A Practically, the study has pedagogical STUDY OF ON applications and the study findings can be used for instruction. NIMMANHEMIN ROAD, A LANNA CHIANG MAI 1. Introduction CHILL-OUT STREET Linguistic landscape studies can be seen as a sub-field of both sociolinguistics and Tiwahporn Thongtong1 applied linguistics, concerned with the “written form” of languages in public space (Gorter and Cenoz 2006, p. 2) Abstract especially focusing on “multilingual settings” (Coulmas 2009, p. 14). This study investigates how the linguistic According to Landry and Bourhis (1997, landscape both creates and reflects a p. 25), linguistic landscape refers to “The tourist space on language choices in language of public road signs, advertising creating signs on Nimmanhemin Road in billboards, street names, place names, Chiang Mai, Thailand. In addition, the commercial shop signs, and public signs study explores what linguistic devices are on government buildings … of a given used in the creation of signs on territory, , or urban agglomeration”. Nimmanhemin Road. Sign data are But the field of linguistic landscape collected from both sides of Nimanhaemin studies has expanded from the analysis of Road. Every sign in front of stores was commercial and government signs found photographed and analyzed in terms of on the streets of large metropolitan language choices and linguistic devices. centers, ethnic neighborhoods and small The study reveals that tourism in Chiang towns. Among the diverse objects of Mai has influences on language choices in linguistic landscape scrutiny are schools sign creation. Monolingual, bilingual and (Dagenais et al 2009; Dressler 2015), train trilingual signs can be found on stations (Lock 2003; Backhaus 2006), Nimmanhemin Road, normally written in science labs (Hanauer 2009); apartment Thai, English and / or Chinese. In terms of buildings (Jaworski and Yeung 2010), linguistic strategies, transliteration, word post cards (Jaworski 2010), public formation, lexical relations, speech acts monuments (Shohamy and Waksman and politeness strategies are demonstrated 2009; Abousnnouga and Machin 2010), in my findings. The study has both and cyberspace (Ivkovic and Lotherington theoretical and practical contributions. 2009; Troyer 2012; Jones 2011). Theoretically, it challenges commonly held Linguistic landscapes have been notions of bilingual organization of investigated from a number of viewpoints, information and language prominence. such as language policy and language ideology (Sloboda 2009; Marten 2010),

national and ethnic identity (Trumper- 1 a Ph.D. candidate in English as an International Language Program from Chulalongkorn University. Hecht 2009; Dray 2010) language She graduated with a Master's degree in Language awareness and education (Dagenais et al., and Culture for Communication and Development 2009), marginalization of minority from Mahidol University and received her communities (Lou 2010), language Bachelor's degree in Education from Chiang Mai switching and hybridization (Huebner University.

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2009), linguistic input for language 2010), none has looked at the role of the learning (Cenos & Gorter 2008; Dagenais linguistic landscape in the creation and et al 2009; Bolton 2012; Sayer 2010), and promotion of tourist spaces in Thailand. tourism and the commodification of To bridge the gap, this study investigates culture (Kallen 2009; Piller 2010; signage on Nimmanhemin Road, an up- Moriarty 2015). scale tourist street in Chiang Mai, Thailand’s second city, the metropolitan Tourist spaces are complex sites of hub and major tourist attraction of language contact. Indeed the creation of Northern Thailand, and the former capital tourist spaces relies heavily on the of the ancient Lanna Kingdom. linguistic landscapes of those spaces (Bruyei- Olmedo and Juan-Garau 2009; 2. The Context and Research Jaworski 2010; Moriarty 2015). Language Questions usage for tourism promotion is an essential source of information for the potential One of the most attractive tourist tourists. It engages people in decision- destinations in the north of Thailand, the making regarding the destination they city of Chiang Mai has a rich, idealized would like to travel to (Salim et al 2012). and romanticized history. Chiang Mai and Research on language and tourism is in its its surroundings are blessed with stunning infancy in both linguistics and tourism natural beauty and a uniquely indigenous studies. Much of the research comes from cultural identity. Chiang Mai has had a within sociolinguistics, where scholars long and mostly independent history, have considered how the particular social which has to a large extent preserved a context of the tourist encounter reflects or most distinctive culture. This is witnessed challenges existing theories of language both in the daily lives of the people, who use (Cohen and Cooper 1986; Heller 2003; maintain their own dialect, customs and Boudreau and White 2004; Manca 2008; cuisine, and in a host of ancient temples, Jaworski 2010). Other related work in fascinating for their northern Thai sociolinguistics considers the role of architectural styles and rich decorative language in the broader representation of details. Chiang Mai also continues its cultural perspectives, and other identities renowned tradition as a handicraft center, in tourism destinations (Pietikäinen and producing items in silk, wood, silver, Kelly-Holmes 2001; Coupland et al 2005; ceramics, umbrellas, textiles and more, Cos 2006; Drozdzewski 2011; Thurlow which make the city the country’s top and Jaworski 2011; Strand 2012, 2013; shopping destination for arts and crafts. Ploner 2013). Studies of linguistic landscape and tourism have contributed to There are many languages spoken in an understanding of how language and Northern Thailand. The distinctive tourism are related and how cultural northern dialect is a major regional dialect perspectives and other identities in tourism and may be considered a high prestige destinations are presented in tourist space. dialect of Thai. Eighty percent of the people in Chiang Mai are locals by birth While there have been few studies of the and speak Northern Thai dialect, also linguistic landscapes of Thailand, and only known as Chiang Mai dialect or Kam one to my knowledge, of linguistic Mueang, which varies from Standard Thai, landscapes outside of Bangkok (Draper the official language in its phonology and

