that he/she produces. Nowadays, engineering activity requires solving social problems, such as liability, intellectual honesty, and professional ethics. In pedagogical theory, the research of such well-known scientists as Troesch (2015), Feister (2015), Barry, Ohland (2009), Rudnicka (2009), Song, Choi, Rhee (2010), Byrne (2012), and others, made a significant impact on ethical standards formation among university students. Although the problems of professional ethics are studied by scientists, and the clarification of general ethical positions is mainly considered, the problem of professional engineers’ ethics formation remains unnoticed. The conceptual idea of this research is based on the postulate that the system of future professional engineer training with case study, based on the engineering activity, should be created and implemented in the educational process of higher education institutions. According to this purpose, the justification of the conditions for the organization of educational and cognitive activity of students of technical majors was made. Sets of cases from real professional practice, which stimulate active interpersonal interactions, were created.

Research Methods

A total of 418 students from two universities of Kharkiv (Ukraine) and 88 engineers from Kharkiv enterprises participated in the research. Data in this study was collected from 320 students of 6 faculties of the National Technical University Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute (NTU KhPI, Kharkiv) and 98 students of O.M. Beketov Kharkiv National University of Urban Economy. 53 graduates and 20 senior engineers from NTU KhPI, 15 leaders and experts from private enterprises “Kharkivinzhavtoservise”, ”New Style – Ukraine”, “Insulation”, “Lex”, ”Triada +”, “New technologies”, “Kyiv-Kharkivvtorresursy” were involved in the experimental activity. The choice of participants was stipulated by the variety of engineer training provided by the above-mentioned universities, and involvement Professional Ethics as an Important Part of Engineer Training 113 of people in working experience was to assess the need for ethical education in engineers’ practical work. The analysis, experiment, and systematization of results were carried out through three stages. At the first stage, the study of theoretical and applied research on professional ethics teaching in technical higher education institutions all over the world was conducted. At the second stage, program and methods of experimental work were developed; the criteria and level of the components of students’ professional ethics were clarified; the educational course “Professional Ethics for Engineers” was developed and implemented in the educational process. At the third stage, systematization of theoretical research and verification of experimental results were made. Implementation of research activities in business enterprises was performed. The educational course “Professional Ethics for Engineers” combines different forms and methods of learning activity: interactive lectures, self-study, peer learning, business games, testing, questionnaires, mind mapping, brainstorming, etc. Ethical cases for engineers are divided into four groups: 1) cases which require some business (or technical) decisions; 2) cases requiring development strategy; 3) descriptive cases; and 4) problem determination cases. The educational guide, written in correspondence with this course, is divided into 12 chapters containing basic concepts of professional ethics for engineers: •• Professional ethics as part of morality. (Standards of engineers’ ethical behavior and human values for civilized business world (justice, honesty, loyalty, responsibility, and tolerance are analyzed in this part); •• National mentality as an important factor in professional ethics. (The influence of the peculiarities of the national mentality on the implementation of technical activity is examined in this chapter); •• Codes of ethics and conflict resolution. (This part is based on the CRT’s Prin- ciples for Business, the importance of which is to live and work together for mutually beneficial cooperation and prosperity in a healthy and fair competition); •• Negotiations as a special type of professional ethics communication. (The art of effective professional contacts is taught in this part. The interlocutor’s psychological aspects, national characteristics, inner outlook, temper, and mood are taken into account in this chapter); •• Techno ethics. (The impact of technical activities on the outside world, the consequences of using technical devices are discussed in this chapter); •• Ethical leadership. (Some useful recommendations concerning effective leadership are proposed); 114 Olena Lapuzina, Yuri Romanov, Lidiya Lisachuk

•• Computer ethics. (A necessity of moral nature of information technologies is emphasized. Issues related to the replacement of workers with computers, computer crimes, responsibility for computer errors, protection of confi- dentiality for the company, its employees and customers from cyberbullying, and many other important things are discussed in this chapter (cf. also: Stahl, Eden, Coeckelbergh, 2014)); •• Ethical issues in technical products presentations. (This part informs about the norms and requirements in professional ethics presentations including the rules of fair competition); •• Ethical issues in technical products advertising. (This part highlights the idea that future engineers should realize technical production advertising according to the ethical standards); •• Moral and psychological aspects of decision-making. (The purpose of this part is to conduct an empirical analysis of both cognitive and affective components of people’s reaction to moral and ethical choice dilemmas, and the influence of these components on the decision-making process and outcomes (cf. also: Song, Choi, Rhee, 2010; Byrne, 2012)); •• Ethical problems of engineer-manager in Ukraine. (This part reflects information about historical aspects of Ukrainian entrepreneurs and proposes ways for inserting ethical rules to run modern engineering “honestly and without deception”); •• International companies that adhere to ethical behavior. (This part describes the best examples of effective companies which follow professional ethics in their activity and analyses their norms). Practical mastering of modern concepts in engineers’ professional ethics was the main focus of our research. The theoretical material was taught in blocks for each topic, which allowed students to acquire the knowledge and effectively use it during discussions of particular cases. The case study method helped learners to form their professional orientation and holistic view of the future activity, to produce both subject-professional and social experience, to include experience in making individual and collective decisions, to develop business ethical thinking, to intensify training activity, and to build cognitive motivation. 20 groups took part in the pedagogical experiment: 10 control groups of students with training in standard curricula without providing the course of professional ethics for engineers, and 10 experimental groups with the interactive course “Professional Ethics for Engineers”. According to the study plan, there were two diagnostic sections: pre-testing (before the experiment) and post-testing (after the experiment was completed). These sections included written questionnaires Professional Ethics as an Important Part of Engineer Training 115 and interviews on the key topics of the course (origin and history of professional ethics, fundamental premises, ethical issues, implementation, future development). The students’ level of knowledge of professional ethics, as well as their ethical qualities were evaluated with the use of the method of expert assessment, on a scale from 0 to 1, where 1 – the highest level of the development of relevant quality or knowledge. The high professional and pedagogical competence of all the selected experts allowed for using the arithmetic mean of their estimates without additional weight coefficients.

Research Results

After pre-testing, it was clear that the experimental and control groups almost did not differ in terms of the cognitive activity, and almost two thirds of the students from these groups typically showed a low level of professional ethics concepts understanding. At the same time, according to the results of pre-testing, the students could be divided into four groups, with elementary, intermediate, upper-intermediate, and advanced levels of professional ethics skills. Among the 418 students, 41 students obtained a very positive result (9.8%), 60 students – positive result (14.35%), 296 students – negative result (70.83%), and 21 students showed a strongly negative result (5.02%). The results are presented in Figure 1.

40 Percentage 30

20 before training

0 Very Positive Negative Strongly positive negative

Figure 1. Level of students’ professional ethics skills (first stage of experiment). 116 Olena Lapuzina, Yuri Romanov, Lidiya Lisachuk

The results of the survey demonstrate that after taking the educational course in the experimental groups, the percentage of the students who obtained a very positive result (9.8%) and a positive result (14.35%) of professional ethics skills formation significantly increased (from 9.8% to 24.6%) and (from 14.35% to 33.5%) respectively. On the contrary, the number of the students who obtained a negative result reduced from 70.83% to 41.9%, and there was no student who gave a very negative response (0% compared to 5.02%). The results are shown in Figure 2.

40 Percentage

30 before training 20

10 after training 0 Very Positive Negative Strongly positive negative

Figure 2. Dynamics of professional ethics skills formation in the experimental groups.

In the control groups, there were no major changes. The results are presented in Figure 3. To calculate the reliability of the test tasks, the Kuder-Richardson coefficient was used, which is the most common tool for evaluating test tasks in Psych diagnostics: σ 2 −⋅pq r =k ⋅ x ∑ t − 2 k 1 σ x

2 where r1 – test reliability factor; k – number of tasks in the test; σ x – variance of primary test scores; p – index of difficulties; q = 1 – p (Table 1). In psychological practice, the results of an experiment are considered reliable if r1 > 0.6 The obtained resultr 1 = 0.72 confirms the reliability of the tests. Professional Ethics as an Important Part of Engineer Training 117

40 Percentage

30 before training 20

10 after training

0 Very Positive Negative Strongly positive negative

Figure 3. Dynamics of professional ethics skills formation in the control groups.

Table 1. Determination of the reliability coefficient with the use of the Kuder-Richardson method

Number of students Parameters Tasks Calculations who solved the tests p q p ∙ q 1 48 0.96 0.04 0.04 2 43 0.86 0.12 0.10 3 33 0.66 0.34 0.22 2 4 34 0.67 0.33 0.23 k σ −⋅pq r =⋅=x ∑ 5 39 0.78 0.22 0.17 t 2 k −1 σ x 6 46 0.50 0.50 0.75 7 36 0.50 0.50 0.75 16 2.55 =⋅−=8.01 0.72 8 48 0.56 0.44 0.25 15 8.01 9 40 0.02 0.98 0.02 10 51 0.02 0.98 0.02 118 Olena Lapuzina, Yuri Romanov, Lidiya Lisachuk

Discussion

The modern experience of engineer training shows a lack of attention to professional ethics skills of future engineers and a lack of implementation of active learning methods in the educational process. Thus, according to our interviews with the teaching staff of Kharkiv universities, only 7.8% of the teachers use professional ethics classes with the case study method systematically; thus, 82.2% of the teachers do not practice them at all. The value and efficiency of the professional ethics case study method for training future engineers are studied insufficiently. The case study method of professional ethics is a pedagogical tool helping teachers to achieve educational goals. As part of psychological concepts, teaching with the use of the case study method helps to perpetuate the skills of responsible future ethical professional activities in the socio-economic and humanitarian spheres. The case study method makes it possible to improve the future technical specialist training under certain conditions: •• creating tasks with professional orientation, modeling them by using objective and social contexts according to future professional engineers’ activity; •• creating a new role of the teacher in the training process: as a designer of cases, and as an educator who projects the ways of content presentation in particular training; •• providing peer learning based on the subject-subject relationship in the discussion of professional ethics issues.

Conclusions

The presented research is aimed at exploring professional engineer ethics training for university students, which is one of the key objectives of modern engineers’ education. In the research, opinions of famous scientists, engineers, technicians, students of technical colleges were sought and analyzed. The educational course “Professional Ethics for Engineers” and the study guide “Professional Ethics for Engineers”, based on the case study method, were included in the educational process (Lapuzina, 2007). Professional engineers’ ethics provides students with the important skills which help individuals to be responsible for their activity and success; these skills need and can be improved through education. Teachers play a crucial role in enabling students to gain and develop these skills. Teachers should help students to form professional engineers’ ethics skills by giving responsibilities to them, cooperating Professional Ethics as an Important Part of Engineer Training 119 with students to analyze professional engineers’ ethics rules and standards, as well as explaining the reasons for and importance of the expected behavior. The scientific novelty of the research is as follows: 1. The system of future engineer training was improved through the implementation of the case study technique in the professional engineers’ ethics. 2. The content and structure of the concept of professional engineers’ ethics in the modern global market conditions were scientifically defined. 3. The basic criteria and indicators of professional engineers’ ethics were formulated. 4. Didactic, psychological, and pedagogical conditions of the case study method effective use in future engineers’ professional ethics training were created. The theoretical value of the research, as the necessity of improving the system of future engineer training in market conditions and of using this system in the educational process, was proved; the basic principles of professional ethics formation for technical specialists were defined. The practical significance of the research is that its content and results may be used by academics to improve the educational process in the scope of professional engineers’ ethics formation; the author’s program and designed course “Profes- sional Ethics for Engineers”, as well as study guide “Professional Engineers’ Ethics” may be used not only by professional ethics teachers, but also by students in their self-study. The results of the experiment also showed that the cases of professional ethics promote cognitive activity of students of technical colleges and universities. The comparative analysis of the formation of the students’ skills in professional ethics, measured before and after the experiment, demonstrates the growth of dynamics in the experimental groups. Members of the experimental groups significantly improved their skills in professional engineers’ ethics and acquired new knowledge of the history and development of professional ethical problems. Static reliability of the results was determined with the use of the correlation-criteria analysis χ. The results of mathematical processing of the obtained data give reason to believe that there is a direct correlation between the engineers’ professional ethics cases use in teaching and the level of the students’ professional ethics skills development. Our findings confirm the assumption that the proposed Professional Engineers’ Ethics training significantly contributes to Engineering Pedagogy as a whole. 120 Olena Lapuzina, Yuri Romanov, Lidiya Lisachuk

Acknowledgements The research was carried out at the National Technical University Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute, O.M. Beketov Kharkiv National University of Urban Economy, and private enterprises “Kharkivinzhavtoservise, ”New Style – Ukraine”, “Insulation”, “Lex”, ”Triada +”, “New technologies”, “Kyiv-Kharkivvtorresursy”.

References Barry, B.E. & Ohland, M.W. (2009). Applied Ethics in the Engineering, Health, Business, and Law Professions: A Comparison. Journal of Engineering Education, 98(4), 377 – 388. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2168 – 9830.2009.tb01034.x Behroozi, M., Qasemi, L. & Fadaiyan, B. (2014). Individual and Organizational Fac- tors Affecting on the Professional Ethics: Staff of Bushehr Custom Main Office. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Science, 143, 325 – 329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2014.07.413 Bond, J. (2009). Professional Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 87, 184 – 190. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.psep.2008.11.002 Byrne, E.P. (2012). Teaching Engineering Ethics with Sustainability as Context. Inter- national Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, 13(3), 232 – 248. https://doi. org/10.1108/14676371211242553 DeMarco, P.M. (2017). Rachel Carson’s Environmental Ethics – a Guide for Global Sys- tems Decision Making. Journal of Cleaner Production, 140(1), 127 – 133. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.03.058 Farahani, M.F., & Farahani, F.F. (2014). The Study on Professional Ethics Components among Faculty Members in the Engineering. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 116, 2085 – 2089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.524 Feister, M.K. (2015). Exploring the Constitutive and Social Processes of Ethics in Multidis- ciplinary Engineering Design Teams [dissertation]. Ann Arbor, USA: Purdue University. Gülcan, N.Y. (2015). Discussing the Importance of Teaching Ethics in Education. Pro- cedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 174, 2622 – 2625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2015.01.942 Holtzhausen, D.R. (2015). The Unethical Consequences of Professional Communication Codes of Ethics: A Postmodern Analysis of Ethical Decision-making in Communi- cation Practice. Public Relations Review 41(5), 769 – 776. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. pubrev.2015.06.008 Karim, N.S.A., Zamzuri, N.H.A., & Nor, Y.M. (2009). Exploring the Relationship between Internet Ethics in University Students and the Big Five Model of Personality. Computers & Education 53, 86 – 93. Retrieved January 24, 2018 from https://www.learntechlib. org/p/67222/ Kerta, S.B., Uz, C., & Gecu, Z. (2012). Scenarios for Computer Ethics Education. Pro- Professional Ethics as an Important Part of Engineer Training 121

cedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 2706 – 2710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2012.05.551 Krishna, A., Dangayach, G.S. & Jain R. (2012). Business Ethics: a Sustainability Approach. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 25, 281 – 286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2011.10.548 Lapuzina, E.N. (2007). Delovaya etika spetsialista. Uchebnoe posobie dlya inostrannykh studentov [Business Ethics of a Specialist. A Study Guide for International Students]. Kharkiv, Ukraine: NTU KhPI. Retrieved May 4, 2018 from http://repository.kpi.kharkov. ua/handle/KhPI-Press/24112 Miloradova, N., & Ishkov, A. (2015). Environmental Ethics as a Social, Professional and Personal Value of the Students of Civil Engineering University. Procedia Engineering, 117, 246 – 251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2015.08.158 Mounton, F., Malan, M.M., Kimppa, K.K., & Venter, H.S. (2015). Necessity for Ethics in Social Engineering Research. Computers & Security, 55, 114 – 127. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.cose.2015.09.001 Pereira, G., Brisson, A., Prada, R., Paiva, A., Bellotti, F., Kravcik, M., & Klamma, R. (2012). Serious Games for Personal and Social Learning & Ethics: Status and Trends. Procedia Computer Science, 15, 53 – 65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2012.10.058 Rudnicka, E. (2009). Development and Evaluation of a Model to Assess Engineering Ethical Reasoning and Decision Making [dissertation]. Ann Arbor, USA: University of Pitts- burgh. Saat, M.M., Bakar, S.A., Rafai, N.H., & Amin, A.M. (2012). Ethical Challenges in the Work- place: Are These Future Engineers Prepared? Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 40, 269 – 273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.03.190 Song, S., Choi, K., & Rhee, H. (2010). Science and Engineering Major Students’ Perception of Research Ethics and Education. KEDI Journal of Educational Policy, 7(1), 175 – 205. Stahl, B.C., Eden, G. & Coeckelbergh, M. (2014). From Computer Ethics to Responsible Research and Innovation in ICT. The Transition of Reference Discourses Informing Ethics-related Research in Information Systems. Information & Management, 51, 810 – 818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2014.01.001 Troesch, V. (2015). What Is It to Be an Ethical Engineer? A Phenomenological Approach to Engineering Ethics Pedagogy [dissertation]. Ann Arbor, USA: Michigan Technological University. Verrax, F. (2017). Engineering Ethics and Post-normal Science: a French Perspective. Futures. Article in press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2017.01.009. Wang, Q., Zhang, W., & Zhu, Q. (2015). Directing Engineering Ethics Training Toward Practical Effectiveness. Technology in Society, 43, 65 – 68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. techsoc.2015.02.004 Isiaka Abdulaziz, AlexanderOlushola Iyekolo, AbdulrasaqOlatunji Balogun Nigeria

Causes and Management Strategies of Violent Activities in Tertiary Education Institutions in North-Central Nigeria

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.10

Abstract The presented descriptive study involved three hundred and sixty five (365) lecturers and one thousand one hundred and sixty two (1,162) students selected from twelve (12) tertiary education institutions spread across North-Central Nigeria, making a thousand five hundred and twenty seven (1,527) respondents for the study. The main instrument used to obtain data for this study was adapted questionnaire, two research questions and three hypotheses were formulated. The hypotheses were tested using the t-test statistical technique at 0.05 level of significance. Sociologists, religious leaders, the government, homes and school management should embark on enlightenment campaign programs.

Keywords: causes, management strategies, violence, tertiary education institutions

Introduction

Background to the Study Around the world, educators always strive to reduce violent activities in schools and improve students’ conformity to the rules and regulations guiding the operations of Nigerian tertiary education institutions. However, in spite of these efforts, violation of rules still occurs. The school environment is a part of society that is not independent of what happens in the larger society (Daramola, 2012). It is a known fact that series of violence, crimes and killings of innocent students Causes and Management Strategies of Violent Activities 123 witnessed in the larger society today occur in the tertiary education institutions of the Federation (Adobayero, 2015). The act of violence is a behavioural disorder that manifests itself among students of tertiary education institutions. In Nigeria, e.g., there are reports of students engaging in raping of fellow students, stealing, kidnapping, cultism, terrorism and suicide bombing. Students also organize destructive activities such as riot, arson and theft. These are behaviors that do not conform to social norms, rules and regulations of schools and are perpetrated mostly by students (Osasuwa, 2010). The Punch, Sunday April 29, 2012, reported that two professors and 20 others were killed at Bayero University, Kano, as a result of a bomb blast which seriously affected the academic activities of the University for a period of time. Violence like this is the greatest social crime committed in tertiary education institutions in our country today. Cultism, e.g., is a social crime which is rampant in universities, colleges of education and polytechnics in our country. It is a social menace which is not restricted to higher education institutions alone. It is a common phenomenon that characterizes the entire levels of education, so much that secondary schools are not exempted (Jekayinfa, 2003). The Nigeria Tribune Newspaper of February26, 2013, reported that four students of Nassarawa State University, Lafia, were allegedly shot dead during a violent protest over water scarcity and power cut in the institution. During the violent protest, the students barricaded the roads and the main entrance to the university, and trapped down the travelers who were coming from Abuja, Kano and Kaduna to the eastern part of the country. In the past, the sound and sight of bomb explosions were alien to most adult Nigerians when they were growing up except the ones they heard from other countries and the ones they probably watched in movies. In those days, any time a bomb-related story was read in the newspapers, it was mostly from another country. Then, throwing bombs was attributed to countries at war, especially those in troubled spots in the Middle-East. Today, what used to be a foreign culture has been gradually domesticated in some areas of Nigeria (Yusuf, Amali, Bello and Isiaka, 2012). The growth of insecurity in Nigeria manifests itself in the form of increasing rate of robbery, raping, maiming and killing of innocent people on the road, in their houses and even inside places of worship. Even killing for ritual purposes has continued to be on the rise despite the fact that the nation has embraced the computer age (Makinde, 2012). Political violence is on the increase, and many Nigerians have been mowed down by the bullets of assassins settling political scores. Kidnapping has become a lucrative business in the country; there are no exceptions, as people of high and low status are abducted daily for ransom by 124 Isiaka Abdulaziz, AlexanderOlushola Iyekolo, AbdulrasaqOlatunji Balogun armed youths. It is axiomatic to say that security is central to development, and the national transformation agenda of the current administration will come to naught if there is no solution to the menace of violence and insecurity ravaging the country. Nigeria has been caught in the web of violent crimes, and efforts to disentangle the nation from these social maladies have been futile. This has made the problems sink deeper into the recesses of the country and even now it affects school environments which were once peaceful and fully academic. John and Osasuwa (2010) noted that violent crime can be a serious social problem enhanced by the intent of the perpetrator. Definitely, criminal offenders intend to harm others. They thereafter take away the properties that do not belong to them. Criminal intention and actions break social norms in school by violating the law of the school and they oppose government institutions such as the police and other paramilitary agencies. Crime against persons and properties in school is called violent school crime. They are crimes that lead to killing of innocent citizens in tertiary education institutions and destruction of a huge number of school properties without any tangible reason, e.g., the unlawful and intentional killings of school children and destruction of school properties in some parts of northern Nigeria by gunmen mostly under the name: Boko Haram sects, and the replication of such acts in the East by the Movement for the Emancipation of Niger Delta (MEND), which is associated with the kidnapping of innocent citizens, violence, militancy and insurgency in the Niger Delta, which are forms of school crime now experienced in Nigeria. The Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin, lost two students including Abimbola, a final year student from the University of Ilorin, who visited his friends in the above-mentioned institution, who were shot dead in renewed violent activities which caused stampede in the academic community. These students could not be identified by the authorities. Eventually, the corpses of the shot students were deposited at the University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital (UITH), Ilorin, (Ashiru, 2003). The Punch Newspaper Friday, January27, 2012, revealed that the authorities of the University of Ilorin had identified students who had been expelled for allegedly belonging to violent groups. This was in reaction to the increase in the number of deaths, shootings and threats to lives and properties of the students and university staff. Pemede (2000) reported that the problem of violent activities like killing, rape, maiming, stealing and other social vices in our tertiary education institutions have permanently imprinted the issue of school insecurity in the mind of the average Nigerian. Ogunsaya (2000) reported that violence on campuses emerged as a result of socially unacceptable explosion of immorality in the media, importation of foreign culture, internet and junk magazines, which overwhelm Causes and Management Strategies of Violent Activities 125 the youth so much that they fall prey to their effects. In view of this, Mohammed (2004) asserted that the level of hooliganism among students of tertiary education institutions has risen sharply. Osazuwa (2010), as cited in Wole Soyinka (1968), opined that cultism is a major factor responsible for the increasing rate of violence and crime in Nigeria. Sequel to its existence, the country has been thrown into a theatre of bloodletting and tension arising from concomitant armed robbery, assassination, ritual murder, arson, piracy, sexual harassment and rape and other crimes such as election malpractice, examination malpractice and prostitution. All these crimes wax stronger and stronger in our society due to the hydra-headed monster known as cultism. Daramola (2012) stated that armed robbery and hired killing are all the offspring of cultism.

Purpose of the Study

The general purpose of this study was to determine the causes and management strategies of violent activities among students of tertiary education institutions in North-Central Nigeria. Specifically, the purpose of this study was: 1. to find out the causes of violent activities among students of tertiary education institutions in North-Central Nigeria. 2. to find out lecturers’ experience of the possible management strategies of violent activities in tertiary education institutions in North-Central, Nigeria.

Research Questions

The following research questions were addressed to guide the study: 1. What are the causes of violent activities among students of tertiary education institutions in North-Central Nigeria? 2. Is there any difference in lecturers’ and students’ experience of the availability of violence management strategies in tertiary education institutions in North-Central Nigeria?

Research Hypotheses

Based on the research purposes and research questions, the following hypotheses were formulated to guide the study: 126 Isiaka Abdulaziz, AlexanderOlushola Iyekolo, AbdulrasaqOlatunji Balogun

HO1: There is no significant difference in the causes of violence activities among students of tertiary education institutions in North-Central Nigeria. HO2: There is no significant difference in the experience of male and female students of the causes of violence in both federal and state-owned institutions in North-Central, Nigeria. H03: There is no significant difference in violence management strategies available in federal and state institutions in North-Central, Nigeria.

Methodology

This study is a descriptive survey focused on the causes of violent activities and management strategies among students of tertiary education institutions in North-Central Nigeria. The population for this study consisted of all students and lecturers of Nigerian tertiary education institutions, while the target population were all undergraduate students and lecturers of all the tertiary education institutions in the North-Cen- tral Zone of Nigeria. Twelve (12) tertiary education institutions were purposively selected because all the institutions selected are prone to violent activities. The purposively selected institutions were four universities, four polytechnics, and four colleges of education from the existing tertiary education institutions in North-Central, Nigeria. The institutions were located in the following states: Plateau, Nasarawa, Niger, Kogi, Benue and Kwara States. One thousand five hundred and twenty seven (1,527) respondents were randomly selected from the institutions. From these twelve (12) tertiary education institutions selected, the simple random sampling technique was used to sample the respondents. The names of departments were written on some pieces of paper, wrapped, mixed together and put in a cap while the students were asked to pick the wrapped pieces at random. The students of the departments whose names were written on the drawn pieces of paper were to serve as sampled respondents in both the federal and state tertiary education institutions in North-Central Nigeria. From the purposively selected institutions, the proportionate sampling technique was used to sample students and lecturers for this study. The numbers of sampled lecturers and students from each institutions are presented in Table 1. Consequently, private tertiary education institutions were not included in the study because violent activities are not so common in them, whereas violent activities in both federal and state institutions occur quite regularly. Causes and Management Strategies of Violent Activities 127

Table 1. Sampling plan of institutions in North-Central Nigeria

Lectur- Students’ Total Sampled Sampled S/N States Institutions ers’ pop- Popula- sam- Lecturer Students ulation tion pled 1 Plateau University of Jos, Jos 723 19,113 48 146 194 2 Kwara Kwara State Universi- 251 9333 17 71 88 ty, Malete. 3 Nas- Nassarawa State Uni- 538 11,029 36 84 120 sarawa versity, Lafia. 4 Niger Ibrahim Babangida 337 8,875 24 68 92 University, Lapai 5 Niger Federal Polytechnic, 627 13,311 42 102 144 Bida 6 Kwara Kwara State Polytech- 593 25,998 39 199 238 nic, Ilorin 7 Nasar- Nassarawa State Poly- 471 10,849 31 83 114 awa technic, Lafia 8 Benue Benue State Polytech- 321 9,707 21 74 95 nic Ugbokolo, Otukpo. 9 Niger Federal College of 511 10,586 34 81 115 Education Kontagora 10 Kwara Kwara State College of 201 9,011 13 69 82 Education, Ilorin 11 Kogi College of Education, 377 12,799 25 98 123 Ankpa, Kogi State. 12 Plateau College of Education, 531 11,431 35 87 122 Gindiri Total 5,481 152,036 365 1,162 1,527

The required sample size table (Appendix B) was used to select three hundred and sixty five (365) respondents, who were lecturers from these twelve (12) institutions for this study, while one thousand one hundred and sixty two (1,162) respondents, who were students, were also sampled. Altogether, one thousand five hundred and twenty seven (1,527) respondents were selected. The random sampling technique was used to select students from 300 and 400 levels. The choice of these levels of students is justified by the fact that they stayed and interacted with one another in the institutions (campuses) for a required period of time. The total number of students in all the tertiary education institutions located in 128 Isiaka Abdulaziz, AlexanderOlushola Iyekolo, AbdulrasaqOlatunji Balogun

North-Central Nigeria is nine hundred and twenty five thousand two hundred and sixty one (925,261). Data were collected with the use of a questionnaire. The questionnaire was adapted from Dickson, Anna and Diana (2008), with psychometric properties, such as face and content validity as well as the reliability index of 0.78. The first questionnaire was titled Causes of Violent Activities in Tertiary Education Insti- tutions Questionnaire (CVATIQ).The second questionnaire was titled “Violent Activities and Management Strategies Questionnaire” (PMVAQ). The questionnaires were divided into four sections: A, B, C and D. The data obtained were analyzed using SPSS 20.0 window version. Research question 1 was answered using mean score and standard deviation. Research questions 2 and 3 were answered using frequency count and percentage. Research questions 4 to 7, which had corresponding hypotheses, were tested using inferen- tial statistics at the 0.05 level of significance.

Data anaysis and results

Research Question 1. The lecturers’ and students’ responses to items 1 – 12, which addressed causes of common violent activities in tertiary education institutions, were collated on statistical coding sheets. The set of data was subjected to descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation).

Table 2. Mean rating and standard deviation of the causes of violent activities in tertiary education institutions

Std de- S/N Items description No Mean Rank viation 1 Violent activities are caused by the following: sud- 1520 3.14 .92 1st den increase in school fees by the school authority 2 Improper management of institution administration 1520 2.3 .91 11th 3 Unstable public utility on campus. 1520 2.27 .94 8th 4 Inadequate water supply on campus 1520 2.43 1.33 5th 5 Unconducive learning environment 1520 2.31 1.08 7th 6 Actions of security men toward students on campus 1520 2.38 1.04 6th 7 Mismanagement of funds meant for development of 1520 2.82 1.06 4th campus Causes and Management Strategies of Violent Activities 129

Std de- S/N Items description No Mean Rank viation 8 Lecturers’ negative attitudes towards students, i.e., 1520 2.06 .88 10th victimization 9 Lecturers’ nonchalant attitudes towards lectures 1520 1.59 .93 12th 10 Influence of mass media such as home video, violent 1520 2.95 .97 2nd films, etc. 11 Peer pressure in violent demonstrations/ activities 1520 2.95 .90 3rd 12 Parental influence such as giving their wards arms and ammunition to engage in violent activities, such 1520 2.29 1.02 9th as guns and other dangerous weapons.

Table 2 indicates the causes of violent activities in tertiary education institutions. Twelve items were prepared, which addressed the causes of violent activities in Nigerian tertiary education institutions. The statement that addressed the sudden increase in school fees by the school authority ranked 1st with the mean score of 3.14 and the standard deviation of 0.92. The influence of mass media such as home video and violent films ranked 2nd with the mean score of 2.95 and the standard deviation of 0.97. Peer pressure in violent demonstrations/ activities ranked 3rd with the mean score of 2.95 and the standard deviation of 0.90 Lecturers’ nonchalant attitudes towards students (victimization of students) ranked 12th with the mean score of 1.59 and the standard deviation of 0.93.

Table 3. The availability of violent activity management strategies in tertiary education institutions in North-Central Nigeria

S/N Items Available Not available 13 Presence of security agents (stop and search mechanism) 736(48.4%) 784(51.6) 14 Strict control of admission policy 406(26.7%) 114(73.3%) 15 Defined punishment for violent groups (suspension, 592(38.9%) 928(61.1%) rustication and incarceration) 16 Improvement in media 751(49.4%) 769(50.6%) 17 Serious campaign through banners, billboards, confer- 606(39.9%) 914(60.1%) ences, workshops and symposiums 18 Discouraging godfatherism among lecturers, students 457(30.1%) 1063(69.9%) and politicians 130 Isiaka Abdulaziz, AlexanderOlushola Iyekolo, AbdulrasaqOlatunji Balogun

S/N Items Available Not available 19 Define rewards for intentional withdrawal from violent 312(20.5%) 1208(79.5%) activities. 20 Monitoring of unionism on campus by management 594(39.1%) 926(60.9%) 21 Involvement of judiciary in curbing violent activities and 661(43.5%) 859(56.5%) godfatherism in tertiary education institutions. 22 Constitution of students disciplinary committee 818(53.8%) 702(46.2%) 23 Anti-violent activity sensitization forum 632(41.6%) 888(58.4%) 24 Guidance and counseling unit 863(56.8%) 657(43.2%) 25 Implementation of dress code on campus 601(39.5%) 919(60.5%) 26 Violent activities and its implication as a course in gener- 274(18.0%) 1246(82.0%) al study courses in tertiary education institutions 27 Identification of individuals (i.e., ID Card on campus) 956(62.9%) 564(37.1%)

Table 3 shows that out of the 358 lecturers and 1162 students that responded to item 13 (Presence of security agents, stop and search mechanism) 736 (48.4%) picked available while 784 (51.6%) picked Not Available (NA). The reaction of the lecturers and students to item 14 (strict control of admission policy) shows that 406 (26.7%) picked available while the remaining 114 (73.3%) picked not available. The reaction of the lecturers and students to item 15 (define punishment for violent groups, suspension, rustication and incarceration) shows that 592 (38.9%) picked available while the remaining 928 (61.1%) picked not available. Finally, this section pointed out that the responses of the lecturers and students to item 27 (identification of individuals (i.e., using ID card on campus) shows that 956 (62.9%) picked available while the remaining 564 (37.1%) picked not available.

Hypotheses Testing

Table 4. The difference in the experience of lecturers and students of the causes of violent activities in tertiary education institutions

Variables No Mean Std df Cal t-value Sign2-tailed Decision Lecturers 358 32.86 9.72 1518 6.05 0.00 H01 rejected Students 1162 28.99 10.84

Critical level sig = 0.05 Causes and Management Strategies of Violent Activities 131

Table 4 shows the calculated t-value 6.05 with 1518 degree of freedom computed at the 0.05 alpha level of significance (0.05), hypothesis 1 is rejected, and this implies that there is a significant difference in the experience of the lecturers and students of the causes of violent activities in tertiary education institutions in North-Central Nigeria. This is in favour of the lecturers, with the mean score of 32.86, which is greater than the mean score of the students (28.99).

Table 5. The experience of male and female students of the causes of violent activities in tertiary education institutions

Cal- Sig Decision Variable No Mean Std. Df t- value 2-tailed Male 790 28.78 10.84 Ho3 1160 0.97 0.33 Female 372 29.44 10.84 accepted

Critical level sig = 0.05

Table 5 reveals that the calculated t-value is 0.97 with 1160 degree of freedom computed at the 0.05 alpha level of significance. Since the calculated level of significance (0.33) is greater than the critical level of significance (0.05), the hypothesis is accepted. This implies that there is no significant difference in the experience of the male and female students of the causes of violent activities in both federal and state-owned tertiary education institutions in North-Central Nigeria.

Table 6. The difference in the experience of lecturers and students of both federal and state tertiary education institutions of the available management strategies of violent activities in North-Central Nigeria

Cal Sig Variables No Mean Std Df Decision t-value 2-tailed Lecturers 358 21.12 5.55 H02 and 1162 21.08 6.23 1518 0.09 0.93 Accepted Students

Critical level sig = 0.05

Table 6 shows that the calculated t-value is 0.09 with 1518 degree of freedom computed at the 0.05 alpha level of significance. Since the calculated level of significance (0.93) is greater than the critical level of significances (0.05), hypothesis 2 is accepted. This implies that there is no significant difference in the experience of the lecturers and students of tertiary education institutions of the availability of management strategies of violent activities in North-Central Nigeria 132 Isiaka Abdulaziz, AlexanderOlushola Iyekolo, AbdulrasaqOlatunji Balogun

Discussion of the Findings.

The findings of this study reveal that the composition of the respondents in this study was proportionately sampled. The mean rating of 3.14 and the standard deviation of 0.92 of the total respondents ranked first while the mean score of 1.59 and the standard deviation of 0.93 ranked low. This shows that violent activities in Nigerian tertiary education institutions face numerous challenges, of which a sudden increase in school fees is one of the causes of violence in Nigerian schools. This implies that both the lecturers and students had different views as far as the causes of violent activities in tertiary education institutions are concerned in North-Central Nigeria. Makinde (2012), Ogunsanya (2000) and Pemede (2010) expressed views similar to the ones in the presented study.

Conclusion

The following conclusions were based on the findings of this study: Firstly, that the nature and causes of violent activities in our tertiary education institutions are: a sudden increase in school fees by the school management, improper management of school administration, unstable public utilities on campus, inadequate water supply on campus, unconducive learning environment, actions of security men towards students on campus, mismanagement of funds meant for the development of campus, lecturers’ negative attitudes towards students, i.e., victimization, influence of mass media such as home video, violent films, peer pressure, involvement in violent demonstration/activities and parental influence such as giving their wards arms and ammunition to engage in violent activities such as guns and other dangerous weapons. Secondly, the students’ involvement in decision making could help in managing violent activities in tertiary education institutions. Presence of security agents, guidance and counseling unit, and defined serious punishment for violent groups so that students can be useful for one another and for society at large.

Recommendations

The following recommendations were based on the findings of this study: A sociologist, being an expert in school crime analysis and control, should be involved in managing violent activities in Nigerian tertiary education institutions. Causes and Management Strategies of Violent Activities 133

Sociologists can be employed as consultants in schools to be able to manage the affairs of the students in the school environment. To reduce the rate of violent activities, focus should be on the home, which is the first agent of socialization. Parents should provide their children with both psychological and material support. By so doing, children will not be involved in any act of violence. Parents need to exhibit good behaviour to serve as role models to their children. Owing to the fact that students resort to violent activities as a result of their inability to cope with the tasks set by the school, the school curriculum should be readjusted to merge with the reality of economic planning in order to expand their skills and to demonstrate their talents apart from the academic aspect of school life. If this is done, it will help to reduce unemployment, which can lead to frustration, which in turn makes our youth take up immoral violent activities. The government and school management should embark on enlightenment campaign programs to educate parents on the adequate ways of catering for their children, and to advise them to avoid any form of bad gang. It is, therefore, essential for the government to enact codes of conduct to deal with parents and students who violate the rule and regulations of society. Meanwhile, the government should sponsor the training of more counselors and social workers, for them to be able to effectively monitor and treat violent activities in tertiary education institutions. Likewise, more counsellors should be employed in tertiary education institutions in order to counsel the youth (students) to take up subjects they are good at, so as to prevent failure at the end of their school year. This could improve students’ behaviour, which will prevent them from dropping out of school.

