Scientiarum Historia 26 (2000) 1-2 83

Dutch at the turn of the century

Bob BAUET

In the 19th century in the Dutch universities (Leiden, Groningen, Utrecht and Amsterdam), human anatomy was an integral part of comparative anatomy, physiology, pathology and surgery in the faculties of medicine (1). In the second decade of that century a separate study in biology was incorporated in faculties of sciences, so in the faculties of medicine the teaching of anatomy became focused on human anatomy (2). However many professors of human anatomy remained to perform their research in the fields of comparative anatomy and animal embryology. In this period also the teaching of anatomy was performed by way of lectures, but human anatomical demonstrations were substituted by anatomical dissections on human corpses by the students themselves. Human pathology, surgery and physiology became separate entities so human anatomy was focused on systematic and topographical human anatomy and embryology and congenital malformations. However comparative anatomy and embryology remained an important part in research and formed a basis in the teaching of human anatomy and embryology. At the end of the nineteenth century Dutch human anatomy was greatly influenced by the German comparative anatomical school of Carl Gegenbauer in Heidelberg (3), This actually resulted in the appointments of pupils of Gegenbauer as professor of anatomy at the University of Amsterdam. However at end of the century the Dutch physician Lodewijk Bolk was appointed professor of anatomy at the University of Amsterdam (4). This young professor, who even did not have his PhD, became an international well-known scientist when he died in 1930 from a disastrous osteosarcoma. His appointment marks the beginning of a new area in the development of research and teaching of anatomy in anatomy at the Dutch universities. When he died the chairs for anatomy in all Dutch universities were for his former pupils and also his chair for anatomy at the University of Amsterdam became in the possession of MW Woerdeman, one of his former pupils (5). The consequences of this appointment in Amsterdam and the developments in teaching and research of anatomy at the Dutch universities at the turn of the century are discussed in this paper.

ANATOMISTS

Groningen

At the University of Groningen Jac. P Braam Houckgeest (1838-1889) had been appointed professor of anatomy in 1877 (6). He had studied medicine. The title of his inaugural address on 13 October 1877 was: "Human anatomy in relation to the natural sciences (De ontleedkunde van den mensch in haar verband met de overige 84 B. BAUET natuurwetenschappen)." He died in 1889 and was succeeded by Jan Willem van Wijhe (7). Wijhe was bom in Duiven (Gelderland) on 13 August 1851 and had studied biology in Leiden, where he had obtained his PhD in 1880 on the thesis with the title: "On the mesoderm segments and the development of the nerves in the Elasmobranch fish head (Ueber die Mesodermsegmente und die Entwicklung der Nerven der Selachierkopfes)." (8) However the research for his thesis he had performed in the Zoological Station in Napels under the guidance of Robert Wiederheim in Freiburg im Breisgau. After his PhD Van Wijhe accepted an assistantship at the Zoological Laboratory in Leiden. From 1884-1887 he was teacher in a secondary school in Almelo. In 1887 he became prosector in anatomy under Robert Wiedersheim in Freiburg. Freiburg University granted him an honorary doctorate in medicine on 12 March 1887. He also studied veterinary medicine and attended at clinical lectures in Freiburg. In 1889 was called to become appointed professor of anatomy at the universities of both Dorpat (now Tatu, Estland) and Groningen (9). On 24 September he was appointed professor of anatomy and embryology at Groningen University. Van Wijhe was especially interested in human and comparative embryology. This is probably the best illustrated by the text of his inaugural address when he became Rector Magnificus of Groningen University in 1905. The title of the address was: "On the extent and subjects of anatomy." (10) As an embr>'ologist he developed several stain methods for sections. However he spent much time on teaching macroscopic anatomy. He was not in favour of lecturing and he preferred to give an anatomical demonstration on the dissected cadaver with small groups of students. This modern view had the disadvantage that it was very time consuming for him and was not appreciated by the bulk of students (11). He was ver>' teaching minded and he succeeded in obtaining a new building for the department of anatomy (12). The quality of his research was appreciated as well in the Netherlands as abroad. He resigned 20 September 1926 and died in 1935.

Leiden

At Leiden University, Hidde Justus Halbertsma (1820-1856) was appointed professor of anatomy in 1856 (13). He had studied medicine at Leiden University where he obtained his MD in medicine in 1843 and his MD in surgery in 1846. He was in favour of microscopic and chemical research. He addressed the board of the university many times to appoint a chair-holder for physiology, but he never was successful in his claim. In 1865, after his death, his chair was divided into a chair for physiology and two chairs for anatomy (14). In one chair for anatomy Teunis Zaaijer (1837-1902) was appointed professor extraordinarius of anatomy in 1866. He had been prosector at the department of anatomy at Leiden University under Halbertsma after studying medicine in Leiden and had been trained in Berlin by Rudolf Virchov (1821-1902), Albrecht von Graefe (1828-1870) and Ludwig Traube (1818-1876). He was a classical anatomist. His research was in the field of gross anatomy, especially anatomical variations and physical anthropology. In 1870 he was appointed professor DUTCH ANATOMY 85 ordinarius of anatomy (15). In the other chair in 1866 was for Johannes Adrianus Boogaard (1823-1877) (16). Boogaard studied medicine in Leiden and also had been prosector at the department of anatomy in Leiden. He also studied pathological anatomy at Berlin under Rudolf Virchov. He was in favour of a solid training in anatomy and physiology as a basis for bedside teaching. He died in 1877. Also in 1866 was appointed professor of physiology Adriaan Heynsius (1831-1885), a physiologist pur sang. He was succeeded by Willem Einthoven (1860-1927), founder of electrocardiography and Nobelprize-winner in Physiology and Medicine (1924) (17).