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lexicon (Leerabhandh Hatfield, 2005, coffee shops, tea houses, wine bars, sushi p.11-12). Northern Thai also varies joints and craft shops. As one walks considerably within northern Thailand through Nimmanhemin’s alleys, one can itself. Other minority languages in the see some beautiful houses among the North include related languages of the Tai- shops. Most of those houses are modern- Kadai language family (e.g., Tai Dam, Tai style houses influenced by the western Lue, etc.) and various unrelated languages modern architectural movement popular in spoken by minority hill tribe communities. Thailand since the 1970’s (Ward 2012). Due to the promotion of northern tourism, Hints of the neighborhood’s history other languages including English and remain, creating a mix of authentic Thai Chinese are also used in tourist areas to architecture and quirky new commercial communicate with foreign tourists. development. That mix makes Nimmanhemin Road one of the popular Nimmanhemin Street, a famous tourist tourist destinations with visitors from destination within Chiang Mai is often various countries. called a ‘chill-out street’. It has been selected for this study because of it is It can be noticed that signage on location at the center of the city and Nimmanhemin Road is written in many because of the transformation it has languages and displays a creativity not undergone in the past generation. found in more traditional Thai Originally one of the very first areas of neighborhoods. Therefore, this study Chiang Mai set aside specifically for investigates both the choice of language(s) residential use, in the past, the Nimman and the linguistic devices used in the area was nothing more than a signage on Nimmanhemin Road to create neighborhood of houses, old apartment the tourist space it has become. Specific complexes and noodle shops. Because of research questions are: its proximity to Chiang Mai University (CMU), medical centers, Chiang Mai 1. To what extent does the linguistic International Airport, the Convention Hall landscape both create and reflect of CMU, and the CMU Art & Cultures Nimmanhaemmin Road as a Center, it became home to a number of tourist space? university teachers, doctors and 2. What specific linguistic strategies government officers who moved there are used to create signs on some 40 to 50 years ago. Its location in the Nimmanhemin road? town’s center with links to many main roads such as Superhighway Road, Chiang 3. Analytical frame and Methodology Mai - Lampang Road, Huaykaew Road, Suthep Road, and Irrigation Canal Road, This study is a mixed method study. The has brought many entrepreneurs and their quantitative study involves the businesses which have transformed the classification of signs collected according Nimmanhemin area into a popular to the types of businesses represented and commercial area catering to the Chiang the languages found. In the case of Mai tourist trade. A revitalization of the multilingual signs, the study applies Reh’s area left it bursting at the seams with notion of bilingual distribution of trendy cafes, casual and high-end information across languages, and Kress restaurants, art galleries, stylish boutiques, and Van Leeuwan’s grammar of space to