References Adebayo, W. (2015). Vesuse secret cults to settle scores. Harvest House Publisher. Lagos state. Adobayero, N. (2011). District head of tarauni L.G.A of Kano in Tell publication of July 19. 2012. Daramola, C.O. (2012). Introduction to the Sociology of education: Ibadan Glory-Land publishing Company 66, Gbadebo Street, Mokola. Deborah, S.P. (2011). Inter religious dialogue: A remedy for religious crisis in Nigerian school. Jos, Damsel publishers. Jekayinfa, A.A. (2003). Cult activities in the Nigerian institutions of higher learning: Univer- sity of Ilorin press, Nigeria. Makinde, F. (2012). Finding way out of labyrinth of insecurity. Retrieved from: http: www. punchdaily-digest. 134 Isiaka Abdulaziz, AlexanderOlushola Iyekolo, AbdulrasaqOlatunji Balogun

Mohammed, M.B.O. (2004). Discipline among students in Nigerian Universities: The contributions of students union. Eko Journal of Educational Research, 1(1), 189 – 195. Ogunsanya (2000). The impact of secret cults on campus on university administrator. A case study of University of Ibadan Nigeria. In Lebean your and Ogunsanya, Mobolaji (Ed) the dilemma of post-colonial universities. Ibadan: IFRA and African Book Builders. Pemede, O. &Viavonu, B. (2010). Cultism or gangsterism and its effect on moral development of learners in Nigeria Tertiary Institutions. An M. Ed thesis unpublished .Department of Sociology, Ahadu Bello University Zaria. The Nigeria Tribune (2013) Four feared dead in University Students’ violence Protest pg2 The Punch News Paper (2012) 2 Professors, 20 Others Killed in Bayero University Kano Bomb Blast pg3 Yusuf, A., Amali, I.O.O., Bello, M.B. &Isiaka, A. (2012). Ilorin emirate teachers’ perception of group dynamics classroom seating arrangement in upper basic schools as a means of promoting violence-free society: Unilag. Sociologists of Education Journal. Olena Ionova, Svitlana Luparenko, Wiktoriia Partola, Oksana Gres Ukraine

Waldorf Approaches to Organization of the Pedagogical Process and Their Influence on the Quality of Education of Ukrainian Junior Schoolchildren

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.11

Abstract With the aim of determination of the influence of Waldorf approaches to the organization of the pedagogical process on the quality of education of Ukrainian junior schoolchildren, the presented experimental research was carried out over the period 2014 – 2016. Third grade schoolchildren of general educational institutions were involved in the experimental research. The organizational forms and methods of Waldorf school were implemented. They were: rhythmic organization of the pedagogical process, artistic teaching, limited use of standard textbooks and schoolchildren’s work on drawing up their own work notebooks, involvement of art elements in the study of all subjects, differentiated exercises for children with different types of temperament, use of active-practical projects, active exercises and games. The positive influence of Waldorf approaches on the quality of schoolchildren’s knowledge (fullness of knowledge and level of their assimilation) and development of their personal-motivational sphere (junior schoolchildren’s attitude to learning, levels of their cognitive activity) was detected. An increase in the level of schoolchildren’s activity and autonomy in educational-cognitive activity was found. The obtained data makes it possible to disseminate Waldorf educational experience for improving the quality of education of junior schoolchildren.

Keywords: junior schoolchildren, pedagogical process, organization, quality of education, Waldorf approaches 136 Olena Ionova, Svitlana Luparenko, Wiktoriia Partola, Oksana Gres

Introduction

One of the priority tasks of modern school is education of comprehensively developed personality, which is characterized by flexibility of thinking, autonomy, initiative and ability to work and learn throughout life. Primary school, which lays the foundation for further education and human development, is extremely important for the formation of such personal qualities. However, it requires special organization of the educational process of the primary level of education, and this organization should be aimed at the development of the above-mentioned qualities. In this context, the study and use of the achievements of Waldorf pedagogy, which is nearly 100 years old (the first Waldorf school was founded in Stuttgart, Germany, in 1919), are of particular value. For this period, it has strengthened its position and become a wide international educational and cultural movement that covers more than 60 countries on all the continents of the world, having different cultural-historical and religious traditions and political systems. World experience shows that the construction of the Waldorf pedagogical process allows for bringing up a personality with individual understanding, independent and acting responsibly, with developed culture of cognitive activity, mathematical and natural, research and creative abilities. This is confirmed by the data of international independent comparative pedagogical research into the quality of pupils’ academic achievements, in particular TIMSS (quality of natural and mathematical education) and PISA (quality of information perception, reading, understanding of texts). Quite a high percentage of graduates of Waldorf schools, where there is no selection of pupils by intellectual and other indicators, successfully pass abitur (state exams which give the right to enter a higher school). In particular, the number of graduates who pass that exam is 20 – 30% higher in Waldorf schools than the national average. Most of the former Waldorf pupils are highly competitive in the labor market, successfully make a professional choice and they are satisfied with their professional activity. That is why there are almost no unemployed people among them. The governments of the countries where Waldorf schools have a long history and strong roots (Germany, Scandinavian countries) support them economically, believing pragmatically that thereby they save a lot of money on conducting reform experiments, as Waldorf schools are the best sources of ideas and examples of innovations. A striking example is the Finnish education system, which is considered to be the most efficient in the world. It took a lot from Waldorf school in the conceptual Waldorf Approaches to Organization of the Pedagogical Process 137 and technological aspects, in particular: education according to age and creative-artistic methods of education, principle of verbal evaluation, use of elements of games and discoveries at primary school, learning two foreign languages from the first grade, one class teacher in the basic school, etc. Analysis of recent research and publications proves that the philosophical, psychological-pedagogical bases of Waldorf pedagogy were substantiated, first of all, in the scientific heritage of the founder of Waldorf school, Rudolf Steiner (1861 – 1925), a famous European thinker, scientist, pedagogue (Steiner, 1984, 1990, 1992). The theoretical foundations of Waldorf pedagogy were also revealed by modern scientists, in particular H. Bartz & D. Randoll (Bartz, & Randoll, 2007), L. Gessler (Gessler, 1988), E. Kranich (Kranich, 1999), T. Marti (Marti, 2005) and others. At the same time, some publications reveal superficial and even distorted ideas about Waldorf pedagogy. Some people express unwarranted thoughts about Wal- dorf school as “art school” or “labour school”, and they consider Waldorf school to be most suitable for disabled children. Other people think that Waldorf schools “have a good atmosphere but they do not teach children properly”, i.e., Waldorf school gives secondary attention to the acquisition of knowledge and skills by pupils. And finally, some people believe that specific Waldorf practices lead to formation of schoolchildren’s sense of their own exclusivity and emergence of certain child complexes, situational and personal anxiety. Thus, the problem of Waldorf approaches to the organization of the pedagogical process and their influence on the quality of education of Ukrainian schoolchildren has not been under careful consideration before and remains unsolved. The aim of the article is to determine the impact of Waldorf approaches to the organization of the pedagogical process on the quality of education of Ukrainian junior schoolchildren.

Research Methodology

A complex pedagogical experiment, which was carried out in ascertaining, forming and control stages in 2014 – 2016, was the leading method of research. According to the program of the experiment, there were two groups: an experimental group (E) (152 people) and a control group (C) (154 people). These groups included third grade schoolchildren from the state secondary schools in the Kyiv, Kharkiv and Kharkiv regions. The schoolchildren of the experimental group were taught with the use of Waldorf methods, and the schoolchildren of the control group were taught with the use of traditional methods. 138 Olena Ionova, Svitlana Luparenko, Wiktoriia Partola, Oksana Gres

Besides, such research methods as observation, individual and group talks, oral questioning, control work, current assessment, final test, questionnaire, etc., were used during the experiment for determining the levels of formation of different indicators of the quality of educational content assimilation by the primary school pupils. The method of mathematical statistics (c2 criterion) was used to compare the results obtained at the ascertaining and control stages of the experiment, to determine the statistical significance of the influence of Waldorf approaches to the organization of the pedagogical process on the quality of the education of schoolchildren.

Research Results

The main Waldorf approaches to the education of junior schoolchildren were introduced in the experimental work. They were adapted to the conditions of Ukrainian primary school and included rhythmic organization of the pedagogical process, artistic teaching, limited use of standard textbooks and pupils’ work on drawing up their own work notebooks, involvement of art elements in the study of all disciplines, active exercises and games, use of active-practical individual and group projects, differentiated exercises for children with different types of temperament. The rhythmic organization of the pedagogical process is based on natural rhythms of variation of human consciousness and an ability to concentrate. It provides a uniform load for the child’s intellectual and emotional-volitional sphere, prevents fatigue, maintains and increases children’s physical and mental-spiritual forces and thus promotes the growth of a person’s cognitive interest. Rhythmiza- tion of education requires compliance with the following rhythms: year rhythm, week and day rhythms, and rhythm of a lesson. Year rhythm is provided by curriculum and training programs and realized through learning by the “epoch” method, i.e., training cycles lasting 3 – 4 weeks, during which pupils are taught the subjects of the cognitive cycle (native language, mathematics, nature study, etc.). Week and day rhythms are determined by timetable and mean conducting “the main lesson” in a cognitive subject at the beginning of a school day, which requires children’s deep comprehension, understanding of information and intellectual work. After “the main lesson” pupils learn subjects which need constant rhythmic repetition (foreign languages, subjects of the aesthetic cycle). The subjects of practical orientation (crafts, artistic work, etc.) are taught at the end of a school day. The rhythm Waldorf Approaches to Organization of the Pedagogical Process 139 of a lesson is provided by three parts of a lesson (rhythmic, main and final parts) and constant change of activities. Artistic teaching is aimed at junior schoolchildren’s activation through the development of aesthetic feelings in the learning process. It included imaginative presentation of the learning material by the teacher, which meant creation and representation of knowledge in the form of vivid artistic images that caused pupils’ certain internal attitude (gladness and sadness, surprise and irony, admiration and irritation, empathy and estrangement, etc.) Limited use of a standard textbooks and pupils’ work on drawing up their own work notebooks (“epoch” copybooks) included processing of different sources (reading books, reference books, collections of tasks, etc.), their summarizing and note-taking (with the teacher’s help or without it) and appropriate self-illustration of “epoch” copybooks (figures, tables, pictures, schemes, plans, etc.). The involvement of art elements in the study of all disciplines involved exercises with colours and shapes, playing musical instruments, modeling, poetry, eurythmy, art of movement, theatrical art, etc. Art elements made it possible to establish an active correlation of knowledge and action, due to which aspiration to cognition was permeated with love for it, and in the learning process a child could act as an artist or as a spectator who experiences a work of art and reproduces it through this experience. Active exercises and games included playing fingers games on lessons, children’s work on school grounds or in a workshop (work with paper, cardboard, cloth, natural materials, manufacture of products from different materials, needlework and crafts, household work, etc.), playing and experiencing different game situations, into which a child can get in his/her real life (school or family). The use of active-practical individual and group projects meant the pupils’ implementation of various projects in different subjects and interdisciplinary projects (“Building a house”, “Growing bread”, “My family”, “My school”, “My friends”, “Environment”, “Folk festivals”, “Tales and legends”, annual theatrical performances, etc.). This work directed the schoolchildren to carrying out certain investigations, and their results were presented to the whole class and accompanied by demonstration of illustrative and demonstrative material made by the children (small items, pictures, musical works, postcards, calendars, cards, newspapers, etc.). Differentiated exercises for the children with different types of temperament were focused on satisfaction of the children’s personal interests and needs, har- monization of their mental life, organization of a learning process for every child in a way which is appropriate for them. It was realized through the teacher’s use of different techniques of telling and explaining, which aroused feelings and emotions 140 Olena Ionova, Svitlana Luparenko, Wiktoriia Partola, Oksana Gres specific for each child (drama for choleric, empathy for melancholic, slowness and imagery for phlegmatic, liveliness for sanguine), doing differentiated tasks by the schoolchildren, which helped to reduce the negative sides of their temperament, reveal emotions and feelings adequately and increase their interest in learning. Based on the analysis of psychological-pedagogical sources, observations of the schoolchildren’s educational activities and expert assessments, the main criteria and indicators of qualitative assimilation of the content of education by the junior pupils were determined. They were the fullness of subject knowledge and the level of its assimilation. The experimental results of the assimilation of subject knowledge by the junior schoolchildren were obtained after mathematical processing and presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Formation of junior schoolchildren’s quality of knowledge (percentage increase)

Subjects Mathematics Native Language Nature Study Criteria and Indicators Group of schoolchildren (number of people) Е C Е C Е C (152) (154) (152) (154) (152) (154) Fullness of knowledge 12.5 5.2 7.8 6.7 9.2 4.8 The level of knowledge quisition: • stable (a pupil has a strong and deep 9.9 3.9 4.6 3.2 7.2 4.6 subject knowledge, uses knowledge in new situations); • situational (a pupil knows the learn- 20.4 11.7 25.0 16.9 22.4 16.2 ing material fairly well and uses knowledge in standard situations); • low (a pupil has a superficial and -30.3 -15.6 -29.6 -20.1 -29.6 -20.8 limited subject knowledge, does tasks on the model)

Analysis of the obtained results allows for drawing a conclusion about the effectiveness of the work on the acquisition of subject knowledge by the schoolchildren. For example, we observed a significantly greater increase in the fullness of knowledge (in all the core subjects – mathematics, native language (Ukrainian or Russian) and nature study) in the experimental group than in the control group. The comparison of the results of the schoolchildren’s knowledge acquisition while studying cognitive subjects indicates that this process was the most effective Waldorf Approaches to Organization of the Pedagogical Process 141 in mathematics and less effective while studying native language (nature study took an intermediate position). Thus, the Waldorf methods of teaching mathematics let the children perceive numbers and operations on them by all the senses (hearing, vision, sense of smell, touch, etc.), feel and experience them due to the sense of rhythm, movement and balance. That is why the Waldorf methods are effective means of awakening the child’s intellect through active emotional-volitional activity and qualitative knowledge acquisition by most children. The obtained data is also confirmed by studies of the effectiveness of mathematical education of junior pupils at Waldorf School of Free Development, Kharkiv. This research was carried out under International Comparative Project on Math- ematical Attainment (IPMA) at the initiative of Exeter University, Great Britain. Based on long-term (for three years) monitoring of mathematics learning process by a group of independent experts, the success of Waldorf pupils’ mathematical education (mastery of mathematical abilities, understanding of mathematical knowledge and skills, ability to use them creatively) was confirmed. The children also showed well-developed verbal-logic and spatial thinking. However, the process of learning native language had a particularly beneficial effect on those pupils who had difficulties in it. The results of the experimental work on Waldorf approaches to the organization of the educational process and their impact on the development of the junior schoolchildren’s personal-motivational sphere are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. The development of junior schoolchildren’s personal-motivational sphere (percentage increase)

Groups Criteria and Indicators Е C (152) (154) Junior schoolchildren’s attitude to learning: • positive-active (pupil likes going to school, learns with pleasure, has a positive 19.7 7.1 informal attitude to school and teachers, realizes the importance of gaining knowledge, strives to achieve success in education); • positive-indifferent (pupil wants to learn, but he/she does not always make ef- -17.1 -4.5 forts to succeed in education and does not realize the importance of gaining knowledge completely); • negative (pupil does not realize the importance of gaining knowledge, has -2.6 -2.6 explicit or implicit unwillingness to learn and a passive attitude to success in education). 142 Olena Ionova, Svitlana Luparenko, Wiktoriia Partola, Oksana Gres

Groups Criteria and Indicators Е C (152) (154) The levels of cognitive interest: • stable (pupil is eager to learn, asks many questions, has a desire to learn new 9.2 3.9 material, does tasks with interest and without the teacher’s help, does not need additional external incentives for knowledge acquisition); • situational (pupil has episodic interest in education as a response to some -7.2 -7.8 emotionally colored situation, needs external support for acquiring new knowledge and autonomous work); • disinterest (pupil is not interested in the learning process and needs constant -2.0 -3.9 external stimulation for activation and autonomy in learning)

The analysis of the data helps to conclude that the Waldorf approaches had a positive influence on the dynamics of the junior schoolchildren’s attitudes to learning and their levels of cognitive interest. The above-mentioned changes occurred due to the orientation of the Waldorf approaches to the child’s personality, the teacher’s respectable and attentive attitude to the child with reasonable requirements, which awakens interest in learning, forms intrinsic motivation for educational-cognitive activity (desire to learn). According to our observations, the use of the Waldorf approaches also contributed to the formation of the pupils’ communicative skills and abilities (abilities to listen and understand an interlocutor, express ideas on the topic of conversation, conduct a monologue and dialogue) and led to positive changes in the nature of the schoolchildren’s relations. It was facilitated by creation of a favorable psycho-emotional background of the educational process, atmosphere of mutual trust and emotional emancipation.

Discussion

On the whole, the obtained data allows for concluding that realization of the Waldorf approaches positively influenced the assimilation of educational content by the schoolchildren. This is due to the fact that the Waldorf pedagogical process creates favorable prerequisites for assimilation of educational content by the child while promoting his/her holistic development (intellectual-cognitive, emotional-value, moral-volitional, personal-social). For example, the rhythmic organization of the pedagogical process, learning with the use of the “epoch” method in particular, stimulated the children’s cognitive Waldorf Approaches to Organization of the Pedagogical Process 143 activity, organized systematical and deepened processing of the educational material, provided personally significant and strong mastery of knowledge, facilitated mobile transfer of the acquired skills within a particular topic or subject area. Artistic teaching in the conditions of limited use of standard textbooks and creation of their own textbooks (“epoch” copybooks) by the schoolchildren enriched their emotional perception, stimulated initiative and interest in learning, encouraged understanding and self-reflection of educational information, memorization of knowledge and its active use. Active-practical projects promoted the development of individual activity and personal autonomy, enabled the widespread application of knowledge and experience in different subjects, generalization and consolidation of the acquired skills, creative use of them in new or changeable conditions. Differentiated exercises for the children with different types of temperament, due to their focus on the peculiarities of the psychological structure of personality, significantly contributed to individualization of the educational process, stimulated the development of the schoolchildren’s cognitive interest, initiative and learning autonomy. Different types of work aimed at activation of the children’s perception, development of their sensory and fine motor skills (finger games, various manual labor) and art elements organically alternated with other kinds of activity in the process of study of all subjects promoted effective assimilation of the educational content by the schoolchildren. Informal inclusion of artistic, poetic and musical perception of the world caused certain feelings in the children’s soul. On the one hand, children began to treat color and sound variety more emotionally, and on the other hand, they began to understand and feel deeper the true and false, beautiful and ugly, moral and immoral in the world. For instance, introduction of art elements (recitation, drawing forms, a system of exercises with liquid paints) in learning native language helped to develop the children’s active perception and ideas, their mobile volitional actions, which is very important for the formation of a sense of language, development of an ability to understand the meaning of what they heard and read. The combination of music and learning mathematics, work with musical-rhythmic patterns, differentiation of sounds (by frequency, rhythm, tempo) helped to learn verbal counting or fractions better. Learning nature study accompanied by art and plastic activities (modeling with wax, clay, plasticine) helped to form the pupils’ holistic, ecologically oriented ideas of nature. 144 Olena Ionova, Svitlana Luparenko, Wiktoriia Partola, Oksana Gres

Thus, generalization of the conducted analysis makes it possible to assert that some researchers’ ideas about Waldorf school as en educational establishment that does not pay enough attention to schoolchildren’s qualitative assimilation of the educational content were not confirmed. The conducted analysis also allows for asserting that the statement about the negative influence of Waldorf school on the child’s development is not true. The conducted study does not cover all the aspects of the problem. The perspective directions of further research can be the following: analysis of the influence of Waldorf approaches on the quality of education of middle and high school pupils, study of the problem of teacher training concerning the introduction of Waldorf approaches into the organization of the pedagogical process.

Conclusions

The relevance of the study is caused by the need to improve the quality of junior schoolchildren’s education and the opportunity to attract Waldorf educational experience to solve the above-mentioned problem. The positive influence of Waldorf organizational forms and methods on the quality of education of junior schoolchildren was experimentally proved. The research found an increase in the quality of the schoolchildren’s knowledge, the level of their activeness and autonomy in learning-cognitive activity. The process of knowledge acquisition was the most efficient in studying mathematics, slightly less effective while learning nature study and native language. It was noted that the Waldorf approaches had a particularly favorable impact on the schoolchildren who had difficulties in learning native language. Positive changes in the children’s personal-motivational sphere, their mainly positive-active attitude to learning and stable level of cognitive interest were found. It was found that the Waldorf approaches had a positive influence on the schoolchildren who had indifferent and negative attitudes to education. Positive changes in the formation of the schoolchildren’s communicative skills and relationships with each other and teachers were also found Waldorf Approaches to Organization of the Pedagogical Process 145

References Barz, H., & Randoll, D. (2007). Absolventen von Waldorfschulen. Eine empirische Studie zu Bildung und Lebensgestaltung [Graduates of Waldorf schools. An emperical study of education and lifestyle]. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. Gessler, L. (1988). Bildungserfolg im Spiegel von Bildungsbiographien [Educational success in educational biographies]. Frankfurt am Main; Bern; New York; Paris. Kranich, E.M. (1999). Anthropologische Grundlagen der Waldorfpädagogik [Anthropological bases of Waldorf pedagogy]. Stuttgart: Verlag Freies Geistesleben. Marti, T. (2005). Wie kann schule die Gesundheit fördern? Erziehungskunst und Salutogenese [How can school promote good health? Educational art and salutogenesis]. Stuttgart:Ver- lag Freies Geistesleben. Steiner, R. (1992). Allgemeine Menschenkunde als Grundlage der Pädagogik [General study of man as a basis of Pedagogy]. Dornach/Schweiz: Rudolf Steiner Verlag. Steiner, R. (1990). Erziehungskunst. Methodisch-Didaktisches [The art of education. Meth- odology and Didactics]. Dornach/Schweiz: Rudolf Steiner Verlag. Steiner, R. (1984). Erziehungskunst. Seminarbesprechungen und Lehrplanvorträge [The art of education. Seminar discussions and lectures about curriculum]. Dornach/Schweiz: Rudolf Steiner Verlag. Advised by Professor Svitlana Zolotukhina, Kharkiv H.S. Skovoroda National Pedagogical University, Kharkiv, Ukraine Nuri Wulandari Indonesia Johan W de Jager South Africa

Students’ Expectations of Higher Educational Experience in Public vs. Private Universities in Indonesia

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.12

Abstract In the education industry, it is critical to understand the expectations of students concerning providing the best educational experience. Thus, in higher education institutions (HEI) the adoption of customer-oriented approaches in the management practice is widespread. The customer-oriented approach regarding students as customers has been discussed in academic literature from several perspectives. However, it has been rarely studied from the point of view of comparing public and private universities. The presented study tried to apply a student-customer orientation questionnaire (SCOQ) to investigate differences between student expectations of their educational experience in public vs. private universities. The sample consisted of 238 undergraduate students in Indonesia’s higher education institutions. The study found interesting differences within the student-customer-oriented variables between university types in terms of graduation, curriculum design, communication with service staff, classroom studies, individual studies and course design.

Keywords: higher education institution, consumer behaviour, marketing, customer-oriented, university, study experience Students’ Expectations of Higher Educational Experience in Public 147

Introduction

Higher education institutions (HEI) are currently facing a competitive landscape. In response to competition, there are arguments that HEI ought to adopt a customer-oriented approach from the marketing discipline. Customer orientation is defined as sufficient understanding of one’s target buyers to be able to create continuous superior value for them (Narver & Slater, 1990). The definition also represents the tendency of employees within an organization to meet customers’ needs in their job situation (Brown, Mowen & Licata, 2002). A university which adopts customer orientation will try to understand and to assess the student’s perception of the education experience in order to meet their educational needs. This effort needs strong commitment from the higher education institution as well as implementation of marketing concepts and methods. Nevertheless, the marketing approach is considered a necessity for the success of the management of higher education institutions (Amiri, Ranjbar, Zamani, 2015). It is argued that higher educational institutions as business organizations should also employ the customer orientation approach (Greenberg, 2004). Thus the challenge is how to use this concept, at the same time upholding academic integrity (Guibault, 2018), especially in the increasingly competitive environment of HEI industry. Positioning a HEI as a student-customer oriented institution has been exten- sively discussed. However, there are still limited studies of the context of university types comparing public and private higher education institutions. The comparison between the two types is important due to the fact that nowadays higher education institutions, especially in Asia, experience a decline in state funding for public universities (UNESCO, 2014). The situation has forced public universities to adapt and even change their status into private universities. Hence, the competition landscape is becoming more intense and needs a thorough understanding of students’ expectations of the educational experience in order to excel within the market. In this light, the presented study tries to understand differences of students demand in each category of public HEI and private HEI. The main objectives, therefore, translate into two specific questions. First, in which categories (or variables) do students expect a HEI to be student-customer oriented? Second, is there any difference between university type (public vs. private HEI) in terms of the category of expectation? 148 Nuri Wulandari, Johan W de Jager

Research Methodology

Research General Background In literature, there are three streams of opinions regarding implementation of market orientation in higher education industry. The first one focuses on the customers due to the falling demand for education from students’ prospective. This study suggests that focusing on students as customers is necessary in the situation of decreasing demand for education (DeShields et al., 2005; Pesch et al., 2008; Svensson & Wood, 2007). The second stream is a strong opinion that using marketing to solve HEI’s problems is not a solution, albeit it contributes to new challenges (Argenti, 2000; Eagle & Brennan, 2007). This stream suggests that marketing metaphors are inappropriate to describe the student-university relationship. The student-university relationship has no analogy to traditional marketing relationships such as customer-supplier or buyer-seller (Shupe, 1999). The first two streams are positioned in contrasting poles. This situation might occur due to the insufficient understanding of contemporary marketing. Marketing as a discipline has evolved from sales orientation to marketing orientation, from selling products to value creation. HEI should move from marketization towards marketing of higher education (Judson & Taylor, 2014). The last stream is adiscussion on the student’s experience as a basis for market orientation. Muncy (2008) claims that HEI contains many educational experiences such as curriculum, pedagogy and feedback. Koris and Nokelainen (2015) provide a useful conceptual framework for educational experience, which divides educational experiences in HEI into two parts including Institutional Network and Learning Situation network.

Research Design and Sampling The study can be categorized as quantitative-descriptive research showing relationships between variables (Churcill & Iobucci, 2002) and also ascertaining and describing the characteristics of variables under study (Sekaran, 2010). It is a single cross-sectional design, where only one sample of respondents is drawn from the target population and information is obtained from the same sample (Maholtra, 2010). The unit of analysis of the study is the students of higher education institutions (HEI) in Jakarta and closest suburban areas, as many prominent universities are located in these areas. Using a survey, the sample size for this research follows Gorsuch (1983), who suggested a 5:1 ratio of the number of observations to the number of indicators. The sample involved students, 18 years of age and older, and in the process of obtaining their undergraduate education or just graduated within the last 6 months. The data was processed using SPSS. Students’ Expectations of Higher Educational Experience in Public 149

Instrument and Procedures The study used Koris and Nikoilanen (2015) Student-Customer Oriented Questionnaire, with several modifications on the indicators selected for the final instrument. The presented study contains the original 14 categories (90 questions). The selection of the items that were kept in the end was based on maximizing the Cronbach Alpha for each category. Back to back translation was conducted before the survey was pre-tested to a small number of respondents. The item questions comprised six-point Likert type scale questions, which describe the level of agree- ment from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (6) .

Research Results

Out of the 250 questionnaires collected, a total of 238 usable questionnaires were processed. The respondents’ profiles are presented in the table according to the type of university and gender. Most of the respondents are female, 57.9%, as compared to 42.1% of male ones. A large percentage of the sample are students of the 3rd (38.3%) and 4th year (26.3%) of study in higher education institutions. The respondents’ source of funding is mostly their parents (81.7%). 84.6% of the respondents admitted not working at the moment, while the remaining students are working and studying at the same time. Almost 70% (69.2) of the respondents surveyed are students of private-owned HEIs, while the rest (32.5%) are students of public HEIs.

Instrument Reliability The study used Cronbach’s alpha to measure the reliability or internal consistency of the variables. The Cronbach Alpha of 0.7 was considered satisfactory to measure the acceptable reliability level for the measurements following Nunnaly (1978). The result showed that within institutional network, categories that have acceptable internal consistency are student feedback, communication with service staff and discipline. Within the Learning Situation Network, teaching methods and course design have the highest internal consistency. The result of this study validates student feedback as a highly important category (M = 4.866; SD = 0.158). The construct has good reliability, shown by the Cronbach Alpha of 0.826. Students agree that HEI should collect the feedback, follow up and communicate the changes based on the feedback to the students. It includes the teachers’ feedback and resolves the students’ dissatisfaction. The importance of student feedback is confirmed by many studies (Koris, 2012; Hussey and Smith, 2010; Muncy, 2008). 150 Nuri Wulandari, Johan W de Jager

Table 1. Student-customer orientation categories (all sample)

Category Standard Cronbach’s Category Mean Number Deviation Alpha

Institutional Network 1 Admission 3.358 0.613 0.490 2 Student feedback 4.866 0.158 0.826 3 Graduation 4.056 0.701 0.600 4 Curriculum design 4.239 0.442 0.672 5 Communication with service staff 3.71 0.42 0.806 6 Discipline 4.404 0.927 0.817 Learning Situation Network 7 Grading 4.538 0.386 0.773 8 Classroom behaviour 4.227 0.386 0.756 9 Student-teacher relationship 4.663 0.927 0.713 10 Communication with teacher 4.617 0.424 0.592 11 Classroom studies 4.667 0.436 0.793 12 Individual studies 3.615 0.44 0.683 13 Teaching methods 4.565 0.255 0.830 14 Course design 4.219 0.29 0.809

Discipline is the level of strictness that the students expect the HEI to apply. The result shows that, on average, the students agree to obey the HEI’s rules and regulations (M = 4.404; SD = 0.927). They believe that the HEI should be strict in having the students meet deadlines, that rule-breaking should be punished and that the same rules should apply to all students. This shows that the students demand fairness from the HEI. The Cronbach Alpha shows that this construct also has good reliability (0.817). Communication with service staff gave interesting results. According to the responses, the students expect to be treated as customers (M = 3.71; SD = 0.420). They consider it the service staff’s responsibility to inform them as soon as possible of any changes to adjust their schedule in the way that suits the students best and help them to solve problems related to deadlines. The construct showed internal consistency with the Cronbach Alpha of 0.806. In terms of teaching methods, the students expect teaching to be fun and interactive (M = 4.565; SD = 0.255). This is confirmed by literature, according to Students’ Expectations of Higher Educational Experience in Public 151 which students want studying to be entertaining and based on as many interactive methods as possible (Koris, 2012). Cronbach’s Alpha for this construct is 0.830. Regarding the construct of course design, the students agree that the teacher decides on the topics (M = 4.219; SD = 0.290). Nevertheless, the students also want the material to be practical as opposed to theoretical. They also think that lecturers should be active in their field of knowledge outside the institution. This construct also showed good reliability, with the Cronbach Alpha of 0.809.

Public vs. Private University An independent t-test was conducted to answer whether there were any differences in perceptions regarding the HEI experience in terms of the respondents’ demographic profiles. The study also measured the size of the difference between the perceptions of the public and private university students on each of the categories investigated. The size was measured by calculating the value of Cohen’s d, Gates delta and Hedges’ g. The results were then referred to the effect’s size level by Cohen (1998) and Sawilowsky (2009), to provide the value reference of very small (d=0.01) to huge (d=2.00). The results show a difference in some of the categories of both institutional network and learning situation network. In the institutional network, the categories that showed significant differences between the public and private university students’ perceptions are graduation, curriculum design and communication with the service staff, whereas in the learning situation network, the categories are classroom studies, individual studies and course design. In the graduation construct, the test indicates that the public university students have different perceptions on graduation, as compared to the private university students, t(238) = 0.02, p<.05. On average, the public university students agree slightly less with the statements in the graduation construct (mean=3.87), as compared to the private university students (mean=4.14). The difference, however, is small according to Cohen’s d effect size (d= 0.33). In the curriculum design construct, the test shows that the public university students have different perceptions on graduation, as compared to the students of private universities, t(238) = 0.03, p<.05. On average, the private university students agree slightly more with the statements in the curriculum design construct (mean=4.31), as compared to the public university students (mean=4.08). The difference, however, is small according to Cohen’s d effect size (d= 0.31). In the communication with staff construct, the test indicates that the public university students have different perceptions on communication with staff, as compared to the private universities students, t(238) = 0.02, p<.05. On average, the 152 Nuri Wulandari, Johan W de Jager private university students agree slightly more with the statements in the communication with staff construct (mean=3.81), as compared to the public university students (mean=3.46). The difference, however, is small according to Cohen’s d effect size (d= 0.31). Regarding the classroom studies construct, the test shows that the public university students have a different perceptions on classroom studies, as compared to the private university students, t(238) = 0.04, p<.05. On average, the private university students agree slightly more with the statements in the classroom studies category (mean=4.75), as compared to the public university students (mean=4.48). The difference, however, is small according to Cohen’s d effect size (d= 0.29). In the individual study construct, the test indicates that the public university students have different perceptions on individual studies, as compared to the private university students, t(238) = 0.04, p<.05. On average, the private university students agree slightly more with the statements in the individual studies construct (mean=3.70), as compared to the public university students (mean=3.43). The difference, however, is small according to Cohen’s d effect size (d= 0.29). In the course design construct, the test shows that the public university students have different perceptions on course design, as compared to the private university students, t(238) = 0.01, p<.05. On average, the private university students agree slightly more with the statements in the course design construct (mean=4.32), as compared to the public university students (mean=3.98). The difference, however, is small according to Cohen’s d effect size (d= 0.39).

Table 2. Independent sample test (University Type)

Levene’s test t-test for equality of Public Private for equality of means variances Std. Std. Sig.2 UNITYPE Mean Mean F Sig t df Dev Dev Tailed ADM 3.47 1.12 3.31 1.15 0.10 0.75 0.98 238 0.33 STUFED 4.71 0.86 4.93 0.89 0.01 0.94 -1.79 238 0.08 GRAD 3.87 0.78 4.14 0.85 1.44 0.23 -2.35 238 0.02 CURR 4.08 0.68 4.31 0.77 1.73 0.19 -2.15 238 0.03 COMM 3.46 1.05 3.81 1.05 0.00 0.99 -2.35 238 0.02 RIGR 4.29 0.89 4.45 0.90 0.19 0.67 -1.23 238 0.22 GRDI 4.42 0.86 4.59 0.81 0.20 0.66 -1.46 238 0.15 CLASB 4.36 0.76 4.17 0.81 0.56 0.45 1.68 238 0.09 STREL 4.64 0.92 4.67 0.96 1.26 0.26 -0.25 238 0.80 Students’ Expectations of Higher Educational Experience in Public 153

Levene’s test t-test for equality of Public Private for equality of means variances Std. Std. Sig.2 UNITYPE Mean Mean F Sig t df Dev Dev Tailed COMT 4.55 1.02 4.64 1.06 0.32 0.57 -0.62 238 0.54 CLASTU 4.48 0.92 4.75 0.89 0.17 0.68 -2.10 238 0.04 INSTU 3.43 0.92 3.70 0.92 0.23 0.63 -2.09 238 0.04 TEACM 4.43 0.80 4.63 0.86 0.84 0.36 -1.69 238 0.09 COURD 3.98 0.86 4.32 0.88 0.71 0.40 -2.80 238 0.01 SAT 3.65 0.73 3.47 0.82 3.09 0.08 1.61 238 0.11

Discussion

The objective of the study was to investigate the categories, according to which students expect a HEI to be customer oriented. It also investigated the difference between public higher education institutions and private education institutions. The study provides interesting findings and answers to the research question. The results indicate that within the top five constructs that obtained the highest reliability measures, there are constructs showing that the students expect to be served as customers and thus want to have control and decision power. These constructs are student feedback, communication with staff and teaching method. However, there are constructs indicating that control and decision power are expected in the higher education institution and the students accept the regulation. The latter refers to the course design and discipline constructs. Hence, being customer oriented does not mean giving all decision power to the students in all aspect of higher education, but to find balance between students and HEI according to the expectations of each aspect. Concerning the students’ feedback, the students expect the HEI to collect feedback, follow up and communicate the changes based on the feedback to the students. It includes the lecturers’ feedback and resolving the students’ dissatisfaction. The students also want communication with service staff to be supportive in their academic needs. This is especially applicable to the students from private universities, as compared to the public university students. Regarding the teaching methods, all the students prefer entertaining and engaging lecturers delivering applicable materials. 154 Nuri Wulandari, Johan W de Jager

For the course design construct, the students depend on the HEI to decide on the course design. However, they would like to have more practical content than a theoretical approach. This is more prominent in the private universities compared to public universities. However, contrary to literature, the students still prefer strict rules imposed by the HEI as well as a sense of fairness in the learning environment regarding rule-breakers. The research also showed that in several constructs (graduation, curriculum design, communication with service staff, classroom and individual studies and course design) there are significant differences between the students studying in public HEIs and private HEIs. Overall, the private university students are more demanding in terms of the constructs stated, looking at the higher mean score, as compared to the public university students.

Conclusions

The study has provided insights into the implementation of customer orientation focused on the education industry. First, there should be an effective feedback-follow up system within an education institution to ensure that the voice of students is heard and steps are taken towards improvement based on the feedback. Secondly, there should be clear, consistent communication between students and HEIs. The service staff, as a bridge between the students and lecturers, should be trained to improve service quality. Thirdly, course design should lean more toward practical application and relevance to industry. Teaching should engage students in an interactive manner. Teachers should be encouraged to be involved in activity outside of HEI (practice) or industry related activities. In addition, the results validated the fact that public university students only marginally differ from private university students. It can be inferred that private university students in general are slightly more demanding, as compared to students from public institutions. Nevertheless, both public and private higher education institutions should apply the same customer-oriented services in several aspects of the education services in order to satisfy the needs of their customers. Although the researchers attempted to provide the necessary rigour to the project, there were still limitations to it. The sample was selected from students in the Jakarta area (in Indonesia), and thus it might not be representative of the total population of HEI students. A wider sample should be investigated to improve the possibility of generalization of the results. Secondly, although SCOQ provided a tool to investigate the issue of education, the population might have culture-spe- Students’ Expectations of Higher Educational Experience in Public 155 cific attributes in a country context that may affect the findings. It might thus be worth further investigating in future.

Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge that this work is based on the research supported in part by the Tshwane University of Technology (TUT), South Africa, through the Department of Higher Education and Training Research Development Grant. This study was also supported in part by Indonesia Banking School, Indonesia.

References Amiri, E., Ranjbar, A.P.D.M. & Zamani, H. (2015). New Management Approaches in Higher Education. The Online Journal of Quality in Higher Education, 2(3), 92. Argenti, P. (2000). Branding B-schools: Reputation management for MBA programs. Cor- porate Reputation Review, 3(2), 171 – 178. Brown, T.J., Mowen, J.C., Donavan, D.T. & Licata, J.W. (2002). The customer orientation of service workers: Personality trait effects on self-and supervisor performance rat- ings. Journal of Marketing Research, 39(1), 110 – 119. Eagle, L. & Brennan, R. (2007). Are students customers? TQM and marketing perspectives. Quality assurance in education, 15(1), 44 – 60. Fontaine, M. (2014). Student Relationship Management (SRM) in Higher Education: Addressing the Expectations of an Ever Evolving Demographic and Its Impact on Retention. Journal of Education and Human Development, 3(2), 105 – 119. Guilbault, M. (2018). Students as customers in higher education: The (controversial) debate needs to end. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 40, 295 – 298. Judson, K.M. & Taylor, S.A. (2014). Moving from marketization to marketing of higher education: The co-creation of value in higher education. Higher Education Studies, 4(1), 51. Koris, R. & Nokelainen, P. (2015). The student-customer orientation questionnaire (SCOQ) Application of customer metaphor to higher education. International Journal of Educa- tional Management, 29(1), 115 – 138. Koris, R. (2012). Customer orientation model for a higher education institution: when is student-customer orientation appropriate? International Scientific Publications: Educa- tional Alternatives, 10(1), 261 – 277. Narver, J.C. & Slater, S.F. (1990). The effect of a market orientation on business profitabil- ity. The Journal of marketing, 20 – 35. Muncy, J.A. (2008). The orientation evaluation matrix (OEM): Are students customers or products? Marketing Education Review, 18(3), 15 – 23. Pesch, M., Calhoun, R., Schneider, K. & Bristow, D. (2008). The student orientation of a college of business: An empirical look from the students’ perspective. The Marketing Management Journal, 18(1), 100 – 108. 156 Nuri Wulandari, Johan W de Jager

Sawilowsky, S.S. (2009). New effect size rules of thumb.Journal of Applied Statistical Methods,8 (2), 597 – 599. Slater, S.F. & Narver, J.C. (1998). Customer-led and market-oriented: Let’s not confuse the two. Strategic management journal, 1001 – 1006. Svensson, G. & Wood, G. (2007). Are university students really customers? When illusion may lead to delusion for all!. International Journal of Educational Management, 21(1), 17 – 28. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. (2014). Higher Education in Asia: Expanding Out, Expand- ing Up: the Rise of Graduate Education and University Research. UNESCO. Dorota Anna Siemieniecka, Bronisław Franciszek Siemieniecki Poland

Cyberspace in the Perspective of Cognitive Pedagogy

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.13

Abstract The article discusses the problems of human functioning in cyberspace seen from the perspective of cognitive pedagogy. The focus was on the area of communication, information processing by people and problems related to the language of the media. The understanding of the concepts of cyberspace and virtual reality from the position of cognitive pedagogy has been defined. A number of phenomena have been presented, such as: multitasking, cognitive load, sequencing mechanism, compression and addiction.