Utrecht

In Utrecht from 1880-1883 Max Wilhelm Carl Weber was lector in anatomy. He was bom in Bonn 5 December 1852. He studied science (biology) and medicine in Bonn as well as in Berlin. He became Medical Doctor in 1878 in Berlin. In 1879 he obtained a prosectorship in anatomy in Amsterdam. After being lecturer in anatomy in Utrecht he became extraordinarius in comparative anatomy, zootomy and zoological paleontology (18). He became intemationally well known as the leader of the Siboga-expedition (1899-1900) (19). He died 7 February 1937. In 1888 Emil Rosenberg (1841-1926) became professor of anatomy in Utrecht. He was a pupil of Carl Gegenbauer in Heidelberg (20). He had been professor of anatomy in Dorpat (Estland) before accepting the appointment in Utrecht. He was not successful in obtaining a new department of anatomy (21). He resigned in 1909.

Amsterdam

In Amsterdam was Max Fiirbringer (1846-1920) appointed as professor of anatomy at the University of Amsterdam on 6 March 1879 (22). He had been the prosector of Carl Gegenbauer in Heidelberg. In 1888 he left to Heidelberg, where he succeeded Carl Gegenbauer. Fiirbringer was succeeded by Georg Ruge (1852-1919). Ruge was bom in Berlin. He studied medicine in Berlin. He defended his MD-thesis with the title: "On the growth of the human mandible." (23) He became assistant of Gegenbauer in Heidelberg. His "Habilitierung" was in Heidelberg in 1879. It resulted in an appointment professor extraordinarius in anatomy in 1882 in Heidelberg. On 5 September 1888 he was appointed professor of anatomy at the University of Amsterdam. His inaugural address with the title: "On the narrow connection between anatomy and medical disciplines and on the art how to learn them" was given on 15 October 1888 (24). Ruge did his research in the field of segmental innervation of vertebrates (25). He was an excellent teacher and focussed on the practical work in the dissecting room. In Heidelberg he wrote a dissection guide for students in the Heidelberg dissection room (26). He used it in Amsterdam, and a second edition came out in 1896. However the students did not like the German book. Also lecturing in Dutch was one of the problems Ruge had in Amsterdam. In 1897 he left the 86 B. BALJET

University of Amsterdam as he obtained an appointment as professor of anatomy at the University of Zurich (Switzerland). He died on 21 January 1919. Ruge was succeeded by Louis Bolk.

LOUIS BOLK

Lodewijk (Louis) Bolk was bom on 10 December 1866 in Overschie as the son of the town clerk of that community. He commenced his career as a notary clerk, but after the examination in 1888 he started to study medicine at the University of Amsterdam. He completed his studies in 1896. Thereafter he accepted an assistantship at the department of anatomy of the University of Amsterdam, where after only a year, he took over responsibility for teaching the courses in human anatomy. Already during his studies he had written a monograph concerning anatomical research on the nerves originating in the and innervating different muscle groups and the different parts of the skin of the inferior extremity of man (27). In 1898 he was appointed professor in anatomy. Four years later, Leiden University granted him an honorary doctorate. He held the position of professor until six weeks before his death on 17 June 1930. Bolk must be viewed as the founder of modem physical anthropology in The Netherlands. However in his scientific work he had a broad set of interests (28). He studied the segmental organization of the peripheral nervous system, (29) the anatomy of the cerebellum, (30) many anthropological topics, (31) many aspects of evolution, (32) and theories of dentition (33). Throughout his career, Bolk had a continuing interest in evolution, which he studied in a number of characteristics of the human cranium, as well as within a wider framework such as the development of the physical diversity of human ethnic groups. For his studies on cranial morphology, he received the prestigious Retzius Medal from the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1927. In addition to these evolutionary' studies, he published many other articles on the human skeleton, as well as on physiological and endocrinological subjects. He investigated the relationship between cranial measurements, cranial capacity, and brain volume and weight, and specifically noted the relation between brain weight and body weight. His possibilities to conduct skeletal studies increased considerably after 1909, when the new Anatomical Laboratory of the University of Amsterdam was opened (34). This laboratory had been built on Bolk's strong instigation and according to his views. The site had previously housed a municipal cemetery; its skeletal remains were recovered and fomied a valuable addition to the collection of dissection material that was already present at the Amsterdam Anatomy Department. Another organizational achievement of Bolk's was the foundation of the Nederlandse Anatomendagen in 1915, which for years formed a forum twice yearly for Dutch anatomists. Bolk's studies on the ontogenetic and phylogenetic development of humans and the great apes resulted in this "retardation theory" in which he claimed that many characteristics that are transitional in younger apes persist in human ontogenetic development. He considered this phenomenon to be determined by the endocrine system. According to Bolk, ontogenetic conservatism would ultimately lead DUTCH ANATOMY 87 to a higher degree of development in humans, relative to the great apes (35). In 1926, he published a detailed account of these views (36). The theory met with considerable opposition by his contemporaries. However, other scientists supported it, and it was never substantially undermined. Recently, it has received renewed attention (37).