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determine the relative prominence of each linguistic, literary and rhetorical devices language. The qualitative aspect of the found in the signage include study investigates the types of linguistic, transliteration, lexical blends, hybrid literary and rhetorical devices or strategies structures, acronyms, homophones, that help create and define a tourist space. personifications, speech acts, and politeness strategies. Data were collected on Nimmanhemin Road starting from Rincome intersection 4.1 Sign Categorizations on Huay Kaew Road to Chiang Mai University Convention Center. Signs That Nimmanhaemmin Road as a tourist located in small alleys off Nimmanhemin space can be confirmed by the number and Road were not included in this study. The nature of shop signs targeted at tourists. investigation of signage on Nimmanhemin The table shown below indicates that most Road focused on only its main street, signs are spa and massage signs (23%). which is approximately 800 meters long. Others are textile, crafts and souvenir shop All signs in front of every single store on signs (17%), travel agency signs (15%), both sides of the main street of coffee shop signs (13%), restaurant signs Nimmanhemin road were photographed on (9%), hair salon signs (6%), clinic signs October 10, 2015. Signage from stores that (5%), bank signs (5%), company signs were closed or renovated were not chosen (3%), school signs (2%) and wedding for the analysis. There were altogether 321 studio signs (2%). Clearly the majority of signs used for the analysis in terms of businesses such as spa and massage language choices and linguistic devices. centers and travel agencies are aimed at tourists. 4. Findings Type of Signs Percentage In this section, findings will be presented Spa and massage center 23 to answer the two research questions. To signs answer the first research question, to what Textile, crafts and 17 extent the linguistic landscape both creates souvenir shop signs and reflects Nimmanhaemmin Road as a Travel agency signs 15 tourist space, the study results can be Coffee shop signs 13 explained in terms of sign categorizations Restaurant signs 9 and language choices. Signs collected in Hair salon signs 6 this study demonstrate presentations of Clinic signs 5 monolingual, bilingual and trilingual Bank signs 5 signs. With respect to bi- and multilingual Company signs 3 signs, physical relationship between sign School signs. 2 and audience and individual inference Wedding studio signs 2 based on lived experiences, rather than strict application of Rey’s bilingual Table 1: Type of Signs information types or Kress and Van Leeuwen’s grammar of space, determine 4.2 Language Choices the type and amount of information available through a given language. In One way the linguistic landscape both creates answer to the second research question, and reflects Nimmanhaemmin Road

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Monolingual Signs Bilingual Signs Multilingual Signs (1) English (45%) (1) English – Chinese (54%) (1) Thai – English – Chinese (98%) (2) Thai (30%) (2) Thai – Chinese (26%) (2) Thai – English – Korean (2%) (3) Chinese (25%) (3) Thai – English (20%)

Table 2: Language Choices

as a tourist space is language choices used picture 1, a seafood buffet restaurant of in creating signs. Monolingual, bilingual spicy hot pot shows the logo in circle and multilingual signs were used to attract representing a Chinese character used for foreigners from other countries to visit celebration of marriage. The sign is a Nimmanhemin Road. symbol for good luck, fortune and celebration of some festivals which may In this section, signs are classified arouse good feelings for people. The according to language choices used. Chinese monolingual sign is targeted at Language choices found in signage on Chinese tourists since most non-Chinese Nimmanhemin Road are represented in including Thais cannot read Chinese. Table 2. Signs written in Thai are likely to serve two functions: first, to convey a concept With respect to the given table, it can be of Thainess to non-Thai tourists; and seen that English (45%) is a dominant second, to make local people understand language for monolingual signs while Thai what kinds of products are sold in the (30%) and Chinese (25%) tend to be less shop. English monolingual signs also frequently used. However, Chinese and serve multiple purposes: to inform non- English (54%) seem to be more frequently Thai, non-Chinese readers of the goods chosen for bilingual signs than Thai – and services available, and often to make Chinese (26%) or Thai – English (20%). products look more expensive and English is used in all trilingual signs; Thai extraordinary. In each case, the choice of – English – Chinese (98%) combinations language has economic motivations and far outnumber the only other trilingual consequences. combination, Thai – English – Korean (2%). From a purely quantitative Applied to trilingual signs, this taxonomy perspective, English would be considered becomes a bit problematic. As shown in the dominant language of the commercial picture 2, a convenience store on shop signs, though Chinese is also Nimmanhemin Road displays the Thai- ubiquitous. The next section will take a English-Chinese trilingual sign “Chiang closer look at monolingual, bilingual and Mai Hot” to attract foreign customers. trilingual signs. Like many multilingual signs, it can be analyzed as employing a combination of Monolingual signs used to promote shops fragmentary and complementary on Nimmanhemin Road seem to indicate strategies. In the example, both Thai and certain purposes. To illustrate, as shown in English scripts display “Chiang Mai Hot”