Keywords: cognitive pedagogy, cyberspace, virtual reality

Rapid development and the growing popularity of cyberspace have contributed to the increase in pedagogues’ interest in the possibilities of its use in education. Initially, the focus was on the technological side of cyberspace and especially on the support of network tools. However, the need to include teaching and cognitive knowledge in the teaching process was soon discovered. The change in the visual aspect of the educational use of cyberspace is significantly influenced by extensive discussions covering the cultural and environmental foundations of social evolution. The effect of these debates were analyses made by the creators ofThe Third Culture, presented, among others, by John Brockman (1995) and Daniel Dennett, as well as the emergence of a new view of human functioning in the environment of new information and communication technologies. The aforementioned inter- 158 Dorota Anna Siemieniecka, Bronisław Franciszek Siemieniecki disciplinary team of researchers as well as a number of other groups addressing the problems of relationships between brain work and the impact of the environment on the effects of this work, have influenced a new perception of the role and place of cyberspace in the educational process. The multidimensional nature of these considerations was also influenced by the vision of the society of network, created by Emanuel Castells (1996/2000), and theories created within the reflections on the society of knowledge. These discussions have had a significant impact on theories of education addressing the problems of using cyberspace in education. The dynamically developing technological progress in the information and communication space has significantly accelerated the work on introducing network tools into the educational process. Mobile phones, smartphones and iPads have become a symbol of changes in people’s communication. Universal access to cyberspace means that the aforementioned communication tools between people beyond the transmission of information have become a kind of participant in the communication game with a growing social role. We are dealing with a paradox because, on the one hand, man, who is a social being, wants to contact people and willingly uses technology to communicate, but at the same time information tools deepen his loneliness. The plasticity of our brain makes us able to adapt to the changes occurring in communication, we correct our actions in a changing environment. New technologies have created unlimited communication possibilities in cyberspace, among other things, it allows for talking to a large number of people on any topic. Exchange of thoughts significantly changes the learning environment, causes various turbulences and causes a growing dissonance of educational expectations in relation to those offered by educational institutions. Curiosity, which is a natural biological feature of human beings, has been strengthened with the tools of cyberspace that enable not only its full satisfaction but also open new possibilities of obtaining information. It evokes a constant pur- suit of new information and pushes to the background reflections on the place of man in the world. In such an environment, there is no room for the development of interpersonal intelligence, defined by Howard Gardner.

Cyberspace and virtual reality – general view

In the didactic discourse we can meet at least four terms defining the concept of cyberspace. It is assumed to be a space for open communication via the Internet or other networks, which creates a system of information connections that facilitate Cyberspace in the Perspective of Cognitive Pedagogy 159 contacts for users, including real time. Cyberspace is treated here as a kind of communication channel used to exchange information. The second term of this concept includes an indication of the area of graphics functioning in personal computers, and the third sets the sign of equality between cyberspace and virtual reality. At the same time, interchangeability of these two terms is accepted with all its consequences. In turn, the fourth approach requires seeing cyberspace in the dimension of art. It is assumed that this is an environment creating conditions for the cooperation of various media in order to create a work of art. This is a comprehensive set of data for creation of potential products of art. Each of the presented approaches emphasizes another area of activity. From the perspective of cognitive pedagogy, what is the most appropriate is to recognize cyberspace in terms of electronic communication, functioning as a result of links in Internet networks. The characteristic features of this space are: information processing, computational character, occurrence of hypertext, plasticity, fluidity, and interactivity (P. Lévy, 1999, p. 32). Cyberspace is treated as a communication environment enabling the use of research results carried out in the field of media pedagogy as well as theoretical achievements regarding communication models. Such an approach promotes transparency of the perception of social information exchange mechanisms occurring in the relations between the participants in the virtual conversation. It also allows for understanding their interaction using media language. The concept of virtual reality in the literature of the subject has two basic references. In a narrower sense, the emphasis was placed on the technological side of the concept, which is close to the meaning of broadcast cyberspace. Virtual reality is defined here as the recipient’s full sensory immersion in a virtual world generated by the information technology created by multimedia. They are characterized by an idealized, realistic world that allows for watching, feeling, acting and behaving as it does in the real world. The wider definition of virtual reality implies the occurrence of experience resulting from contact with an artificial environment created by sensory stimuli. The activities of a person functioning in this environment are determined by what this environment brings. Therefore, man creates and participates in a world that has both a reference to imaginary and existing reality. Adoption of a wider view of virtual reality makes it possible to analyse the behaviour of each participant immersed in this space in terms of cognitive pedagogy. The creator of the concept of virtual reality, Jaron Zepel Lanier, in his pioneering visions of the application of avatars in medicine, created the basis for the digital space of using IT tools in many areas of cyberspace. Modelled on the idea of 160 Dorota Anna Siemieniecka, Bronisław Franciszek Siemieniecki

Lanier Second Life, the development of IT tools that create the world of delusion was initiated. It is of two-way character due to the existing relationship between real and virtual life. For example, a “resident” of Second Life creates an artificial environment and at the same time participates in its “life”. A participant in the virtual world acquires a specific experience that he/she uses in reality. In this digital space, universally appearing multimedia leaves deep traces in the human consciousness, which influence decisions regarding actions taken in everyday life. Thanks to this space, an alternative world is built, which affects the view of reality. The image of artificial reality created with the help of IT tools contains both simulations of the real world and fictional situations being the product of the imagination of its creators. This fact is essential for the psychological experiences generated by the recipient, which involve the multisensory state that arises in the communication process. According to Patricia M. Greefield (2009, pp. 69 – 71), the use of cyberspace leads to widespread and sophisticated development of visual and spatial skills, but also weakens the ability to deeply process information. Meanwhile, this ability is the basis for acquiring knowledge with understanding, critical thinking as well as expanding imagination and reflection. The definitions of cyberspace and virtual reality adopted for further analysis require analysing the communicative electronic space with the relations appearing in it and looking at the mechanisms contributing to the conscious creation of a vision of the world based on the imagination and the illusion produced. We have known for a long time that man assimilates the culture in which he grows from birth. Initially, the range covers the immediate surroundings, and as he grows he systematically extends them. If there is cyberspace and virtual reality in the child’s environment from birth, the acquired information will shape his/ her view of reality in a significant way. This overview will be strengthened by direct participation in the life of a given environment. Experiments conducted at the Torun Centre for Media Research indicate that the child’s active involvement in virtual reality is more conducive to learning than traditional education. There must, however, be an important condition here, namely, the teacher’s actions must be carefully planned and precisely implemented in the form of purposeful didactic undertakings. It was also observed that learners can obtain different results, which is related to the previous experience acquired while working in the network. A child working in virtual reality becomes independent and can easily find information. This has an impact on developing in the brain many tools for thinking (D.C. Dennett, 2013). The observations made at the research centre in Torun coincide with the studies conducted by Gary Small and Gigi Vorgan (2008), Cyberspace in the Perspective of Cognitive Pedagogy 161 who noticed that the neuronal activity of people searching with the help of Google is different from that of those who did not use this IT tool. Virtual reality is a powerful tool for emotional interaction, which affects the changes taking place in the human brain. This is particularly evident in children who are systematically operating in the virtual world. This translates into their way of thinking, solving problems, etc. Emotions are also necessary, provided we use them optimally in the learning process. This means that they cannot be too big or too small. Finding the right point of their intensity is very difficult, due to the individual threshold of optimality. Finding it requires a lot of experience and teaching skills from the teacher. It is also worth mentioning that communication without emotions does not exist, they accompany all human activities also in cyberspace, where the media language (sound, image, animation) favours their production. A significant impact here is the awakening of the impression of reality and closeness in the recipient. Emotions also serve the person to influence the environment, which also happens in cyberspace. Most often, we observe use of emotions to modify behaviours in order to obtain certain benefits. The use of emotions takes place in the social, political, economic and cultural dimensions, because it gives good results. Emo- tions are also used for manipulation of individuals and social groups. Understand- ing the mechanisms of causing emotional states is also important in achieving educational goals. It promotes an increase in the ability to acquire knowledge and skills.

Cyberspace, virtual reality and learning

Work in cyberspace is characterized by cyclic activity of the brain in the concentration-distraction of the attention system. Nicholas Carr (2010, p. 148) put it in the following way: “…the network focuses our attention only to distract it immediately”. The mechanism of this phenomenon is similar to the one observed in the learning process with the use of television. We concentrate on the medium screen and at the same time the generated message distracts us (B. Siemieniecki, 1991). The speed of occurring changes results in the limitation of information flow and attention disorder. A similar situation occurs in cyberspace, where while designing the learning process we must take into account the presence of fluctuations in the concentration of the internet user. During this process, there is competition of various types of cultural information, known as memes (B. Siemieniecki, 2012). They have a significant impact on learning, so further consideration should focus on 162 Dorota Anna Siemieniecka, Bronisław Franciszek Siemieniecki the factors that determine the efficiency of information transmission to the brain. By analysing the reception of information in cyberspace and in virtual reality, we can identify a number of common phenomena that are important for learning. These include: multitasking, cognitive load, sequencing mechanism, compression, and addiction. In the everyday discourse on learning, the assumption is made that the brain can simultaneously perform many tasks in cyberspace. This is erroneous reasoning because in the case of simultaneous accomplishment of two tasks (listening to the text and simultaneous making of figures in the mind), the brain activity decreases by about 1/3 in relation to the independent performance of both tasks (B. Siemieniecki, 2012a). The complexity of the task is a factor that significantly affects the efficiency of the activities performed. With simple activities, the delay may not occur or be small, but when complex, there is a greater involvement of the brain, and as a result, the efficiency of the activity decreases. This is caused by the distraction of attention Research carried out at the Department of Education and Media in the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun has shown that in the case of memory solving of a mathematical task by students who did not watch a cartoon on TV and those who watched it there was a time difference. The students needed almost twice as much time to perform a mathematical task as the viewing and counting activities were performed simultaneously. The aforementioned Carr (2010, pp. 165 – 166) believes that this is due to the so-called costs of switching attention, resulting from the need for the reorientation of the brain. Therefore, the use of cyberspace to achieve learning goals involving the acquisition of new skills requires didactic activities that limit the distraction of attention because reflection on the material to acquire requires concentration. During the research at the Department of Education and Media in Torun, another phenomenon was also observed: the more automatically performed activity related to the computer program, the more efficiently the proper mathematical task was made, even if it was complicated. The observations cited, resulting from the conducted research, indicate that the exercise of operating schemes increases the results in the field of the automation of given activities, but multitasking is not conducive to the learner’s proper assessment, synthesis and conclusion. According to Anders Ericsson and Robert Pool (2016), acquiring knowledge is not determined by inborn talents and specific predispositions, but by the way of learning. It is connected with the continuous development of a person. Therefore, if we do not want to stay in one place, we have to cross borders and not stop at mastering automated activities. This requires continuous transgressive Cyberspace in the Perspective of Cognitive Pedagogy 163 action, which Jerome Bruner signalled many years ago. As a result, if we want to succeed in learning using cyberspace for this purpose, we must apply the proper way of acquiring knowledge and make enough effort. Experiments conducted at the Centre for Media Research in Torun indicate that the use of cyberspace in education promotes the acceleration of learning, but requires diligence in designing didactic activities. This applies to both improvement and acquisition of new skills. An important role is also played by a multilevel and individualized learning system that takes into account both gifted students and those with fewer biological capabilities. In the era of smartphones, multitasking becomes an important adjustment factor to the requirements of the social environment. The introduction of an electronic tablet with access to cyberspace instead of a notebook is not only a change of the tool, but it is first of all a new socio-cultural environment, creating new opportunities, and new didactic problems, e.g., related to the change of the hierarchy of priorities. A learner surrounded by many contexts created by virtuality is confronted with the choice of information and taking on new challenges. This requires not only proficiency in using IT tools but also brain training to improve attention. An additional difficulty is the interpenetration of mutual problems occurring in cyberspace and reality. As a result, students have a number of barriers that often prevent achieving a goal, which is why the school is becoming an important centre of preparation for coping in life and in cyberspace. In addition to training, it is also necessary to conduct therapeutic activities, limiting the occurrence of difficulties encountered by participants in the educational process. Increasing the amount of information processed by students results in cognitive load. It was described in detail by John Sweller (1998), who studied, for many years, how the human mind processes its information resources during learning. His theory assumes that learning proceeds best when it is compatible with cognitive activity and when the cognitive load associated with solving the task is reduced. Sweller claims that the multimedia message is less distorting short-term memory and allows it to increase its capacity. However, there must be an important condition for the information transmitted by different channels (visual, auditory) to complement each other. If this is not the case, an additional burden arises because information items compete with each other causing distraction. Stopping the information reaching the brain is connected with the functioning of the sequencing mechanism. It consists in postponing the reaction during the maximum overload with information and its storage in the temporary memory store. This process releases the brain’s executive activities and is done automatically. 164 Dorota Anna Siemieniecka, Bronisław Franciszek Siemieniecki

An important area of analysis in cognitive pedagogy are issues related to addiction. The problem of addictions in cyberspace is of particular importance due to its universal accessibility through digital communication tools. The mechanism acting in the brain, roughly speaking, is similar to that of drug or alcohol addiction. Neurons forming the “reward centre” stimulate activities aimed at connecting to cyberspace and undertaking activities related to searching for information. Reward in the form of pleasure encourages further action, resulting in the creation of a specific mechanism of addiction. When we talk about addiction in cyberspace, we mean the applications in it that our brain is in contact with. It is a broad spectrum of various tools and related activities that can help us lose control over what should be the norm. This applies, e.g., to online shopping, continuous search of websites for specific information, or participation in network gambling. Because the strength of addiction is related to individual biological predispositions, there is a significant difference in the diagnosis, which makes it difficult to detect and counter this destructive phenomenon at an early stage. The fight against cyberspace addiction is also difficult because our brain is designed to search for information and to boost activities aimed at cooperation with the media. A good example is the use of smartphones. We will not immediately notice the effects of intensive use of this medium because many activities take place in the area of unconscious space and the actions taken often seem to be a natural process of seeking information. The operations that take place in the unconscious space, which are of incubative nature, have long been known to didactics investigating the process of solving problems. Activity in cyberspace contributes to the construction of new neuronal circuits in the brain, which are then used in many other thinking processes. Nicolas Carr points out that searching websites also has a positive aspect because it involves many brain functions that improve the functioning of this organ. Therefore, it can be helpful in maintaining the mental capacity of older people. When working in cyberspace, the excess of information flowing into the brain in connection with time pressure causes a reaction in the form of limitation of intellectual activities. This in turn results in the superficiality of the analyses being carried out, as well as leaving the area in the network and abandoning the solved task. This phenomenon is observed, among other things, during experiments requiring a deeper analysis of information and reflection on the selection of one correct variant among many. Another important problem in cognitive pedagogy is the functioning of language in cyberspace. Because it is of considerable importance for intellectual development, it should be the subject of a broader debate. Until now, the focus Cyberspace in the Perspective of Cognitive Pedagogy 165 has been primarily on external attributes, e.g., the choice and type of words used, the formulation of thoughts, etc. Meanwhile, it is more important to determine the relationship between the language used and the development of the neural network. Although studies on the deciphering of human thought are conducted very intensively, it is more important for education to indicate the relationships occurring in the teaching – learning process. The first such attempts were made, among others, at the Brain Mind Institute in the Swiss Ecole Polytechnique Fed- erale de Lausanne (EPFL). They include experiments in which the possibilities of directing a stream of information to the brain via the computer interface are studied. The director of the said research centre, Henry Markram, believes that an educational program designed to allow students to acquire certain skills in the shortest possible time can be created (G. Stix, 2008). The time factor is a central element in the search for new didactic solutions because two basic tasks are faced by modern education: effective education and its implementation as soon as possible. Analysing cyberspace from the perspective of cognitive pedagogy, besides communication and information, there is another area important for education – the language of the media. There have been many publications on this subject, which is why an important problem has been addressed in this article, i.e., the relationship between language and expanding the possibilities of the mind. In his arguments, Michael Tomasello (1999) draws attention to the relationship between the use of natural language and shaping the nature of human cognition. According to the aforementioned author, mastering language symbols leads to the development of completely new cognitive representations. Adoption of this thesis has far-reaching consequences for cyberspace and virtual reality. The mind of man operating in a digital world dominated by the media language extends our capabilities. The IT tools used leave a lasting impression in our mind (B. Siemieniecki 2010). The language of the media, thus, influences the social evolution of Homo sapiens and, in the long run, the course of events in the course of biological evolution. There are also poorly researched phenomena that do not always serve only the good of man.

Conclusion

The presented brief picture of phenomena occurring in cyberspace seen from the perspective of cognitive pedagogy indicates the need for a new look at education. The complexity of existing problems in the communication and information space requires the extension of didactic analyses for the processing of information 166 Dorota Anna Siemieniecka, Bronisław Franciszek Siemieniecki in the human brain. Studies carried out so far indicate that education faces a great challenge because there is a need for a new interdisciplinary approach to the phenomena occurring in cyberspace. Cognitive pedagogy must also undertake research on the behaviour of virtual reality participants, where processes permanently changing their brains occur. The combination of the real and digital world is not only a change in communication but, above all, a new culture of social relations and a new language combining the one used so far by people with a new media language. The problems highlighted in the article constitute a general outline of a large area of research, which must be the subject of the search for modern education.

References Brockman J., (1995) The third culture. Beyond the scientific revolution, Rockefeller Centre, New York. Car N., The Shallows. (2010) What the Internet Is Doing to Our Brains, W.W. Norton & Company Inc. London. Castells E., (1996/2000) The rise of the network society, Blackwell, Oxford. Dennett D.C., (2013) Intuition Pumps and Other Tools for Thinking. W.W. Norton Com- pany. Ericsson A., Pool R., (2016) Peak: Secrets from the New Science of Expertise, April 5th 2016 by Eamon Dolan/Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Kindle Edition, Boston–New York. Greenfield P.M., (2009) Technology and Informal Education. What Is Taught, What Is Learned, Science, nr 323, s. 69 – 71. Lévy P., (1999) Collective intelligence: mankind’s emerging world in cyberspace Perseus Books, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Small G., Vorgan G., (2008) iBrain. Surviving the Technological Alteration of the Modern Mind, William Morrow. Siemieniecki B., (1991) Środki dydaktyczne w procesie myślenia twórczego, Prace Mon- ograficzne Wyższej Szkoły Pedagogicznej w Krakowie, T. 134, Wydawnictwo Naukowe WSP, Kraków, (B. Siemieniecki, (1991) Teaching aids in the process of creative thinking, Monographic works of the College of Pedagogy in Cracow, T. 134, WSP Scientific Pub- lishers, Cracow). Siemieniecki B., (2012) Introduzione alla pedagogia cognitiva, Armando Editore (January 1, 2012) Italy. Siemieniecki B., (2012a) Biologiczne mechanizmy odbioru informacji a pedagogika. Kog- nitywistyka i Media w Edukacji nr 1, pp. 88 – 97 [Biological mechanisms of information reception and pedagogy. Cognitive Science and Media in Education, No. 1, pp. 88 – 97]. Siemieniecki B., (2010) Kognitive sprakproblemer, In: D. Siemieniecka, B. Siemieniecki, H. Nilsen, E. Bratland, Sprak i medier, Wydaw. Naukowe UMK, Toruń. Cyberspace in the Perspective of Cognitive Pedagogy 167

Stix G., (2008) Jacking into the Brain – Is the Brain the Ultimate Computer Interface? Scientific American, November, Volume 299, Issue 5, 56 – 61. Sweller, J., Van Merrienboer, J.J., & Paas, F.G., (1998) Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational psychology review, 10 (3), pp. 251 – 296. Tomasello M., (1999) The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England.

General Didactics

Beata Mazepa-Domagała Poland

Pictorial Preferences of Adults as Primary Intermediaries in the Contact Between a Child and an Illustration/Literary Illustration – Empirical Perspective

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.14

Abstract The presented text is the result of reflections on the issue of perceiving visual messages which are an illustration of the content of printed text by adults as primary recipients of book illustrations addressed to children of pre-reading age. The article contains reflections on the pictorial character of our environment, it presents the underlying assumptions of the strategy of recognizing image preferences related to book illustration and trends in the preferences of adult intermediaries in the area of book illustration in the aspect of areas of image realization and artistic quality recognized as the dominant elements of imaging. The article concludes with final reflections focused on the quality and value of observations in the context of a visual image in the form of a book illustration.

Keywords: image preferences, visual image, book illustration, primary viewer

Introduction

One of the essential features of modern times is their visuality, perceived as enriching the external, directly observable surface of phenomena by saturating them with images and visual impressions. This visuality – connected with a significant change in social practices concerning the production, distribution, and 172 Beata Mazepa-Domagała perception of images, as well as observing other people and their civilizational environment – points to a profound change in contemporary culture, in which visual culture is becoming more and more important. This broad concept covers several categories of phenomena – the components to which it belongs: icono- sphere, i.e., images deliberately made by an artist in a particular medium, with the intention of conveying a message, emphasizing a specific meaning, evoking an aesthetic impression or influencing consumer decisions; sociosphere, i.e., the observable surface of social life, everything that is visible and connected with people’s actions, their image or the civilizational environment created by them; imaging regimes in the form of rules, patterns, styles of creating images, shaping the image or design of manufactured objects or objects, as well as viewing regimes, i.e., rules that allow for observing or prohibiting certain persons or objects from preserving their image (cf., M.S. Bal, 2003; Ch. Metz, 1982; W.J.T. Mitchell, 2002). Therefore, it becomes evident that phenomena – components of visual culture – constitute an extremely important and attractive research space in the form of visual events – an interaction between a visual sign, a technology that activates and supports this sign and the viewer, in which it is still possible to find places not yet recognized. In the context of the above indications and assuming that visual messages make it easier for us to get to know our perception habits and, at the same time, open us up to different states of consciousness and other participants of picture culture, and illustration as a visual image is a medium which, through its graphic sign, color, plastic form, can strongly influence the imagination, emotions and intellectual development of the viewer, the issues of the image preferences of adults as primary recipients of illustrations in a literary book for children of pre-reading age1 appear as an important and interesting research issue. At this point it should be noted that this problem is currently a little-known area. Although in the scientific literature we find studies concerning both the image preferences of the youngest readers (B. Mazepa-Domagała, 2010) and aesthetic concepts of a picture book, (M. Nikolajeva, C. Scott, 2006, L. Barr, 1986; L.E. Lacy, 1986) as well as postulates constituting the essence of visual messages, which consist of: adapting the content and form of an image/image to the psychological characteristics of the recipient in different periods of development, an accurate

1 This category assumes limiting the understanding of the pre-reading period to phases in which contact with the work is determined by a dichotomous approach to the equality of word and image, at the same time requiring an adult intermediary in contact with the reading, or assuming the need to master the reading technique by the child. Pictorial Preferences of Adults as Primary Intermediaries 173 ratio of a visual message to a literary text and the highest possible artistic value, (E. Arzipe, M. Styles, 2003, B. Kűmmerling-Meibauer, 2011), there is no research and interesting analysis of perception preferences and motives for the choice of artistic images of literary illustrations made by adult intermediaries in favor of children. And yet, the visual images contained in a book for children are in fact a cultural medium in the socialization space, which assumes a strong influence of the intermediary. The significant participation of an adult causes that this artistic picture/ image is firstly subject to the interpretation of an intermediary, consisting in the evaluation of value and aesthetics, made on the basis of their own knowledge and experience, and only then it reaches the target addressee, i.e., the child. Thus, the final concretization of visual message/image takes place in a specific situation of a specific initiation circulation, the manner of which depends on the preferences, taste, will, skills and sometimes emotionality of the intermediary. This mediation for the viewer has a considerable significance for the plastic form of this medium. Based on the above-outlined findings, and taking into account the casual, shal- lowed opinions of professional and non-professional intermediaries, it is necessary to conduct analyses concerning the knowledge of adult preferences in the sphere of visual aesthetics in order to, on the one hand, provide the desired artistic forms and, on the other hand, diagnose the need for possible intervention in the sphere of shaping the aesthetically conceived taste of the recipient. Therefore, the issue of exploring the image preferences of adults as primary recipients of the illustration contained in the children’s literature book was focused on in the empirical part of the study.

Image predilections of primary2 recipients of book illustrations – research reconnaissance

At the beginning, it should be noted that the limited volume of the publication does not allow for presenting the full methodological model of the research, so for understandable reasons it is limited to the presentation of the fundamental issues. Thus, based on the assumption that the most interesting function of illustration is to create fictional worlds, stimulating the imagination of an adult reader, and making it easier for the young viewer to open the door to the world of imagination, in order to determine the specificity of adults’ image preferences related to

2 First text and image interpreter – V.M. Cackowska, Książka obrazkowa dla dzieci (Chil- dren’s picture book), [In:] Early school education […], p. 318. 174 Beata Mazepa-Domagała the form of a book illustration, as well as to make a stylistic and formal analysis of the visual image and to examine the plastic effects of the technique used, the scope of exploration has been determined by the areas of realization of the illustrative image, i.e., drawing, painting and graphic illustrative forms, complemented by artistic qualities of the image such as: abstractness, colorfulness, detailedness, expressiveness, dynamics, which occur in the successive plans and layers of the visual image and are perceived as dominant elements of plastic imaging3. Means of a diagnostic survey conducted the preliminary tests addressed to a group of adult respondents4 and conducted using the interviewing technique on the basis of the image, the material presented5 after reading a text treated as an inductive stimulus (M. Banks, 2001). Thus, the basis for the analysis of imaging predictions of adult book illustrators is a collective empirical material in the form of percentage distribution of obtained choices of the most beautiful illustrations within the framework of conducted explorations in a generalized form. The following analysis provides evidence of this interpretation.

The research has shown that in the area of painting illustrations, adult intermediaries, when choosing the most beautiful in their opinion painting illustration, are guided by the illustrativeness of the painting. They prefer realistic compositions in visual expression and illustrations in which abstractness is noticeable in the back-

3 In the conducted research, the procedure of exploring the predilection of readers of pre-reading age for book illustrations, adapted for the purposes of these activities, was used, which was presented for the first time in the following publications: B. Mazepa-Domagała: Upodobania obrazowe w zakresie ilustracji książkowej u dzieci w wieku przedczytelniczym (Image preferences for book illustrations in children of pre-reading age), Katowice, Publisher: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego, 2010. 4 Research findings included a group of 50 adults aged 28 – 35, who were parents or guardians of children at preschool age. The research was carried out on the premises of a public kindergarten institution in a metropolitan environment. Women constituted 90% of the respondents; 62% of the respondents had a university education, while people with a high school education constituted 38%. 5 The research tool consisted of 75 illustrations depicting a literary text, grouped into three sets – 25 visual compositions for each of the adopted areas of imaging (painting, graphics, drawing). In the individual sets, the illustrations are arranged according to the dominance of the imaging and the image plan/occurrence zone (5 dominance of the imaging and 5 occurrence zones). In individual sets, within each dominance of imaging, the respondent had to choose one of the five illustrations presented, which he/she considered the most beautiful in his/her subjective assessment. The developed set of illustrations enabled the recipient/adult to make a decision and, as a result, to choose the illustration as the one most interesting to them. Pictorial Preferences of Adults as Primary Intermediaries 175 ground. Abstract illustrative paintings, i.e., those created on the basis of a number of understatements, are not appreciated by adult audiences. This state of matters is probably due to the fact that the adult viewer seems to have difficulty in perceiving, interpreting and grasping the meaning of the illustrations inconsistent with the text6, thus clearly inclining towards the concreteness of the representations and classicity in the type of presentation (Figure 1).

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] [d [d [d [d [d [d d1p [d dc o [d s/bd [d ] c/bd [d a/bd e/bd [d d/bd s/dco [d c/dco [d s/d1p [d s/ddp [d e/dco [d ] c/d1p [d d/dco c/ddp [d e/d1p [d a/ddp e/ddp [d d/d1p d/ddp s/mco [d c/mco [d a/mco [d e/mco [d a/ d/mco [d a/ Painting illustration –percentage approach

Explanations: dco – the dominant appearing in the entire image; a – abstractness d1p – the dominant clearly outlined in the foreground c – colorfulness d1p – the dominant clearly outlined in the background s – detailedness mco – minimum dominant visible throughout the image. e – expressiveness bd – no mode d – dynamics

Figure 1. Image preferences of adults as primary recipients of illumination in a literary book for children of a pre-reading age in the field of painting visualizations – percentages

The adult viewer also prefers illustrations characterized by a richness of colors, made in saturated colors, considering the bold contrasts of the stains juxtaposed side by side, in which the color of the elements and forms depicted dominates only in the whole picture. Selections of adult intermediaries in this category indicate that the viewers also appreciate images with definitely limited colors but realistic in their expression (Figure 1).

6 The consistency of the text with the illustration is related to the concept of realism of the world presented in the illustrations. 176 Beata Mazepa-Domagała

The surveyed group of intermediaries clearly prefers images in which the precision of processing details as a dominant feature of imaging is minimally visible throughout the image, clearly covers the entire composition, and also approves illustrations with the dominance of details in the foreground, thereby appreci- ating images with a large number of details, characterized by both the size and decorativeness of the elements, illustrating the text in a very faithful manner, and therefore with an extensive information load (Figure 1). The preferences of the adult intermediaries in the field of expressive paintings, in which the clarity of illustration is achieved through clear composition, clear contour and smooth surfaces evenly covered with color, include illustrative paintings of little diversity, with blurred interpenetrating plans and colors, and paintings of extremely strong volume, in which the composition components from figures and objects to the background of representations are framed with a line of varying thickness and, consequently, clarity (Figure 1). In the circle of tastes of the primary intermediaries, there are also paintings illustrations, in which the dynamics of figures and designers is visible in the whole composition, as well as illustrations with a dynamic background. Therefore, the adult viewers appreciate illuminations, which in their synthetic composition impress with the perfectly conveyed movements of their pose and facial expres- sions. Explaining the nature of these predilections, it can be assumed that to some extent they are determined by the dynamic so-called strong point of the image, which automatically attracts the attention of the viewer (Figure 1). In summary, research into the predilections of adult intermediaries in painting illustrations has shown that preferences for painting illustrations are clearly marked by the tendency to prefer abstract elements lacking in their structure, in which there is a colorfulness of elementary constructional units of the plastic image, i.e., figures, props, ambient elements and backgrounds that build up the space of the imaginary situation, as well as detail, clarity, and dynamics. Not wanting to draw too far-reaching conclusions, one can assume that the nature of these predilections depends on cognitive abilities, habits and perceptual patterns, formed during visual experiments, and now connected with the specificity of culture and its characteristic elements, in a world with tendencies built on cultural conditions, and at the same time depending on the way of participation in a given model. Analyses of the adults’ pictorial predilections in the area of graphic illustrations contained in a literary book for the youngest readers proved that within the area of graphic illustrations, the adult intermediaries, when choosing the most beautiful graphic design in their opinion, clearly follow the realism of representations. Abstract graphic compositions in their expression, created on the basis of a series Pictorial Preferences of Adults as Primary Intermediaries 177 of deformations, are not appreciated by adult audiences. The specificity of preferences can be explained – similarly as in the case of painting compositions in this category – by a lack of understanding of the language of symbol and abbreviations used in the composition. The adult viewer also prefers graphic visualizations in saturated colors, taking into account color contrasts, which undoubtedly facilitate associations and recognition of symbols (Figure 2). Within the scope of projects carried out on the basis of the detail of the artwork, the predilections of the adult intermediaries are focused on visualizations containing a large number of details appearing both in the whole picture and in the background. Their ability to notice features can explain the adult recipients’ inclination to detailed illustrations and, thanks to them, to perceive the qualities of plastic forms. The adult intermediaries’ preferences for expressive and dynamic graphics compositions include mainly expressive and dynamic plastic realizations, in which these dominants of imaging are present in the whole image and are also noticeable in the background of the image.

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] [g [g [g [g [g [g d1p [g dc o [g s/bd [g c/bd [g a/bd e/bd [g d/bd s/dco [g c/dco [g s/d1p [g s/ddp [g e/dco [g c/d1p [g d/dco c/ddp [g e/d1p [g a/ddp e/ddp [g d/d1p d/ddp s/mco [g c/mco [g a/mco [g e/mco [g a/ d/mco [g a/

Graphic illustration – percentage approach

Figure 2. Image preferences of adults as primary recipients of illumination in a literary book for children of pre-reading age concerning graphic visualizations – in percentages 178 Beata Mazepa-Domagała

Considering that the image predilections are the expression of individual feelings and do not always undergo rational analysis and measurable evaluation despite the continuum applied, and the starting point of the observations is not the impression, but the information encoded in the activity of the nerves, the statement of issues illustrated here comes down to paying attention to the development of this information through a sensible stimulation. External intervention in the form of valuable visual experiences, including a variety of graphic designs, taking into account to some extent image preferences, may help to perceive heterogeneous plastic qualities and provide the basis for image sensitivity. The analysis of the adult intermediaries’ image predilections in the field of illustrations in a literary book intended for the youngest readers proved that the adult intermediaries, when choosing the most beautiful visual composition in their assessment, tend both towards realistic realization and pictures colored with deformation of a schematic nature, which means that in contrast to painting and graphic realizations, they recognize and understand the abbreviations of thought contained in drawing compositions and the concise form of the images. In addition, they prefer drawings that are rich in colors throughout the composition, and colorless compositions have a low level of acceptance (Figure 3).

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] [p [p [p [p [p [p [p d1p [p dc o [p s/bd [p c/bd [p a/bd e/bd d/bd s/dco [p c/dco [p s/d1p [p s/ddp [p c/d1p [p c/ddp [p d/dco a/ddp e/d1p [p e/ddp [p d/d1p d/ddp s/mco [p c/mco [p e/ dco [p a/mco [p e/mco [p a/ d/mco [p a/ Illustration drawing – percentage approach

Figure 3. Image preferences of adults as primary recipients of literary images for children of pre-reading age in the field of drawing artworks – percentage approach Pictorial Preferences of Adults as Primary Intermediaries 179

The circle of preferences also includes drawing illustrations containing a lot of details and an extensive information load, as well as expressive and dynamic compositions, in which these dynamics are created on the basis of the depicted character movement and the dynamic, meaningful point of the image, which attracts the viewer’s attention. In an attempt to explain the specificity of these predilections, one can refer to perceptual patterns assuming, among other things, that the potential recipient of visual messages accepts mainly colorful, clear, trans- parent and expressive visualizations and to image experiences dominated today by the messages recording and reproducing reality in the form of, among other things, visual advertising, posters, billboards, graffiti, or a number of television and film programs saturated with visual form based on colorful and spectacular images. Summing up, the presented results of the research indicate a limited dimension of visual messages perceived by an adult intermediary, limiting the educational potential of the field of aesthetic image codes to a low-value scheme and template. And yet, as researchers emphasize, an illustration in a children’s book should be characterized by transparency, justify the use of particular elements, and have an artistic and aesthetic value. It should introduce the child to the world of visual quality, direct his/her curiosity towards visual phenomena, stimulate and enrich the child’s sensitivity and create opportunities for creative use of experience gained through perception. Diagrammatic and stencil images, as well as those from the sphere of influence of American and Taiwanese taste, contradict this interpretation. In the context of the above statements, one more conclusion can be drawn. Taking into account the image preferences of adults in the field of book illustrations and recognizing that stereotypes, patterns of thought and sense of taste are constructed and reproduced in the process of socialization, it can be assumed that the quality and form of the visual offer addressed to the child-recipient – in the Polish version – is determined by the common taste of adult intermediaries – a popular aesthetic judgement, being a social expert system based on the mass criterion of taste. Thus, through and with the consent of adults, the child receives commercial artistic realization, taking the first lesson in consumerism.

Final reflections

In the context of the presented research results, the conclusion concerning the value and quality of the image message addressed to the child in the form of a book illustration seems essential. 180 Beata Mazepa-Domagała

Thus, by indicating the value of an image, one can refer to the process of perceiving and shaping image perception, the aim of which is to discover, and not passive assimilation of nature. The observations allow potential audiences to determine the physical, semantic or functional characteristics, thus providing the basis for visual assessments. It should be remembered, however, that perceptual evaluation is an asset shaped by the sum of experiences recorded in memory. Therefore, it is important to organize the quality of the observations, which would provide the potential recipient with rich and useful sources of information, both for practical as well as cognitive-theoretical and aesthetic reasons. Therefore, if an illustration is to be of value (stimulating development, reflecting needs and attitudes, influencing the creation of new ones), during its perception, there must be activities and information to discover the properties of image forms. For this reason, the direction of research on a properly constructed illustration included in a literary book for children should be, on the one hand, adhering to the aesthetic values and preferences of potential recipients – children and adult intermediaries, but also leaving a specific margin of “openness” of the visual image referring here to the idea of U. Eco, thanks to which the recipient can actively participate intellectually in the creation of the meanings of the work, when the visual image, the illustration either provokes in-depth reflection because it is “incomplete” or because it contains elements that go beyond the depiction of the world presented. To sum up, we should look for a formula of the illustrative image that would make both dimensions – aesthetic and interpretative – tangent, then we would allow the youngest viewers to creatively interpret the work, indicating its hermeneutical and intersubjective character, which, however, must become a field of research for other studies. In the conclusions of the presented analyses, it should be stated that the presented explorations are a part of a complex and extensive problem of researching image preferences in the field of visual presentation addressed to children; thus, they do not aspire to an exhaustive view of this issue. They are an inspiration for research activities aimed at searching for a research procedure aimed at defining more precisely the specificity of image preferences of adult intermediaries in contact with a book illustration which is an artistic supplement, the content of a printed text and the first signal of art that we send to the world of childhood. Pictorial Preferences of Adults as Primary Intermediaries 181

References Arzipe, E., Styles M. (2003). Children Reading Pictures. Interpreting visual texts. New York London: Routledge Taylor &Francis Group. Bal, M.S. (2003). Visual Essentialism and Object of Visual Culture, “Journal of Visual Cul- ture” No. 2. Banks, M. (2001). Visual Methods in Social research. London: Sage. Barr, J. (1986). Illustrated Children’s Books. London: The British Library. Bergstrom, B. (2007). Effectiv visuell komunikation. Stockholm: Carlssons. Bergstrom, B. (2007). Grafisk komunikation.Malmo: Liber. Bergstrom, B. (2008). Essentials of Visual Communication. London: Laurence King Pub- lishing. Cackowska, M. (2009). Książka obrazkowa dla dzieci (Children’s Picture Book). In: Early school education – discourses, problems, solutions. Editor: D. Klus-Stańska, M. Szczepska-Pustkowska. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Akademickie i Profesjonalne. Carle, E. (2005). My Very First Book of Colors. New York: Philomel Books. Kiefer, B. (2008). What is a Picturebook, Anyway? The Evolution of Form and Substance Through the Postmodern Era and Beyond. In: Postmodern Picturebooks. Play, Parody, and Self-Referentiality, red. Lawrence R. Sipe i Sylvia Pantaleo, New York London: Routledge Taylor&Francis Group, 2008 Kűmmerling-Meibauer, B. (2011). (Ed). Emergent Literacy. Children’s Books from 0 to 3. John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam & Philadelphia. Lacy, L.E.(1986).Art and Design in Children’s Picture Books: An Analysis of Caldecott Award-Winning Illustrations. Chicago: American Library Association. Mazepa-Domagała, B. (2010). Upodobania obrazowe w zakresie ilustracji książkowej u dzieci w wieku przedczytelniczym (Image preferences for book illustrations in children of pre-readingage). Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego. Metz, Ch. (1982). The Imaginary Signifier, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Mitchell, W.J.T. (2002). Showing Seeing. A Critique of Visual Culture, “ Journal of Visual Culture” No. 1 Nikolajeva, M., Scott, C. (2006). How Picturebooks Work. New York London: Routledge Taylor&Francis Group. Nodelman, P. (1988). Words about Pictures: The Narrative Art. Of Children’s book. Athens, Georgia: The University of Georgia Press Norton, D. (2003).Through the Eyes of a Child: An Introduction to Children’s Literature: sixth edition. Pearson Education, Inc. Sendak, M. (1990). Caldecott & Co.: Notes on Books and Pictures, New York: Noonday Press. Williamson, H. (1983). Methods of Book Design (Practice of an Industrial Craft),London: Yale University Press. Myeong Hwan Kim, Yongseung Han USA Sang Hyun Han Republic of Korea

Should We Let Them Play or Not?*

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.15

Abstract Video games have been around for more than four decades. The purpose of video games is to entertain. Over time, the ways in which video games entertain have changed. Recently, there has been an influx of video games with the intent to educate. These games were created to educate the player while keeping them entertained. The impact of video games on education has yet to be examined. The purpose of this study is to gauge the effect of video games and its correlation with college entrance-exam scores. We assert that one major variable affecting the outcome of education and college entrance-exam score is the sudden prominence of video games in the American culture. Thus, our research will be on the effects that video games have on education, whether positive or negative.