POPULATION

Bolk's population studies forms another line of research, which may be the most interesting from aphysical anthropological viewpoint. These include the geographical distribution of stature, pigmentation, and the cranial-cephalic index in The Netherlands (38). All of his population studies indicate that he was acutely aware of the fact that genetic as well as environmental factors influence the characteristics he investigated. He recognized the general geographical clines within The Netherlands, but also the secular trends in stature and the age of menarche. Furthermore he drew attention to more specific differences - for example, between groups from fertile and less fertile regions, between urban and rural groups, and between those from industrialized areas and from their surroundings. These insights led him to cast considerable doubt upon the "anthropological" value of many somatic characteristics. He was more critical than most of his contemporaries of the quality and the quantity of the data he used in his population research. His investigations on the stature were based on data on 422,629 military recruits, while those on pigmentation were drawn from 479,000 schoolchildren. As a result of his activities and efforts in the field of population research, at his instigation the Anthropologische Commissie (Anthropological Committee) of the Koninklijke Nederlandsche Akademie van Wetenschappen (Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences) was founded in 1925 (39). Another aspect of his work worthy of mention is his interest in teratology more specifically, his work on the classification of conjoined twins. In this respect, he continued the work of his predecessor Willem Vrolik (1801-1863), whose specimens (in the Vrolik Collection) were used by Bolk in these studies (40). Relative to earlier classification, including that of Vrolik, Bolk's classification stands out because of its simplicity and clarity. It is mainly based in the then current views on the ethiology of the phenomenon of conjoined twins. Because this ethiology is still unknown, the simplicity of Bolk's classification makes it preferable to all other existing systems (41).

SEGMENTAL ANATOMY

Bolk's early research was on the segmental neuroanatomy. In 1910 he published a monograph about the segmental innervation of the trunk and the extremities in man (42). This book was written by Bolk as many clinicians had asked him to publish a review of his concepts about segmental innervation because in clinical neurology for diagnostic purposes knowledge about the so-called "dermatomes" (43) and the way muscles and/or muscle groups are innervated was of great importance. The ideas of Bolk about the demiatomes and the muscle innervation were only a part of a 88 B. BALJET concept about the segmentation of the human body. Concepts about segmental organization of animals were developed in the 19th century, amongst others by Moquin-Tandon and Owen for invertebrates and vertebrates respectively (44). It was the German comparative anatomist Carl Gegenbauer, who introduced these concepts in human anatomy (45). Bolk's teacher Ruge was a pupil of Gegenbauer and it was Ruge who persuaded Bolk to start with comparative anatomical studies in the field of the nervous system it is not surprisingly that Bolk was a great admirer of the concepts of Carl Gegenbauer. Bolk was aware of the fact that the results of his anatomical studies were of importance for clinicians. Already in 1897 he had published two papers in the Weekbladvan het Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde (46) and in 1900 he had produced plaster models of the extremities with the indication of segmental skin innervation especially for neurologists and surgeons (47). The existence of a segmental organization of certain animals was already known ab antiquo. However it was not until the beginning of the 19th century that concepts concerning the segmental organization of animals also included vertebrates. It were Haeckel and Gegenbauer who developed the "Sproutingtheory (Sprossungstheorie)" as the basis for development of metamerism (48). According to this theory the primary metamerism of a vertebrate originates in a segmental division of one of the germ layers of the embryo, the "mesoderm" (49), into somites (Urwirbel). The first somite, a paired segment with a cubical shape, is formed in man and higher vertebrates at the level of the occipital bone so no somites are formed in the cranial region. Each somite divides into a sclerotome, forming bone, a myotome, providing muscles, a nephrotome, forming the excretory organs, a vasotome, forming blood vessels, a neurotome, providing the nerves and a dermatome, forming the skin. In the adult mammal or in man this segmental organisation is clear in the region of the thorax with exception of the nephrotome. The vertebrae and ribs are segmentally organized as well as the intercostal muscles with their nerves and blood vessels. The segmental organization of the nerves is not confined to muscles but is also present in the skin. In man and higher vertebrates this segmental anatomical configuration is not obvious in other parts of the body in the adult. Moreover in vertebrates the normal configuration of the metameric spinal nerves is not present at the level of the extremities. At those levels the spinal nerves form a nervous network generally called "plexus". The presence of such plexuses was already described by Monroe (50) in 1785. It were von Jhering and Furbringer who had contradictory theories about the so-called brachial plexus for the upper extremities and the so-called lumbosacral plexus in reptiles and birds (51). In his thesis, awarded with the golden medal of the faculty of medicine of the University of Edinburgh, Paterson added a lot of data concerning the anatomy of these plexuses in mammals (52).

NERVE PLEXUS

In 1893 Ruge (53) published a study about the lumbosacral plexus in primates and already stated: "The plexus is not essential for the nerves, but essential is a system of important evolutionary, phylogenetic and ontogenetic phenomena under which DUTCH ANATOMY 89