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Picture 1: A Monolingual Sign in Chinese

Picture 2: A Multilingual Sign

Picture 3: A

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but the word “shop” is missing in English the Thai “Phu Klon”. Furthermore, translation. Thus the Thai-English portion addition of the province name adds an air of the sign might be classified as of authenticity as the province noted fragmentary indicating that the full throughout Thailand for its mud baths. It information is given only in Thai and also triggers romanticized inferences of some piece of information is missing in the rural north. Thus, the Thai version English. In addition, the Chinese conveys much more information than the translation conveys a meaning that this is a English, suggesting that this might best be shop selling products, but the Chinese analyzed as an example of fragmentary equivalent of “Chiang Mai Hot” is organization of information. missing. According to Reh (2004), the relationship between Chinese and the other In a similar vein, attempts to employ two languages would be complementary as commonly used metrics to determine the Chinese version does not convey any language prominence (whether Kress and information of “Chiang Mai Hot” Van Leeuwen’s notion of center-periphery, compared to Thai and English scripts. or the atheoretical top- bottom, or font size) often lead to conflicting conclusions. But even in bilingual signs, Rey’s For example in the sign in picture 2, Thai taxonomy often fails to account for the might be considered prominent in its complex ways in which readers interpret placement first, above the other two the language mixing that occurs in typical languages. But its prominence relative to multilingual environments. This can be the other two languages (and by illustrated by the Thai-English bilingual implication the importance of its intended sign in picture 3. In the English line, Phu viewership) is mitigated by its smaller font Klon refers to a well-known mud spa, and size. English might be considered literally means “Mud Mountain”. The Thai prominent due to its center location, but line, written in Thai script, reads “Phu contains the least information. Judging by Klon Maehongsorn”, mentioning the font size alone, Chinese could be adjacent province noted for mud baths and considered the most prominent, aimed at massages but not directly mentioning the the most important clientele. It might also type of business (“mud spa”). A surface be noted that as an overhead sign, Chinese, analysis might lead one to conclude that by virtue of is placement at the bottom on this is an example of an overlapping the sign, is closest to the pedestrian’s line arrangement of information, since both of gaze. languages contain the common element, “Phu Klon”, and each contains The point to be made here is that one information not contained in the other: cannot draw conclusions about the relative Thai mentions the name of the province; significance of the various languages on English mentions the type of business. But multilingual signs without taking into taking into account for cultural knowledge consideration multiple factors, among and inferences of the readers, it becomes them the amount of information conveyed, clear that the amount of information the arrangement of that information on the extracted from the Thai portion of the sign sign, the types of font used, the placement is much greater than from the English side. of the sign in physical space relative to Without specific mention of the business intended viewers, and the background type, the Thai reader would infer it from knowledge and scripts the intended

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viewers bring to this tourist space. The such as brunch (breakfast+lunch), smog paper next turns to an examination of the (smoke+fog), etc. Using blend words various linguistic, literary and rhetorical makes shop names unique and gives strategies and devices employed by shop general information to customers about owners in creating Nimmanhemin Road as products sold. For example, the shop name a tourist destination. “Fruiturday” (see picture 6) is derived from “fruit” and “Saturday”. It can imply 4.3 Strategies Employed that any day is a good day to enjoy fruit. Interestingly, blend words were not found Linguistic, literary and rhetorical strategies in Thai, raising the question as to why play a role in creating signs on English seems to be more susceptible to Nimmanhemin Road to attract customers the creation of blends. or tourists to visit a shop. These strategies can be described in terms of transliterations, homophones, blend words, acronyms, personifications, syntactic structures, speech acts and politeness strategies.