Keywords: video games, test score, academic achievement, time management

Introduction

A considerable aspect of education that has yet to be analyzed is the impact of the video game market on education. Since the advent of Pong in the late 1970s video games have grown exponentially in the American’s lives. There are now six major platforms on which a consumer can play games. Atari, one of the first video game systems, had close to 700 different games and sold close to nearly 15 million Video Computer System (VCS) consoles between 1979 and 1982 (Evans et al.,

* Funding for this paper was provided by Namseoul University. Should We Let Them Play or Not 183

2006). Currently, the MicrosoftXbox 360 has roughly 1,170 video game titles. More stunning than Xbox 360 is the popular Nintendo Wii console. The Wii has sold over 101 million consoles and over 1,650 game titles. Video games have become an integral part of the American culture and simply cannot be ignored. Furthermore, recent studies have looked at video games and their effectiveness in education such as Annetta (2008), and Beavis and O’Mara (2010). While video games have been growing, so too has the amount of funding that is spent per child for education. Over $11,009 per public school student was spent per pupil over the period 2014 – 2015, i.e., an increase of $4,333 since the 1997/1998 school year (U.S. Department of Education, 2016). While significant test scores have been sporadic at best. Clearly, there are externalities affecting education other than money. However, more importantly, how can tax money be spent better and more efficiently? The aim of this study is to gauge the impact of possible education variables as well as the effect of video games and their correlation with college entrance-exam scores. We assert that one major factor affecting the outcome of education and overall college entrance-exam scores is the sudden prominence of video games in American culture. Thus, our research will be on the effect that video games have on education, whether positive or negative. While the aim of this article is not to prove or disprove other education variables, it will offer some empirical evidence as to the validity of other arguments.

Literature review

The purpose of video games is to entertain. Over time, the ways in which video games entertain have changed. Initially, games such as Pong or Pac-man were played for a short period of time and the user went on to other activities. Video games have become increasingly more difficult and vastly more complicated, which keeps the video gamer playing. Games such as Grand Theft Auto, also known as GTA, have become increasingly popular with the youth in America. In GTA, players are tasked with creating a gang like following in cities such as Miami or Los Angeles. Recently, there has been an influx of video games with the intent to educate. These games were created to educate the player while keeping them entertained. One such game developed by the Federation of American Scientists is called Immune Attack, where the player acts as a helper to a deficient immune system. As the game progresses, you learn about various cells in the human body and 184 Myeong Hwan Kim, Yongseung Han, Sang Hyun Han how they act within the immune system. The game is specifically targeted at high school students with the intent of teaching the basic concepts of immunology. While most would categorize a game by its target market or intention, Immune Attack is educational and GTA is for entertainment. Video games inherently must entertain as well as require some form of learning to play. Without these attributes, the video game would simply be discarded for another form of entertainment. Currently, there is a debate on how well video games can educate a player. Annetta (2008), a proponent of video games in the classroom, states that not enough is done to teach kids with video games. While games such as Immune Attack, Food Force, and Discover Babylon are used in classrooms, she advocates that the boundaries in educational learning must be pushed. Concepts such as haptics or the sense of touch are incorporated in the learning experience. She also points to the possibility of a textbook being included in a video game. Since most video games have a narrative, the video game could feasibly assume this role. From Annetta’s (2008) writings on, many new e-books contain further learning capabilities through links incorporated in the text. This allows e-books to contain almost limitless information. Along with the growing capacity and popularity of tablet PCs, a virtual library of all student’s textbooks, with accompanying media and games, can be around the corner. While Annetta (2008) advocates for the further use of video games in the classroom, there is at least one critic. Monke (2009) states: “In a new wave of publicity, the video games industry, backed by many university professors, argues that games are highly educational. Actually, video games promote overly rational modes of thought and remove young people from the experiences they need in the real world (p. 1).” Monke (2009) asserts that video games do teach, but they simply teach the wrong things. Video games are like any other modern-day vice. If used with moderation they can help heal and educate. In some cases, simply the idea of a video game can be used to educate students. However, Monke (2009) points out that simply placing a video game in front of a child may teach the wrong things, but nonetheless still educate. Furthermore, there is the slight chance that violent games could be responsible for bullying and other violent acts. While this is not a specific byprod- uct of educational video games, one could reason that if video games can make a child violent they can influence them in other ways as well. Lastly, television has had little impact on education and early childhood development but requires no reasoning while watching. Video games, on the other hand, require constant processing of information and a logical decision process. Should We Let Them Play or Not 185

Researchers argue for a more balanced approach to video games and consider the “potential that these games hold for interventions that promote well-being, including the prevention and treatment of mental health problems in youth” (Granic et al., 2014, p. 76) due to dramatically changed video games in recent decades: complex, diverse, realistic, and social in nature (Ferguson and Olson, 2013). Hence, the use of video games for educational purposes to enhance cognitive development. For example, studies show that cognitive development occurs through playing of video games (Bavelier et al., 2012; Green and Bavelier, 2012; Granic et al., 2014), developing problem-solving skills (Adachi and Willoughby, 2013; Prensky, 2012), developing creativity (Jackson at el., 2012), motivation and persistence (Blackwell et al., 2007; McGonigal, 2011; Ventura et al., 2013), emotional benefits (McGonigal, 2011; Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi, 2002; Olson, 2010; Ryan et al., 2006; Russoniello et al., 2009), and social benefits of gaming (Eastin, 2007; Ewoldsen et al., 2012; Gentile and Gential, 2008; Gentile et al., 2009; Gill, 2012; Schmierbach, 2010; Tear and Nielsen, 2013; Velezet al., 2012).

Model and Data

We have adopted a model that contains aspects of Oshio et al. (2010) model of income, pupils per teacher and school expenditure against admission to a Japanese college. Furthermore, this model differs from Oshio et al. (2010), as it has a video game variable that has been added to the independent variables. This should allow the model to test whether or not video games have an impact on education.

SAT t = β0+β1Expendituret+β2(Pupil/Teacher)t+β3Gamet+β4Povertyt+εt (1)

where: –– SAT: scholastic aptitude test score, –– Expenditure: expenditure per student, –– Pupil/Teacher: pupil-teacher ratio, –– Game: video games index (created by compiling sales data using annual reports from each company), –– Poverty: poverty rate, and –– ε: omitted influences on personal saving and is assumed to be well behaved. We provide descriptive statistics of the variables in Appendix 1. The dependent variable is the SAT. We obtained the SAT data from the National Center for Edu- 186 Myeong Hwan Kim, Yongseung Han, Sang Hyun Han cation Statistics website. The SAT is a college entrance exam test that is generally taken by prospective high school students in grades 9–12, although it is often taken during the junior year of high school. Not all students take the SAT but we decided that this accounts for a large majority of the population. College entrance exams are an obvious choice when looking at a child’s education throughout their years in the national education system. Using the SAT limits the model to only testing children that plan to go to college. There are obvious holes in the dependent variables such as some children do not take the SAT. Furthermore, there is no way to ensure that all test takers are at the same age and have the same amount of schooling, thus possible exposure to video games cannot be derived leading to possible errors in the results. The video games index was created by compiling sales data for the period of 1997–2014. The companies that were analyzed were Nintendo, Sony, Microsoft, Game Stop, Electronic Arts, Activision/ Blizzard and Ubisoft. Nintendo, Sony and Microsoft are all manufacturers of video game consoles, although Nintendo is the only one that derives all its sales from video game devices and software. Microsoft and Sony are heavily invested into within other industries but have been included because a large portion of sales comes from video games and related items. Game Stop is the leading video games retailer in the United States. Electronic Arts, Acti- vision/Blizzard and Ubisoft are three prominent video games developers in the world with numerous bestsellers. Sales figures for the above-mentioned companies were retrieved from the companies’ investor relation websites, if currency con- versions were not offered through the financial statements, currency conversion was made using the Federal Reserve annual average conversion rates. The sales were then summed for the total sales per year. This gives the index a result with a standard deviation that is quite large signifying that video games have grown considerably as they have such a large spread over an 18-year period. Expenditures per student and the pupil – teacher ratio were both compiled through the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES). These two figures are quite important as they give an idea of how many children there are per teacher, as well as how much money is spent on education on a per student basis. It should be noted that Oshio et al. (2010) found no correlation between the pupil – teacher ratio and educational outcome. They attributed this to the fact that students that generally need more help get more one on one attention, while students that do not need help can be in much larger classes. The same could be said of expenditures, as money cannot simply buy education. Although these two have flaws, they are an important way to evaluate the classroom. For instance, more money could generally mean a better-paid teacher, more books in the classroom or Should We Let Them Play or Not 187 better buildings. Similarly, the closer the pupil – teacher ratio gets to 1, the better the education might be assumed as it is completely tailored to that one child’s needs. For these reasons, both the expenditures and the pupil – teacher ratio have been included in the analysis. Poverty rate data were obtained from the U.S. Bureau of the Census. Poverty rate was included as it is an easy way to track poverty levels across America. This also gives a good indication as to the amount of disposable income that can be spent on video games. Furthermore, we assumed that income does not specifically produce poorer education results, but does affect other variables that do. In addition, poverty rate may add a degree of destabilization to the family environment. The added stress that a child may feel when a parent loses their job could well affect test scores. We believe that this variable measures different aspects of income as unemployment has changed over the last 18 years.

Results

The baseline model, equation (1) is presented in Table 1. The first column shows the result of the baseline model of all students, and the second and third columns show the results of the baseline model of male and female students, respectively. Table 1 shows that the coefficient for expenditure exhibits a positive number that is statistically insignificant at the conventional level. Further, even if the sign is correct, as we expected, the pupil – teacher ratio does not have a significant effect on students’ achievement on college entrance exam since the coefficient for the variable shows a negative number. However, the number that is statistically insignificant at the conventional level implies that SAT score is not dependent on the pupil – teacher ratio. The coefficient of the poverty rate is positive except for the female students (third column) but not statistically significant.

Table 1. Regression result

Variable All Students Male Students Female Students Expenditure 2.030 1.721 1.362 (1.206) (1.431) (1.071) Pupil – Teacher -4.321 -6.421 -4.558 (5.830) (6.916) (5.179) Game Index -1.79E-10** -2.06E-10** -1.23E-10* (7.05E-11) (8.40E-11) (6.30E-11) 188 Myeong Hwan Kim, Yongseung Han, Sang Hyun Han

Variable All Students Male Students Female Students Poverty Rate 0.483 0.518 -0.026 (1.120) (1.329) (0.995) Constant 1,062.266*** 1,125.670*** 1,059.531*** (104.246) (123.668) (92.608) Observation 18 18 18 R2 0.653 0.653 0.617

Note: *, ** and *** denote the significance level of 10, 5 and 1%, respectively.

For the coefficient of interest,Game , it is negative and statistically significant at the conventional level. These results indicate that the achievement of the college entrance exam score is decreasing as the revenue of the game companies is increasing, i.e., a decrease in SAT scores may have resulted from a significant increase in game time. This finding is in line with our expectations. In addition, the basic sensitivity analysis test results for the baseline model (Equation 1) are presented in Table 2. We conducted variance inflation factor (VIF, for severity of multicollinearity), Breusch-Pagan (heteroskedasticity), Breusch-Godfrey (cross-correlation), information matrix (IM), (for model specification) and Ramsey (for specification error) tests. Each test statistic is evaluated at the 5% significance level. The results indicate that our model does not have heteroskedasticity, serial correlation, misspecification or omitted variables problems.

Table 2. Estimation sensitivity analysis

Tests Test Statistics Probability Mean VIF1 7.16 Breusch-Pagan / Cook-Weisberg2 2.81* 0.094 Breusch-Godfrey LM3 1.31* 0.253 Information Matrix Test4 23.49* 0.217 Ramsey RESET5 1.56** 0.260

Note: * and ** denote Chi Square and F test statistics. 1: VIF measures how much multicollinearity exists in a regression. 2: Tests for heteroskedasticity. 3: Tests for the presence of serial correlation. 4: Tests for misspecification. 5: Ramsey Regression Specification-error Test for Omitted Variables. Do not reject the H0 at 5% for all tests. Should We Let Them Play or Not 189

Conclusion

The ability to make quick decisions on video games may factor in to why video games help college entrance exam scores. An ACT tester has significantly more questions to do in a shorter amount of time, forcing them to think quickly rather than think hard. Regardless of the type of video game played, the player is constantly reviewing actions and trying to improve their abilities. This process of improvement may also play a role in the actual test itself. Since the ACT is regarded as an achievement test, it would mimic the curriculum that children are used to seeing. This could also mimic the process used in video games, or basing current decisions on past occurrences and experiences. The science and reasoning sections may very well exploit this type of video game thinking. The video game requires constant analysis of events to create future decisions. This type of thinking teaches, in many ways, things that simply cannot be taught in school, but rather by experience. This ability to analyze and formulate opinions and answers is exactly what is required by the ACT science and reasoning section. The SAT has no critical thinking sections, thus has no way to take advantage of the possible analysis abilities of a video game player. McManus (1991) notes that there are certain people that benefit from each test as they simply test different things. As for the results of this regression, video game players should apparently stick to the ACT. One startling result came from the analysis involving the pupil – teacher ratio. Oshio et al. (2010) found that there was no significant correlation between the pupil – teacher ratio and Japanese entrance exams as the majority of students that needed help received it. Thus, this made the ratio irrelevant as students were getting the maximum amount of help that they needed. The same principle may be applied to our results. For some individuals, the role that video games play can help to further educate and strengthen reasoning skills. For others, though, this simply does not happen. Whether it is a personality trait or simply the way a person thinks, our study indicates that video games have a negative effect on these individuals and education. However, the use of video games in the classroom remains to be debated, as it is our conclusion that every classroom will have a diverse mix of children, hence a diverse mix of kids that learn from video games. Video games may hold a place in the future as Annetta (2008)’s vision may someday come true. Electronic readers may be used in the future containing links to educational video games and other information. As Monke (2009) claims, we should take great care with how far video games are used in the classroom. The possibilities of portraying 190 Myeong Hwan Kim, Yongseung Han, Sang Hyun Han inaccurate information must not be ignored. Furthermore, video games are not a replacement for books or teachers. Nothing can replace the invaluable resources that an experienced teacher brings to the classroom. Video games cannot gauge whether or not a child is learning the material. Finally, we do not believe that video games are the solution to our educational blight. That said, video games are not responsible for it either.

Appendix 1. Descriptive statistics

Variable Obs Mean Std.Dev. Min Max SAT 19 1,016.474 6.031108 1,006 1,028 SAT (Male) 19 1,037.526 7.267648 1,024 1,051 SAT (Female) 19 998.5263 5.16794 989 1,009 Expenditure 18 19.89732 1.730324 16.5 22.09959 Pupil – Teacher 19 15.60526 0.396476 15 16.6 Game Index 19 1.34E+11 4.42E+10 6.22E+10 1.88E+11 Poverty Rate 18 10.88889 1.950834 8.7 15

References Adachi, P.J. and T. Willoughby (2013), More than Just Fun and Games: The Longitudinal Relationships between Strategic Video Games, Self-Reported Problem Solving Skills, and Academic Grades, Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 1041 – 1052. Annetta, L.A. (2008). Video Games in Education: Why They Should Be Used and How They Are Being Used,Theory Into Practice, 47(3), 229 – 239. Bavelier, D., R. L Achtman, M. Mani and J. Foecker (2012), Neural Bases of Selective Atten- tion in Action Video Game Players, Vision Research, 61, 132 – 143. Beavis, C. and O’Mara, J. (2010). Computer Games-Pushing at the Boundaries of Literacy, Australian Journal of Language & Literacy, 33(1), 65 – 76. Blackwell, L.S., K.H. Trzesniewski and C.S. Dweck (2007), Implicit Theories of Intelligence Predict Achievement Across an Adolescent Transition, Child Development, 78, 246 – 263. Eastin, M.S. (2007), The Influence of Competitive and Cooperative Play on State Hostility, Human Communication Research, 33, 450 – 466. Evans, D.S., A. Hagiu and R. Schmalensee (2006), Invisible Engines: How Software Platforms Drive Innovation and Transform Industries, MIT Press Cambridge MA. Ewoldsen, D.R., Eno, C.A., Okdie, B.M., Velez, J.A. Guadagno, R.E., DeCoster, J. (2012). Effect of Playing Violent Video Games Cooperatively or Competitively on Subsequent Cooperative Behavior. Cyber-psychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15, 277 – 280. Should We Let Them Play or Not 191

Ferguson, C.J. and Olson, C.K. (2013). Friends, Fund, Frustration and Fantasy: Child Motivations for Video Game Play. Motivation and Emotion, 37, 154 – 164. Gentil, D.A., Anderson, C.A., Yukawa, S., Ihori, N., Saleem, M., Ming, L.K., and Sakamoto, A. (2009). The Effects of Prosocial Video Games on Prosocial Behaviors: International Evidence from Correlational, Longitudinal, and Experimental Studies. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 752 – 763. Gentile, D.A. and J.R. Gentile (2008), Violent Video Games as Exemplary Teachers: A Con- ceptual Analysis, Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 9, 127 – 141. Gill, N. (2012), 10 Most Popular Facebook Games in 2012-Popular Apps!! Retrieved on November 25, 2016 from http://www.socialdon.com/blog/popularfacebook-games -2012/. Granic, I., Lobel, A., Engels, R. (2014). The Benefits of Playing Video Games. American Psychologist, 69(1), 66 – 78. Green, C.S. and Bavelier, D. (2012). Learning, Attentional Control, and Action Video Games. Current Biology, 22, 197 – 206. Jackson, L.A., Witt, E.A., Games, A.I., Fitzgerald, H.E., von Eye, A., and Zhao, Y. (2012). Information Technology Use and Creativity: Findings from the Children and Technol- ogy Project. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 370 – 376. McGonigal, J. (2011). Reality is Broken: Why Games Make us Better and How They Can Change the World. New York, NY: Penguin Press. McManus, B. (1991), A Comparison of College Admission Tests-the SAT and the ACT, Clearing House, 64(5), 339 – 341. Monke, L. (2009), Video Games: A Critical Analysis, Encounter, 22(3), 7 – 20. Nakamura, J. and M. Csikszentmihalyi (2002), The Concept of Flow, In C.R. Synder and S.J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 89 – 105), New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Olson, C.K., L.A. Kutner, L. Baer, E.V. Beresin, D.E. Warner and A.M. Nicholi II (2009), M-Rated Video Games and Aggressive or Problem Behavior Among Young Adolescents, Applied Developmental Science, 13(4), 188 – 198. Oshio, T., S. Sano and K. Suetomi (2010), Estimate of the Production Function of Educa- tion: Combined Junior/Senior High Schools, Japanese Economy, 37(2), 83 – 119. Prensky, M. (2012), From Digital Natives to Digital Wisdom: Hopeful Essays for 21st Century Learning, Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Russoniello, C.V., K. O’Brien and J.M. Parks (2009), EEG, HRV and Psychological Corre- lates while Playing Bejeweled II: A Randomized Controlled Study, In B.K. Wiederhold and G. Riva (Eds.), Annual Review of Cybertherapy and Telemedicine 2009: Advance Technologies in the Behavioral, Social and Neurosciences, 7, 189 – 192. Ryan, R.M., C.S. Rigby and A. Przybylski (2006), The Motivational Pull of Video Games: A Self-Determination Theory Approach, Motivation and Emotion, 30, 347 – 363. Schmierbach, M. (2010), “Killing Spree”: Exploring the Connection between Competitive Game Play and Aggressive Cognition, Communication Research, 37(2), 256 – 274. Tear, M.J. and M. Nielsen (2013), Failure to Demonstrate that Playing Violent Video Games 192 Myeong Hwan Kim, Yongseung Han, Sang Hyun Han

Diminishes Prosocial Behavior, PLOS ONE, Retrieved on November 25, 2016 from http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0068382. U.S. Department of Education (2016), The Condition of Education 2016, National Center for Education Statistics, NCES 2016 – 144. Velez, J.A., C. Mahood, D.R. Ewoldsen and E. Moyer-Guse (2012), In-Group versus Out- group Conflict in the Context of Violent Video Game Play: The Effect of Cooperation on Increased Helping and Decreased Aggression, Communication Research, Retrieved on November 25, 2016 from http://crx.sagepub.com/content/early/2012/08/14/009365 0212456202. Ventura, M., V. Shute and W. Zhao (2013), The Relationship between Video Game Use and a Performance-Based Measure of Persistence, Computers and Education, 60, 52 – 58. Alicja Gałązka, Magdalena Trinder Poland

Creating a ‘Positive Environment’ Through Drama in the EFL Classroom

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.16

Abstract We all learn best when we are in a state of rational and emotional balance, or what is referred to as ‘flow’. We know that body and mind are linked physically, cognitively and emotionally and teachers need to recognise and support the integrated development of all the three areas within their teaching and to seek safe and positive ways of doing so. The emotional environment improves students’ self-awareness, motivation, empathy, recognition of choices and leads to strong and supportive communities. Drama provides a supportive forum for checking out that impact in a distanced way, with the teacher there to mediate the experience, often from within a role. Drama offers a stimulating and rich opportunity to discuss and understand our own emotions, attitudes and beliefs through observing, empathising with, feeling and exploring the emotions of characters both portrayed and interacted with in a role. Drama provides a safe emotional context and a sense of security for learners. In the various fields of research into the factors influencing success in Second Language Acquisition (SLA), trends accentuating the importance of recognising the indicators of success based upon personality and psychology have been ascribed great significance. In the paper, the results of a pilot study to an ongoing research project will be presented. The main aim of the project is to establish the influence of drama on the creation of a positive educational environment, taking into consideration such variable factors as: feeling of security, feeling of identity, sense of belonging, sense of purpose, feeling of competence, and through this an improvement in language competence. The research is 194 Alicja Gałązka, Magdalena Trinder

a theoretical-empirical investigation of a diagnostic-explanatory-verificatory nature. Results will be presented from the perspective of both quantitative and qualitative analysis.

Keywords: positive environment, drama, Second Language Acquisition

Introduction

There is a relative paucity of research on positive emotional and social environment in the classroom (Mill & Romano-White, 1999) and how teacher practices can facilitate the development of emotion regulation in natural settings (Campos et al., 2004), whereas it is visible that students are more likely to succeed in school when their needs for security, belonging, relatedness, competence, purpose and autonomy are met (Connell & Wellborn, 1991). It is important for a teacher to organize a holistically positive environment for a learner. We all learn best when we are in a state of rational and emotional balance, or what is commonly referred to as ‘flow’. The idea of emotion playing a crucial role in learning has been vastly researched by many educational psychologists and researchers (Jensen, 2008; Nimmo 1998; Nuthall 2007). We know that body and mind are linked physically, cognitively and emotionally and teachers need to recognize and support the integrated development of all the three areas within their teaching and to seek safe and positive ways of doing so. The emotional environment improves students’ self-awareness, motivation, empathy, recognition of choices and leads to strong and supportive communities Teachers should create a positive emotional environment in classrooms, encourage positive interactions, and provide students with the sense of competence and confidence for learning to occur (cf. Skinner & Belmont, 1993). In turn, students feel safe and they are more likely to be engaged in the learning process. From the earliest years of schooling, students who have a greater emotional bond with their teacher are more engaged in learning (Birch & Ladd, 1997; Hamre & Pianta, 2001), even after controlling for academic performance (Wentzel, 1997). Students in emotionally supportive classrooms report greater interest, enjoyment, and engagement (Curby et al., 2009; Marks, 2000; Rimm-Kaufman, La Paro, Downer & Pianta, 2005; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Wentzel, 1998; Woolley, Kol & Bowen, 2009). The role of affect in foreign language learning has been emphasised by many researchers (Stevick, 1980; Andres, 2007; Covington 1989; Dorneyei 1998; Rubio 2007). Creating a ‘Positive Environment’ Through Drama in the EFL Classroom 195

Affect may relate to relationships established in the classroom between learners and teachers and it can refer to the internal aspects of learners’ minds such as self-esteem, self-concept and students’ image and evaluation of ‘self’. There is a lot of research exploring the notion of self in language learning, focusing on its different aspects and components and its correlation with success and failure in language acquisition (Pinol, 2007; Puchta 1999; Dorneyei, 2005). The concept of creating a positive emotional environment is based on the model of self-esteem developed by R. Reasoner in 1982, which includes five components: security, identity, belonging, purpose and competence. Research confirms that drama can stimulate genuine emotional engagement and foster learners’ understanding and engagement (Bolton & Heathcote, 1999; Craig & Bloomfield, 2006). Drama provides a supportive forum for checking out that impact in a distanced way, with the teacher there to mediate the experience, often from within a role. Drama offers a stimulating and rich opportunity to discuss and understand one’s own emotions, attitudes and beliefs through observing, empathising with, feeling and exploring the emotions of characters both portrayed and interacted with in a role. It is a pedagogical tool which facilitates change and understanding. A number of studies indicate the emotional power of drama (Booth, 2000). Drama provides a safe emotional context and a sense of security for learners and gives a corrective experience to a child with an insecure attachment model. In the various fields of research into the factors influencing success in Second Language Acquisition (SLA), trends accentuating the importance of recognising the indicators of success based upon personality and psychology have been ascribed great significance. Drama has clear links with emotions. It can evoke certain emotions and help learners to experience a range of different feelings. Drama is based on dramatic play which is often emotionally charged, enjoyable and therefore corrective. Learners empower themselves and each other, raising their status and trying out authority roles. Drama offers many different strategies and conventions which can act as emotional corrective experience. One of them is storytelling, which is a natural way to learn. Our brains learn through stories and narratives. Stories are a very powerful tool in the creation of self-identity and self-perception. In drama we can rewrite and retell our negative self-narratives. Stories serve as powerful organizing tools for neural network integration. Storytelling requires the integration of language centres of the brain and those responsible for emotional and sensory-motor processes (Gałązka, 2018). Drama is based on relational framework and creates a positive emotional experience providing a feeling of security, feeling of identity, sense of belonging, sense of purpose, and feeling of competence, which leads to academic achievement in language education. 196 Alicja Gałązka, Magdalena Trinder

Theoretical assumptions and research design

On the basis of the aforementioned literature and previously conducted research, we may draw the following assumptions. First, the PEE (as the sum of its constituent parts may be referred to) is an essential factor in facilitating effective classroom-based learning. Second, the use of drama as a teaching method has been found to positively impact on a number of these constituent factors. Thus, as could be assumed, the implementation of drama would lead to an overall improvement in the learner’s sense of PEE, which, from the longitudinal perspective, should lead to an overall increase in classroom achievement. On the basis of these assumptions, the research aimed to: investigate the current state of awareness of the PEE in the classroom, especially from the point of view of teachers; compare the perspectives of teachers and students; and finally investigate the influence of drama on the sense of PEE on a selected group of classroom-based learners. The following hypotheses were formulated: 1. Teachers are aware of the importance of the PEE as an essential prerequisite of effective classroom learning; 2. Students are not fully aware of the importance of the PEE, nor of the efforts made by teachers to foster this sense; 3. Drama will have an overall positive impact on the sense of PEE amongst classroom-based learners. With this in mind, it was decided to adopt, on the basis of Creswell (2014, pp. 224–225) an explanatory, sequential approach to the research project, in order to first determine the level of teachers’ awareness of the PEE phenomena and their (perceived) efforts to foster this, then to confront the quantitative data with a corroboratory study to investigate the extent to which these efforts are perceived. Finally, on the basis of qualitative interviews, the influence of drama on three groups of learners – a child, a student and an adult – was investigated.

Research tools and methodology

To begin the mass data collection phase, a questionnaire was designed, containing a total of 24 questions. The first four questions were intended to obtain specific information regarding the respondent (gender, geographic location, the length of work experience and the type of school at which the respondent works), while the remaining twenty were divided into five groups of four forced response questions, designed specifically to determine the extent to which the respondents Creating a ‘Positive Environment’ Through Drama in the EFL Classroom 197 were aware of, and actively encouraged, the five key constituent factors of PEE. Once this questionnaire was ready, it was launched on a data collection website, and a total of 212 responses were recorded within the timeframe allotted for primary data collection. The raw data was then subject to statistical analysis, and the results are presented below. The second stage of the project was the selection of three groups, with whom a drama workshop would be conducted, and detailed post-workshop interviews would be conducted. Given the range of schools at which the respondents were employed, it was decided to work with one group of children in a primary school, one group of students at a university and one group of adults in a private language school. Given the respondents’ geographic locations, it was further decided to conduct the workshops in Subcarpathia, Silesia and Masuria. Each of the groups was first issued with a pre-workshop questionnaire with questions that mirrored the questions asked of the teachers. This was done as a point of verification of the teachers’ self-reporting. Then, following the drama workshop, randomly chosen participants were interviewed in order to determine the extent to which the drama had influenced the factors constituting the PEE. It is important to note here that all the three workshops were conducted by the same instructor in order to ensure a level of uniformity, and thus reliability. The interviews were conducted by a separate individual in order to make sure that the interviewees did not feel pressure to provide sympathetic responses.

Results

As previously mentioned, a total of 212 teachers responded from all the 16 provinces in Poland, with the largest number of respondents from Subcarpathia (73 individuals), Masuria (28) and Silesia (26). The vast majority of respondents were female (182), working in primary schools (85). The length of work experience is relatively evenly spread, with 77 teachers having worked for five years or less, 44 between six and ten years, 27 from eleven to 15 years, and 64 having more than fifteen years of total teaching experience. Analysing the remaining 20 questions, we can see a number of things, most importantly, from a global perspective, that the vast majority of responses fall into the category of ‘always’ or ‘often’: of a total of 4,240 responses, 1,752 are ‘always’ (41%), and 1,803 (42.5%). Of questions where the individual response was greater than 50% ‘always’, we 198 Alicja Gałązka, Magdalena Trinder can see that Q.101 gives 60.4%, Q.122 – 70.3%, Q.173 – 51.4%, Q.184 – 56.6%, and Q.235 – 54.2%. If we make the responses parametric, and grade the responses from ‘never’ = 0 to ‘always’ = 4, then we will obtain the following results for the five main individual factors:

Table 1. The average score for each of the five key factors of PEE for teachers

sense of sense of sense of sense of sense of security identity belonging purpose competence N Valid 212 212 212 212 212 Missing Data 0 0 0 0 0 Mean 3.06 3.27 3.18 3.30 3.27 Median 3.25 3.33 3.20 3.25 3.25 Standard Deviation 0.63 0.62 0.56 0.58 0.55 Minimum .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Maximum 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00

This confirms what has already been mentioned, that the vast majority of respondents responded either ‘often’ or ‘always’. The most attention was paid to fostering a sense of identity, a sense of purpose and a sense of competence, while the least attentive area is encouraging a sense of security. If we confront the data from the 20 questions, devoted to the dependent variables, with the independent variables, the following items of statistical interest come to the fore. Firstly, neither the gender nor geographical location of the respondent has any correlation with their response to individual questions. We can, however, see one or two trends for the remaining two independent variables. For Q.5,6 Q.7,7 Q.8,8 and Q.23, there is an increasing tendency to answer ‘always’ as work experience increases. The type of school at which the respondent works is shown to have some form of correlation

1 “You show acceptance of students, and interest in them as individuals.” 2 “You create a climate of acceptance.” 3 “You transmit positive expectations.” 4 “You show confidence and faith in the abilities of your students.” 5 “You give feedback.” 6 “You define procedures and routines, so your learners know what is expected of them.” 7 “You enforce rules in ways that support learners’ self-respect.” 8 “You promote individual responsibility.” Creating a ‘Positive Environment’ Through Drama in the EFL Classroom 199 with the following questions: Q.8, Q.13,9 Q.19,10 Q.21,11 Q.23, and Q.24.12 In the case of Qs 8, 21 and 23, the correlation is positive, indicating that as the level of education increases, so too does the inclination of the teacher to respond in the affirmative. Conversely, for Qs 13, 19 and 24, we can observe a negative correlation, wherein the inclination of the teacher to respond affirmatively is related to lower levels of educational institution.

Table 2. The average score for each of the five key factors for the PEE for students

sense of sense of sense of sense of sense of security identity belonging purpose competence N Valid 61 61 61 61 61 Missing Data 0 0 0 0 0 Mean 2.64 2.71 2.24 2.50 2.10 Median 2.33 2.33 2.00 2.50 2.00 Standard Deviation 0.50 0.47 0.37 0.58 0.49 Minimum .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 Maximum 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00

When we move on to the learners’ responses, the most notable difference occurs in the average score to the responses. As can be seen in the table, the mean response is lower than that given by the teachers, with the biggest differential being in the area of providing a sense of competence, at 1.17 points. Overall, there is a much greater split between the answers: with the teachers the overwhelming majority of answers occurred in either ‘always’ of ‘often’, whereas for the students almost 50% of the responses 573 indicated ‘sometimes’, with the remainder being split relatively evenly between the four remaining options. Now we shall turn to the post-workshop interview stage of the study, which was conducted immediately after the end of the lesson.13 The interview consisted of

9 “You reduce the number of isolated students.” 10 “You reinforce students’ values.” 11 “You offer options and alternatives.” 12 “You celebrate achievements.” 13 Because of the constraints of space, only representative answers to the questions will be provided. 200 Alicja Gałązka, Magdalena Trinder six basic questions intended to investigate the extent to which the use of drama as a non-conventional methodological tool had enhanced the feeling of PEE. The general response to the first question “How did you feel while participating in the workshop?” can generally be defined as drifting from uncomfortable with the alien environment to positive about exactly the same unconventional aspect. One interviewee stated: “At the beginning of the workshop, I felt a little intimidated, as it was something completely new to me and I’ve never taken part in this kind of performance.” Another said: “I liked the idea of breaking the mould of an ordinary lesson by letting me work with my mates in a non-static way.” In answer to question two, “What did the workshop help you to find out about yourself?” three aspects came to the fore, one epitomised by the statement: “[…] it helped me to find out my strengths while working in a group.” The second aspect is connected with developing the sense of alter ego, and allowing the learner to take on a different character during the lessons: “It was like being in a different world, where I can be someone completely different, as if I didn’t have a care in the world.” The final part is somewhat connected with this as it highlights the fact that, through the use of drama, the learners felt that they could overcome their inhibitions: “I hate being the centre of attention, but [during the lesson] I didn’t really care about what other people thought about me.” Question three reads: “To what extent did you feel the spirit of collaboration?” which has already been alluded to following the second question. Unanimously, the students pointed out that, primarily, collaboration was an essential prerequisite of successful task completion, so they had no choice. Secondly, the students said that they were able to gain a great deal form working together, as their peers all had something interesting to contribute: “[…] all of the students had interesting and amusing ideas while performing their arts.” The next question refers to the role of the teacher: “To what extent did you feel that the teacher had positive expectations and showed confidence in your abilities?” Here the students tended to focus on the question of the “unobtrusiveness” of the teacher, about the fact that the teacher did not project their own ideas onto the class, thus shaping the way they were expected to perform: “She just let us do what we wanted to so everyone could do something that they are good at”, and that the teacher strived to “provide a peaceful and friendly atmosphere during the activities.” Question five moved on to the issue of what the students were allowed to show during the lessons: “To what extent did the workshop allow you to use your creative potential and language knowledge?” Here the interviewees tended to focus on the fact that the lesson methodology helped them to ignore the typical boundaries that they felt during ‘typical’ lessons, even to the extent that: “I had the impression that the situation forced me, in a good way, to come Creating a ‘Positive Environment’ Through Drama in the EFL Classroom 201 up with ideas, so I guess that allowed me to use it [creative potential] to 100%.” The final question provided a moment to reflect on the aim of the lessons, as the interviewees were asked: “What do you think you achieved?” Three major themes within the individual responses can be identified, one being the realisation that being a part of a group is highly beneficial during the learning process: “I could share my ideas with other students and listen to theirs.” Secondly, there was a better understanding of the role of the teacher, who “tried to give positive feedback on everything that each of us wanted to say”, consequently fostering an atmosphere conducive to trying new things and feeling confident. Finally, there is the issue of the atmosphere itself, and the realisation amongst the participants in the study that they could “simply zone out, which can be really helpful […] it brought me relief from tension and I liked that feeling a lot.”

Discussion

Returning briefly to the quantitative stage of the study, the most important thing that stands out is that teachers and students have different perspectives on efforts made to encourage a sense of PEE. On the part of the teachers, it is possible that the high frequency of the ‘always’ and ‘often’ responses is the result of reporting bias, wherein the teachers may well be reluctant to answer with complete candour when the questions allude to something which they know they really ought to be doing. On the part of the students, it is quite possible that they have a tendency to underreport the frequency of such efforts either because they fail to observe these actions, or at least recognise them for what they are, or simply this may be a sense of altered perspective, where often for the teacher is the equivalent of sometimes for the student. The fact is, however, that such a discrepancy in observation does exist, and it is the opinion of the student which matters most when it comes to feeling the sense of PEE: if the teacher’s efforts are not fully appreciated by the learners, they cannot achieve their ultimate aim, however frequently they occur. This in itself is an aspect which is worth further investigation, in order to determine what is the ultimate cause of this discrepancy. If we analyse the responses to the individual questions, it is interesting to note that in the areas where there is a correlation between work experience and affirmative answers, such as the question of feedback, it may be assumed that as teachers become more experienced they have a greater understanding of classroom management and are better able to fit in certain aspects of teaching into their very tight schedules. When it comes to the change of response depending on the type of school, it 202 Alicja Gałązka, Magdalena Trinder appears to be the case that there is an assumption that as children get older, the role of the teacher changes. This would explain why university teachers are more likely to ‘always’ promote individual responsibility – which is, after all, a sine qua non of higher education – than their counterparts in primary school. Conversely, it appears to be more natural for the primary school teacher to celebrate their pupils’ achievements than the university lecturer. What is interesting here is the extent to which such assumptions, widely held to be valid as they may be, actually lead to the relatively negative perceptions of the learners. The fact that a university student is older than a primary school student does not necessarily mean that they need less appreciation of their achievements. Equally, it is interesting to note that as learners get older, less effort is made to prevent them from being isolated, i.e., not being encouraged to work in a group. When it comes to the interviews, what is most interesting is that it is impossible to differentiate between the children, adults and students in terms of their unquestionably positive response to the application of drama techniques in their classrooms. Two aspects need to be highlighted here, the most obvious being connected with the sense of belonging. This variable appears to be the most neglected, because it is the aspect that was almost universally discussed during the interviews. Not only is it important for the learners to feel that they belong to a group, but that the group atmosphere helps individuals to break down their inhibitions and also fosters their alter ego, which is assumed to be adopted by learners while speaking a foreign language (Luna, Ringberg and Peracchio, 2008, pp. 279–282). This is directly connected with identity, and the fact that the participants in the workshop regularly reported that they felt they were able to be themselves, obviously feeling a heightened sense of acceptance. As far as the sense of competence is concerned, the positive feedback provided along with the fact that the group was able to participate in individual success undoubtedly reinforced this sense. The sense of security in such a setting is provided partly by the clear setting of goals and aims at the beginning of exercises, but also by the unobtrusiveness of the teacher, who allows individual creativity to assist the learners is task completion. This demonstration of confidence on behalf of the teacher also lends itself to a strengthening of the sense of purpose, which also can be found in the fact that students are better able to discover more about themselves, thus reinforcing their internal values. In conclusion, it must first be stated that this is a pilot study, and its very scale does not allow for drawing vast, sweeping conclusions. However, it is possible, even based on the limited scope of the above material, to make some observations and recommendations for further investigation. In response to the three main hypotheses, it is possible to state that while teachers are aware of the importance Creating a ‘Positive Environment’ Through Drama in the EFL Classroom 203 of the various aspects of the PEE, they do not necessarily do as much as they could to ensure its successful implementation. This is reflected in the students’ relative lack of appreciation for the efforts of their teachers, and the hypothetical assumption that students would not be aware of the importance of the PEE was confirmed. Finally, it was shown, albeit on a very limited scale, that the use of drama techniques in the classroom had an overall positive influence on the sense of PEE, as it directly impacted on all the five constituent factors. It is, consequently, recommended that further research be conducted into the nature of the reported discrepancy between what teachers believe they are doing to foster the PEE and what students actually perceive. Secondly, it is certainly worth looking in greater detail at the longitudinal impact of drama, and indeed other methodological tools, on the sense of PEE, and also how this impacts on such aspects as longitudinal motivation and achievement of learning goals. Finally, given the similarity of the children’s, university students’ and adult learners’ reactions to the workshops, it appears to be necessary to further investigate many of the assumptions that underline the varied treatment of such learners. We would like to conclude by stating that we feel that this study validates the importance of the PEE in the classroom, and remain hopeful that it will inspire more effort to make the educational environment a positive place for the learners to be.