several changing shifts of the terminal peripheral branching regions of the spinal nerves play an important role." (54) This statement is a good example of the type of concepts that were developed on the segmental organization of the peripheral nervous system in comparative anatomy at the end of the 19th century. However these comparative anatomical studies contributed only indirectly to a better understanding of clinical neurological phenomena concerning the peripheral nervous system especially about the segmental innervation of the muscles and the skin. One of the most important anatomical studies on the skin nerves in man (55) was published in 1864 by Voigt (56). By performing fine anatomical dissections he gathered data to develop for the human body a complex of lines representing the borders of fields of the skin innervated by peripheral skin nerves (57). His studies were very interesting at that time, but later studies demonstrated that his "fields" were only a rough representation of what were later called dermatomes. The main problem to obtain a better insight in the organization of the brachial plexus (the nerve plexus for the arms) and the lumbosacral plexus (the nerve plexus for the legs) still had to be solved. The first data were published in 1865 by Krause, who performed an anatomical dissection of the brachial plexus in man by using nitric acid to destroy the connective tissue in order to divide the nerve fibres (58). Extensive descriptions of the nerve plexuses were given by Walsh (59), Herringham (60), Paterson (61) and Eisler (62). Apart from anatomical data the physiological studies in cats and monkeys of the famous Sherrington in the beginning of the last decade of the 19th century contributed to a better understanding of the distribution of the spinal nerves in the skin (63). Sherrington found out that sectioning of one single dorsal root of a did not cause complete anaesthesia anywhere, but only a diminution of sensation. In order to determine the exact peripheral area of the dorsal root of a given spinal nerve he cut two or three roots above and below the root in which he was interested. The zone in which sensation still existed could be determined by testing or reflex response. He found that the field of skin belonging to each sensory spinal nerve root overlaps the skin fields of the neighbouring spinal nerve root to a remarkable extent. Bolk started his work in the group of Georg Ruge in 1893 when he was a student of medicine. He published a series of papers in the Morphologische Jahrbticher in the period 1894-1897 (64). He published in 1897 in the Weekblad van het Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde two articles about the segmental anatomy of the human body (65). In these papers Bolk stated that the work had been done from an anatomical point of view, but that the results were of utmost importance for the neuro­ pathologist and the surgeon. Bolk referred to the statement of Henle, that it should not be possible to trace the nerve roots through a brachial, crural or sacral plexus into the separate nerves of the extremities (66). According to his opinion anatomists "jurare in verbo magistri" did except this view and in these two papers he gave the results of his dissection of a male child of about 3 years (67). He used a preparation of a boy of this age because the nerve trunks are not so long and the connective tissue is not so strong as in an adult subject (68). Bolk did not use chemical reagents. He isolated the nerve plexuses in which the topography was marked by coloured threads, pinned these preparations on a black wax tablet and preserved them in 50% alcohol. The detailed 90 B. BALJET dissections were done under water with the aid of a magnifying glass, forceps and bistoury (surgical knife) (69). As Bolk did the dissection in one single individual his results cannot be used in order to obtain an insight into inter-individual differences. The results of his study are well demonstrated by the figures in two publications (70).

IMPACT

The hypothesis that Bolk used in order to explain the adult dermatome configuration in man is that dermatomes are arranged as girdle-like zones also present in the position of the limb. Because of the publication of these two papers in the Dutch journal clinicians became interested in the work of Louis Bolk resulting in the production of plaster models and the monograph (71). The plaster models of an arm and a leg were full sized plaster models of a boy of 17 and a boy of 14 respectively. Each dermatome was marked by a colour code, a segmental number and a regional segmental number (72). For teaching purposes Bolk also developed a plaster model of a trunk with dermatomes. The publications of Louis Bolk about the segmental innervation almost immediately appeared in anatomical textbooks. In the famous handbook of Rauber/Kopsch the work of Bolk is cited many times and also figures from his publication are used (73). In the 8th and last edition of the textbook of human anatomy of Van den Broek, Boeke and Barge of 1957 the concepts of Bolk about the segmental organization of man are still given and many figures from his work are used (74). In the well-known Taschenatlas der Anatomic fur Studium iwd Praxis (75) the developmental schemes of Bolk can still be found. Apart from anatomical textbooks in the extensive monograph of L.F. Barker (76) a whole chapter is devoted to the segmental organization and the author cited the papers of Bolk and used many figures from these papers (77). The neuroanatomist Langelaan already used in his lectures at the University of Leiden the schemes of Bolk (78) and the neurologist Van Valkenburg (79) used in his Practical handbook of neurology for physicians and medical students many items from the work of Bolk and used in this book a figure (80). In his book Diagnosis and therapy of spinal and peripheral nervous diseases Biemond (81) discussed the borderlines of the dermatomes according to the anatomical findings of Bolk, physiological data of Sherrington (82) in the monkey, neurosurgical and clinical data of Foerster (83) and Keegan and Garrett (84) in man and comes to this conclusion: "For the neurologist the physiological dermatomes of Foerster are to large. The original anatomical dermatomes of Bolk, here and there corrected by recent data of Keegan and Garrett, are most satisfactory." The work on segmental of Louis Bolk had a strong impact on the development of neuroanatomy, neurology and neurophysiology in the Netherlands and especially in Amsterdam. Neuroanatomical research concerning the lumbosacral plexus in mammals was continued a.o. by one of his assistents G.P.Frets (85). In the Department of Physiology of the University of Amsterdam in 1909 G.A. van Rijnberk (86) was appointed as professor, who had published Saggio di Anatomia DUTCH ANATOMY 91 segmentate (87). In his department he initiated comparative physiological research conceming segmental innervation (88) and could confirm by physiological experiments in mammals the anatomical work of Bolk. Van Rijnberk already performed these experiments in collaboration with C. Winkler in the period 1901- 1904 (89). Although parts of the work of Louis Bolk conceming segmental anatomy have been criticized (90) his concept about the dermatomes in man is still of importance. The significance of his work for the research conceming the localization of diseases of the spinal cord was already summarized in 1930 by the professor of neurology at the University of Amsterdam B. Brouwer (91) and will not be repeated here. Another important topic in the scientific work of Bolk is the anatomy of the cerebellum. He performed detailed comparative anatomical studies on the macroscopic aspects of the celebellem of vertebrates with special emphasis on the cerebellum of anthropoids (92). The value of his research on this topic was reviewed recently (93). His concepts on the dentition of mammals are outdated now (94). However his "retardation theory" resulting from his studies on the ontogenetic and phylogenetic development of man and the great apes, in which he claimed that in human development many characteristics persist that are transitional in younger apes is still in discussion (95). He considered this phenomenon to be determined by the endocrine system. In Bolk's view, ontogenetic conservatism would enable man ultimately to reach a higher degree of development. In his new Department of Anatomy Louis Bolk developed a new system of teaching anatomy. His lectures were mainly given by presenting theoretical topics. The lessons in dissecting room were mainly for understanding of the topographical human anatomy and studying human embryology (96). The museum collection, with many specimens on systematic human anatomy and human congenital malformations, played an important role in the training of the students as it still does in our time (97). Louis Bolk was in the beginning of the twentieth century a phenomenon with a broad set of interests and an extreme active professional life. He succeeded in becoming famous as the apostle of the "retardation theory", but in fact he was an anatomist to the backbone with excellent training methods for his pupils. His pupils, Jan Barge, Arnold van den Broek, and Willem Woedeman, were appointed as professors of anatomy at the Dutch universities (Leiden, Groningen, Utrecht and Amsterdam) (98).