4.3.1 Transliterations

Transliteration is the visual transformation of words or phrases written in one language into the corresponding characters of another orthography. As shown in picture 4, a Thai shop’s name can be Picture 4: An Example of Transliteration represented in English orthography such as “E-PA SHABU” (อีปา-ชาบู). In addition, to name a shop by using English, English sounds are transliterated in Thai orthography in “เลิฟเลิฟคิดส” (Love Love Kids). A sign initiator may use transliteration from Thai to English in Picture 6: An Example of Blend order for foreign tourists to know the Thai shop name. Alternatively, when a shop is 4.3.3 Hybrid Syntactic Structures named by using English words, the shop name appears to represent modernity and This kind of syntactic blending that results to attract all kinds of tourists. in a kind of hybrid language (Huebner 2006, 2009) was also found in the shop 4.3.2 Lexical Blends names of Nimmanhaemmin Road. To illustrate, the company name “บริษัท วี.เค.ที” Some shop names are the result of word (company V.K.T.) displays Thai lexicon formation, the creation of a new word, or and Thai syntax, where the Thai head of blending. According to Fromkin (2007), noun for “company” (“บริษัท”) precedes the blending is a type of word formation by modifier (“วี.เค.ที”), But at another level of joining parts of two or more older words

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analysis, the embedded noun phrase “วี.เค.ที Techasan, this volume). In Thai the word เอ็นเตอรเทนเมนต” (V.K.T. entertainment) is “long” means “to try experiencing new English lexicon and syntax with the things.” modifier preceding the head noun, transliterated into Thai and embedded in Thai syntax. The result is a kind of hybrid language combining both English and Thai syntax and lexicon, written in Thai script.

4.3.4 Acronyms

Some shops are named by using acronyms, words derived from the initials of several words (Fromkin, 2007). For example, as Picture 5: An Example of Homophone shown in picture 7, the shop named

“HOB” is referred to “House of Beauty”. Furthermore, it is found that acronyms or abbreviations are used in English but written in Thai. To illustrate, there is one sign written วี. เค. ที. or V.K.T. which represents the first name and the family name of the owner of the shop. How potential Thai readers interpret this and other English acronyms transliterated into Thai is a question beyond the scope of this Picture 7: An Example of Acronym study, but one worthy of future investigation. 4.3.6 Personifications

4.3.5 Homophones Some shop names display the usage of personification which is a figure of speech The use of homophones, two words in which a thing, an idea or an animal is pronounced the same but differing in given human attributes. The non-human meaning and perhaps spelling is also objects are portrayed in such a way that found. The sign “Long massage” (picture people feel they have the ability to act like 5) is an example of a homophone. The human beings. From picture 8, the word “long” is pronounced the same in all bookstore “Happy Books” indicates that three languages, Thai, Chinese and books are feeling happy. Another English, but conveys different meanings in bookstore named “รานเลา” (picture 9; each. In English the word “long” means literally “story-telling store”) conveys the an extended period of time and appeals to meaning that the bookstore is telling the potential customers’ desire to get their people stories. money’s worth from the massage. In

Chinese the word “long” refers to prosperity, a name often found in the names of Chinese businesses (see Wu and

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Picture 8: An Example of Personification

Picture 9: An Example of Personification

Picture 10: An Example of Speech Acts

4.3.7 Speech Acts “Don't ever forget to drink your coffee and cake because it's good” (as shown in Shop signage can be discussed in terms of picture 10) can be interpreted as a speech acts or acts that a speaker performs reminder which implies that if you do not when making an utterance. For example, want to miss tasty coffee and cake, you