References Andres, V. (1999). Self-esteem or the metamorphosis of butterflies, in J. Arnold (ed.) Affect in Language Learning. Cambridge University Press. Birch, S.H., Ladd, G.W. (1997). The teacher-child relationship and children’s early school adjustment. Journal of School Psychology, 35, 61 – 79. doi: 10.1016/S0022 – 4405 (96)00029 – 5. Bolton, G., Heathcote, D. (1999). So you want you use role play? A new approach in how to plan. Stoke on Trent, UK: Trentham Books. Booth, D. (2000). Reading stories we construct together. In: J. Ackroyd (Ed.), Literacy alive! Drama projects for literacy learning (pp. 6 – 115). Oxon, UK: Hodder&Stoughton. Campos, J.J., Frankel, C.B., & Camras, L. (2004). On the nature of emotion regulation. Child Development, 75(2), 377 – 394. Connell, J.P., & Wleeborn, J.G. (1991). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness: A motivational analysis of self-system process. Self-processes and development. In: M.R. Gunnar & L.A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self-processes and development. The Minnesota symposia on child psychology, 23, 43 – 77. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlaubaum. Convington, M. (1989). Self-esteem and failure in school, In: A. M Meera, N.J. Semiser and J. Vasconcellos (eds.) The Social Importance of Self-Esteem. University of California Press. 204 Alicja Gałązka, Magdalena Trinder

Copple, Carol, & Bredekamp, Sue (Eds.). (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Craig, P., & Bloomfield, L. (2006). An experience with conducting a role-play in decision making for a food and nutrition policy course. Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Con- ference of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education, University of Sydney. Curby, T., LoCasale-Crouch, J., Konold, T., Pianta, R., Howes, C., Burchinal, M., Barbarin, O. (2009). The relations of observed pre-K classroom quality profiles to children’s achievement and social competence. Early Education and Development, 20, 346 – 372. doi:10.1080/1409280802581284. Dornyei, Z. & Murphey, T. (2003). Group Dynamics in the Language Classroom. Cambridge University Press. Gałązka, A ., (2018). Attachment- based teaching through drama in the ELT classroom. ICERI Proceedings. Hamre, B.K., & Pianta, R.C. (2001). Early teacher-child relationships and the trajectory of children’s school outcomes through eighth grade. Child Development, 72, 625 – 638. doi: 10.1111/j.1467 – 8624.00301. Jensen, E. (2008). Brain-based learning: The New Paradigm of teaching.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Marks, H. (2000). Student engagement in instructional activity: Patterns in the elementary, middle, and high school years. American Educational Research Journal, 37, 153 – 184. doi:10.2307/1163475. Mill, Davina, & Romano-White, Donna. (1999). Correlates of affectionate and angry behavior in child care educators of preschool-aged children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 14(2), 155 – 178. Nimmo, J. (1998). The child in community: Constrains from the early childhood lore. In C.G. Edward, L. Forman, & G. Forman (Eds.), The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emelia approach – Advanced Reflections(pp. 295 – 312). London, UK: Ablex. Nuthall, G. (2000). How children remember what they learn in school. Wellington, NZ: New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Pinol, J. (2007). La influencia de la confirmacion del professor en el aprendizaje de ingles en la Educacion Secundaria Obligatora, Unpublished MA thesis, University of Sevilla. Puchta, H. (1999). Creating a learning culture to which students want to belong: the application of neuro-linguistic programming to language teaching, in J. Arnold (ed.). Affect in Language Learning. Cambridge University Press. Reyes, M.R., Brackett, M.A., Rivers, S.E., White M., & Salovey, P. (2012). Classroom Emotional Climate, Student Engagement, and Academic Achievement, Online First Publication, March 5. doi: 10.1037/a0027268. Rimm-Kaufman, S., La Paro, K., Downer, J., & Pianta, R. (2005). The contribution of classroom setting and quality of instruction to children’s bahavior in kindergarten classrooms. The Elementary School Journal, 105,377 – 394.doi:10.1086/429948. Creating a ‘Positive Environment’ Through Drama in the EFL Classroom 205

Rubio, F. (ed.) (2007). Self-Esteem and Foreign Language Learning. Cambridge University Press. Skinner, E., & Belmont, M. (1993). Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behaviour and student engagement across the school year. Journal of Educa- tional Psychology, 85, 571 – 581. doi: 10.1037/0022 – 0663.85.4.571. Stevick, E. (1980). Teaching Languages: a way and ways. Newbury House. Wentzel, K.R. (1997). Student motivation in middle school: The role of perceived pedagogical caring. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 411 – 419. doi:10.1037/0022 – 066 3.89.3.411. Wentzel, K.R. (1998). Social relationships and motivation in middle school: The role of parents, teachers, and peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 202 – 209. doi:10.103 7/0022 – 0663.90.2.202. Woolley, M., Kol, K., & Bowen, G. (2009). The social context of school success for Latino middle school students: Direct and indirect influences of teachers, family, and friends. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 29, 43 – 70. doi:101177/027243160824478. Amalija Žakelj Slovenija

Process Approach to Learning and Teaching Mathematics

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.17

Abstract In the research, a quasi-experimental model was applied and the experimental group received the process approach to learning and teaching mathematics, which builds on the cognitive-constructivist findings of educational profession about learning and teaching mathematics. In the control group, the transmission approach prevailed. In the research, the question was answered of what impact the implementation of the process approach to learning and teaching mathematics has on the learner’s knowledge, which can be tested and assessed. Students in the experimental group (EG) performed significantly better in basic and conceptual knowledge, in solving simple mathematical problems, and in complex knowledge than those in the control group. Results of the research have also shown that there are statistically significant correlations between individual areas of mathematical knowledge. The correlations between the areas of knowledge are from medium high to high, indicating that conceptual knowledge correlates significantly with solving simple mathematical problems and with complex knowledge.

Keywords: process approach to learning and teaching, mathematics, basic and conceptual knowledge, solving simple mathematical problems, complex knowledge Process Approach to Learning and Teaching Mathematics 207

Introduction

The purpose of teaching mathematics is not just to transmit mathematical knowledge – the opposite is true: the basic purpose is to make students discover mathematics, think, and build it. To learn mathematics means doing mathematics by solving and exploring it. But the findings of international evaluations point to deficient knowledge of mathematics and poorly developed competences, because of which the question of the quality of learning and teaching mathematics is persistently raised. The findings also warn that in the practice of mathematical education formal teaching prevails, oriented to techniques of memorising rules, which students often do not understand. Students do not manage to see the links between new knowledge and previously acquired concepts, they are not able to connect mathematics with everyday life, in their work they are not autonomous, and they often just repeat certain activities or procedures (UNESCO, 2012). Although it has been emphasised since the eighties of the past century that the teaching of mathematics should include solving problems and point to the use of mathematics in everyday life, in reality it seems that this kind of teaching has not actually come to life (Dindyal et al., 2012) and that this continues to be one of the unattainable goals of teaching mathematics (Stacey, 2005). Basic mathematics education is still too often boring because: it is designed as formal teaching, centred on learning techniques and memorizing rules, whose rationale is not evident to pupils; pupils do not know which needs are met in the mathematics topics introduced or how they are linked to the concepts familiar to them; links to the real world are weak, generally too artificial to be convincing and applications are stereotypical; there are few experimental and modelling activities; technology is quite rarely used in a relevant manner; pupils have little autonomy in their mathematical work and often merely reproduce activities (UNESCO, 2012). To overcome the above-mentioned challenges, changes in teaching practices must be made consistently with the stated goals. As early as 1987, Shulman (1987) found that the teacher needs not only a good methodological and substantive knowledge of the topics he teaches, but also a substantive pedagogical knowledge, i.e., awareness of how students construct knowledge of individual contents. The teacher who knows how the student constructs knowledge, the teacher who possesses substantive pedagogical knowledge prepares activities that build on students’ pre-knowledge, on linking knowledge, he introduces concepts and content gradually. The notions of both learning and teaching, in turn, significantly influence the individual’s understanding, perspective or interpretation of the context of 208 Amalija Žakelj learning or teaching. The basic assumption of the teacher’s operation is promoting the quality of learning, which leads to students’ quality knowledge.

Research Methodology

The purpose of the research In the research, we sought to answer the question of how the implementation of the process approach to learning and teaching mathematics, which had been produced on the basis of the theoretical knowledge of children’s mental development, also of recent findings about the child’s thinking, and the knowledge of social cognition, of learning and teaching mathematics, influences the student’s knowledge that can be tested and assessed. In this we based on the theory of developmental psychology, which studies the development of concepts from the point of view of the developmental stage of the child’s thinking (Vygotsky, 1978; Labinowicz, 1989; Gilly et al., 1988) and took into account more recent cognitive-constructivist findings of learning, which emphasise learners’ activity in the learning process (Maričić et al., 2013; Van de Walle et al., 2013; Břehovský et al., 2015). Theprocess approach to learning and teaching mathematics is characterised by experiential learning, discovering and exploring mathematics through mathematical and life challenges, and by developing reading learning strategies as the integrating activity of learning and teaching. We wanted to determine whether the students in the experimental group (EG), who had received the process approach to learning and teaching mathematics, performed better in basic and in conceptual knowledge (PR), in solving simple mathematical problems (EP) in complex knowledge (ZP) than the control group. Three research hypotheses were formulated.

Research hypotheses: H1: In the selected contents block in basic and conceptual knowledge (PR), the experimental group will perform significantly better than the control group. H2: In the selected content blocks in solving simple mathematical problems (EP), the experimental group will perform significantly better than the control group. H3: In the selected content blocks in complex knowledge (ZP), the experimental group will perform significantly better than the control group. Process Approach to Learning and Teaching Mathematics 209

Research method The model of quasi-experiment was applied and the experimental modelprocess approach to learning and teaching mathematics was introduced in the experimental group, whereas in the control group the transmission approach prevailed. Because the model without randomisation was applied—opportunities for the use of models with randomisation are rather limited in schools—the students’ most relevant factors were controlled at the beginning (overall learning performance, marks in Slovenian and in mathematics, education level of parents).

Research sample In the experimental group (EG), there were 190 eighth grade pupils and in the control group (CG), 220 eighth grade pupils of Slovenian basic schools. All the students participating in the research were at the age between 13 and 14 years.

Data gathering and processing The students’ performance in dependent variables was assessed with knowledge tests, the content structure of which was: dependent and independent quantities, percentage, direct proportion, inverse proportion, and equation. The situation before and after the introduction of the experimental factor was recorded empir- ically, namely with initial and final tests of knowledge. The knowledge tests that had been adapted as a measurement instrument were used to determine basic and conceptual knowledge, solving simple mathematical problems, and complex knowledge. The initial and final tests of knowledge were preliminarily first attributed measurement characteristics: objectivity, difficulty, reliability, discrim- inativeness, and validity. Results of the initial and of final tests were processed with the use of multivariate factor analysis. The Guttman split-half coefficient of reliability for the initial test was 0.82 and for the final test 0.87. The discriminative coefficients for individual items at the initial test ranged from 0.38 to 0.700; while the discriminative coefficients for individual items at the final test ranged from 0.29 to 0.72. To determine the significance of the differences between the students of the experimental and control groups and to determine the significance of differences within the experimental group at the end of the experiment, the following statistical techniques were applied in data processing: descriptive statistics, testing the homogeneity of the sample, factor analysis, one-way analysis of variance, and multivariate analysis of variance. 210 Amalija Žakelj

Results and interpretation

The results of the research show that the experimental group performed statistically significantly better in basic and conceptual knowledge, in solving simple mathematical problems and in complex knowledge than the control group (Table 1, Table 2).

Table 1. Average performance of students according to areas of knowledge in the initial and final tests

INITIAL TEST FINAL TEST N performance in % x SD N performance in % x SD EG PR 101 61 % 16.4 5.40 101 68 % 6.8 2.50 EP 101 39 % 12.6 6.90 101 83 % 9.9 2.21 ZP 101 25 % 3.1 1.92 101 54 % 15.9 7.59 CG PR 130 52 % 13.5 6.50 130 55 % 5.5 1.60 EP 130 31 % 10.0 6.50 130 73 % 8.8 3.16 ZP 130 23 % 2. 8 2.56 130 38 % 11.7 6.90

Legend: x – average number of points, SD – standard deviation, N – number of students, PR – basic and conceptual knowledge, EP – solving simple mathematical problems, ZP – complex knowledge.

Table 2. The significance of performance differences between the control group and experimental groups by areas of knowledge

Sum of squares (dif. III) df Average of squares F Sig. IT PR 3.092E-05 1 3.092E-05 .000 .993 IT EP 1.046 1 1.046 2.420 .121 IT ZP .792 1 .792 1.733 .190 FT PR 6.134 1 6.134 36.345 .000 FT EP 7.785 1 7.785 16.769 .000 FT ZP 3.162 1 3.162 6.369 .010

Legend: initial test, basic and conceptual knowledge (IT PR), final test, basic and conceptual knowledge (FT PR), initial test, solving simple mathematical problems (IT PR), final test solving simple mathematical problems (FT PR), initial test, complex knowledge (IT ZP), final test, complex knowledge (FT ZP).

Compared to its initial state, after the introduction of the experimental factor into the learning process, the experimental group progressed significantly in solving simple mathematical problems and in complex knowledge (Table 3). Process Approach to Learning and Teaching Mathematics 211

Table 3. The significance of differences on the initial and final tests by areas of knowledge in the experimental group

Sum of squares (dif. III) df Average of squares F Sig. PR 0.464 1 0.464 0.582 0.447 EP 46.470 1 46.481 60.960 0.00 ZP 5.682 1 5.660 6.480 0.01

Legend: basic and conceptual knowledge (PR), knowledge that allows for solving simple mathematical problems (EP), complex knowledge (ZP)

The first hypothesis, H1, was confirmed with the results of the research, which show that in basic and conceptual knowledge after the introduction of the experimental factor, the experimental group obtained statistically higher results than the control group (EG: 68 %, CG: 55 %, p=0.00). Basic and conceptual knowledge, which covers the knowledge and understanding of mathematical concepts, was tested with the recognition of concepts, determining the relations between data, analysing, proposing examples and counterexamples, etc. In verifying understanding, attention was paid to compos- ing the task in such a way that allowed the student to really demonstrate his/her knowledge. This is the reason why in this kind of tasks mathematical procedures were, as a rule, not included. At the time of the experiment, the students of the experimental group built their knowledge and deepened understanding through various activities of representing concepts, which includes pictures, diagrams, symbols, concrete material, language, realistic situations, shaping conceptual networks, etc. As early as in 1991, also Novak & Musonda (1991) attracted attention to the significance of conceptual networks in shaping concepts with understanding, emphasising that based on students’ correct and wrong presentations, the teacher can analyse their knowledge and determine wrong and correct conceptual images (ibid.) and based on the findings, guide students in upgrading and transforming knowledge. Similarly, Griffin & Case (1997) and after them Duval (2002) stated that the teaching of mathematics that is based on exploring diverse representations of a definite mathematical concept and that encourages students to fluently and flexibly transit between a variety of representations is more efficient and allows for a better understanding of mathematical concepts than the teaching that does not enable this. De Jong et al. (1998) emphasise that in teaching mathematics handling diverse representations fluently and also transiting between them (e.g., knowing how with concrete material to compute a given calculation and to “translate” the 212 Amalija Žakelj calculation into symbolic record) and from offered representations selecting the one appropriate for the representation of a definite concept (e.g., representation of adding three-digit numbers with tens units is a more appropriate representation than representing computing in the 1 000 range with non-structured material) is important for the student’s successful and productive interaction with diverse representations. In addition to what has been mentioned, the use of diverse representations of mathematical concepts satisfies the needs of learners with different styles of learning (Mallet, 2007). The second hypothesis, H2, was confirmed with the results of the research, which show that after the introduction of the experimental factor in solving simple mathematical problems the experimental group obtained statistically significantly higher results than the control group (EG: 83 %, CG: 73 %, p = 0.00). In solving simple mathematical problems, the experimental group also significantly progressed in relation to its initial state (Table 3). Taking into account the results concerning progress in solving simple mathematical problems, where mathematical procedures had to be meaningfully applied such as computing procedures, drawing diagrams, production of tables, solving simple one-stage textual tasks, the fact must be emphasised that the students in both the experimental group (83 %) and the control group (73 %) demonstrated satisfactory knowledge. Douglas (2000) states that for learning algorithms and computing procedures as well as for solving problems, the understanding of concepts is crucial. We learn to solve problems faster and better if we understand the basic concepts. A conclusion can be drawn that the advantage of the students of the experimental group in solving simple mathematical problems also lies in the acquisition of diverse experiences in the learning of concepts. Introducing procedures when the student has not yet thoroughly acquired the basic concepts inherent in the procedure implies learning by memorising. In this case, how well the procedure is going to be learnt depends on the number of repetitions of the procedure. Such knowledge is, however, short-lived and quickly forgotten; it is also not transferable and applicable, e.g., to solving problems. The interweavement among different areas of knowledge is also indicated by the statistically significant correlations between them. The correlations between the areas of knowledge range from medium to high and show that conceptual knowledge is significantly related to solving simple mathematical problems and complex knowledge (Table 4). Process Approach to Learning and Teaching Mathematics 213

Table 4. The correlations between basic and conceptual knowledge and between complex knowledge and solving simple mathematical problems

FT EP FT ZP FT PR Pearson coefficient 0.44** 0.69**

Legend: FT PR – basic and conceptual knowledge on final test, FT EP – solving simple mathematical problems on final test, ** the coefficient is statistically significant at the level of 1 % risk, * the coefficient is statistically significant at the level of 5 % risk

It can be concluded that the advantage of the students of the experimental group in solving simple mathematical problems as well as in complex knowledge—as will be shown below—also lies in the acquisition of a variety of experiences in learning concepts, which has a positive impact on efficient learning of procedures and solving problems. Solving problems, in turn, is an important skill that is indispensable in life, as it involves analysis, interpretation, reasoning, anticipation, assessment, and reflection, so it should be the main goal and fundamental component of the mathematical curriculum (Anderson, 2009). The third hypothesis, H3, was confirmed with the results of the research, which show that after the introduction of the experimental factor in complex knowledge, the experimental group obtained statistically significantly higher results than the control group (EG: 54 %, CG: 38 %, p = 0.01). In complex knowledge, the experimental group also significantly progressed in relation to the initial state (Table 3). Complex knowledge, which covers solving problems, was tested with solving complex tasks (multistage textual problems), analysing the problem situation, generalising, substantiating, etc. Detailed analysis of the results by items shows that neither the students of the control group nor those of the experimental group successfully solved textual tasks, they especially experienced difficulties in solving algebraic problems, generalisation, and using formal mathematical knowledge. With the task “Compute what percentage of the figure is shaded,” the ability of solving problems at the symbol level was tested. The text of the textual task was accompanied with a picture of a rectangle, a part of which was shaded. The data of the lengths of the sides were given at the symbol level, with variables. Very few students solved the task at the symbol level. Most students solved the task by choosing concrete data—some by measuring, others by drawing a grid and defining the surface unit, some also came to an approximate result by estimation. The students’ lower results in complex knowledge can partly be explained with the findings of Demetriou et al. (1991), who developed four tests for the determination of the level of development of the cognitive system and understanding 214 Amalija Žakelj of mathematical concepts, among other things also a test for the definition of the stage of formal-logical thinking and algebraic abilities. The essential development of integrating the four calculus operations happens at the age of 13–14, and the development of algebraic abilities at the age of 14–15. The introduction of abstract algebraic concepts (e.g., the concept of a variable) is possible when the development of algebraic abilities has been completed. The introduction of these concepts, though, must still be linked to concrete objects (ibid.). It can be concluded that the path do deeper knowledge, which is applicable and complex, is neither easy nor fast, it is conditioned both on the student’s cognitive development and on the quality learning and teaching.

Concluding findings

The issue of examining the impact of approaches to learning and teaching on learning performance is an extremely demanding and complex one. In our research, we focused on three levels of mathematical knowledge: basic and conceptual knowledge, solving simple mathematical problems and complex knowledge. As evident from the paper, there are substantiated reasons for the assertion that the implementation of the process approach to learning and teaching mathematics, which we have produced ourselves on the basis of the theoretical knowledge of the mental development of children and recent findings about children’s thinking, significantly contributes to the quality of learning and teaching mathematics and to students’ academic achievement. A positive impact of the process approach to learning and teaching mathematics is recorded both in the understanding of concepts and solving problems and in learning algorithms and calculation procedures. The research results show that mathematical conceptual knowledge is significantly related to solving simple mathematical problems and complex knowledge; learning with understanding, however, is a long lasting process associated with the cognitive development of the student and with quality teaching.

References Anderson, Ј. (2009). Mathematics Curriculum Development and the Role of Problem Solving. ACSA Conference http://www.acsa.edu.au/pages/images/Judy Břehovský, J., Eisenmann, P., Novotná, J., & Přibyl, J. (2015). Solving problems usingexper- imental strategies. In J. Novotna, H. Moraova (eds.). Developing mathematical language Process Approach to Learning and Teaching Mathematics 215

and reasoning (Proceeding of International Symposium Elementary Math Teaching) (72 – 81) Prague, the Czech Republic: Charles University, Faculty of Education. De Jong, T., Ainsworth, S., Dobson, M., Van der Hulst, A., Levonen, J., & Reinmann, P. (1998). Acquiring Knowledge in Science and Math: The Use of Multiple Representa- tions in Technoogy Based Learning Environments. In van Someren, M.W., Reimann, P., Boshuizen H.P.A., de Jong, T. (ed.), Learning with Multiple Representations 9 – 40. Amsterdam: Pergamon. Demetriou, A., Platsidou, M., Efklides, A., Metallisou, Y., & Shayer, M. (1991). The Devel- opment of Quantitative-relational Abilities From Childhood to Adolescence: Structure, Scaling and Individual Diffence. Learning and Instruction, Vol. 1., 19 – 43. Great Britain: King’s College, London University. Dindyal, J., Eng Guan, T., Tin Lam, T., Yew Hoong, L., & Khiok Seng, Q. (2012). Mathe- matical Problem Solving for Everyone: A New Beginning, The Mathematics Educator, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1 – 20. Duval, R. (2002). The Cognitive Analysis of Problems of Comprehension in the Learning of Mathematics. Mediterranean Journal for research in Mathematics Education, 1(2), 1 – 16. Gilly, M., Blaye, A., & Roux, J.P. (1988). Elaboration de constructions cognitives individualles en situations socio-cognitives de resolutions de problemes [Elaboration of individual cognitive constructs in the socio-cognitive situations of problem solving]. In: Mugn, G., Perrez, J.A.( eds.): Psicologia social del desarollo cognitivo. Barcelona: Anthjropos. Griffin, S. in Case, R. (1997). Re-thinking the Primary School Math Curriculum: An Approach Based on Cognitive Science. Issues in Education, 3(1), 1 – 49. Labinowicz, E. (1989). Izvirni Piaget [The Original Piaget]. Ljubljana: DZS. Novak, J.D. & Musonda, D. (1991). A twelve-year longitudinal study of science cocept learning. American Educational Research Journal. Mallet, D.G. (2007). Multiple representations for system of linear equations via the computer algebra system Maple. International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education 2(1), 16 – 32 Maričić, S., Špijunović, K., & Malinović Jovanović, N. (2013). The Role of Tasks in the Development of Students’ Critical Thinking in Initial Teaching of Mathematics. In: Novotna, J. & Moraova, H. (eds.). Task and tools in elementary mathematics (Proceedings of International Symposium Elementary Math Teaching). Prague, the Czech Republic: Charles University, Faculty of Education. 204 – 212. Shulman, L. (1987). Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of a New Reform. Stacey, K. (2005). The place of problem solving in contemporary mathematics curriculum documents. Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 24, 341 – 350. UNESCO (2012). Challenges in basic mathematics education. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris. Van de Walle, J.A., Karp, K.S., & Bay-Williams J.M. (2013). Elementary and middle school mathematics: teaching developmentally. Boston [etc.]: Pearson. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The develepment of higher psychological processes. Cambridge. MA: Harward University press.

Pedeutology

Jolanta Szempruch Poland

Feeling of Professional Burnout in Teachers of Secondary Schools

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.18

Abstract The paper presents the results of research on the feelings of professional burnout in teachers of secondary schools. In its first part, a professional burnout model is presented, as well as symptoms and consequences of the burnout process. Then, main sources of burnout, common prevention strategies, and main areas where signs of burnout can occur are discussed. An important part of the paper is formed by the analysis of the results of a survey conducted among 315 teachers in the Lublin and Starachowice districts. It is worrying that, according to the research, every fifth teacher is characterised by very high or high level of the professional burnout feeling. Therefore, the necessity to prepare future teachers – already at the stage of their education – to cope with unusual educational situations and apply strategies preventing professional burnout, turns out to be of particular significance. These issues are reflected on in the conclusions and recommendations for teachers, included in this paper.

Keywords: professional burnout, stress, teacher, depersonalisation, emotional exhaustion, prevention activities, low personal accomplishment

Introduction

The professional burnout syndrome is a multi-faceted phenomenon. It is characterised by complex causes, symptoms, and consequences. As a vocational issue, it calls for a number of prevention measures to be taken, focused on structural and 220 Jolanta Szempruch organisational changes in school. As an individual problem of the teacher, it can be overcome mainly through an effective defence system and an individual strategy developed by the person concerned. The notion of research on the phenomenon of professional burnout is associated with civilisation changes and growing expectations placed on the professions which, in their essence, are human services. Professional burnout was described for the first time as late as in the 1970s. It occurs in representatives of professions that require close interactions with other people and involvement in their fate. The costs of such interactions, permanent confrontation with negative emotions and chronic stress are so intense that the person is not able to manage their professional burden. In such a situation, defensive reactions are triggered, such as distancing oneself from people and situations, perceiving clients in a dehumanised manner, which is a sign of depersonalisation – a phenomenon characteristic of professional burnout. As the work-related psychical and physical strain persists, professional satisfaction decreases and professional commitment is lost.

Theoretical Background

Professional burnout model There are many definitions of professional burnout. The most popular one was provided by Ch. Maslach and S. Jackson (1986), who developed a ternary professional burnout model (diagram 1).

PROFESSIONAL BURNOUT

Low personal Emotional exhaustion Depersonalisation accomplishment

Source: own study on the basis of: C. Maslach, S. Jackson (1986) Maslach Burnout Inventory. Manual (ed. 2.), Palo Alto, CA, Consulting Psychologists Press. Diagram 1. A three-stage professional burnout model Feeling of Professional Burnout in Teachers of Secondary Schools 221

The authors define professional burnout as a psychological syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and reduced personal accomplishment, which can occur among individuals who work with other people in some capacity. Emotional exhaustion refers to the individual’s subjective feeling that they are emotionally over- burdened. This results from the fact that such an individual intensely experiences problems of other people, while at the same time feeling responsible for their fate and blaming her/himself when she/he is not able to provide effective help at the right time. At this stage of professional burnout, the individual feels energy loss, headache, joylessness, weariness, insomnia, hypersensitivity, proneness to sudden reactions and impulsiveness. The symptoms observed also include a state of internal tension and generalised anxiety. Emotional exhaustion points to the fact that the person performs a given job above their limits, while at the same time not receiving support from others. Depersonalisation, in turn, is characterised by avoiding physical and psychical contact with the subjects of professional interaction, a negative, heartless or overly indifferent reaction to clients, their parents, and colleagues, a lack of interest in problems and demonstrating their aversion. The teacher is characterised by lack of empathy and even dehumanisation associated with the loss of idealism, by negative attitude and cynicism. This group of symptoms is the most “costly” consequence of the burnout process. The last stage of professional burnout is related to reduced personal accomplishment and professional satisfaction, leading to feelings of futility and resignation. It connects all the above-described symptoms. The teacher shows tendency to assess themselves negatively, particularly with regard to their work, to feelings of decreased competence and work efficiency, while abrasiveness and a sense of grievance are on the rise. This leads to perceiving him/herself as an incompetent and ineffective person, unable to correctly perform his/her professional tasks – a person who is depressed, tired and sluggish. According to Ch. Maslach (1982), emotional exhaustion occurs first in the burnout syndrome, and results from the stress experienced by the individual. Then comes depersonalisation, resulting from failure in coping with emotional exhaustion, and finally – reduced personal accomplishment. There were numerous attempts to describe and classify stages of professional burnout based on the three constitutive elements indicated by Ch. Maslach (cf., M. Burisch, 1989, p. 12). The burnout dynamics was also described in the concept of J. Edelwich and A. Brodsky, who presented it as a process of growing disillusionment. They discerned four stages: enthusiasm, stagnation, frustration, and apathy. Since such a situation points out to the need for response measures in the form of professional help, they also identified the fifth stage of burnout, namely intervention (J. Edelwich, A. Brodsky, 1980). 222 Jolanta Szempruch

Analysis of burnout shows that it is not easy to conceptualise this phenomenon, as it includes multiple dimensions, including individual, interpersonal, and institutional ones. Therefore, different accounts of this phenomenon should be treated as complementary, since only such a perspective will allow for understanding the complex structure of professional burnout. Given the multitude and diversity of the symptoms of the professional burnout syndrome, one should bear in mind that if one or a couple of them occur in a person, it does not necessarily mean a threat of burnout. However, the subjective feeling of a degree of intenseness of a given symptom can also indicate the burnout stage at which the individual finds themselves, which makes it easier to undertake steps preventing further development of the syndrome. It is crucial here to perform self-diagnosis to exclude other entities such as stress, depression, or a chronic fatigue syndrome.

Sources of professional burnout

It is important to remember that the burnout syndrome affects persons who are initially characterised by idealism, motivation, passion and commitment in their professional life. While a person without such features may experience tiredness, depression, stress, or existential crisis, they are not affected by burnout. According to I. Friedman (2000, p. 601), burnout may result in adaptation, recovery, and continuation of professional work, or abandonment of the profession. The causes of professional burnout should be sought both in the subjective and extra-subjective area. Professional burnout as a result of the process of gradual disillusionment is an aftermath of failing in achieving the expected and desired objective, and the long-term involvement in emotionally burdening situations. People committed to their work and emotionally involved in it, who expect to derive a sense of life from it, are exposed to professional burnout when they fail. The major source of burnout is teachers’ inability to create the sense of mastery and self-efficacy (C. Cherniss, 1993, pp. 130 – 150). An important cause of burnout is also emotional overburdening and the consequent emotional exhaustion, in particular when the emotional requirements are overwhelming and one is unable to react to them in a satisfactory way (A.M. Pines, E. Aronson, 1988, p. 9). In such circumstances, they lead to a subjective feeling of failure which, for a person expecting to find a sense of life in work, is shattering. One of the important sources of professional burnout is stress. It is a natural biological reaction of the system to day-to-day challenges and major changes – not Feeling of Professional Burnout in Teachers of Secondary Schools 223 only negative, but also positive. Lazarus discerns: (1) systemic stress, connected with disorders in tissue systems; (2) psychological stress, associated with cognitive factors leading to the assessment of threat, an (3) social stress, related to distur- bance of a social individual or a social system (A. Monat, R. Lazarus, 1985). Every teacher can experience stress, as it is inherent to the profession. However, not all stress conditions the development of professional burnout. The latter may be experienced by a teacher who was strongly motivated, professionally committed and had high expectations when starting to work. A person who from the beginning lacks a high level of motivation may experience work-related stress, but not burnout. The basis for the development of burnout is cumulation of negative experiences of failure in coping with stress, and development of a belief that one is unable to effectively cope with difficulties.

Prevention of professional burnout

Optimal protection of teachers against burnout should include primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. The primary level of burnout prevention consists in removal of its possible sources, the second one – in modification of the individual’s reactions to stressors, and the third level involves reducing the degree of negative influence of burnout consequences. Teachers should be able to timely undertake relevant prevention activities. Examples of preventing the cumulation of negative stress consequences were presented, inter alia, by Garry Hornby, Eric Hall and Carol Hall (2002), who developed stress-coping strategies for teachers related to the following dimensions: interpersonal, emotional, cognitive, physical, task-related, and organisational. An important factor counteracting professional burnout is social support which manifests itself in emotional support experienced by the individual, support in problem solving, practical and material support, as well as social integration and certainty of connection (J. Szempruch, 2013, pp. 180 – 183). The teacher should be provided with support by school workers responsible for the results of teaching and educational work. They may include the principal or their deputies, teacher tutor, a leader of the subject team, a leader of the in-school development programme for teachers, other teachers, a school pedagogue and psychologist, methodological advisors, specialists from psychological and pedagogical clinics, etc. Also, they can come from institutions cooperating with the school. In burnout prevention, a significant role is also played by educational programmes and courses, training sessions and workshops on how to recognise 224 Jolanta Szempruch symptoms of the syndrome and effectively counteract them. They are aimed at shaping the time management skill, the ability to set goals and plan their accomplishment, assertiveness, building healthy relations with others, and organising effective rest. The individual concerned should personally take the effort to define their own direction of changes aimed at overcoming professional burnout. This should be preceded by the analysis of the main areas where burnout signs can occur, including: •• overburdening by work – exhaustion, excessive availability, time pressure; •• feeling of lack of control over one’s own work – insufficient decision-making and influence opportunities; •• feeling of being underappreciated, insufficient remuneration or lack of satisfaction with work; •• problems with interpersonal relations in the workplace, communication, and obtaining support; •• feeling of injustice and problems with treating workers equally; •• discrepancy between one’s own values and the values of the organisation. Each of these areas involves a separate strategy, implemented in four stages: defining the problem, setting goals, undertaking activities, and tracking progress (M.P Leiter, Ch. Maslach, 2005). Therefore, it is worth applying the above-discussed strategies to overcome professional burnout.

Research Methodology

Research Questions and Methodology In the research conducted, answers were sought to the following questions: What is the level of professional burnout in teachers in the following scopes: emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, reduced work commitment, narrowing of interpersonal relations and physical tiredness? and What methods are employed by secondary school teachers to counteract professional burnout? The subject of research required to apply relevant research methodology and techniques as well as an adequate selection of research instruments that would enable adequate measurement of variables significant for the problem under analysis. As the basic method of research, a diagnostic survey was chosen. The following research techniques were used: survey, interview, and analysis of documents. 315 teachers, 6 principals and 6 school pedagogues employed in Lublin and the Starachowice district from the Świętokrzyskie and Lubelskie provinces participated in the study. The study was conducted over the period 2011–2014. It Feeling of Professional Burnout in Teachers of Secondary Schools 225 was complemented by individual interviews with 10 randomly selected teachers – 5 from each of the provinces. As a result of the study, extensive empirical material characterising the examined variables was collected.

Research Results and Discussion

Analysis of research results showed that the highest percentage of the surveyed, as many as 45.4%, is characterised by a below-average level of the professional burnout feeling (Chart 1). A very high or high level of burnout was diagnosed in every fifth teacher, and it concerned mostly the appointed and certified teachers with more than 10 years of professional experience (Chart 2). The highest percentage of the lower secondary school teachers is characterised by a low or very low general level of the professional burnout feeling. The subjects experience emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, reduced commitment to work and a decrease in the efficacy of their activities, narrowing of interpersonal relations and physical tiredness of marginal intensity, whereas the latter of the listed burnout aspects is most clearly visible in them. Every third surveyed teacher experiences subjective burnout at an average level. The teachers in this group are characterised by a moderate intensity of exhaustion, lack of commitment to performing their duties, narrowing of inter-

Chart 1. General level of the professional burnout feeling in lower secondary school teachers involved in the survey (%) 226 Jolanta Szempruch

Chart 2. General level of professional burnout feeling vs. level of professional promotion of the surveyed teachers (%) personal relationships, and physical tiredness. The latter, along with a tendency to depersonalisation, is slightly higher in them when compared to other groups. A very high or high level of burnout was diagnosed in every fifth teacher. In the case of these teachers, indicators in all the discussed burnout areas are higher than average, with emotional exhaustion, reduced commitment to work and a decrease in the efficacy of activities reaching the highest values. It is highly probable that this group struggles with symptoms that interfere with their professional functioning and shows most numerous signs of full-blown professional burnout. When analysing the data presenting different areas of professional burnout (Chart 3), one may notice that the largest percentage of the respondents reached a high or very high level of narrowing of interpersonal relations (27.0%), physical tiredness (26.1%), depersonalisation (25.4%), while a slightly lower percentage – emotional exhaustion (21.3%) and reduced commitment to work and weakened efficacy of activities (18.4%) (Chart 2). Among the most frequently experienced symptoms of professional burnout, the respondents mentioned “being worn out” after a full day of work (43.2%), distancing to students (12.1%), shortening the Feeling of Professional Burnout in Teachers of Secondary Schools 227

Chart 3. Comparison of the constituent factor levels of the general professional burnout level in surveyed teachers (%) time of contact with students outside classes (15.6%), lack of endeavour to make new acquaintances (22.5%) and growing impatient when waiting for public hol- idays (48.6%). The surveyed teachers defined the frequency of using various strategies to counteract professional burnout (Table 1). In their opinion, the most effective method in burnout prevention is an active approach to professional tasks and difficulties, a sense of professional efficacy and a positive assessment of events. The teachers highlighted the important role of innovative and creative actions, pursuing extra-professional interests and developing communication skills and a hobby. Among the strategies related to ways of strengthening subjective and environmental resources used by the surveyed teachers, no significant diversifica- tion was observed. On average, 3/4 of them often, very often or always undertake professional development activities, set realistic goals, avoid routine and highlight positive aspects to the profession they perform. Among the strategies focused on the reduction of professional burnout risk factors used by the respondents, the most frequent one was counteracting pathological social phenomena at school such as aggression, violence, addictions. The surveyed 228 Jolanta Szempruch % 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Total L 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 315 315

% 3.2 7.0 3.5 5.7 4.1 1.6 7.6 15.2 8.9 L 10 22 11 18 13 5 24 48 28 % 26.3 21.6 27.3 31.7 21.3 8.3 21.9 22.9 21.6 always L 83 68 86 100 67 26 69 72 68 % 50.8 50.8 47.6 41.9 41.9 19.7 47.3 40.0 52.4 L very often 160 160 150 132 132 62 149 126 165 % 18.7 18.7 20.3 19.4 31.4 47.9 20.3 20.6 16.8 often L Frequency ofFrequency use of strategy a given 59 59 64 61 99 151 64 65 53 % 1.0 1.9 1.3 1.3 1.3 22.5 2.9 1.3 0.3 seldom L 6 4 4 4 71 9 4 1 3 -

- - by lower secondary lower school teachers by Frequency of use of different strategies counteracting professional burnout professional counteracting strategies of use different Frequency never

Strategies Table 1. Table undertaking various forms of profes development sional goals realistic setting (avoiding of of conduct ways change routine) highlighting the sides positive to pro performed fession used work and planned properly breaks and rest techniques relaxation using a hobby having separating professional and family life social pathological phe Counteracting nomena school at violence, (aggression, addictions)

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5

tal resources tal

burnout risk burnout

- environmen and tive

Reduction of professional professional of Reduction

- subjec Strengthening Feeling of Professional Burnout in Teachers of Secondary Schools 229 teachers slightly less often separated their professional and family life, developed their interests, properly planned and used work breaks and rest to prevent professional burnout, while relaxation techniques were the least often indicated strategy. It can be concluded, then, that using various methods and techniques effectively protects most of the surveyed teachers against professional burnout.