Department of Anatomy and Embryology and Museum Vrolik Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam Meibergdreef 15 NL-1I05 AZ AMSTERDAM The Netherlands 92 B. BALJET

NOTES

1. A.J.p. van den Broek. J. Boeke, J.A.J. Barge. Leerboek der beschrijvende ontleedkunde van de mens Vol. I, (Utrecht. 1954). 1-23. 2. J. Goudsmit, Anderhalve eeuw dokleren aan de arts (Amsterdam, 1978). 3. L. Nyhan, "The disciplinary breakdown of German morphology, 1870-1900" ISIS 78 (1987) 365- 389. 4. B. Baljet. "Louis Bolk (1866-1930). Een anatoom in hart en nieren (Anatomist to the backbone)", In: J.C.H. Blom et at, eds, Een brandpuni van geleerdheid in de hoofdstad (Hilversum & Amsterdam. 1992). 141-158. 5. See note 1. 6. Academia Groningana MDC.XIV-MCMXIX (Groningen, 1914). 7. See note 6. 8. J. Wijhe. Ueber die Mesodermsegmente und die Entwicklung der Nerven des Selachierkopfes (Leiden, 1880). In 1915 this thesis was reprinted at the occasion that Wijhe was 25 years professor of anatomy at Groningen University (24 September 1914). Reprint by M. de Waal. Groningen 1915. 9. See note 6. 10. J.W. van Wijhe, Omvang en onderwerpen der ontleedkunde. Rede uitgesproken bij de overdracht van het rectoraat der Rijks-Universiteit le Groningen. den ISden September 1905 (Groningen, 1905). 11. See note 6. 12. J.W. van Wijhe, Onderwijs en laboratorium bij de ontleedkunde. Redevoering bij de opening van het Laboratorium voor Anatomie en Embryologie te Groningen op 23 October 1909 (Groningen 1909). 13. H. Beukers. "Groei en ontwikkeling. De Leidse t'aculteit der geneeskunde in het derde kwart der negentiende eeuw", In: W. Otterspeer, ed., Een universileit herleeft (Leiden. 1984). 14. W. Otterspeer. De wiekslag van hun geesl. De Leidse Universileit in de negentiende eeuw (Den Haag, 1992). 15. J.E. Kroon, Alburn sludiosorum Academiae Lugduno-Balavae. MDCCCLXXV-MCMXXV (Leiden, 1925). 16. See note 15. 17. S. Hoogerwerf, Leven en werken van Willem Einthoven, grondlegger van de electrocardiogrqfie (Hoom, 1955). 18. J.F. Fockema Andreac et al., De Ulrechlse Universileit IS15-I936 (Utrecht, 1936). 19. The Siboga-expedition was a boat trip for scientific purposes to the Dutch East Indies. 20. Carl Gegenbauer was born in 1826 in WUrzburg. He studied at the University of this city philosophy, medicine and science, got his "Habilitation" in 1854 and became "Dozent in der Anatomie und Physiologic" at the University of Wurzburg. in 1856 he was appointed professor of zoology in Jena and in 1858 he also got the chair for anatomy. In 1872 he became professor of anatomy and zoology in Heidelberg. He wrote some important handbooks about comparative anatomy and human anatomy: Grundziige der vergleichenden Analomie (Leipzig, 1859), Analomie des Menschen (Leipzig, 1883), VergleichendeAnalomiederWirbelthiere\o\. 1 &2(Leipzig, 1898, 190l),Hedied in 1903. 21. In the beginning ofthe 20th century new departments of anatomy were built in Groningen, Leiden an Amsterdam. In Utrecht the department of anatomy was renovated, but a new department was only built at the end ofthe 20th century. 22. J.S. Theissen, "Levensberichten van professoren en lectoren". In: H. Brugnians, J.H. Scholte, Ph. Kleintjens, eds. Gedenkboek van het Athenaeum en de Universileit van Amsterdam (Amsterdam, 1932), p. 554. 23. G. Ruge, Beilrdge :um Wachslum des menschlichen Unlerkiefers (Berlin, 1872). 24. G. Ruge, Ueber die enge Beziehung der Anatomie zu den medizinischen Fdchern, iiber die Analomie als selbstdndige Wissenschafi und iiber die An die lerztere zu lehren (Amsterdam, 1888). 25. B Baljet, "The plaster models of segmental innervation of Louis Bolk" Acles du 6ieme Colloque des Conservateurs des Musees d'Histoire des Sciences \tedicalesJ994, 137-146. DUTCH ANATOMY 93