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should buy coffee and cake here. In selected when a speaker aims to please the addition, the sign maker engages the addressee’s desire to be liked), (3) “Do the reader/ viewer directly by using an FTA with redressive action with negative imperative “Don't ever forget...” Another politeness strategy” (i.e. strategies chosen type of speech act that can be found when a speaker aims to please the from shop signage is a request. One sign addressee’s desire not to be imposed on), written in Thai shows the message “ขอความ (4) “Go off-record” (i.e. strategies that are not directly produced. They have potential กรุณาเวนพื้นที่ใหรถสงของดวย ขอบคุณคะ”, which to convey more than one illocutionary means “Please leave some space for a acts) and (5) “Don’t do the FTA.” (i.e. delivery truck. Thank you”. The sign non-performance of any kinds of linguistic consists of a speech act of request realizations). Politeness strategies are followed by a move of expression of intended to preserve the interlocutor’s gratitude. While it is written in Thai and positive face and to mitigate the possible therefore not intended for non-Thai effects of negative face threatening acts. tourists, and ends by using a speech act of thanking, a kind of negative politeness These politeness strategies are also used in strategy, the sign maker may intend to shop signage. Some shop signs convey model for Thais the kind of behavior that direct and precise meaning concerning one should extend to tourists. This is an baldly on record. For instance, “Eat me” empirical question that could be addressed (picture 11) represents one literal meaning in another, qualitative follow-up study. to attract people to eat food at this restaurant. Another example of a negative 4.3.8 Politeness Strategies politeness strategy used in a shop sign can be seen in picture 12, which reads in part, Politeness strategies are not limited to “[You are] welcome to the grand Thai readers, but may also be directed opening.” It attempts to address the toward foreign tourists. Brown and reader’s desire not to be imposed upon Levinson (1987) point out that as social with the word 'เชิญ' (‘to invite” here beings we want to preserve what they call meaning ‘welcome’), indicating in Thai “positive face,” or the desire to present a that sign readers are not forced or imposed positive image to others, and “negative on, but they have options to visit the shop. face,” the desire not to be imposed upon. Positive politeness strategies are found in They further state that speech act can signs representing attempts to satisfy the threaten the face of those who are being reader’s desire to be liked or accepted. A addressed. They refer to these as “Face smiling iconic expression (picture 13) is Threatening Acts (FTAs)”. They suggest considered positive politeness strategy as five ways to act that may threaten the face this shop owner desires to be accepted by of those we are addressing: (1) “Do the customers and wants a lot of customers FTA baldly with no redressive action” (i.e. coming to his or her shop. Using positive non-mitigating strategies can be used politeness strategies is a way of attracting when a speaker prefers to do the FTAs customers. with maximum efficiency rather than want to satisfy hearer's face), (2) “Do the FTA with redressive action with positive politeness strategies” (i.e. strategies

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a commodification of traditional Thai culture for both domestic and international

tourist consumption. The use of multilingual signs performs not only an informational function for readers of Thai,

English or Chinese, the inclusion of the language or languages not accessible to a given reader adds an air of both

authenticity and globalism to Nimmanhemin Road as an international tourist destination. Linguistic, literary and Picture 11: Politeness Strategy Used in Signage rhetorical strategies are also beneficial tools in the creation of signs to attract tourists. They catch the eye, engage the reader and occasionally elicit a smile.

A study of linguistic landscapes can provide some pedagogical applications for foreign language instruction. Language choices including English and Chinese appearing in public spaces hold much Picture 12: Politeness Strategy Used in Signage potential to develop students' foreign language knowledge. When linguistic landscape is used as a teaching resource, students can have awareness of the role that different languages play in the social communication network of their community (Sayer 2010). The use of linguistic landscape as a resource in teaching recognizes language use, and offers educators many opportunities to create meaningful experiences for learners. In addition, linguistic landscape can be considered as an educational tool which engages students in authentic activities Picture 13: Politeness Strategy Used in Signage that extend beyond the classroom and thereby link learners’ life in school to their 5. Discussion community existence. If educators use authentic signs to integrate content in the Palmer (1999) has pointed out that tourism school curriculum, students might find can be conceptualized as a means of learning resources in foreign languages creating a positive national identity for more motivating and engaging, since foreign consumption. Along linguistic landscapes reflect authentic Nimmanhemin Road, the proliferation of language use in diverse ways that are massage parlors, spas and textile and familiar to students (Bradshaw 2014). The souvenir shops and other services presents fact that texts in landscape are visible does

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not mean that students always see them, Bruyei- Olmedo, A. & Juan-Garau, M. pay attention to them, read them, or (2009). English as a lingua franca understand how they work. To raise in the linguistic landscape of the language awareness by letting students be multilingual resort of S’Arenal in exposed to authentic contexts in foreign Mallorca. International Journal of languages can make them conscious of 6(4). 386-411. linguistic strategies of their landscape that they may have previously taken for Bolton, K. (2012). and granted. An important part of the process linguistic landscapes. World is a pedagogical approach that allows Englishes, 31(1), 30-33. students to recognize public space as an doi:10.1111/j.1467-971X.2011.01748.x arena in which different players, such as advertisers and business persons, exercise Boudreau, A. and White, C. (2004). influence in ways that are often hidden or Turning the tide in Acadian Nova covert such as the use of speech acts or Scotia: how heritage tourism is politeness strategies. Linguistic landscapes changing language practices and are therefore useful to develop students’ representations of language. critical thinking skill as well as their Canadian Journal of Linguistics, pragmatic competence, so that they are 49(3/4): 327–351. able to read between lines in authentic contexts. Brown, P., & Levinson, S. (1987). Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: References Cambridge University Press.

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