Conclusion

The level of the feeling of professional burnout in the surveyed teachers is diversified in terms of professional exhaustion, feeling of depersonalisation, feeling of reduced commitment to work and decrease in the efficacy of activities, narrowing of interpersonal relations and feeling of physical tiredness. The below-average general level of the professional burnout feeling, observed in a numerous group of the respondents, is a favourable phenomenon. However, the number of the teachers in whom a very high or high level of burnout feeling was found, raises concern. Such an assessment was indicated by every fifth surveyed teacher. In the case of these teachers, the indicators in all the discussed burnout areas are above average, whereas the largest intensification of the symptoms indicative of the burnout syndrome in them concerns emotional exhaustion, reduced commitment to work and decrease in efficacy of activities. An important factor preventing burnout are strategies used by the teachers, including various methods and techniques. The respondents determined the degree to which different processes, features, resources and actions allow them, in their opinion, to protect themselves against professional burnout. In the opinion of the surveyed teachers, the most effective method in burnout prevention is an active approach to professional tasks and difficulties, a sense of professional efficacy and a positive assessment of events. The teachers also believe that creative and innovative actions, development of communication skills, pursuing extra-professional interests, hobbies, and changes in themselves play an important role as effective methods protecting against burnout. The teachers who often use these strategies note a lower level of professional burnout than those who seldom or never use them. In preventing the development of the burnout syndrome, an important role is also played by social support, as frequent use of different sources of help and advice, i.e., one’s own family, friends, colleagues and co-workers is associated with a less intense feeling of professional burnout in its various areas. It may be concluded, then, that an elaborated defence system enables the teachers to 230 Jolanta Szempruch make the workplace less stressful and eliminate the risk of the occurrence of the full-blown burnout syndrome. Learning about burnout counteracting strategies should be taken into account already at the stage of education of future teachers, and then in various forms of professional development, as efficient use of such strategies is conductive to a high level of professionalism and reduces the risk of professional burnout. What is also of particular importance is to present to future teachers a realistic picture of the Polish education sector and preparing them as part of the vocational education to cope with unusual educational situations. Good vocational preparation and highly developed professional skills are conducive to constructive problem solving, commitment to the teaching and educational process and a high efficacy of activities. Measures improving the level of professional functioning of teachers should include improvement of the informing process and consulting with the teacher the environmental changes related to the education reform, as well as any other changes resulting from new regulations and other acts.

References Burisch M. (1989), Das Burnout – Syndrom. Teorie der inneren Erschöpfung, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidenberg. Chang M. (2009), An Appraisal Perspective of Teacher Burnout: Examining the Emotional Work of Teachers, “Educational Psychology Review”, Vol. 21. No.3 Cherniss C. (1993), Role of Professional Self-Efficacy in the Etiology and Amelioration in Burnout [w:] Professional Burnout: Recent Developments in Theory and Research, red. W.B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, T. Marek, DC, Taylor &Francis, Washington. Edelwich J., Brodsky A. (1980), Burnout. Stages of Disillusionment in the Helpingprofession- als, “Human Science Press”, New York. Friedman I. (2000), Burnout in Teachers: Shattered Dreams of Impeccable Professional Performance, “Psychoterapy in Practice”, no. 56 (5). Hornby G., Hall E., Hall C. (2002), Counselling Pupils in Schools: Skills and Strategies for Teachers, Routledge Falmer, a member of the Taylor&Francis Group, London. Maslach C. (1982) Burnout: The Cost of Caring, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall. Maslach C., Jackson S. (1986) Maslach Burnout Inventory. Manual (ed. 2.), Palo Alto, CA, Consulting Psychologists Press. Michael P. Leiter, Christina Maslach (2005), Banishing Burnout: Six Strategies for Improving Your Relationship with Work, Jossey-Bass, San Francisko, CA US. Monat A., Lazarus R., (1985), Stress and Coping, New York, Columbia University Press. Pines A.M., Aronson E., (1988), Career Burnout: Causes and Cures, New York, Free Press. Szempruch J., (2013), Pedeutologia. Studium teoretyczno-pragmatyczne, (Pedeutology. Theoretical-pragmatic Study). Kraków 2013, Oficyna Wydawnicza “Impuls”. Roman Kroufek, Vlastimil Chytrý Czech Republic Miriam Uhrinová Slovakia

The Effect of the Type of the Finished High School on the Nature Relatedness of Pre-service Primary Teachers

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.19

Abstract The paper deals with an individual’s nature relatedness and a selected significant variable which may have an effect on it; especially it researches the studied high school relation to nature relatedness in primary school teacher trainees. It is research in quantitative design, using a questionnaire to collect data. The questionnaire was based on the Nature Relatedness Scale. Results show a significant effect of the type of high school finished on students’ nature relatedness. The highest scores in the construct analysed were obtained in nature and science-oriented branches, the lowest by graduates of social sciences and general grammar schools. Such results confirm the significance of education in natural science in forming a positive attitude to nature and disprove the cliché ideas of polytechnics producing environmentally insensitive graduates.

Keywords: nature relatedness, primary school, environmental literacy

Introduction

Traditionally, the aims of environmental education are defined by a number or variables (UNESCO, 1977), lately often described as a complex construct called environmental literacy (Roth, 1992; Hungerford et al., 1994). If we accept the multidimensional approach to environmental literacy according to the North American Association for Environmental Education (Hollweg et al., 2011), the 232 Roman Kroufek, Vlastimil Chytrý, Miriam Uhrinová most frequent aim of researchers would probably be its affective dimension, called disposition; within its frame the research is mostly aimed at environmental attitude (Dunlap & Van Liere, 1978; Dunlap, 2008), the focus of control, self-assurance of one’s own influence (Peyton & Miller, 1980; Hines et al., 1987) together with environmental sensitivity (Chawla, 1998). Environmental sensitivity may, in its broader sense, be identified with an individual’s attitude to nature. It represents a topic of significance and is in the center of growing professional interest (Restall & Condrad, 2015). Knowing the relation of a child, student or adult course attendee to nature along with the ability to measure it may serve as an interesting source of environmental education evaluation (Liefländer et al., 2013). The ways to measure one’s nature relatedness through quantitative approaches are based on using original research tools consisting mostly of scales focused on particular constructs of an individual’s nature and nature environment relatedness. One of the early tools aimed at an individual’s nature relatedness is the uni- dimensional Inclusion of Nature in Self Scale (Schultz, 2002). Another one is a 14-item tool called Connectedness to Nature Scale (Mayer & Frantz, 2004), measuring the respondent’s affiliation to the natural world and their emotional link to it. The Nature Relatedness Scale – NRS (Nisbet et al., 2009; Nisbet, 2011) has been its author’s cherished tool, being a 21-item scale based on the biophilia hypothesis (Wilson, 1984; Kellert & Wilson, 1993). The respondent expresses their level of consent with every item on a standard five-point Likert scale. NRS is aimed at a construct called nature relatedness by its author: “The concept of nature relatedness encompasses one’s appreciation for and understanding of our interconnect- edness with all other living things on the Earth… It is not simply a love of nature or enjoyment of only the superficially pleasing facets of nature, such as sunsets and snowflakes. It is also an understanding of the importance of all aspects of nature, even those that are not aesthetically appealing to humans“ (Nisbet et al., 2009, p. 718). This concept covers the affective, cognitive as well as physical dimension of an individual’s relation to nature. The metacognitive dimension (Říčan, 2016) is not covered. The authors differentiated three factors (Nisbet et al., 2009). In their further studies, the same authors proved that the nature relatedness construct is a predictor of a person’s ease and sanity (Nisbet et al., 2011). Similar results were found in experiments analysing the influence of nature sojourn or watching nature documentaries on a person’s sense of happiness and environmentally responsible behavior (Nisbet & Zelenski, 2011; Zelenski et al., 2015). Also, The Effect of the Type of the Finished High School 233 a meta-analysis involving NRS together with CNS and INS (Capaldi et al., 2014) proved a certain bondage of one’s attitude to nature within a wider frame. In 2013, Nisbet & Zelenski (2013) offered an abridged and modified version of a tool called NR-6. As seen in the name, it only consists of six items selected from NR sub-scores self and NR experience. NR-6 strongly positively correlates with the original tool (r = 0. 91) and the authors recommend it as an optional alternative (Nisbet & Zelenski, 2013).

Research Problem The primary school teacher can have a significant effect on forming environmental attitudes in a student or their base in terms of the student’s attitude to nature, where such attitudes are formed. That is also why we need to investigate important milestones influencing the teacher’s characteristics, where without any doubt the high school education belong.

Research Focus The aim of the research was to find the answers to the following questions, with the use of the NRS scale and its abridged version: 1. Where is the potential of using the NRS scale and its abridged version NR-6 with primary school teacher trainees? 2. In what way is primary school teacher trainees’ nature relatedness influenced by their previously attended high school?

Research Methodology

Research General Background The research design is quantitative, with the use of collecting data through a questionnaire. The data was obtained from students at Czech universities. The students’ participation was voluntary. The data collected was anonymous and was only used for the purposes of the research and is in no relation to the results of the students’ studies. For the above-mentioned reasons, we do not disclose the names of the institutions involved in data collection.

Research Sample The sample of respondents consisted of 917 primary school teacher trainees from selected universities in the Czech Republic. With regard to the characteristics of the research, a balanced sample is not offered in terms of gender (52 male and 234 Roman Kroufek, Vlastimil Chytrý, Miriam Uhrinová

865 female respondents). The selection of the students covered all forms of their five-year study. The sample size is adequate for the research (Bartlett et al., 2001).

Instrument and Procedures The research tool chosen was a questionnaire consisting of items focusing on the respondents’ demographic background (their age, gender), high school attended prior to university studies and also items from the Nature Relatedness Scale (Nisbet et al., 2009), in its translation into Czech by Franěk (2012). The scale covers 21 items, answers to each item are noted on a Likert-type scale in the following terms: strongly disagree - partly disagree – neither agree nor disagree – partly agree – strongly agree. Within the frame of the above-mentioned scale, they separately followed the items of an abridged version NR-6 (Nisbet & Zelenski, 2013). The sum of individual items was used to evaluate individual scales. The questionnaire was in its material form distributed to the respondents during 2015; the respondents took about 20 minutes to fill their forms in.

Data Analysis The data were analysed using Statistica 12 software (Statsoft, 2015). To find the reliability of the scales (NRS and NR-6), we used standard methods used in pedagogical research. With tools using a five-point Likert scale for respondents’ entries, Cronbach’s α coefficient is used to measure internal consistency of the tool. Normality data testing was realized at a 5% level of significance with the use of the Shapiro-Wilk normality test, where it was tested against the null hypothesis that the evaluated data has normal distribution. To compare more groups, the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA was used, followed by posthoc analysis (Siegel & Castellan, 1988). One-percent level of significance was used.

Research Results

The following values of Cronbach’sα coefficient were found in the case of the mentioned scales: NRS α = 0.88, NR-6 α = 0.85. The reliability may be considered excellent in both cases. The content validity was guaranteed through generally accepted scales repeatedly used with success in influential research (Nisbet et al., 2009; Nisbet et al., 2011; Craig et al., 2016). Predictive validity was illustrated by our research results. According to the Shapiro-Wilk normality test results, the null hypothesis with the normal distribution of data is to be rejected within NRS (W = 0.97; p < 0.001) as well as within NR-6 (W = 0.97; p < 0.000) and only The Effect of the Type of the Finished High School 235 nonparametric methods of statistical analysis are to be counted on in further research. The whole calculation will be performed by the Robinson and Levin (1997) two-step model. As a guideline for assessing the significance of the results, statistically unimagined by the range of the analyzed set, the effect size coefficients will be used (Cohen, 1988; Morse 1999; Sheskin, 2007; Thomas & Nelson, 2001). These coefficients eliminate the influence of positive dependence on statistical significance on the set size (Rosenthal, Rosnow, & Rubin, 2000).

Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA analysis and eta2(η2) As seen in the NRS (H = 128.95; p < 0.001) and NR-6 (H = 142.32; p < 0.001), statistical significance of the variable “high school” is to be found and the null hypothesis at the one-percent level of significance is to be rejected. Substantive significance is calculated in this case, using the η2 coefficient, which is an example of the effect size coefficient associated with Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA. The observed values η2 = 0.136 for NRS and η2 = 0.151 for NR-6 indicate a mean effect in the NRS scale (η2ϵ<0,06 – 0,14>) and a large effect for NR6 (η2>0,14). It is, therefore, necessary to gain a closer insight into the issue. The results of posthoc analysis shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Posthoc analysis for the NRS scale

Educa- Grammar Social Polytech- Natural Economic tional School Services nics Science Educational p = 0.523 p = 0.017* p <0.001** p = 0.037* p <0.001* Economic p = 0.523 p <0.001** p <0.001** p = 0.435 p = 0.085 Grammar School p = 0.017* p <0.001** p <0.001** p <0.001** p <0.001** Social Services p <0.001** p <0.001** p <0.001** p <0.001** p <0.001** Polytechnics p = 0.037* p = 0.435 p <0.001** p <0.001** p = 0.673 Natural Science p <0.001** p = 0.085 p <0.001** p <0.001** p = 0.673

Note: Values in bold are statistically significant: *the level of significancep = 0.05, **the level of significancep = 0.01

The table shows that the greatest differences occur between social and other types of high schools, where there were statistically significant differences in all the cases. It is of interest to notice grammar school, where there was a difference found with other types of schools, excluding educational schools. Individual differences are presented in Table 2, compiled on the basis of descriptive analysis and also Graph 1. With regard to the nonparametric character of the data, the median values are determinants for the detection of the difference. 236 Roman Kroufek, Vlastimil Chytrý, Miriam Uhrinová

Table 2. Descriptive analysis results with NRS

Grammar Social Ser- Polytech- Natural Educational Economic School vices nics Science Ø 75.03 77.43 71.24 53.86 80.25 83.41 Me 79.00 81.00 73.00 54.00 85.00 84.00 Mod 83.00 83.00 81.00 55.00 86.00 79.00 SD 13.88 14.30 14.60 7.31 13.15 8.83

Table 2 shows that social service schools are significantly different from other types of schools. The students of such schools belong to the group with the lowest median, meaning their nature relatedness is remarkably lower than that of the students of other types of schools. Grammar schools in their median are also differentiated from other school types, only not as much as in the case of social service schools. It is rather surprising that at the one-percent level of significance no differences between educational schools and polytechnics (Me 85) were found, unlike the difference between educational and natural science schools (Me 84), it was statistically significant.

110

100

80 Median 25%-75% 70 Min-Max NRS 60

20 Educational Grammar school Polytechnics Economic Social Service Natural science Type of secondary school Figure 1. Boxplot NRS The Effect of the Type of the Finished High School 237

The above-mentioned subtleties in results are best explained through a quartile graph showing the difference between educational schools and polytechnics lying in the vertical shift, where the difference in upper and lower quartile is not of much difference as in educational and natural science schools. As in the case of an entire scale of NRS along with NR-6, the null hypothesis was rejected at the one-percent level of significance. The results of follow-up posthoc analysis are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Posthoc analysis for the NR-6 scale

Educa- Grammar Social Polytech- Natural Economic tional School Services nics Science Educational p = 0.273 p = 0.063 p <0.001** p = 0.011* p <0.001** Economic p = 0.273 p <0.001** p <0.001** p = 0.561 p = 0.006 Grammar School p = 0.063 p <0.001** p <0.001** p <0.001** p <0.001** Social Services p <0.001** p <0.001** p <0.001** p <0.001** p <0.001** Polytechnics p = 0.011* p = 0.561 p <0.001** p <0.001** p = 0,588 Natural science p <0.001** p = 0.006 p <0.001** p <0.001** p = 0,588

Note: Values in bold are statistically significant: *the level of significancep = 0.05, **the level of significancep = 0.01

Particular differences are presented in Table 4, set according to descriptive analysis and Figure 2. With the help of the abridged NR-6 scale, it was concluded that the results are almost the same as in the case of the entire NRS scale, which proves, above other things, the possibility to use NR-6 to find results of nature relatedness in the respondents.

Table 4. Descriptive analysis results for NR-6

Grammar Social Ser- Natural Educational Economic Polytechnics school vice Science Ø 19.79 21.22 18.32 11.41 22.23 23.92 Me 21.00 21.00 19.00 12.00 23.00 24.00 Mod 20.00 21.00 20.00 12.00 27.00 23.00 SD 5.41 4.62 5.93 3.72 5.14 4.04

The concurrence in the results of both scales used is perfectly clear in Figure 2, where a vertical shift occurs more often with NR-6 due to a lower number of items, and the in-between-quartile range is concurrent in more of the groups observed. 238 Roman Kroufek, Vlastimil Chytrý, Miriam Uhrinová

32 30 28 26 24 22 Median 20 25%-75% 18 Min-Max NR-6 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 Educational Grammar school Polytechnics Economic Social Service Natural science Type of secondary school Figure 2. Boxplot NR-6

Discussion

The first research question was of descriptive nature: “What are the options of NRS and abridged NR-6 version scales in primary school teacher trainees?” The reliability of both scales was verified, and it was found of adequate height in both cases. Similar reliability results with university students were obtained in the studies carried out by Franěk (2012) and Kroufek & Chytrý (2015). The latter then attracted attention to the low reliability of the abridged NR-6 scale. The results obtained on both scales are practically identical (cf., Tables 1 and 2), which in concordance with Nisbet & Zelenski (2013) and Craig et al. (2016), who encourage the possible usage of NR-6 instead of its more sophisticated original NRS scale. Options for using the subtle scale in research are opening for cases where there is no need for a large number of items in the research tool (e.g., Bragg et al., 2013; Windhorst & Williams, 2015). This research complements the idea of the usability of both scales in related cultures and therefore these scales can be used for further research in the Central European context. The second research question was as follows: In what way is primary school teacher trainees’ nature relatedness influenced by their previously attended high school? This was the first time the question about the connection of previously The Effect of the Type of the Finished High School 239 attended high school and nature relatedness was investigated. A number of statistical as well as substantive significant differences were observed among the types of high schools through statistical analysis. The highest values, meaning the highest level of nature relatedness, were obtained by the students previously attending natural-science-oriented high schools, which, above other aspects, prove the prognostic validity of both scales used. The higher results obtained by the students previously attending polytechnics are of interest. Such results encourage the idea of polytechnic and environmental thinking, or polytechnic and environmental literacy are in no way contradictory (Janovec et al., 2016), but on the contrary, a large range of “technically oriented” people are very sensitive and their attitude to nature is rather friendly. Similarly, business and educational vocational schools may be considered in the same league. Grammar school graduates receive the most extensive secondary education among the student participants and that is why their results are surprising. On the contrary, the low results obtained by the respondents who had finished social-service-oriented schools were to be expected, in terms of the structure of the nature relatedness construct. The graduates of the above-mentioned vocational schools are probably more affiliated with people and society. Since nature relatedness is a significant part of the affective dimension of environmental literacy (Hollweg et al., 2011), the findings shown in the paper may help predict suitable educators who could then become in charge of executing environmental education at schools. Adequately environmentally literate and therefore motivated and zealous teachers are the guarantee of successful execution of environmental education (Robottom et al., 2000; Cheng & So, 2015). It has been repeatedly proven that nature relatedness or some of its aspects positively affect happiness and well-being as well as mental and physical health of people, while helping to overcome anxiety and depression (Nisbet, Zelenski & Murphy, 2011; Zelenski & Nisbet, 2014; Dean, Shanahan, Bush, Gaston, Lin, Barber, Franco & Fuller, 2018). This research draws attention to the fact that while natural, technical and vocational school graduates have a high degree of nature relatedness, higher school graduates, who are more focused on working with society, have statistically lower values. In their future work for society, they are significantly exposed to depression, anxiety and burnout. It is, therefore, appropriate to look for ways to include nature relatedness and, in general, the pleasure of nature, in socially oriented secondary schools.

Limits of the research No doubt, there are limits to the research presented; among them there is, especially, the use of an available sample of respondents, which should also be large enough. The results may be slightly adjusted by outlier values. With such a large 240 Roman Kroufek, Vlastimil Chytrý, Miriam Uhrinová set, the outlier values usually get identified. Since such deviations were not caused by ill measuring or incorrect analysis, they are left within the set we used.

Future research The type of high school attended is not the only potential factor influencing nature relatedness in future primary school teachers, even though it has been considered a significant factor. Future research could try and identify other factors supposedly affecting the relatedness. For example, major life experiences, leisure activities, one’s parents’ education and profession, the length of regular contact with nature, etc.

Conclusions

The results of the research have proven that the type of high school attended does influence the nature relatedness of primary school teacher trainees. The respondents in natural-science branches reached significantly higher values in measuring the complex construct of nature relatedness than the graduates from educational, social service and grammar schools. Similarly high values were obtained by the polytechnics graduates. The type of high school attended may then not only influence an individual’s nature relatedness, but also others who are later in touch with the graduate. In the case of the primary school teachers, the high school they graduated from affects the way environmental education is executed in their future workplace.

Acknowledgements This article was supported by J.E. Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem internal grant No.: UJEP-IGS-2018 – 43 – 001 – 1 and UJEP-SGS-2017 – 43 – 003.

References Bartlett, J.E., Kotrlik, J.W., & Higgins, C.C. (2001). Organizational Research: determining Appropriate Sample Size in Survey research. Information Technology, Learning, and Performance Journal, 19 (1), 43 – 50. Bragg, E., Wood, C., Barton, J., & Pretty, J. (2013). Measuring connection to nature in children aged 8 – 12: A robust methodology for the RSPB. University of Essex. The Effect of the Type of the Finished High School 241

Capaldi, C.A., Dopko, R.L., & Zelenski, J.M. (2014). The relationship between nature connectedness and happiness: a meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1 – 15. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00976. Chawla, L. (1998). Significant Life Experiences Revisited: a review of research on sources of environmental sensitivity. Environmental Education Research, 4 (4), 369 – 382. Cheng, N.Y.I., & So, W.M.W. (2015). Teachers’ environmental literacy and teaching stories of three Hong Kong primary school teachers. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 24 (1), 58 – 79. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral science (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Craig, J.M., Logan, A.C., & Prescott, S.L. (2016). Natural environments, nature relatedness and the ecological theater: connecting satellites and sequencing to shinrin-yoku. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 35 (1). Dean, J.H., Shanahan, D.F., Bush, R., Gaston, K.J., Lin, B.B., Barber, E., Franco, L., & Fuller, R.A. (2018). Is Nature Relatedness Associated with Better Mental and Physical Health? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15 (7), 1371. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071371. Dunlap, R.E. (2008). The New environmental paradigm scale: From marginality to worldwide use. The Journal of Environmental Education, 40 (1), 3 – 18. Dunlap, R.E., & Van Liere, K.D. (1978). The new environmental paradigm: A proposed measuring instrument and preliminary results. The Journal of Environmental Education, 9 (4), 10 – 19. Franěk, M. (2012). Nature Relatedness Scale. Envigogika, 7 (1), 1 – 10. Retrieved from http:// dx.doi.org/10.14712/18023061.69. Hines, J.M., Hungerford, H.R., & Tomera, A.N. (1987). Analysis and synthesis of research and responsible environmental behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Environmental Education, 18 (2), 1 – 8. Hollweg, K.S. Taylor, J.R., Bybee, R.W., Marcinkowski, T.J., McBeth, W.C., & Zoido, P. (2011). Developing a framework for assessing environmental literacy. Washington, DC: North American Association for Environmental Education. Hungerford, H.R., Volk, T., Wilke, R., Champeau, R., Marcikowski, T., May, T., Bluhm, W., & McKeown-Ice, R. (1994). Environmental Literacy Framework. Environmental Education Literacy Consorcium. Cardonbale, Illinois:, University of South Illinois. Janovec, J., Kroufek, R., Chytrý, V., & Dolejšová, J. (2016). Qualitative view on environmental and technological literacy of pre-service primary teachers. INTED 2016 proceedings. Valencia: IATED. Kellert, S., & Wilson, E.O. (eds.). (1993). The Biophilia Hypothesis. Washington: Shearwater Books, 484 p. Kroufek, R., & Chytrý, V. (2015). The nature relatedness of the undergraduate students in the Czech Republic. ICERI 2015 proceedings. Seville: IATED. Liefländer, A.K., Fröhlich, G., Bogner, F.X., & Schultz, P.W. (2013) Promoting connected- 242 Roman Kroufek, Vlastimil Chytrý, Miriam Uhrinová

ness with nature through environmental education. Environmental Education Research, 19 (3), 370 – 384. Mayer, F.S., & Frantz, C.M. (2004). The connectedness to nature scale: A measure of individuals’ feeling in community with nature. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24 (4), 503 – 515. Morse, D.T. (1999). Minsize2: A computer program for determining effect size and minimum sample for statistical significance for univariate, multivariate, and nonparametric tests. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 59 (3), 518 – 531. Nisbet. E.K. (2011). A Nature Relatedness Intervention to Promote Happiness and Environ- mental Concern. Ottawa, Ontario: Carleton University. Nisbet, E.K., Zelenski, J.M., & Murphy, S.A. (2009). The Nature relatedness scale. Linking individuals’ connection with nature to environmental concern and behavior. Environ- ment and Behavior, 41 (5), 715 – 740. Nisbet, E.K., Zelenski, J.M., & Murphy, S.A. (2011). Happiness is in our Nature: Exploring Nature Relatedness as a Contributor to Subjective Well-Being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12 (2), 303 – 322. Nisbet, E.K., & Zelenski, J.M. (2011). Underestimating nearby nature: Affective forecasting errors obscure the happy path to sustainability. Psychological Science, 22 (9), 1101 – 1106. Nisbet, E.K., & Zelenski, J.M. (2013). The NR-6: a new brief measure of nature relatedness. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 1 – 11. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2013.00813. Nisbet, E.K., Zelenski, J.M., & Murphy, S.A. (2011). Happiness Is in Our Nature: Exploring Nature Relatedness as a Contributor to Subjective Well-Being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 12 (2), 303 – 322. Perkins, H.E. (2010). Measuring love and care for nature. Journal of Environmental Psy- chology, 30 (4), 455 – 463. Peyton, R., & Miller, B. (1980). Developing an internal locus of control as a prerequisite to environmental action taking. In Sacks, A. et al. (Eds.) Current issues VI: The yearbook of environmental education and environmental studies. Columbus: ERIC, 173 – 192. Restall, B., & Condrad, E. (2015). A literature review of connectedness to nature and its potential for environmental management. Journal of Environmental Management, 159, 264 – 278. Robinson, D., H., & Levin, J.R. (1997). Reflections on statistical and substantive significance with a slice of replication. Educational Researcher, 26 (5), 21 – 27. Robottom, I., Malone, K., & Walker, R. (2000). Case studies in environmental education: Policy and practice. Geelong Vic Australia: Deakin University Press. Rosenthal, R., Rosnow, R.L., & Rubin, D.B. (2000). Contrasts and effect sizes in behavioral research: A correlational approach. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. Roth, C.E. (1992). Environmental literacy: Its Roots, Evolution and Directions in the 1990s. Columbus, Ohio: ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics and Environmental Education. Říčan, J. (2016). Metakognice a metakognitivní strategie jako teoretické a výzkumné kon- The Effect of the Type of the Finished High School 243

strukty a jejich uplatnění v moderní pedagogické praxi (Metacognition and metacognitive strategies as theoretical and research constructs and their application in modern pedagogical practice). Most: Hněvín. Schultz, P.W. (2002). Inclusion with nature: The psychology of human-nature relations. In Schmuck, P., & Schultz, W.P. (Eds.). Psychology of sustainable development. Norwell: Kluwer Academic, 62 – 78. Sheskin, D.J. (2007). Handbook of parametric and nonparametric statistical procedures. (4th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall/CRC. Siegel, S., & Castellan, N.J. (1988). Nonparametric statistics for the behavioral sciences. (2nd ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill. Statsoft (2015). Statistica 12. Retrieved from http://www.statsoft.cz/. Thomas, J.R., & Nelson, J.K. (2001).Research methods in physical activity. (4th ed.). Cham- paign, IL: Human Kinetics. Wilson, E.O. (1984). Biophilia: The human bond with other species. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 157 p. Windhorst, E., & Williams, A. (2015). Growing Up, Naturally: The Mental Health Legacy of Early Nature Affiliation.Ecopsychology, 7 (3), 115 – 125. Zelenski, J.M., Dopko, R.L., & Capaldi, C.A. (2015). Cooperation is in our nature: Nature exposure may promote cooperative and environmentally sustainable behavior. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 42, 24 – 31. Zelnski, J.M. & Nisbet, E.K. (2014). Happiness and Feeling Connected: The Distinct Role of Nature Relatedness. Environment and Behavior, 46 (1), 3 – 23.

Special Pedagogy

Robert Sabo, Katarína Vančíková, Terézia Vaníková, Denisa Šukolová Slovakia

Social Representations of Inclusive School from the Point of View of Slovak Education Actors

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.20

Abstract The aim of the study was to identify social representations of inclusive school from the point of view of Slovak education actors. Q-methodology (Stephen- son, 1953) was used for the purpose of mapping. A set of 57 items was compiled, representatively representing associations with the meaning “inclusive school”. The items were sorted by 32 participants aged from 25 to 58. Five significant factors were identified, which represented various inclusive school representations linked to: 1) tradition of integration, 2) institutional processes of education quality assurance, 3) priority in declaration of pro-inclusive setting, 4) community co-existence, and 5) needs of a modern society. Prelim- inary interpretation of the representations from the viewpoint of participants’ additional characteristics is described in the discussion.

Keywords: social representations, inclusion, education actors

Introduction

By ratification of international agreements, Slovakia has committed itself to restrict internal and external selection and thus to provide quality education for all children regardless of their accidental characteristics. By becoming a member of the European Agency for the Development of Special Needs Education in 2012, Slovakia made a promise to improve the availability of education to everyone, while pursuing consistent application of principles of inclusion in education in 248 Robert Sabo, Katarína Vančíková, Terézia Vaníková, Denisa Šukolová its reform steps. Despite formal declarations, there is no general consensus in respect of the essence, meaning or feasibility of inclusive education (hereinafter IE) (Petöcz, 2015). Although the topic begins to resonate in political discourse, so far there has been no explicitly declared requirement for IE. In addition, even in the case of political consensus, implementation of pro-inclusion measures may encounter public resistance. Its example is the Czech Republic, where introduction of IE into legislation and school practice has raised literally “anti-inclusion hysteria”. 1 Schooling in the SR and CR traditionally operates on the principle of two parallel streams. One is the vertically built system of the so-called mainstream schools attended by the majority of population within compulsory school attendance, while the minority represented by pupils with special educational needs learns in the system of special schools with a minimum possibility of transfer to the system of mainstream schools. The resistance to inclusive education may be inferred also from the knowledge of the population’s social mentality, which is more oriented to exclusion of differences in the broadest sense than their inclusion into the social mainstream. For the social processes of new ideas adoption or rejection, interpretation of IE by education actors is extremely important. They include teachers and other pedagogical and professional staff at school. It is them who are the key medium through which the public forms its opinion. Therefore, we have been concerned about what the education actors’ shared idea of inclusive school is like, and what is common and characteristic of this idea. At the interpretation level, we are looking for the answer to the question what influences their thinking about this concept. Our formulation of the research problem is based on the knowledge that the IE concept has various forms in various countries (Ainscow et al., 2006). As emphasized by Clough and Corbert (2001), the character of concrete inclusion practice is connected with the tradition of that country, as well as with how research has changed the view of that issue. We rely on the theory of social representations (hereinafter SORs). SOR research helps to reveal people’s views concerning various life problems (cf., e.g., Herzlich, 1973; Joffe, 1995, etc.). SOR is understood here as a summary of opin-

1 Cf.: The ideal of inclusion does not really exist, inclusive education does. Response by the Deputy Minister of Education, Stanislav Štech, to an article in Učitelské noviny (Teachers´ Gazette) (No. 9/2016). Available on: http://www.msmt.cz/ministerstvo/novinar/ideal-ink- luze-skutecne-nefunguje-inkluzivni-vzdelavani-ale Social Representations of Inclusive School 249 ions and beliefs formed in social groups, homogenizing the understanding and assessment of the world through consensual construction of reality (Plichtová, 1998). Thinking is strongly influenced by values corresponding to the social and ideological system and history of the concerned group (Abric, 2003). An important role is played also by current social events (Moscovici, 1961) or interpretative assumptions shaping experience already before the person enters into a certain situation (Fay, 1996). In this context, it may be expected that SORs of inclusive school in Slovakia will develop at least against the background of the following events and cultural schemes: (1) Strong tradition of the special education system, where segregation is perceived as an effective tool of help; (2) persisting collectiv- ism as the inheritance of socialism, shaping subjective teaching conceptions and methods; (3) period ethical individualism emphasizing discourse on human rights and equality; (4) tension between the majority population and the Roma ethnic group and strengthening moralizing discourse on socially excluded groups of population; (5) confrontation with the migration crisis and opposition to immigrants and asylum seekers.

Methodology

To determine SORs, Q-methodology was used, facilitating a systematic study of subjectivity. It includes quantitative analysis of data in combination with a qualitative interpretative framework, thus being one of a few mixed methodological approaches (Stenner, Stainton, 2004; Cross, 2005). Every participant expresses his/ her opinion by sorting a set of statements. Subsequently, using factor analysis based on a correlation of persons, shared systems of ideas and beliefs occurring in the tested sample are identified. The possibility to reveal preferential opinion systems that could not be otherwise expressed by participants is considered a particular strength of Q-methodology (Baker et al., 2010).

Compilation of the Q-set and creation of the quasi-normal distribution matrix In creation of the Q-set, statements were gathered through on-line forms (filled in by 158 respondents), where education actors completed any number of incomplete sentences of the wording: “Inclusive school is a school where…” Obtained statements were reduced and formalized by four assessors independently of each other and in several phases, so that they: (1) included only one thought; (2) meanings were not repeated; (3) plain language was used; and (4) statements had 250 Robert Sabo, Katarína Vančíková, Terézia Vaníková, Denisa Šukolová a sufficient differentiating value. In the end, a set of 57 items was compiled, for which a quasi-normal distribution matrix was created. The scale range (11 points) and its slope were chosen according to recommendations for 40- to 60-item Q-sets (Watts, Stenner, 2012) (cf., Picture 1).

The upper line presents the reference scale on which statements were differentiated (- 5 – statement describes me the least, 0 – vague statement (neither, nor); 5 – statement describes me the most). Each position on the scale could be placed a given number of statements in the brackets. Picture 1. Fixed matrix of a quasi-normal distribution

Sampling and the data gathering procedure The sample consisted of 32 education actors aged 25 to 58 (average age was 36.9 years). Table 1 presents an overview of the participants and their characteristics.2

Table 1. Participants’ characteristics

Gender 2 (man), 30 (woman) Length of school 5 (0 – 5 years), 5 (5 – 10 years), 3 (10 – 15 years), 6 (15 – 20 years), 4 (20 – 25 experience years), 6 (25 – 30 years) Education 2 (secondary education), 1 (higher education – stage 1), 20 (higher education – stage 2), 6 (higher education – stage 3)

2 In Q-methodology, the sampling logic is not subject to the homogeneity rule. If the aim is to study subjectivity, the sample of participants must include an assumption of differentiation in the view of the subject studied – the more heterogeneous the sample, the better (Lukšík, 2013). The sample size is determined by the statistical analysis used (its inverse character) requiring that the number of participants is two times less than the number of items (Stenner, Stainton, 2004). From this point of view, sampling is a combination of convenience and stratified sampling. Social Representations of Inclusive School 251

Gender 2 (man), 30 (woman) Position 7 (head teacher), 13 (teacher), 1 (teaching assistant), 7 (other professional employee) Profession 11 (teacher), 1 (higher education teacher), 4 (kindergarten teacher), 2 (primary education teacher), 5 (school psychologist), 3 (special education teacher), 1 (teaching assistant), 2 (head teacher) School type 8 (kindergarten ), 14 (elementary school), 7 (other – special school, higher education institution) Experience with the 1 (in family), 5 (at school), 23 (no considerable everyday experience) disabled

Note: Three participants failed to fill in socio-demographic characteristics.

Results

Data were statistically analysed by the program Q-accessor (© The Epimetrics Group, LLC, 2010 – 13). 7 factors (rotated using the orthogonal varimax procedure) were identified, explaining together 47.5% of the total data variance (result above 35% can be considered valuable – Watts, Stenner, 2012) and including 18 participants. The criterion for including persons into factors was the loading coefficient value higher than 0.40 and the Fuerntratt criterion taking into account, in addition to the loading coefficient, also the cumulation value (similarity to other participants). Of the remaining 14 participants, 3 participants loaded significantly more than one factor at the same time. 1 participant loaded one of the factors above the set level of significance, however, after application of the Fuerntratt criterion, was not included in the factors. None of the identified factors appeared bipolar. What was described were only factors with their value of eigenvalue higher than 1. Two factors failed to fulfil the condition. In the description phase, maps of meanings of the factors were created. They were based on items with their placement in a given factor considerably different from their placement in other factors. Next, the context of the meanings was looked for between pronounced statements in the factor (item placed in extreme positions). This interpretation procedure could be labelled as a “bottom-up” procedure, since it concerned a heuristic search for the context between individual statements and their naming (Lukšík, 2013). Table 2 presents a description of the factors and an overview of the participants’ characteristics significantly connected with the factors.