26. G. Ruge, Anieilungen zu den Prdparieriibungen an der menschlichen Leiche (Leipzig, 1888). 27. See note 25. 28. See for the complete list of publications: J. van Limborgh, \V F. Janbroers, "Bibliography of L. Bolk" In: "Proceedings ofthe first session ofthe lOOth Meeting ofthe Netherlands Association of Anatomists, 11 January X'ilV Acta Morphologica Neerlando-Scandinavica 13 (1975). 91-99. 29. R. Nieuwenhuys. "Bolk's studies on segmental anatomy" Acta Morphologica Neerlando- Scandinavica 13 (1975) 7-33. 30. J. Voogd. "Bolk's subdivison of the mammalian cerebellum" Acta Morphologica Neerlando- Scandinavica 13 (1975) 35-54. 31. A.J. Salome, "Bolk's anthropological viotV." Ada Morphologica Neerlando-Scandinavica 13 (1975) 69-75. 32. P. Dullemeyer, "Bolk's tbetalization theory"/(cfaA/orp/io/og/ca,VeeWanc/o-5'cant//nav(ca 13(1975) 77-86. 33. J.B. VLsser, "Bolk's theories of dentition" Acta Morphologica Neerlando-Scandinavica 13 (1975) 55-68. 34. H. Burger, "De nieuwe akademische inrichlingen in Amsterdam" Nederlands Tijdschrifl voor Geneeskunde 24 (1909) 1937-1940. 35. See note 32. 36. L. Bolk. Das Problem der Menschwerdung (Jena. 1926). 37. D.E. Shaner."Neuroplasticity and temporal retardation ofdevelopment(paedomorphic morphology) in human evolution: A consideration of biological requirements for the plasticity of human cognition and potential acquisition of culturally dependent ethical world news" Human Evolution 5 (1990) 177-194. 38. B. Baljet, T.S. Constandse-Westemian, "Lodewijk Bolk (1866-1930)" In: F. Spencer, History of Physical Anthropology^ An Encyclopedia Vol. I. 196-198. 39. A.J. van Bork-Feltkamp, "Anthopological research in the Netherlands: Historical survey" Verhandetingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Section 2, 38 (1938) 1-166. 40. B. Baljet, R.J. Oostra, "Historical aspects of the study of malformations in the Netherlands" American Journal of Medical Genetics 77 (1998) 91 -99; B. Baljet, R.J. Oostra, "Digital data and the nineteenth century teratology collection" Journal of Audiovisual Media in Medicine 22 (1999) 185- 193. 41. B. Baljet, G.C.M. Heijke, "Zur Gcschichtc der Klassitlkationssysteme der doppelbildungen unter besondere Berilcksigtigung des Klassifikationssysstems von Louis Bolk (I866-I930)" Annals of Anatomy (Anatomische .Anzeiger) I 74 (1992) 361-368. 42. L. Bolk. De segmentale innervalie van romp en ledemalen bij de mensch (\\aL?ix\cm, 1910). In 1985 this edition was reprinted by Bohn, Scheltema and Holkema B.V., Utrecht and Antwerpen, with an introduction ofthe neurologist W. van Emde Boas. 43. A dermatome is a part ofthe skin that receives nerve fibers from one spinal nerve. 44. A. Moquin-Tandon. Monographic de la famille des Hirudinees (Paris & Montpellier, 1827). R. Owen, On ihe archetype and homologies ofihe vertebrate skeleton (London, 1855). 45. W. Lubosch, "Gcschichtc der vergleichenden Anatomie" In: L. Bolk. E. GOppert, E. Kallius, W. Lubosch, eds, Handbuch der vergleichenden Analomie der Wirhelliere (Berlin and Vienna), 43-46. 46. L, Bolk, "Een en ander uit de segmentaal-anatomie van het menschelijk lichaam I" Weekblad van het Nederlandsch Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde 41/1(1897) 982-995; Ibidem 41/11(1897) 365-397. 47. L. Bolk, "Gipsmodellen der extremiteiten met aanduiding der segmentale huidinnervatie" Weekblad van hel Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde 41/11 (1900) 344-345. 48. E. Haeckel, Generelle Morphologic der Organismen. Altgemeine Grundziige der organischen Formenwissenschaft, mechanisch begriindet durch die von reformierte Decendenztheorie (Berlin., 1866). Reprinted in part as: Prinzipien der gene re I ten Morphologic der Organismen (BerWn, 1906). 49. The three germ layers are the ectoderm, the entoderm and the mesoderm. 50. A. Monroe. The structure and physiology offishes explained and compared with those of man and other animals {Ed'mburgh, 1785). 94 B. BALJET

51. H. von Jhering, Das peripherische Nen/ensystem der Wirbeltiere als Grundlageftir die Kenntnis der Regionenhildungder Wirbelsdule (Leipzig, 1878); M. Fiirbringer, "Zur Lehre von den Umbildungen der Nervenplexus" Morphologisch Jahrhucher 5 (1897) 523-613. 1879. 52. A.M. Paterson, .Worp/jo/ogy o//Ae iac/-a/p/fxwj/n man, M.D.Thesis. University of Edinburgh, 1886. The title suggests only information about man, but it is a comparative study including: mouse, rabbit, hedgehog, cat. koala, gnu, camel. 53. See note 6. 54. G. Ruge, "Verschiebungen in den Endgebieten der Nerven des Plexus lumbosacral is der Primaten. Zeugnisse filr die metamere Verkiirzung des Rumples bei SSugetieren" Morphologische Jahrbiicher 20(1893)305-396. 55. Ch.A. Voigt, "Beitrag zur Dermato-neurologie der Haul, nebst der Beschreibung eines Systems neuendeckter Linien an der Obertlache des menschlichen KOrpers" Denkschrifien der mathemalhische-naturwisssenschaftlichen Klasse der kaiserliche konigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien. Band 22. Abt. 2, pp. I -40. 56. Christian August Voigt (I808-I890) was appointed professor of anatomy in 1874 in Vienna. See: E. Lesky, Die Wiener medizinische Schule im 19. Jahrhundert (Graz & KOln, 1965). 57. Voigt calls these fields in German: "Verastlungsfelder". 58. W. Krause. Beilrdge zur Neurologic der oberen Exiremildl (Leipzig, 1865). 59. J. Walsh, "The anatomy ofthe brachial plexus" .American Journal of Medicine and Science 75(1877) 387-399. 60. W.P. Herringham, "The minute anatomy ofthe brachial plexus" Proceedings ofthe Royal Society 41(1886)423-441. 61. A.M. Paterson, "The origin and distribution ofthe nerves ofthe lower limb I." Journal of Anatomy and Physiology 2& (1893) 84-112; Ibidem 2 (1893) 169-185. 62. P. Eisler, "Der Plexus lumbosacralis beim Menschen" .Anatomische Anzeiger 9 (1891) 10-53. 63. C.S. Sherrington, "Experiments in examination ofthe peripheral distribution ofthe fibers ofthe posterior roots of some spinal nerves" Philosophical Transactions London 184 (1894) 641-768. 64. L. Bolk, "Beziehungen zwischen Skelet, Muskulatur und Nerven der Extremitaten dargelegt am BeekengUrtel, an dessen Muskulatur sowie am Plexus lumbo-sacralis" Morphologische Jahrbiicher 21 (1894) 241-277; L. Bolk. "Rekonstruktion der Segmentierung der Gliedmassen- muskulatuur, dargelegt an den Muskein des Oberschenkels und des Schultergurtels" Ibidem 22 (1895) 357-379; L.Bolk, "Die Sklerotonie des Humerus. Zugleig ein Beitrag zur Bildungsgeschichte diese Skelettheiles" Ibidem 23 (1895) 391-411; L. Bolk, "Beitrag zur Neurologic der unteren Extremitat der Primaten" Ibidem 25 (1897) 305-361. 65. Sec note 47. 66. J. Henle, Handbuch dersystemalischen Anatomie des Menschen, Vol 3. .Verven/s/jre (Braunschweig, 1879) "Es is nicht daran zu denken dass man mit den gewOnlichen anatomischen Mitteln die Wurzelbilndel durch einen Plexus brachialis, cruralis oder sacralis hindurch zu den einzelnen Nerven der Extremitat verfolge." 67. In these two papers (See note 6) the author does not give infomiation about the material he used for his dissection. However the information is given in: L. Bolk, "Die SegmentalditTerenzierung des menschlichen Rumpfes und seiner Extremitaten I" Morphologisches Jahrbuch 25 (1898) 465-543. 68. Seenote67, pp. 470-471. 69. For details ofthe methods see note 67. 70. See note 6. The original figures were used again in the two papers: L. Bolk, "Die SegmentalditTerenzierung des menschlichen Rumpfes und seiner Extremitaten I" Morphologische Jahrhiicher25 (1898) 465-543; Ibidem II 26 (1898) 21-211. 71. See notes 25 and 42. 72. The models were sold for 15 Dutch guilders each. The amounts had to be paid into the account of the Amsterdamsche Universiteits-vereniging. 73. Rauber's Lehrbuch des Menschen. Neu bearbeilel undherausgegeben von Fr. Kopsch. Ableilung 5: Nervensyslem. Elfle vermehrte und verbesserte Auflage (Leipzig, 1920). Page 353. Two figures 315 and 316 of Bolk are used. Page 422-423. Two figures of Bolk are used. Moreover in the text is referred to several publications of Bolk (given in note 28). DUTCH ANATOMY 95