252 Robert Sabo, Katarína Vančíková, Terézia Vaníková, Denisa Šukolová

Table 2. Description of the factors

FACTOR A: INCLUSION AS A NATURAL PRINCIPLE OF CHILDREN’S NEEDS SATISFACTION 15.08% of variance; eigenvalue of 4.83; description based on 7 people, average age 44 years; factor likely connected with the following characteristics of the participants: higher education of the 2nd and 3rd stage, experience of more than 15 years. IE is not viewed on as a social request, but as a social need. It is neither a part of marketing nor a means of obtaining material support. It is a school connecting pro-inclusion thinking teachers perceiving work as a mission. They do not call for improved conditions; nevertheless, they create individual educational plans thus responding to children’s specific educational needs. The school has well set processes of integration of all SEN pupil groups. It does not open special classes, but integrates in mainstream classes. At the same time, it moves forward also gifted children. ITs are an integral part of the school. The school co-operates with external providers of Description support services. It concentrates on diagnosing, but does not compare children with a general standard. Its approach influences thinking of people in the region; it works with their attitudes to the disadvantaged and inspires solidarity. It sends a signal that every child should attend the school closest to the child’s home and everyone has the right for quality education services. FACTOR B: INCLUSION AS A MEANS TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF EDUCATION PROCESSES 11.75% of variance; eigenvalue of 3.76; description based on 5 people, average age 32.6 years; factor likely connected with the following characteristics of the participants: without considerable experience of work with the disabled, higher education of the 2nd and 3rd stage, lesser experience, one participant lacking characteristics. Well set up internal processes for quality improvement are of priority. The institution does not yield to the pressure of external control, on the contrary, it is internally motivated to improvement. It is sensitive to hidden problems and perceives them as a source of progress. It is not afraid of feedback. It deals with problems in a mutual dialogue with all parties concerned. Management is based on consistent planning and self-evaluation. Otherness is viewed on as a source of personal enrichment, which motivates to admission of children with various educational needs. The school works with its human resources effectively and sensitively. It employs qual- Description ified teachers with higher education and promotes professional development of its employees. It creates a supportive environment for education of active and civilly involved people gaining confidence in their own power to influence social processes. It is not perceived as a goal, but as a means to improve the quality of educational processes. Social Representations of Inclusive School 253

FACTOR C: INCLUSION AS A DECLARED VALUE OF PRIORITY 5.15% of variance, eigenvalue of 1.65; description based on 2 people, one participant lacking characteristics. The factor was loaded by a female school psychologist with experience of many years, having a close disabled relative in family. The school officially welcomes IE principles presenting itself externally as the ideal of otherness acceptance. It attempts to be a good practice example and create a friendly environment for children. In accordance with I principles, it integrates SEN children into mainstream classes and does not refuse to integrate even Roma children. It welcomes also teachers with disabilities, because it sees a potential in them for a better understanding of disabled children’s needs. It motivates teachers to the individual approach, open communication and mutual dialogue. Teach- ers have sufficient space for freedom and self-realisation. On the one hand, the school is aware of the key role of the teaching employee who has its support; on Description the other hand, the teaching employee must rely mainly on him/herself and his/ her colleagues, the teaching staff. Management processes reflect rather a tendency to ad hoc dealing with current needs of the school, pupils, staff and parents. So far, attitudes and value pillars are reflected more intensely than the quality of the processes of education individualization through adaptation of goals and means to children’s needs. FACTOR D: INCLUSION AS A NATURAL PART OF COMMUNITY LIFE 8.89% of variance; eigenvalue of 2.85; description based on 2 people, age: 40 and 58, female, higher education of the 2nd and 3rd stage; type of school: kindergarten and elementary school; experience of more than 20 years; head teacher and teacher, both with considerable experience with disabled pupils. It is a local type of school. No parent has to drive his/her child outside the village, town or given locality. The community school reflects the diversity of the local population. As being daily confronted with multiculturality, it naturally accentu- ates the need to search for a unifying principle. It is aware of the fact that collective functioning requires of each member of the school a certain degree of adaptation to the majority. It is not in its power to satisfy individual needs of each teacher or parent. Nevertheless, it is aware of the variety of children’s educational needs, which influences educational processes at school. It does not lose time by comparing chil- Description dren with a vague objective standard. On the contrary, it concentrates it attention on the strengths and limits of each pupil and responds to them. It works with them in groups respecting the level of their development. An important feature of the community life is a rich offer of out-of-school activities strengthening relationships among the teachers, school staff, parents and children. 254 Robert Sabo, Katarína Vančíková, Terézia Vaníková, Denisa Šukolová

FACTOR E: INCLUSION AS ONE OF MANY NEEDS OF A MODERN SOCIETY 3.68% of variance; eigenvalue of 1.18; description based on 1 person, the participant lacking characteristics. The school responds to the social fact of multiculturality and opens its door to all children. It reflects the social need of I, creating conditions for education of all children in the mainstream. It is aware of the dominant position of the parent in upbringing and respects the parent’s protective approach to the child. It knows that it is under parents’ scrutiny, therefore it adapts education goals and means to children’s educational needs. Thus it satisfies not only children’s needs, but also parents’ need to be proud of their offsprings. It employs various specialists and forms ITs. It perceives I as a social request to be responded to. It wants to contribute to creation of a more tolerant and cohesive society, emphasizes equal access to cultural resources Description for disabled citizens. It presents this also outwards. It holds seminars where children openly speak about their disabilities thus getting support from their school mates. It reflects the labour market dynamics and educates children for the current situation. It is aware of the fact that the current generation of children lives in information society requiring development of digital competencies therefore it uses as much ICT as possible.

Legend: IE - inclusive education; I - inclusion; IT - inclusion team; ICT - information-communication technologies

Discussion

The idea of school with inclusion perceived asa natural principle of children’s needs satisfaction (A) is represented by the highest number of participants. They are characterized by a higher age and experience of more than 15 years. They are education actors who participated in the integration effort in the Slovak education system in the nineties of the 20th century. This is likely the reason why they declare the need to respect the needs of all children and the need for equal chances of quality education. The idea of inclusive school is, however, partially deformed by misaligned legislation. Up to the present day, the School Act has integrated a segregation concept of specified groups of children, which could explain the strong emphasis on SEN children integration. SORs of inclusion as a means of improving the quality of education processes (B) is associated with rather a younger generation of participants with less experience, having achieved higher education of the 2nd and 3rd stage. The actors endorse participatory forms of school management and emphasize the need for good conditions for teachers’ work. Such a school acquires features of a school as a learning organization open to initiatives from outside and to strengthening of Social Representations of Inclusive School 255 the synergistic effect (Hopkins, 2001). It is a currently highlighted model, considered very effective because of its increasing capacities for real school improvement in quickly changing conditions (Harris, 2003). The third characteristic of inclusive school is represented by the idea where inclusion is a declared value of priority (C). The obtained description is based on two people, with one participant having failed to fill in characteristics. Neverthe- less, we know that the factor is loaded by a school psychologist with experience of many years, having a disabled close relative in family. We are of the opinion that it is this experience of the actor that may explain the emphasis on declaration of IE values and principles towards the public. The description materializes the idea that school should clearly communicate the message of supportive, accepting and open school admitting children and teachers with disabilities. The description may be a response to the climate in the Slovak society, which is rather contrary to the idea of inclusion. Negative experience with inclusion of the disabled family member into ordinary life is probably so intense that it creates the idea of school publicly endorsing the principles of inclusion, on which it also builds its marketing. Next, there is a description perceiving inclusion as a natural part of community life (D). This factor is represented by two actors with experience of many years and considerable experience with disabled pupils. The description shows clearly that the inclusive school is perceived as a place that can be attended by all children living in the locality regardless of their characteristics. It is an institution that is not only a place of learning, but also a place of associating. Inclusion is a natural response to the local diversity. We assume that the description is underpinned by the head teacher and teacher’s real experience with diversity, thus also the knowledge of its risks. What is noticeable is the inclination to the conception of liberal multiculturality, according to which a multicultural society must show a high degree of solidarity in its members. However, the more diverse it is, the more acute is the need for cohesion and interaction (Parekh, 2000). However, unification of the community requires also a certain rate of conformity and impersonalisation. Thus, inclusion in this school is not an ideal, but an appeal to adjust conditions to individuals’ needs, with an emphasis on collective goals of the institution. In the case of the last SORs, we failed to find out additional characteristics of the participant understanding inclusion as one of many needs of modern society (E). Here, school is perceived as an institution that should follow current trends whether in the area of modern technologies or modern teaching methods and approaches. It is noticeable in the description that the teacher – pupil or teacher – parent relationship is viewed as provision of services with all processes aimed at customer satisfaction. According to this characteristic, school is also an institu- 256 Robert Sabo, Katarína Vančíková, Terézia Vaníková, Denisa Šukolová tion that should respond not only to trends, but also social problems. That is why inclusion may be understood as a natural response to growing social exclusion and increased tension among groups, and also as a tool for improvement of school leavers and graduates’ position in the labour market. The benefit of the study can be seen especially in the SOR descriptions, which we consider, due to the created set of statements and heterogeneous sample of education actors involved in sorting, to be a sufficiently representative specification of ideas about inclusive school.3 In contrast, due to the numbers of the actors examined and their descriptive characteristics, we perceive interpretation of the factors rather as an impetus for further research. It is assumed that inclusive school SORs are influenced also by the respondents’ gender (Alghazo Emad, Naggar Gaad, 2004). We recommend taking also the school type (mainstream/special, country/town) into consideration as well as the stage of education system the respondent works at (Schmidt, Vrhovnik, 2015).We have noticed a trend of different thinking in the teaching staff (teacher, teaching assistant) and the staff of specialists (special education teacher, school psychologist, etc), but also differences that may be attributed to the respondent’s position at work, where experience with management is likely to play a role (Bailey, Plessis, 1997). It appears that one’s own intense experience with a child/person with some type of health disadvantage may be of influence (Parasuram, 2006). In the conditions where the concept of inclusive school is more established, we propose to follow up how inclusive school SORs influence actors’ preparedness for co-operation and its quality (Šuc, Bukovec, Žveglič, Karpljuk, 2016).

Acknowledgements This paper is a result of research within the VEGA project No. 1/0765/16, titledQuality of Selected Components of School Culture as a Condition for Creating an Inclusive School Environment.

References Abric, J.C. (2003). L’étude experimentale des représentations sociales. In: Les représenta- tions sociales 7., Presses Universitaire de France, pp.203 – 223. Ainscow, M. (2006). Improving schools, developing inclusion. London: Routledge. Alghazo, Emad M., Naggar Gaad, Eman E. (2004). General Education Teachers in the United Arab Emirates and Their Acceptance of the Inclusion of Students with Disabil- ities. British Journal of Special Education, 31(2), 94 – 99.

3 In Q-methodology, representativeness is always limited by the number of participants. Therefore, of course, we admit the existence of other inclusive school SORs. Social Representations of Inclusive School 257

Bailey, J., Plessis, D. (1997). Understanding principals’ attitudes towards inclusive schooling. Journal of Educational Administration, 35(5), 428 – 438. Baker, R., Exel, J., Mason, H., Stricklin, M. (2010). Connecting Q & Surveys: Three Methods to Explore Factor Membership in Large Samples. Operant Subjectivity. 34(1), 1 – 31. Clough, P., Lindsay, G. (1991). Integration and the support service. Slough: NFER. Cross, R.M. (2005). Exploring attitudes: the case for Q methodology. Health Education Research. 20 (2), 206 – 213. Fay, B. (1996). Contemporary Philosophy of Social Science: A Multicultural Approach, Oxford, UK, and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers. Harris, A. (2003). School improvement. What’s in it for schools? London and New York: Routledge Falmer. Herzlich, C. (1973). Health and Illness. A Social Psychological Analysis. London and New York : Academic Press. Hopkins, D. (2001). School Improvement for Real. London and New York: Routledge Falmer. Joffe, H. (1995). Social Representations of AIDS: towards Encompassing Issues of Power. Papers on Social Representations, 3, 29 – 40 Lukšík, I. (2013). Q-metodológia: faktorové zobrazenie ľudskej subjektivity. (Q-Methodology: Factor Depiction of Human Subjectivity). Trnava: PF TU v Trnave. Moskovici, S. (1961). La Psychoanalyse, son image et son public. Paris: PUF. Parasuram, K. (2006). Variables that affect teachers’ attitudes towards disability and inclusive education in Mumbai, India. Disability and Society, 21, 231 – 42. Parekh, B. (2000). Rethinking Multiculturalism. Cultural Diversity and Political Theory.New York: Palgrave Press. Petöcz, K. (2015). Inkluzívne vzdelávanie. In Právo na vzdelanie a jeho kľúčové aspekty. (Inclu- sive Education. In: The Right for Education and its Key Aspects). Bratislava: ŠPU, 65 – 124. Plichtová, J. (1998). Sociálne reprezentácie: Teória, výskum, výzva. (Social Representations: Theory, Research, Challenge).Československá psychologie, 42(6), 503 – 520. Schmidt, M., Vrhovnik, K. (2015). Attitudes of Teachers towards the Inclusion of Children with Special Needs in Primary and Secondary Schools. Hrvatska revija za rehabilitacijska istraživanja, 51(2), 16 – 30. Stenner, P., Stainton, R. (2004). Q Methodology and Qualiquantology: The Example of Discriminating between Emotions. In Todd, Z., Nerlich, B., McKeown, S., Clarke, D.D. Mixing Methods in Psychology. Hove, New York: Psychology Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 101 – 120. Stephenson, W. (1953). The Study of Behavior: Q-Technique and Its Methodology. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Šuc, L., Bukovec, B., Žveglič, M., Karpljuk, D. (2016). Primary School Teachers’ Attitudes towards Inclusive Education in Slovenia: A Qualitative Exploration. Journal of Universal Excellence, 5(1), 30 – 46. Watts, S., Stenner, P. (2012). Doing Q Methodological Research: Theory, Method and Inter- pretation. London: SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific.

Methodology of Social Sciences

Stanisław Juszczyk Poland

A Role of Critical Questions in Preparing a Scientific Article

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.21

Abstract The article discusses a hermeneutical analysis of academic texts related to the methodological criticism of individual elements of the structure of designed quantitative research, published in the form of articles, chapters in collective works and monographs. Dilemmas of researchers constructing research projects, asking themselves critical questions at each stage of a research procedure, will be described, critical situations for the correctness of a research process, and also general methodological requirements of scientific publications will be indicated. Besides the description of a critical approach of chosen researchers, the work also includes the author’s reflections on carrying out empirical research.

Keywords: scientific criticism, critical questions, hermeneutical analysis

Scientific criticism

The term ‘scientific criticism’, which is useful in our discussion, is being a science-based analysis and assessment of scientific works in terms of their cognitive value and practicability as well as formal correctness (logical scientific criticism). We can analyse cognate words connected with ‘scientific criticism’, e.g., in terms of substantive compliance with the established facts (empirical scientific criticism); legal validity and the correctness of used methods (methodological scientific criticism); the assumed purpose and scientific concepts (theoretical scientific 262 Stanisław Juszczyk criticism) and in terms of philosophical assumptions (philosophical scientific criticism). It turns out that ‘scientific criticism’ or ‘research criticism’ are terms that are often used in the world’s methodological literature and, furthermore, also other terms can be found in it such as: critical analyses, review/commentary/checking, evaluation and assessment (c.f., CyberNurse, 2005). Therefore, methodological scientific criticism is related to: critical analysis of theories describing a given occurrence or process; critical assessment of the results of research published by various authors in the form of monographs, articles and conference papers; critical analysis of the source literature containing both theoretical bases for research, and its sample results; criticism of methodological concepts of designed basic and applied research (critical analysis of the research structure); critical assessment of Master’s, doctoral, and postdoctoral dissertations (academic promotion papers in general); critical analysis of individual and team, national and international scientific research projects submitted for assessment; critical analysis of proposed research methods, techniques and tools; critical analysis of the results of empirical research; critical assessment of the use of statistical techniques and tools; and critical assessment of the conclusions from research and proposals for putting into practice. The term of methodological scientific criticism is therefore very broad-ranging, wide, it covers analysis of many other terms, research methods and activities undertaken by researchers when designing, realising, and preparing research results. An ability to critically evaluate individual elements of a research procedure (especially in research carried out in the positivist paradigm) is a necessary skill of researchers from different scientific disciplines, in order to assess the integrity and usability of research results and conclusions formulated. Research criticism is a mechanism that enables to repeat research in order to confirm the reliability of the results obtained, and even to collect further information (D.F. Polit, C.T. Beck, 2006). In general, the ability to critically evaluate a research procedure is automatic for many experienced researchers having considerable knowledge and skills in the methodology of research, whose skills cover the following: identifying the object of research, formulating the objectives of research, research questions and hypotheses, selecting a survey sample, constructing a research project, verifying the established research procedures and developed tools, gathering data and analysing data, using statistical methods and tests, and interpreting the results obtained. Without an objective interpretation of obtained data, breakthroughs in science and the development of science would be impossible. The driving force of fact-based research, in a traditional sense, is an ability to measure and assess an occurrence (its quantification), and also relations between occurrences, regard- A Role of Critical Questions in Preparing a Scientific Article 263 less of the nature of these occurrences (D.E. Vance et al., 2013, p. 67). Such an ability makes it possible to formulate particular research questions and verifiable hypotheses so that statistical procedures can be applied to the data obtained for the purpose of reducing them to discrete sets and including their specific areas; this process is often referred to as a reduction and is one of the objectives of science (D.H. Voelker, P.Z. Orton, 1993). From such sets, one may derive objective interpretations which, after some time, together with interpretations of other authors studying the same occurrences may allow for drawing conclusions for putting into practice, and may furthermore cause posing further research questions, and finding answers to them through further research may bring benefits both for science and practice. The result of critical evaluation of research results described in academic literature, required from researchers, is the continuation of many improved practical activities related to putting research results into practice and modernising research methods and techniques. Hence, critical assessment of research results being described in the literature of a given scientific discipline or sub-discipline is so significant. Proceeding this way should be natural for all researchers, who should keep trace of the publication of the latest research in an area in which a given researcher or a given group of researchers is interested, verify the devised structures of a research process, and also their results and discussion in order to get to know the latest model of an explored occurrence. Proceeding this way should be accepted by junior research workers, for whom studying literature systematically and frequently plays a significant role in developing habits that are necessary for achieving scientific professionalism. For this reason, it is required that the theoretical basis for designed quantitative scientific research includes critical analysis of theories describing an occurrence being studied and of the latest results of other authors’ research. Unfortunately, we may rarely encounter such critical analyses of the results of someone else’s research in academic publications, articles more often only discuss selected results of such research and descriptions of those aspects of a theory which the authors are going to use when interpreting their own results. Research procedures are analysed selectively, in order to gain information, e.g., about the method of selecting a survey sample, or the specificity of the field of research. It is rare to find another article by the same author or by the same team that carried out their research again and obtained the same (or similar) results (performed auto-replication), confirming thereby the reliability of their research. Reliable scientific research has a capacity of being carried out again, i.e., a capacity of being replicated in order to make sure whether or not the regularities, dependencies, relations and courses observed are a repeatable course 264 Stanisław Juszczyk of an occurrence, process or event. Thus, obtaining similar (within the limits of a permissible error) research results by the same or other team of researchers, also individual researchers under different field conditions, on a different sample is confirmation of its reliability. An ability to critically evaluate the results of someone else’s research allows a researcher to avoid traps, errors or simplifications and is a good way of improving their own research technique and of honing their own research and methodological skills, leading to achieving professionalism (S. Juszczyk, 2011, pp. 17 – 32).

The title and content of a scientific article

When publishing research results, we need to pay attention to the title of an article or monograph. It should illustrate both the researcher’s concept and the object of research, the data collection methods used, and include dependencies between variables and be comprehensible and not too lengthy at the same time. As the titles of scientific works not always fully illustrate the core of research, keywords are introduced in order to make it easier for the readers to determine dependencies being analysed, determine the usefulness of research and to place it in a specific area of scientific cognition.

Critical questions and finding by a researcher the constructive answers in quantitative research procedure

A quantitative, positivist approach is adopted when a researcher starts designing research with a critical analysis of a theory (or hypothesis) describing an occurrence and falsifies the hypothesis by getting confirmation of its rightness or rejection at an adopted level of confidence. In qualitative research, a researcher pays attention to the context of an occurrence and social and cultural aspects of an environment being studied. Research questions are more open and wider, less precise and hypothetical. A wider spectrum of subjects, of different ethnic origin, race, language, social class, age, and also of a different social rank, is used as compared to a sample selected in quantitative research, which is more homogeneous. Preparing to conduct research, and then to publish it, a researcher needs to pose a number of critical questions to which they should find constructive answers. One can meet elements of methodological scientific criticism discussed below in A Role of Critical Questions in Preparing a Scientific Article 265 research projects prepared by individual researchers or scientific teams, and also in academic articles and monographs. The first element of scientific criticism is the question about the cognitive objective of research: Is this research necessary? What can it contribute to the scientific discipline and practice? Will it broaden the knowledge about an occurrence? If the answers are negative, this means there is no need to carry out this research. Further questions should concern a research project itself, based on the source literature, e.g.: Is there a theory describing the occurrence being studied? If there is none, will the researcher manage to collect data, and then to interpret them? Who will be subject to the research? What will be the structure of planned research? (cf., K. Carter, 2006; S. Valente, 2003, pp. 130 – 142). The next element of research criticism is related to critical analysis of the literature, concerning the object of research. The questions the researcher should ask themselves could be the following: Is the review/analyse of the literature sufficient to design reliable research? Is the literature being analysed up-to-date (published in the last five years)? Are primary or secondary sources used? Is the review of the literature edited well, does it have introduction and summary, so was the latest model of the explored occurrence drafted? The researcher should also answer the following question: What has been written about the issue being studied so far? A further stage of a critical look at research includes formulating research questions and hypotheses. This stage of scientific criticism is the most important because it is directly related to the objective of research. Most frequently, complementary questions are framed, such as: who, what, when, where, why and how? The researcher should think whether or not the questions are framed clearly? Do they contain the objective of research in them? (cf., C. Boswell, S. Cannon, 2011, p. 294). Hypotheses should contain assumed relations between variables. Here, it should be mentioned that quantitative research should be designed so as to foresee using statistical methods for preparing the results of research and for falsifying hypotheses. A hypothesis may be defined ‘as an assumption, a simple statement about predicted relations between variables’ (D.F. Polit, C.T. Beck, 2006, p. 501). Simply speaking, a hypothesis may predict, suggest, assume, explain or verify the quality, property or feature of people, things or of an environment. We often use the phrase of ‘hypothetical situations’ in colloquial language, i.e., a hypothesis proposes a solution to a research problem, is a hypothetical answer to a research question, and the researcher formulates a hypothesis at a certain level of likelihood. Before formulating hypotheses, the researcher should ask themselves the following questions: Did they describe all of the most important variables? Did they perform their operationalisation, i.e., indexation? (after all we place variable indicators in 266 Stanisław Juszczyk research tools often constructed by the researcher) Are the hypotheses formulated clearly? Do the hypotheses illustrate the objective of research? (cf. C. Boswell, S. Cannon, 2011, p. 295) Finally, we are reaching selection of research methods and techniques (data collection) that determines the way of framing research questions and their substantive content. The primary research problem determines the choice of the principal research method or technique, and detailed research questions may indicate the need to employ further research methods or techniques, which help the researcher collect data. Research methods and/or techniques may be quantitative or qualitative in nature, resulting in designing research that is mixed in nature, i.e., it can be quantitative-qualitative or vice versa. The researcher should answer the following questions: Did they choose research methods/techniques well? Are the research tools related to them of standardised nature (i.e., were constructed by other researcher and were standardised in specific research into an occurrence; they have to be used without the researcher’s interference; sometimes, however, the researcher adapts some standardised tool to their needs, but they need to explain in detail and substantively their interference in the tool’s structure and contents) or they were developed by the researcher themselves? How many times were the tools used to collect data and how long did it take? Are the tools still up-to-date and reliable? What is a sequence in which the researcher should use these tools (i.e., what are the stages of research)? (cf., N. Burns, S.K. Grove, 2001). The next step in the research procedure is selecting a sample subject to research. In connection with this, the researcher poses the following questions: What population is the objective of research? How should a survey sample be selected: at random or purposefully/intentionally? What units should be a part of the sample: adults, teenagers or children, women, men, etc.? How big should a sample be, and what is the size of a sample selected for research? Can a selected sample be acknowledged to be representative (i.e., such in which the distribution of a selected variable is similar to its distribution in the population) for the general population (the size of the population itself is important)? The researcher should describe in detail the process of random or intentional selection of a sample because selecting a sample is a critical stage in designing research. To empirical research, specific people functioning under specific conditions are subject, and a change of the specificity of these people and research conditions may distort the image of explored dependencies or make it less clear. For this reason, repeating research into an analysed dependency many times, using various samples and research methods enables to eliminate errors, distortions, and, e.g., to eliminate a random error or an error coming from the size of a sample. A Role of Critical Questions in Preparing a Scientific Article 267

The next stage is collecting data with the use of various research tools, tabulat- ing them and presenting them graphically and statistically, falsifying hypotheses, a qualitative discussion and drawing conclusions. The researcher asks themselves, e.g., the following questions: What should be the sequence in which to collect data? What tools will be used? Should the next tools have been modified after analysing the data obtained earlier? What tools were used? Were they constructed properly and were reliable data obtained with the use of them? What statistical techniques were used in data analysis? Were the value of a statistical test and the size of an assumed error given? Were statistical conclusions drawn properly? What was the level of confidence at which analyses were carried out? Does the narrative, e.g., concerning political, sociological or pedagogical sciences capture the research results properly? Is it coherent, does it include objective argumentation and does it refer to all the data obtained? (cf., B. Holder, 2003). In a number of publications, the statistical significance of a link between variables is considered a measure of successful replication of scientific research. However, e.g., R. Rosenthal (1991) proves that this is not the statistical significance that is an indicator of successful replication, but some effect indicator, such as Cohen’s d statistics (a difference between the means divided by common standard deviation of both groups) or Pearson’s r correlation coefficient. Finally, there comes a time of formulating answers to research questions. Crit- icism of this stage of research aims at answering the following questions: Were all the research questions answered? Were the answers complete and exhaustive? Does it have a close link to the correct structure of research tools, selection of a sample and the researcher’s correct procedure in the field? Were limitations concerning the interpretation of the conclusions drawn from the research determined? Was generalising the conclusions from a representative sample for the general population successful? Do the conclusions drawn fall into the theories that were used to design the research? Were unexpected results obtained and how can the results be interpreted? (cf., L. Daggett, B.L. Harbaugh, L. Collum, 2005, pp. 255 – 258) The last stage of scientific methodological criticism are recommendations concerning putting selected conclusions from the research into practice, determining the need to continue the research, indicating its further areas, or alternatively, finding a new field of research, survey samples, research methods and techniques, seeking further correlations, dependencies, concerning specifying the course of an occurrence or process. In connection with the above, the researcher poses the following questions: Are the research conclusions that the researcher is proposing to put into practice relevant for recipients? What positive changes in the course of an occurrence can one expect owing to them? What contribution to a scientific 268 Stanisław Juszczyk discipline or sub-discipline did the research make? What is the further research that should be designed and carried out? (cf. C. Boswell, S. Cannon, 2011, p. 296).

Conclusions

Methodological scientific criticism is aimed at eliminating errors in the procedure of designing research, makes it easier to construct reliable research tools, carry out research properly, carry out right quantitative and qualitative analyses of research results, and then to draw conclusions and formulate recommendations for putting them into practice. Criticism reveals both strengths and weaknesses of a research project, indicates specific activities for improving the quality of research, broadens the knowledge about an occurrence and demonstrates the need to explore the next aspects of an occurrence or process (B.L. Rodger, 1997). The process of methodological scientific criticism leads to an intense verification of each stage of a research process. Criticism of a research process is necessary both during the process of designing research, and during the process of collecting data, verifying and interpreting them because different epistemological and methodological traps await the researcher.

References Boswell C., Cannon S. (2011). Introduction to Nursing Research: Incorporating Evidence Based Practice, 2nd ed., Critique process, chapter 13. Sudbury, Massachusetts: Jones & Bartlett Learning. Burns N., Grove S.K. (2001). The Practice of Nursing Research: Conduct, Critique, and Utilization (4th ed.). Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. Carter K. (2006). How to Critique Research [Online, course materials]. Available at: http// www.runet.edu/~kcarter/CourseInfo/nurs442/chapter12.htm (22.03.2016). CyberNurse (2005). Reading and critiquing research [online]. Available at: http://www. cybernurse.org.uk/research/reading_and_Critiquing_Research.htm (20.02.1018). Daggett L., Harbaugh B.L., Collum L. (2005). A Worksheet for Critiquing Quantitative Nursing Research. Nurse Educator, 30(6), pp. 255 – 258 Holder B. (2003). The Research Critique [Online]. Available at: http://virtual.clemen- son,edu/group/odce/summer1_03/nursT807/pdf. (24.04.2015). Juszczyk S. ( 2011). The scientific development of the researcher in the process of shaping his scientific identity. “The New Educational Review”, Vol. 26 (4), pp. 17 – 32. Polit D.F., Beck C.T. (2006). Essentials of nursing research: Methods, appraisal, and utilization (6th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. A Role of Critical Questions in Preparing a Scientific Article 269

Rosenthal R. (1991). Replication in behavioral research. In: J.W. Neuliep, ed., Replication Research in Behavioral Sciences, 1 – 30. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Rodger B.L. (1997). Guidelines for Critique of Research Reports [Online, course materials]. Available at: http://www.uwm.edu/~brodg/Handout/critique.htm. (24.04.2016). Valente S. (2003). Critical Analysis of Research Papers. Journal for Nurses in Staff Devel- opment, 196(3), pp. 130 – 142. Vance D.E., Talley M., Azuero A., Pearce P.F., Christian B.J. (2013) Conducting an article critique for a quantitative research study: perspectives for doctoral students and other novice readers, Nursing Research and Reviews, 3, pp. 67 – 75. Voelker D.H., Orton P.Z. (1993). Cliff’s Quick Review of Statistics. Lincoln: Cliff Notes.

Slawomir Pasikowski Poland

The Problem of Matching Rating Scales in Educational Measurement of Variables Modelled as Sets of Oppositional Pairs

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.22

Abstract The validity of educational measurement of characteristics modelled in the structure of oppositional pairs is determined, among other things, on matching the rating scale to the properties of the operationalised variables. 270 people participated in the study of this issue. The results revealed the significance of the type of rating scale and its length in determining the results of characteristics measurement.

Keywords: rating scales, scales of measurement, validity, oppositions

Introduction

The validity of educational measurement depends mainly on a proper concep- tualisation of the measured characteristics, and its operationalisation. Numerous features which are the subject of interest of studies on education have multidimensional backbone, e.g., knowledge, attitudes, self-assessment, well-being, self-image and the image of others, and satisfaction. In practice, many of them are measured using bipolar rating scales, which expresses the researcher’s assumption about the dichotomous structure of the characteristics. The example of an adaptation of such scales and research assumptions is the semantic differential scale. However, the selection of a rating scale is not always suited to the scale of measurement 272 Slawomir Pasikowski chosen by the researcher or the adopted multidimensional structure of the characteristic. A serious difficulty in the case of measurement, not only with respect to multidimensional characteristics, is surjection, i.e., an instance in the process of modelling characteristics in a system of symbols where the same symbol represents different intensity or states of the measured characteristic. The issue of surjection is strongly tied to the problem of the mid-point on a rating scale. This mid-point is often identified as the one that best corresponds to the intensity of a characteristic by those who indicate a similar intensity of both oppositional tendencies, and by those who declare a lack of both tendencies or their negligible intensity. Nevertheless, in research practice, the use of bipolar scales in measuring complex characteristics is still popular.

Mapping functions, measurement scales and rating scales

The subject of educational measurement are usually latent variables, i.e., those which are not directly observable. Measurement of such characteristics requires prior construction of a model representing a given characteristic, and testing its fit to sampled empirical data. Measurement consists in matching symbols to specific values of a characteristic according to established rules, which is described in metrology and psychometry as a mapping function or simply as mapping (Chadha, 2009). In other words, measurement is a process in which mapping occurs from one set (domain) onto another set (codomain). The first set represents the values of a characteristic. The other is a system of symbols used to map this characteristic and its values. The fundamental expectation in the measurement process is the mapping of a characteristic in such a way that specific values of the characteristic respond to specific symbols. This expectation is connected with the term une- quivocality of mapping. Different values of the characteristic should, therefore, be represented by various symbols. This makes the measurement accurate, and its results can be used to perform the operation of comparison. The precision of this comparison depends on the adopted scale of measurement. In the case of measurement tests, this usually means continuous features, for the mapping of which researchers usually use an interval scale of measurement, which assumes a fixed unit of measurement. This type of scale allows them to conduct linear transfor- mations and to determine the distance between the values of a characteristic, e.g., between the result of measurement of person A and the result of measurement of person B. Scales of measurement with a lower level of precision, such as ordinal or nominal, do not have this feature. The Problem of Matching Rating Scales in Educational Measurement 273

Assuming a specific scale of measurement codetermines the selection of rating scales. In the case of measuring continual characteristics, the most often applied rating scales are discrete (numerical scales, such as a Likert-type scale) and continuous (Visual Analogue Scale, in its simplest form as a straight horizontal line). When the modelled characteristic is in an opposition structure, each type is used in one of two variants, i.e., bipolar or unipolar. In the first instance, the poles of the rating scale represent opposite aspects and tendencies. Thus, such a scale has two anchor points. In the second instance, each oppositional component is assessed using a separate rating scale, with a single anchor point – one pole signifies minimum intensity and the other maximum intensity of the tendency.

The problem of matching a rating scale

Apart from matching the model to the measured phenomenon, one should factor in convergence of the adopted scale of measurement and the adopted rating scale. Otherwise, the validity of the measurement may decrease, as researchers sometimes lose sight of this convergence when deciding on the type of rating scale which provides data characteristic to the less precise scale of measurement than the one which was adopted at the starting point. An example of this is age, operationalised as a continuous characteristic and measured using a discrete rating scale, which allows the respondents to choose the range in which their age is located. A similar instance is conducting measurement of a continuous characteristic using a single item equipped with a discrete rating scale, which is not enough to reach a level that guarantees the possibility of implementing a fixed unit of measurement. What is more, discrete scales provide data from an ordinal scale of measurement, which results in limitations in modelling the characteristic, and in selecting the methods of statistical analysis. However, the assumption that a continuous characteristic can be modelled using a sum of values marked on discrete rating scales of a given test allows us to overcome these limitations. Hence, discrete scales are becoming very competitive against continuous scales. This stems mainly from their comfortable implementation, including their intuitive reading by respondents. However, it was noticed that continuous scales provide more varied results than discrete scales. That is why they are preferred in measurements in which reflecting individual differences is of crucial importance (DeVellis, 2017). Notwithstanding, there are studies which demonstrate that discrete scales provide more stable measurement results (Svensson, 2000), which is quite obvious given the average length of these scales – usually around 3 – 7 points – and the fact that 274 Slawomir Pasikowski respondents can easily remember the marked number. All in all, opinions on the possibility of indicating a generalised superiority of discrete or continuous rating scales differ. What is highlighted is the significance of objectives and conditions in which specific types of rating scales are implemented (ibidem). A separate issue is the length of the rating scale. It is not surprising that characteristics of discrete rating scales change along with an increase in their length. As a result, the term quasi-continuous scale was introduced (Hadijsky, 2007). There are also strong positions concerning the optimal length of rating scales (Bandalos, 2018; Preston & Colman, 2000). According to them, it oscillates between 5 and 11 points in the case of discrete scales and 100 – 150 points (mm) in the case of continuous scales (DeVellis, 2017). In the measurement of characteristics modelled in the structure of oppositional pairs, the issue of anchoring the scale is significantly more important than its length. Double-anchored scales, i.e., bipolar scales, simultaneously refer to two aspects of a given characteristic. Such scales allow for observing the shaping of a complex characteristic to a limited degree. They only allow for assessing the dominating aspect and leave the issue of selecting the mid-point unresolved. Hence, in situations requiring adequate measurement precision it is preferable to implement unipolar scales. Each aspect, which corresponds to one pole in bipolar scales, is represented by an entire continuum of a rating scale. This type of solution requires the implementation of suitable data-integrating formulas. However, this is a separate issue which will not be discussed here.

The issue of the mid-point on a scale as an empirical case of tertium non datur

A key issue in selecting the mid-values in a bipolar rating scale rests in the occurrence of surjection. This mid-point is often identified as one that best -cor responds to the intensity of a characteristic by those who demonstrate similar intensity in both oppositional tendencies, and by those who declare a lack of both tendencies or their insignificant intensity. The issue of the mid-point on a rating scale was noticed long ago, and effective solutions were developed in response (Priester & Petty, 1996) and this is not about the proposed ipsative scale. However, the common practice in research is to use bipolar scales to assess the occurrence and intensity of complex characteristics, despite the obvious risk of measurement inaccuracy in situations of similar intensity of separate tendencies within a given characteristic. The presented study is to The Problem of Matching Rating Scales in Educational Measurement 275 illustrate this risk and the role of selected qualities of the type of rating scale in determining measurement results. From among the possible characteristics, an attitude has been chosen for this purpose, as it is relatively commonly modelled in the structure of the opposition, exactly its sign: positive-negative. Moreover, it is relatively easy for the respondent to imagine and is accessible to common individual experience (Conner & Armitage, 2008).

Research Problem The aim of the presented study is to depict the risk of inaccuracy in the measurement of characteristics modelled in the structure of oppositional pairs and to answer the question of the role of such properties of a rating scale as: type, length, symmetry and anchoring, for shaping the measurement results of this kind of characteristics.

Research Methodology

Research General Background The study was conducted as a quasi-experimental design, with random alloca- tion of conditions and comparison of measurement results between groups and within the group.

Participants 270 people participated in the study (including 204 women and 58 men; 8 people did not provide relevant information). The average age was 26 years (m=26.60, me=24, sd=7.34). The respondents were recruited from the student populations of two Polish universities, studying full-time or part-time, and majoring in pedagogy and psychology. The sample was randomly selected. The units of random selection were the students’ class groups.

Instruments and Procedures In practice, it is difficult to select a suitably large sample of people displaying an insignificant and adequately high intensity of both components of a given characteristic. That is why, the research scenario predicted that prior to their replies, the respondents would imagine a given situation. This element of the scenario was based on the assumption that the conditions with which the respondents would identify will correspond to their choices of specific positions on rating scales. 276 Slawomir Pasikowski

For this reason, the respondents were instructed to determine the position on a rating scale, which would be chosen by a person characterised by a given attitude towards a freely selected object (person, thing, etc.). The research design was based on a two-group plan: 2 experimental conditions. In the first experimental condition, an ambivalent attitude was given, and in the second one – neutral. In each condition, 4 factors were taken into account that characterize the scale: scale type (discrete, continuous), length (5, 7, 9, 4, 6, 8, 100, 120, 140 points), symmetry of discrete scale (even, odd) and anchoring (bipolar, unipolar). However, the study was conducted as an incomplete design, leaving out unipolar discrete scales. It was aimed at preventing fatigue with the task, especially since the theory suggested more interesting and diverse results in the case of continuous scales than with discrete rating scales. The instruction for the ambivalence condition informed the respondents that their task consisted in determining the position on a rating scale which would be chosen by a person with a simultaneously positive and negative attitude, to the same degree. The instruction for the neutral condition informed that the task consisted in determining the position which would be selected by a person with an indifferent attitude, i.e., neither positive nor negative. Conditions were randomly assigned in such a manner that first the sheets were distributed by drawing lots, and then handed out according to a specific rule, which consisted in distributing them always starting with the person sitting closest to the entrance to the classroom, and then in a direction perpendicular to the board or screen. All the respondents were to use each scale in the questionnaire. As a result, data from 134 people responding to the ambivalence condition and 136 people responding to the neutral condition was collected. The respondents were given access to the questionnaire which contained: bipolar even discrete scales, with 4, 6 and 8 points, bipolar odd discrete scales, with 5, 7 and 9 points, bipolar visual analogue scales, with the length of 100, 200 and 140 mm, and unipolar visual analogue scales, with the length of 100, 120 and 140 mm. The length of the scales corresponded to the most common length variants (Bandalos, 2018; Colman, Norris, & Preston, 1997). In the case of unipolar scales, the left pole was labelled with a value of 0% and the tight pole with 100%. In other instances, the scales were bipolar, which means that their left poles were labelled as maximum negative, and the right poles were labelled as maximum positive. In this case, the values closer to the right pole were treated as higher.

Data Analysis During the analysis, the following tools were applied: descriptive statistics, Mann-Whitney U test to intergroup comparisons for independent groups, and The Problem of Matching Rating Scales in Educational Measurement 277

Friedmann non-parametric ANOVA for dependent groups. The latter was used in the assessment of intra-group differences between measurements made on different scales. Statistical hypotheses were verified with an assumed significance level of α=0.05.

Research Results

The decision to implement the Mann-Whitney U test was made due to the lack of assumed normal distribution of the compared variables and variance homogeneity in the compared groups. While it was possible to implement tests robust to the failure to fulfil the second assumption, the manner in which responses were given meant that only an extremely asymmetrical distribution of variables could be expected.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for discrete scales

Length of Quartile Deviation Condition Median Quartile 1 Quartile 3 scale (QD) 4 N 3.00 0.50 2.00 3.00 A 3.00 0.50 2.00 3.00 6 N 4.00 0.50 3.00 4.00 A 4.00 0.50 3.00 4.00 8 N 4.00 0.50 4.00 5.00 A 5.00 0.50 4.00 5.00

N - neutral, A – ambivalent

In the case of bipolar odd scales, mid-values on rating scales (5-, 7-, 9-point) were selected regardless of conditions and without exception. On the other hand, visible differences occurred for even scales (Table 1). Here, the members of both groups chose slightly different values on the scales. What is also worth mentioning is intergroup diversity (QD), which did not occur for odd scales. A review of descriptive statistics indicates a generalised tendency to select values higher than the arithmetic mean of points on the scale. An exception was the 8-point scale, where the distribution of responses in the group with the neutral condition was right-skewed, whereas in the group with the ambivalent condition it was left-skewed. This would mean readiness to use lower instead of higher values on the even scale under the neutral condition, and higher instead of lower values under the ambivalent condition. Inter- 278 Slawomir Pasikowski group comparison (Table 3) confirmed this result and also indicated something that the review of descriptive statistics does not reveal, i.e., that a difference similar to the one on the 8-point scale also occurred for the 4-point scale. Effect size for both the discussed scales is not large. However, it definitely indicates a connection between the condition and choice of value on the rating scale.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for continuous scales

Length Standard Condition Mean Median Quartile 1 Quartile 3 of scale deviation

100 b N 49.68 2.51 50.00 48.00 51.00 A 49.41 4.24 49.00 48.00 51.00

120 b N 60.38 2.75 60.00 59.00 63.00 A 59.72 4.10 60.00 57.00 62.00

140 b N 69.25 3.24 69.00 67.00 71.00 A 69.48 6.35 69.50 67.00 73.00

100 u+ N 0.04 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 A 48.66 16.37 50.00 47.27 53.00

100 u- N 0.04 0.29 0.00 0.00 0.00 A 47.68 16.60 50.00 47.00 52.00

120 u+ N 0.05 0.34 0.00 0.00 0.00 A 58.94 18.24 61.00 58.00 64.00

120 u- N 0.06 0.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 A 58.77 17.79 61.00 57.00 64.00

140 u+ N 0.06 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.00 A 67.97 19.32 71.00 66.00 74.00

140 u- N 0.04 0.29 0.00 0.00 0.00 A 68.15 19.71 71.00 67.00 75.00 b – bipolar, u+ – unipolar positive, u- – unipolar negative

On the other hand, the analysis of data gathered through visual analogue scales indicates, similarly to odd discrete scales, a general tendency to choose the mid- point on a scale, regardless of the condition of providing responses and the length of the rating scale. A review of descriptive statistics (Table 2) indicates a slightly higher diversity in results in the group with the ambivalent condition. However, they are so insignificant (measurement with an accuracy of 1 mm), that even effect size (Table 3) for a scale with a length of 120 mm can hardly be taken for an The Problem of Matching Rating Scales in Educational Measurement 279 unquestionable justification for inter-group differences in the scope of choosing a position on the line.

Table 3. A comparison of results between the neutral (N) and ambivalent (A) conditions. The Mann-Whitney U test

Length of Sum of Sum of U Z corr. p Effect size* scale ranks (N) ranks (A) 5 18294.00 18291.00 8978.00 -0.99 0.3200 -0.06 7 18237.00 18348.00 8921.00 -0.52 0.6014 -0.03 9 18037.50 18547.50 8721.50 -1.58 0.1136 -0.10 4 17321.50 19263.50 8005.50 -2.00 0.0459 -0.12 6 17709.00 18876.00 8393.00 -1.31 0.1895 -0.08 8 17068.00 19517.00 7752.00 -2.42 0.0157 -0.15 100 18758.50 17826.50 8781.50 0.52 0.6041 0.03 120 19502.50 17082.50 8037.50 1.68 0.0924 0.10 140 18258.00 18327.00 8942.00 -0.27 0.7908 -0.02

100 u+ 9319.00 27266.00 3.00 -15.14 0.0000 -0.92

100 u- 9318.00 27267.00 2.00 -15.14 0.0000 -0.92

120 u+ 9319.50 27265.50 3.50 -15.14 0.0000 -0.92

120 u- 9320.00 27265.00 4.00 -15.11 0.0000 -0.92

140 u+ 9317.50 27267.50 1.50 -15.12 0.0000 -0.92

140 u- 9316.00 27269.00 0.00 -15.14 0.0000 -0.92

* calculated according to the formula: r=Z/√n

A different situation occurs with respect to unipolar scales. According to expectations, the differences between conditions were definite and clear (Table 3). The persons with the neutral condition marked the left pole of both lines, precisely at the beginning. The persons with the ambivalent condition selected places which were similarly distant from the left pole of both lines, usually close to the middle. However, for the neutral condition, we noticed very high values of standard deviation in relation to arithmetic means, and extremely high positive coefficients of skewness (from 6.6 to 7.2). Both result from the occurrence of four observations, which clearly stand out from 0 on the rating scale – clearly in this case meaning approximately 2 – 3 mm. To assess the role of scales length, previously all data was subjected to propor- tional transformation. The length of a scale proved to be important both in the 280 Slawomir Pasikowski neutral (Friedman chi2=679.48, df=14, p=2.2e-16, effect size: Kendal’s W=0.87) and ambivalent condition (Friedman chi2=1657.9, df=14, p=2.2e-16, effect size: Kendal’s W=0.36), although in each according to a different scheme. In the first one, the measurements with continuous scales differed from the measurements with discrete scales, and also differences occurred due to the anchoring of the scale. In the second one, differences between discrete and continuous scales also occurred, while in almost all the comparisons of measurements, the bipolar continuous scales did not differ from the unipolar continuous scales.

Discussion

The results of the conducted study are in accordance with the expectations that the properties of the rating scale play a role in determining the results of the measurement of characteristics modelled in the structure of oppositional pairs. They particularly coincide with the assumption and results obtained by other authors, that applying bipolar scales in the measurement of such characteristics decreases the accuracy of measurement. This consists in representing different states of a characteristic by the same value on a rating scale. However, bipolar scales are probably not completely insensitive to these differences, though in their case it may also be important whether they are discrete or sufficiently long. Such an assumption can be made following the result for discrete bipolar even scales, which was expressed by higher selection of lower values under the neutral condition, and higher values under the ambivalent condition. Even scales imply a search for a location corresponding with the intensity of a characteristic and, presumably, induce other behaviours in people with a neutral attitude than in people with an ambivalent one. The former choose lower values, and the latter higher. This interpretation, though seemingly justified, requires further study on even scales in the measurement of characteristics modelled in an oppositional structure. In the case of bipolar visual scales, a similar result did not occur, though for the ambivalent condition the scales yielded more varied results (standard deviations) than for the neutral condition. They were clear and regular, though not significant enough to be recognised at the adopted confidence level. However, they allow for formulation of an assumption that low intensity of both tendencies has a more unequivocal representation on a bipolar rating scale than the intensity which corresponds to ambivalence, and that this representation constitutes the middle of the scale. This assumption is also supported by a significantly higher variation of results yielded by unipolar scales under the ambivalent condition than under The Problem of Matching Rating Scales in Educational Measurement 281 the neutral one, which suggests that ambivalence is less unequivocally identified with its corresponding position on the rating scale than neutrality. The thesis concerning differences in the scope of the un-ambiguity of representation is immensely interesting, given the common and opposing standpoint on the significance of the mid-point of the bipolar rating scale. Naturally, the mid- point of the scale is still burdened by high risk of surjective modelling. In the presented study, under the ambivalent condition, the respondents were asked to mark places on unipolar scales which correspond with the same intensity of positive and negative attitude. Although a more distinct variation occurred in this scope than in the group under the neutral condition, the majority of the respondents determined positions close to the middle of the scale. Moreover, in contrast to the neutral condition, there was a large similarity between bipolar and unipolar visual measurements. On the other hand, this variation is still slight in comparison to the possibilities of choice offered by unipolar visual analogues scales. This in turn suggests that ambivalence can be generally associated with the mid-point of the rating scale, or those values of the scale which correspond with moderate intensity of opposite tendencies. Minimum and maximum, as well as values of quartile 1 and 3 indicate that under the ambivalence condition, low and high values of rating scales were selected less frequently. The thesis on the difference in the scope of un-ambiguity of representation creates space for a more subtle depiction of the issue of the mid-point of the scale and broadens the perspective on values close to the mid-point.

Conclusions

The selection of a rating scale which is sufficient enough to lower the risk of surjective modelling, i.e., the possibility of identifying a given value with opposite psychological states, is significant for the accuracy and validity of measurement. Bipolar scales, insofar as there is a need to model the intensity of both tendencies, should be replaced by unipolar scales. In addition, of appropriate length. Even if bipolar even scales, with what is called forced choice, had the capacity to provide information which suggests differences in psychological states. In the presented study, such an effect was revealed in the form of increased selection of higher values on the scale under the ambivalent condition, and lower values under the neutral condition. A measurement of oppositional tendencies, which makes use of separate unipolar scales, provides more data. 282 Slawomir Pasikowski

References Bandalos, D.L. (2018). Measurement Theory and Applications for the Social Sciences. New York, London: The Guliford Press. Chadha, K.N. (2009). Applied Psychometry. Los Angeles–London–New Delhi–Singapore: Sage Publication. Colman, A.M., Norris, C.E., & Preston, C.C. (1997). Comparing rating scales of different lengths: Equivalence of scores from 5-point and 7-point scales. Psychological Reports, 80, 355 – 362. Conner, M., & Armitage, C.J. (2008). Attitudinal Ambivalence. In W.D. Crano, & R. Prislin, Attitudes and Attitude Change (pp. 261 – 288). London, New York: Psychology Press Taylor & Francis Group. DeVellis, R.F. (2017). Scale Development. Theory and Application (4 ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publication. Hadjiiski, L., Chan, H.-P., Sahiner, B., Helvie, M.A., & Roubidoux, M.A. (2007). Quasi-Con- tinuous and Discrete Confidence Rating Scales for Observer Performance Studies: Effects on ROC Analysis.Academic Radiology, 14 (1), 38 – 48. Preston, C.C., & Colman, A.M. (2000). Optimal number of response categories in rating scales: reliability, validity, discriminating power, and respondent preferences. Acta Psychologica, 104, 1 – 15. Priester, J.R., & Petty, R.E. (1996). The Gradual Threshold Model of Ambivalence: Relating the Positive and Negative Bases of Attitudes to Subjective Ambivalence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71 (3), 431 – 449. Svensson, E. (2000). Comparison of the Quality of Assessments Using Continuous and Discrete Ordinal Rating Scales. Biometrical Journal, 42 (4), 417 – 434. Sociology

Montserrat Simó-Solsona Spain Katarzyna Juszczyk-Frelkiewicz Poland

Welfare State Support for Families: a Comparative Family Policies Analysis in Poland and Spain

DOI: 10.15804/tner.2018.54.4.23

Abstract The paper focuses on the analysis of recent family policies on selected programs and actions in Poland and Spain. The analysis was made on the basis of a comparison of three spheres of supporting the families in both countries: financial support, institutional support and conditions of parental leaves. The main data sources came from the OECD and Ministries in Poland and Spain. Results show that there are differences between Poland and Spain in terms of funds assigned to the support of families and children, in terms of the length of maternity and paternity leaves, the level and types of financial support, and also the types of institutional support.

Keywords: family policy, Poland, Spain, public expenditure on families, financial support for families

Introduction

Poland and Spain are currently in a very unfavourable demographic situation. According to the statistics from Eurostat (17.08.2018) in 2016, in Poland the fertility rate was 1.39 and in Spain 1.34. The level of fertility was very similar but the decreasing trends differ in time (Indexmundi, 30.06.2016). In Poland, the period of birth rate decline has lasted for over 20 years, which has caused a lack of replace- 286 Montserrat Simó-Solsona, Katarzyna Juszczyk-Frelkiewicz ment of generations. In turn, in Spain the lack of replacement of generations began almost 40 years ago (Indexmundi, 30.06.2016), even if migration has made up for these consequences. At the same time, life expectancy in Poland and Spain keeps increasing (OECD, 2018a). The lack of replacement of generations and longer life expectancy cause, on the one hand, population reduction, and on the other hand, ageing of society. The difficult demographic situation prompts the Polish and Spanish governments to take actions to increase the number of births. In that situation, only a strategic decision taken immediately gives a chance to improve. One example of these immediate decisions could be observed while analyzing public expenditure on families as a percentage of GDP. Comparing both countries, it seems that the total expenditure on social protection is at the same level, i.e., in Poland 16.9% and in Spain 16.8% of GDP. Nevertheless, there are differences in the level of the distribution of these funds for supporting family and children. In the last 10 years, the Polish government has made a big effort to help Polish families. Between 2007 and 2010, the percentage of GDP in this area increased by 0.5, as a result, in 2010 1.8 % of GDP was spent in Poland. In turn, in 2012 a decrease to 1.6% of GDP was observed (Eurostat 08.03.2018). However, after the introduction of the Rodzina 500 plus (“Family 500 plus”) financial program, the share of the state budget expenditure on family policy keeps increasing from 1.78% of GDP in 2015, 2.5% in 2016, to 3.11% in 2017 (www.forsal.pl, 14.11.2017; Eurostat 08.03.2018). In turn, in Spain public expenditure on families was 0.7% of GDP in 2016 (Eurostat, 08.03.2018), i.e., it was even 1% of GDP less than in 2009, which is mostly explained by economic recession consequences. It is worth noting that both countries pay a high percentage of GDP to support the elderly – Poland spent 9.1% and Spain 9.2% in 2016. Additionally, the Spanish government offers better support for unemployment than Poland –1.8% and 0.5% (Eurostat, 08.03.2018), respectively. The above data indicate that the activities and programmes of the Polish government are aimed at increasing support for families with children. In turn, in the case of Spain, support from the government reduces its range and impact – mostly after the economic recession. Welfare State Support for Families 287

Contemporary family policies in Poland and Spain

As far as the European trend is concerned, family policies implemented after 1975 are focused on aspects that clearly link having children and the work-life balance. Improving maternity leaves, establishing benefits for employed fathers, increasing childcare services such as kindergartens and family allowances reforms are good examples (Gauthier, 1996). The political southern family model is not only characterized by its explicit policies towards the family, but also by the type of the welfare system, the configu- ration of the labour market (gender biased), housing market focused on property and family-centred value system, which reinforce and reproduce it (Flaquer, 2004). For this reason, the southern family model is a completely different construct than the ones characteristic of the northern European countries, especially in terms of the combination of the above-mentioned elements (Simó-Solsona, 2017). Poland favours the model of a two-generation family (parents and children) living in one household (GUS, 2017, p. 210). They are usually marriages with one or two children (OECD, 2011, pp. 24 – 25). There are also many single mothers (GUS, 2017, p. 211). Due to low fertility, delaying marriage and delaying motherhood by contemporary Polish women, who increasingly want to find fulfilment in their professional life, the Polish government offers many benefits and programs aimed at increasing fertility. In the Long-term development strategy of the country, adopted by the Polish government, the improvement in Poland’s demographic situation is considered one of the main development challenges (Council of Ministers, 2012). In the strategy, the objectives focus on the promotion of fertility by reducing the costs of care and upbringing of children, providing real support for families with three or more children and reconciling work and family life. In contrast, the most recent Spanish family policies point out the conciliation between family and work balance, especially in the case of women, because it is undoubtedly the influence of the female activity rate, although in unbalanced conditions as compared to men. Despite this, two relevant facts have to be taken into account: on the one hand, the economic cycle that forces the welfare state to implement substantial reforms in order to stem social expenditure. But on the other, changes in the Spanish demographic profile require more social expenditure, such as ageing (clearly women and unipersonal), single-parent families and social exclusion and poverty suffered by households, affecting especially children. 288 Montserrat Simó-Solsona, Katarzyna Juszczyk-Frelkiewicz

Financial support for families in Poland and Spain

Financial support for families can be divided into two main types: family benefits and tax relief1. The unresolved debate in Europe, including Spain and Poland, is whether these child benefits have to be universal or selective (means-tested). In the first case, they include an extended coverage of family income and the second ones are determined by the income level of families. The most important financial support for families is “The Family 500 plus” program, which was introduced on the 1st April, 2016, in Poland. The program offers untaxed PLN 500 per month for every second and subsequent child up to the age of 18, without additional requirements. Low-income families will also receive support for the first or only child. The annual child support is PLN 6000 net (Kulczyk, 2016, p. 35). Currently, there is not any similar program in Spain2. In Poland, since the 1st January 2013, a one-time childbirth benefit (“Becikowe”) of PLN 1000 has been granted to the mother or father of a child, legal guardian or actual guardian of a child, if the family income per person does not exceed PLN 1922.00 net (Ministry of Family, Labor and Social Policy). In the case of Spain, economic benefits for the birth or adoption of a child are not available at the national level, but only in the case of large families, single parent families and disabled mothers. Nevertheless, every region can implement additional tax relief for it. There are many differences between them, from no benefits, e.g., in Cantabria and Balearic Islands to oscillating tax relief between €100 – 200 for the first child (increasing the amount according to the number of children). Moreover, some regions add an economic benefit in the case of a birth in smaller cities (5000 inhabitants). Prevention of rural depopulation is a complementary objective in family policies (Spanish Tax Agency, 2018). Another financial benefit in Poland is the supplement to the family allowance due to the beginning of the school year, which is payable once per school year in the amount of PLN 100 per child. (Ministry of Family, Labor and Social Policy). In the case of Spain, there is no special allowance related to school at the national level. Yet, there are some economic benefits in some regions, e.g., 15% of reduction in the kindergarten expenses until reaching the maximum of €400,

1 The first ones are child benefits to families in order to increase the disposable income. Tax relief has the same objective – to increase the purchasing power of families and they consist of reductions of specific taxes. 2 Between 2007 and 2010, the government applied a family allowance of €2500 for a child without any requirements, commonly known as a “baby cheque”. For further information about its effects, cf., Gonzalez (2013). Welfare State Support for Families 289 if parents are working and their annual income is not higher than €39,000 in individual taxation (or €52,000 jointly). Tax benefits for buying school material, learning foreign languages and postgraduate studies are other examples. The Polish government also supports single parents raising a child/children. The supplement to the family allowance for single-parent child raising is PLN 193 per month per child, but not more than PLN 386 for all children (Ministry of Family, Labor and Social Policy). As for Spanish single-parent families, a single payment of €1000 for the birth or adoption of a child is made, when the established income limit is not exceeded (€11,605.77 for the first dependent children). Moreover, single-parent families also have some additional untaxed benefits such as a payment of €291 per year for every dependent child living at home, €1000 per year in the case of disabled children (minimum 33% of disability) and a reduction of 45% in social security taxes in the case of contracting a caregiver person (Social Security, 2018). The next financial support is addressed to large families. The amount of the supplement to the family allowance for raising a child in Poland in a large family is PLN 95 a month. The allowance is available for the third and subsequent children entitled to family allowance (Ministry of Family, Labor and Social Policy). Financial support for Spanish large families is comparable. There is a tax relief of €1200 per year and a double amount in the case of “especially large family” (more than 5 children) (Social Security, 2018). In Poland, there is another family allowance, the monthly amount of which is PLN 95 per child up to the age of five, PLN 124 per child over 5 years of age up to the age of 18 and PLN 135 per child over the age of 18 up to the age of 24. The family benefit is intended to cover part of the child maintenance expenses. Granting the right to a family allowance depends on the fulfillment of the income criterion3. In Poland, there is also a supplement to the family allowance for childcare during the period of parental leave, which is PLN 400 per month as a supplement for persons entitled to a family allowance (Ministry of Family, Labor and Social Policy). In Spain, the family allowance for raising a child at the national level is a reduction in the tax system: €2800 per year is applied, if there are children under 3. In turn, the nationwide “Big Family Card” is a system of discounts for families with at least three or more children in Poland (Kulczyk, 2016, p. 33). Its holders have the opportunity to use the catalog of cultural, recreational or transport offers throughout the country. There is an analogous benefit in Spain. It consists of the

3 Detailed rules for granting family allowances are available on the website of the Ministry of Family, Labor and Social Policy. 290 Montserrat Simó-Solsona, Katarzyna Juszczyk-Frelkiewicz exemption or reduction of specified taxes (i.e., academic), reduced prices in public transport and some priority access to loans and public housing. In both countries, there are available tax systems. The Polish tax system is dependent on the level of income and the number of children. The level of income is different for married and unmarried couples and for single parents. Until 2012, the child allowance enabled the deduction of PLN 93.67 (PLN 139.01 and PLN 185.34 for the fourth and every next child) for each month of exercising parental authority (Bryndziak, 2015, p. 24). In 2017, the Spanish tax system determined the individual and family minimum available income as €5550 per year, this amount is exempt from tax. The tax relief depends mainly on the number of children, age and a few more rules (for more cf., Spanish Tax Agency, 2018). In addition, there is tax relief related to maternity. It consists of a payment of €1200 per year from the birth or adoption day until 3 years of age Among the beneficiaries there are only working mothers, excluding unemployment and other inactive situations (Spanish Tax Agency, 2018). Valencia and Catalonia are some of the few regions that have tax relief related to the reconciliation of work and family life. In Valencia, €418 per child from 3 to 5 years of age is applied, in Catalonia there are special general benefits for parents in the case of civil servants.

Contemporary institutional forms of supporting families in Poland and Spain

The proportion of children aged 0– 2 enrolled in formal childcare and pre-school are different in Poland and Spain. According to the data from OECD (2018b), in Spain in 2014 almost 40% of children were enrolled in formal childcare and pre- school – the proportion remains at a similar level between 34% and 43% over the period 2004–2014. In turn, in 2014 in Poland only 11% of children were enrolled in nursery – it was four times less, but the tendency is increasing (cf., Table 1). The reasons for the difference can be seen in longer maternity and parental leave in Poland (52 weeks). Differences are also evident in the proportion of children aged 3–5 enrolled in pre-primary education or primary school. Nearly 97% of children in Spain attended primary school in 2013 and 2014. In Poland, it was by 20% fewer children each year (OECD, 2018b). Welfare State Support for Families 291

Table 1. Proportion (%) of children aged 0–5 enrolled in formal childcare and pre-school in Poland and Spain, 2004 – 2014

Year Country 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Children Poland - 7.8 8.8 9.1 7.8 7.1 6.9 8.0 10.9 9.3 11.0 aged 0 – 21 Spain 43.1 40.9 42.6 41.7 37.4 34.2 38.2 39.7 36.9 36.0 38.1

Children Poland n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 73.2 74.1 aged 3 – 52 Spain n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 96.6 96.7

1 Proportion (%) of children aged 0 – 5 enrolled in formal childcare and pre-school. 2 Proportion (%) of children aged 3 – 5 enrolled in pre-primary education or primary school n.a.: not available data. Source: own compilation based on data from OECD, 2018b.

Due to the above differences, it can be assumed that there are differences in the needs of parents or guardians in Poland and Spain with regard to the institutional forms of family support offered by the government. Comparing the costs of childcare services, 1.7% paid the full or reduced price and an inexistent 0% used cost-free services in the case of Spain in 2016. In turn, in Poland, 10.1% paid the full or reduced price and also 0.6% cost-free service. All the numbers are far from EU-28, which for the same childcare service (under 2 years of age), 23.5% received full-paid or reduced-price childcare service and 6.0% for free (Eurostat, 24.04.18). In Poland, there is a great need to increase the number of places for children in nurseries and kindergartens. For this reason, in 2011 the latest system of care for children aged up to 3 years began to operate and offers various types of daily care institutions, such as: nursery or children’s club, as well as a daily guardian and a nanny (Report of the Council of Ministers 2017, p. 2). It is worth mentioning that since 2016 in Poland the Ministry of Family, Labor and Social Policy has been offering a competition as part of the departmental development program for childcare institutions aged up to 3 : “MALUCH +” (Min- istry of Family, Labor and Social Policy). The aim of this competition is opening more forms of care for children up to 3 years of age. In Poland, there is also a system of care for children aged from 3 to 6 years. Children attend kindergartens, kindergarten units and other forms of pre-school education. The stay of a child in kindergarten is free of payment up to 5 hours 292 Montserrat Simó-Solsona, Katarzyna Juszczyk-Frelkiewicz a day during the core curriculum. For each additional hour parents or guardians have to pay PLN 1 (Eurydice, 2014, p. 20). Since the 1st of January 2017, care for children aged 6 in the kindergartens and other public pre-school education centres has been free of payment. Parents pay only for meals. This is due to the fact that 6-year-old children attending kindergartens, kindergarten units and other forms of pre-school education are covered by the educational subsidy (Ministry of National Education, 06.04.2017). Spanish child services provision is not bad, but there is a long way to go to catch up with other European countries. The number of child services is not increasing enough parallel to the women labour market insertion. Children from 0 to 6 are included in the education system, but this period is voluntary and it is divided into two cycles: the first, from three years of age and second, until six years of age. After this age, compulsory education starts. Between 0 to 3 there are public and private nurseries. Shortage of places in public centres and the extra expenses are the main problems for families. The enrolment rate in primary education shows a constant increase from the 2005/2006 school year, except for 3-year-old children in 2014/2015. From 2005/2006 to 2010/11, the enrolment rates rose by 14.3 points in 1-year-old children and 16.7 points in 2-year-old children (Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport, 2018, p. 16). In order to complete the analysis, it would be very interesting to take into consideration out-of-school care services, mostly private.

Maternity, paternity and parental leaves in Poland and Spain

An extremely important element of the family policy are leaves related to parenthood. Existing maternity, paternity and parental leaves in Poland and Spain differ from each other, especially by the length of leaves. The length of maternity leave in Poland, in the case of the birth of one child, is currently 20 weeks, while the parental leave is 32 weeks. Therefore, in total, there are 52 weeks of leave. Since 2013, it has been possible to use such a long leave. For a long time in Poland, there was a shorter maternity leave – 16 weeks. In 2007, the leave was longer – 18 weeks. In 2009 – 20 weeks. In 2010 – 22 weeks and in 2012 – 24 weeks. Thus, we observe a quite clear progress in the length of maternity leave (cf., Table 2) (OECD, 2018b). Welfare State Support for Families 293

Table 2. Length of maternity leave in Poland and Spain

Year Country 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Mater- Poland 16.0 18.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 22.0 24.0 52.0 52.0 52.0 52.0 nity Spain 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 16.0 Pater- Poland 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 nity Spain 0.4 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1

Source: own compilation based on data form OECD Family Database, 2018b.

In Spain, the length of maternity leave is only 16 weeks and since 1990 the government has not introduced any changes. We can assume that the lack of extending of maternity leave is caused by a common use of pre-school forms of childcare by parents. In turn, paternity leave was extended in Spain in 2018, from 44 to 5 weeks. In 2019, in the Spanish National Budget (not approved yet), paternity leave will be equal to maternity leave (16 weeks) in the next three years5. This situation allows fathers to spend more time with their children, participating in care and upbringing, although nowadays, the extent of paternity leave is residual comparing to maternity6. In Poland, paternity leave is only 2 weeks, and that leave was introduce in 2012. In 2010, there was a possibility to take only one week (cf., Table 2.) (OECD, 2018b). At present, there is no strategic governmental proposal to make the leave longer.

Conclusions

On the basis of the analysis comparing family policies in Poland and Spain, the authors systematized characteristic features of both policies, which are presented in Table 3. The analysis shows that the Polish government has taken many actions to support Polish families, especially during the past years. The activities of the Polish

4 In 2007, the Spanish government, through the approved Equality Law, extended the paternity leave from two days to 2 weeks, and it took the commitment to extend it until 4 weeks. 5 The plan is to extend the paternity leave up to 8 weeks in 2019, reaching 12 weeks in 2020 and 16 weeks in 2021 (Europa Press Madrid, 29/10/2018). 6 From January to June 2018, there was 1.93% of paternity leaves among 127,348 beneficiaries (Social Security , 2018). 294 Montserrat Simó-Solsona, Katarzyna Juszczyk-Frelkiewicz government are focused, to the greatest extent, on financial support and new institutional forms of assistance. But generally, these activities are not comprehensive and also there is no long-term family policy with proper coordination. Programs supporting families are one of the points of the election campaign in Poland, that is why there is no certainty regarding the rules and the length of the operation in the future. A long-term family policy is also absent in Spanish family policies. The main challenge is how to reconcile work and family life with more and more working mothers, part of them highly educated and not allowed to give up their professional career. Although the Spanish labour market has not recovered from the economic recession and women always have worse labour conditions than men, family policies have to encourage a changing childbirth paradigm, with a more active role of fathers participating in raising their children and assisting women who do not want to miss the “professional boat”. However, until now, Spanish family policies have focused on gender issues rather than real transformation to an equal distribution of family rights.

Table 3. Comparative overview of family policies in Poland and Spain

Poland Spain Fertility oriented; Family reconciliation oriented; Broad family models are consid- Broad family models are considered (birth, large, single, foster, ered (large, single, foster, disabled General character- with disabled parent and/or children and/or mother, also istics children). divorced parents). Influenced by the labour market.

Means-tested (income criterion) Means-tested; Financial support but with some universal programs. Excessive priority over working and relief for fami- women than other working status. lies with children Depending on tax system. Influenced by education system; Influenced by education system; Not enough institutional forms but Not enough institutional forms, Institutional forms more subsidized than Spain. Not economic benefits depending on of supporting generalized use due to parental the region. families with small leave. Reduced coverage for children children Broad coverage in terms of chil- from 0 to 3, broad coverage above dren age (until 6). 3. Welfare State Support for Families 295

Poland Spain More coverage for women than Mostly used by women than men; men; Recently substantial progress in Moving to universal breadwin- order to balance maternity and ner model but male breadwinner paternity leave (enlarge length of Parental leave con- predominant model. paternity leave). ditions Moving to a universal breadwinner but double breadwinner with gender specialization predominant model.

Source: own elaboration.

Spanish and Polish financial benefits for children can be considered means- tested. Most benefits depend on the income criterion, provided that beneficiaries do not receive another type of benefit. In Poland, the programs are more universal than in Spain – the programs in Spain address employed women to a greater extent, while other women are excluded from support. Besides, the Spanish family policies are much more influenced by the tax system. With regard to institutional forms of supporting children, both countries need a greater number of childcare services, but facts are very different: due to maternal leave, in Spain there is greater demand for these than in Poland. However, expenses derived from childcare services are more subsidized in Poland than Spain. Spanish parental leaves are a consequence of a more individualistic society. In this sense, these social policies contribute to establishing childbearing in more planned, negotiated and reflexive terms; breaking the traditional idea of the “only one main breadwinner”. Meanwhile, maternity leave has been fixed for 16 weeks for a long time now, paternity permission is considered a “short-leave modified male-breadwinner” model (Escobedo & Wall, 2015). Nevertheless, new recent policies are implemented by the new government. In the case of Poland, more coverage is for women than men. Although a universal breadwinner model is promoted, the male-breadwinner situation still exists, not considering enough the challenging professional ambitions of the future generations of Polish women. 296 Montserrat Simó-Solsona, Katarzyna Juszczyk-Frelkiewicz

References Bryndziak, S. (2015). Family allowance in personal income tax. In the context of tax expenditures. Research Papers Of Wrocław University Of Economics, 403, pp. 21 – 29. Council of Ministers (2014). National Development Strategy 2020. Active society, competitive economy, efficient state. Warsaw. Escobedo, A., Wall, K. (2015). Leave policies in Southern Europe: continuities and changes. Community, Work & Family, 18:2, 218 – 235. DOI: 10.1080/13668803.2015.1024822 Europa Press Madrid (2018). Los funcionarios del Estado disfrutarán de un permiso de paternidad de 16 semanas (State officials will enjoy a paternity leave of 16 weeks). La Vanguardia, 29/10/208 (https://www.lavanguardia.com/vida/20181029/452632546081/ funcionarios-permiso-paternidad-16-semanas.html) Eurostat (17.08.2018). Total fertility rate. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table. do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=tps00199&plugin=1 Eurostat (24.04.2018). Children receiving formal childcare services by age, income group and degree of urbanisation. http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=ilc_ ats01&lang=en [accessed 27.10.2018]. Eurostat (08.03.2018). government expenditure on social protection. https://ec.europa.eu/ eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/government_expenditure_on_social_protec- tion. [accessed 30.10.2018]. Eurydice (2014). The System of Education in Poland. Polish Eurydice Unit. Warsaw. Flaquer, L. (2000). Is there a Southern European model of family policy? In Pfenning A., Bahle, T. (eds.). Families and Family Policies in Europe. Comparative Perspectives. Frankfurt a.m./New York: Peter Lang, pp. 15 – 33. Gauthier, A.H. (1996). The State and the Family: a Comparative Analysis of Family Policies in Industrialized Countries. Oxford: Clarendond Press. González, L. (2013) The effect of a universal child benefit on conceptions, abortions, and early maternal labor supply. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 5 (3), 160 – 188. GUS (Central Statistical Office)(2017). Statistical Yearbook of Republic of Poland 2017. Warsaw. Indexmundi (30.06.2016). Fertility rate, total (births per woman) – country comparison – World Bank indicator. https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/indicators/SP.DYN.TFRT. IN/compare?country=pl#country=pl:es. Kowalski, A., Losz, K. (2016). Home+ programme to be introduced in Poland. https:// poland.pl/politics/home/home-programme-be-introduced-poland/ Ministry of National Education (06.04.2017). Opłaty dla dziecka 6-letniego w przedszkolu – wyjaśnienia MEN (Fees for a 6-year-old child in kindergarten – MEN explanation). https://men.gov.pl/ministerstwo/informacje/oplaty-dla-dziecka-6-letniego-w-przedszkolu-wyjasnienia-men.html Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport (2018). Educación. Datos y cifras, Curso académ- ico 2016 – 2017 (Education. Data and figures, 2016 – 2017 School Year). Madrid: Secretaría General Técnica. https://www.mecd.gob.es/servicios-al-ciudadano-mecd/dms/mecd/ Welfare State Support for Families 297

servicios-al-ciudadano-mecd/estadisticas/educacion/indicadores-publicaciones-sintesis/ datos-cifras/Datosycifras1516esp.pdf OECD (2018a). Life expectancy at birth. https://data.oecd.org/healthstat/life-expectancy-at-birth.htm [accessed 26.10.2018]. OECD (2018b). Family Database. Public policies for families and children. https://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?queryid=68251 [accessed 27.10.2018]. OECD (2011). Families are changing. In Doing Better for Families. pp. 17 – 53. Simó-Solsona, M. (2017). Living conditions in Southern European Countries: do families cushion the impact of economic recession. In Juszczyk-Frelkiewicz, K., Libor G. (Ed.). Contemporary Family-Comparative Perspective. Publishing House of University of Silesia in Katowice. Katowice, pp. 50 – 69. Social Security (2018) Otras prestaciones de la Seguridad Social. http://www.seg-social.es/ wps/portal/wss/internet/EstadisticasPresupuestosEstudios/Estadisticas/EST45 Spanish Tax Agency (2018). Deduction for maternity. https://www.agenciatributaria.es/ AEAT.internet/en_gb/Inicio/_Segmentos_/Ciudadanos/Minimos__reducciones_y_ deducciones_en_el_IRPF/Deduccion_por_maternidad/Deduccion_por_maternidad. shtml. The report of the Council Ministers on the implementation of the Act of the 4th of Febru- ary 2011 on looking after children up to the age of 3 in 2016 (2017). Warsaw.

Internet sources: www.forsal.pl (14.11.2017). Marczuk: wydatki z budżetu na politykę rodzinną w 2017 r. wzrosły do 3,11 proc. PKB (Marczuk: budget expenditure on the family policy in 2017 increased to 3.11% of GDP). https://forsal.pl/artykuly/1084926,marczuk-wydatki-z- budzetu-na-polityke-rodzinna-w-2017-r-wzrosly-do-3 – 11-proc-pkb.html. [accessed 30.10.2018]. Ministry of Family, Work and Social Policy (www.mpips.gov.pl). [accessed 27.10.2018].

Reviewers

Reviewers of the Manuscripts Sent from the Czech Republic, Poland, the Slovak Republic, and from the Whole World to “The New Educational Review” in 2018

Prof. PaedDr. Ľudmila Belásová, PhD. Prof. zw. dr hab. Bożydar Kaczmarek Dr hab. Maciej Bernasiewicz Doc. PaedDr. Lada Kaliská, PhD. prof. PhDr. Martin Bílek, Ph.D. Prof. PhD. Suwan Kim Dr hab. Katarzyna Borzucka-Sitkiewicz Prof. PhD. Yongdeog Kim Dr Anna Brosch PhDr. Tereza Kimplová, Ph.D. Dr hab. Ewa Bielska Dr hab. Mirosław Kisiel Dr hab. Alina Budniak Prof. PhDr. Alojz Kostelansky, PhD doc. PhDr. Taťjana Búgelová, CSc. Prof. PhDr. Iveta Kovalčíková, PhD. Prof. PhD. Estera Czoj Prof. dr hab. Katarzyna Krasoń doc. PhDr. Jan Činčera, Ph.D. RNDr. Radek Krpec, Ph.D. Doc. PaedDr. Jana Duchovičová, PhD. Prof. PhDr. Viera Kurincová, PhD. doc. PaedDr. Ludvík Eger, CSc. Prof. zw. dr hab. Barbara Kożusznik Prof. dr hab. Marek Furmanek Prof. zw. dr hab. Stefan M. Kwiatkowski Prof. zw. dr hab. Waldemar Furmanek doc. PhDr. Denisa Labischová, Ph.D. Dr Monika Frania Prof. zw. dr hab. Eugenia Mandal doc. PaedDr. Petr Franiok, Ph.D. doc. PaedDr. Martina Maněnová, Ph.D. Dr hab. Alicja Gałązka Prof. dr hab. Katarzyna Markiewicz Prof. dr hab. Małgorzata Górnik-Durose Prof. PhD. Katsuhiko Matsukawa Prof. PaedDr. Dana Hanesová, PhD. Dr hab. Beata Mazepa-Domagała Doc. PaedDr. Ctibor Határ, PhD. doc. Dr. Ing. Miroslav Merenda Prof. PhD. Yaomin He prof. Ing. Zdeněk Mikoláš, CSc. Dr Hewilia Hetmańczyk doc. PhDr. Jana Miňhová, CSc. Dr Tomasz Huk Prof. PhD. Jongho Nam Prof. PhDr. Tomaš Jablonsky, PhD Dr Monika Noszczyk-Bernasiewicz Prof. zw. dr hab. Stanisław Juszczyk Dr Sławomir Pasikowski 302 Reviewers of the Manuscripts Sent doc. PhDr. Alena Petrová, Ph.D. doc. PhDr. Alena Slezáčková, Ph.D. Prof. PhDr. Gabriela Petrová, CSc. doc. PhDr. Irena Smetáčková, Ph.D. Doc. PaedDr. Alica Petrasová, PhD. Prof. zw. dr hab. Adam Stankowski Prof. dr hab. Irena Pilch Prof. zw. dr hab. Jerzy Stochmiałek Prof. PhD. Erich Petlák, CSc. Dr Katarzyna Ślebarska Dr hab. Irena Polewczyk RNDr. Božena Šerá, Ph.D. Dr hab. Hanna Przybyła-Basista Mgr. Ondřej Šimik Ph.D. Dr hab. Danuta Rode Prof. dr hab. Maciej Tanaś Prof. zw. dr hab. Andrzej Dr hab. Elżbieta Turska Radziewicz-Winnicki prof. PhDr. Alena Vališová, Ph.D. Doc. PaedDr. Rastislav Rosinský, PhD. Prof. PhDr. RNDr. Marie Vágnerová, CSc. Prof. zw. dr hab. Krzysztof Rubacha Prof. PhDr. Marie Vítková, CSc. Doc. PhDr. Vladimír Salbot, CSc. Prof. PhDr. Jozef Výrost, DrSc. Prof. dr hab. Krzysztof Sas-Nowosielski Dr Anna Watoła doc. PhDr. Alena Seberová, Ph.D. Prof. PhD. Carl. C. Wolhuter Prof. PhDr. Peter Seidler, PhD. Prof. dr hab. Ewa Wysocka Prof. zw. dr hab. Bronisław Siemieniecki Prof. PhD. Eun-Kyeong Yun Prof. dr hab. Dorota Siemieniecka Prof. PhDr. Miron Zelina, DrSc.