74. A.J.P. van den Broek, J. Boeke, J.A.J. Barge, Leerboek der beschrijvende ontleedkunde vande mens. 3: Zenuwslelsel - Zintuigen (Utrecht, 1956). Pag. 211. Fig. 189. Dermatomen van het gelaat volgens Bolk. Pp. 223-278. The chapter "On segmental anatomy and segmental innervation" are according to the work of Bolk. 75. W. Kahle, H. Leonhardt, W. Platzer, Taschenallas der Analomie fur Studium und Praxis. Band 3: Nervensyslem und Sinneorgane (Stuttgart, 1985). The Dutch translation: Sesam Atlas van de Analomie (Baarn, 1985). On page 57 conceming segmental innervation still the schemes ofthe development ofthe dermatomes ofthe extremities after Louis Bolk are used. 76. L.F. Barker, The nervous system and its constituent neurones. Designed for the use of practitioners of medicine and students of medicine and psychology' (London, 1901). In chapter 18, "On the mechanical factors of development and the human body as a segmented organism", pp. 193-214. 77. See note 25. 78. J.W. Langelaan, Voordrachlen over den bouw van hel cenlrale zenuwslelsel. Een voorbereiding lot de kliniek der zenuwzieklen (,\msleTdam, 1910). The textbook is based on the lectures in the courses 1907/1908 and 1908/1909. p. 316, fig. 229, "Achterwortelvelden volgens Bolk" (dorsal root zones according to Bolk) with schematical drawings of Bolk. 79. The neurologist Dr C.T. van Valkenburg was "privaatdocent" at the University of Amsterdam and one ofthe founders ofthe "Amsterdamsche Neurologenvereniging". 80. C.T. van Valkenburg, Algemene en klinische localisatie van hetzenuwslelsel. Een handleiding voor arisen en sludenlen (Groningen. 1912). Page 64: "In general every muscle in the extremities differentiates from tissues of different myotomes. Their motoric innervation is by one motoric nerve but not by one motoric radix.", a citation from Bolk. Page 43: Valkenburg uses the figure 24 about the innervation ofthe cervical radices C2C3C4 from "De segmentale innervatie" (see note I). 81. A. Biemond, Diagnostiek en Iherapie van ruggemergs- en periphere zenuwzieklen (Amsterdam. 1953). 82. C.S. Sherrington, "Experiments in examination ofthe peripheral distribution ofthe fibres ofthe posterior roots of some spinal nerves" Philosophical Transactions ofthe Royal Society. London. series B. 190 (1898) 45-186; C.S. Sherrington. Integrative action of Ihe nervous system (New Haven, 1906). 83. O. Foerster, "Dermatomes in man" Brain 56 (1933) 1-23. 84. J.J. Keegan, F.D. Garrett, "The segmental distribution of cutaneous nerves in the limbs of man" Anatomical Record 102 (1948) 409-437. 85. G.P. Frets, "Uber den Plexus lumbo-sacralis, seinVerbreitungsgebiet beim Menschen" GegenAawerj Morphologische Jahrbiicher 39 (1909) 647- ; G.P. Frets, "Uber den Plexus lumbo-sacralis, sein Verbreitungsgebiet und die Beziehungen zwischen Plexus und Wirbelsaule bei den Monotremen nebst vergleichend myologischen Bemerkungen." Ibidem 40(I) (1909) 1 -36; G.P. Frets, "Der Plexus Lumbo-sacralis bei fiinf Hunden mit einer Variation der Wirbelsaule" Folia Neurohiologica 5(1911) 3-42. 86. Gerard Abraham van Rijnberk was bom on 15 August 1875 in Gouda. He studied medicine at the University of Rome and graduated as doctor of medicine on a dissertation: "Sulla funzione dell' ipoflsi cerebrale". From 1900-1902 he was an assistant in forensic medicine at the University of Bologna and from 1903-1909 assistant at the Department of Physiology at the University of Rome. In 1906 he became lecturer in physiology. On July 21, 1909 he was appointed professor of Physiology at the University of Amsterdam. 87. G.A. van Rijnberk, Saggio di Anatomia segmentale. La melameria somatica cutanea muscolare e nervosa dei vertebrali. Memoria premiala al concorso Carpi per I'anno 1906. Atti della R. Academia dei Lincei (Rome, 1908). This monograph was also published in Gemian as: Versuch einer Segmenlalanalomie. Ergebnisse der Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte. 18: 353-800. 1908. 88. For details see: Versuch einer Segmenlalanalomie (see note 87). 89. Cometis Winkler was born on February 25,1855 at Vianen. He studied medicine at the University of Utrecht. In 1885 he was appointed lecturer of psychiatry at the University of Utrecht and in 1893 he became professor of psychiatry and neurology. In 1896 he was appointed professor of clinical neuropathology and psychiatry at the University of Amsterdam, but in 1915 he returned again to the 96 B. BALJET

University of Utrecht. See also: Herinneringen van Cornells Winkler. Arahem: Van Lochum Slaterus, 1947. C. Winkler and G.A. van Rijnberk, On the function and structure of trunk dermaiomata. Verhandelingen van de Nederlandsche .Akademie van Wetenschappen. Afdeeling Natuurkunde.4: 266-274, 308-320, 509-524,1901/1902, Ibidem. 6: 347-356. 1903-1904. 90. See for a review: R. Nieuwenhuys. "Bolk's studies on segmental anatomy" .-tela .Morphologica Neerlando-Scandinavica 13 (1975) 7-33. 91. Bernardus Brouwer. born March 23, 1881 in Amsterdam, studied medicine at the University of Amsterdam and was appointed professor of neurology on March 7, 1923 at the University of Amsterdam. In 1930 he wrote a paper about the significance ofthe work of Bolk for the modem research conceming the localization of diseases ofthe spinal cord. B. Brouwer. Over de betekenis van hel werk van Louis Bolk voor hel moderne onderzoek hetreffende de localisalie van ruggemergaandoeningen Verhandelingen van de Nederlandsche .•\kademie van Wetenschappen. Afdeeling Naluurkunde. 39 (1930) 107-110. 92. See note 30 93. J. Voogd. M. Glickstein. "The anatomy ofthe cerebellum" Trends in Neurosciences2\ (1998) 370- 375. 94. See note 33. 95. T.S. Constandse-Westemian, "Louis Bolk" In: C Winters et al., eds. International Dictionary of Anthropologists (New York & London, 1991). pp. 72-73. Constandse-Westerman states: "This thory was never substantially undermined." Dullemeyer expresses his scepsis. 96. See note 4. 97. See note 40. 98. Joannes Antonius James Barge (I884-I952) was appointed professor of anatomy and embryology at Leiden University in 1919 and resigned in 1949. Arnoldus Johannes Petrus van den Broek (1877- 1961) was appointed professor of anatomy and embryology at Utrecht University in 1909 and resigned in 1949. Martinus Willem Woerdeman (1892-1990) was appointed professor of anatomy and embryology at Groningen University in 1926. In 1931 he resigned to become professor of anatomy and embryology at the University of Amsterdam, where he resigned in 1962.