University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences (UWJSS) Volume 1, Issue 1, December 2018

UNIVERSITY OF WAH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Volume 1 (Issue 1) December 2018

Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities University of Wah, Wah Cantt

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University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences (UWJSS) Volume 1, Issue 1, December 2018

UW Journal of Social Sciences (UWJSS) is a bi-annual research journal published by University of Wah – Wah Cantt. Committed to serve as a key-resource for providing facts and figures to the scholars related to the field of Social Sciences at state level as well as globally.

Copyright: All rights are reserved. No part of this journal may be reproduced or translated in any form or by any means without prior permission of UW journal publication authorities.

Disclaimer: The expressions in articles – in UWJSS are specific to those of authors and are not necessarily the opinions and reflections of the journal authorities, editorial board, advisory board, or the University of Wah. The publication is subject to the peer blind review by the subject specific reviewers. Neither University of Wah, nor the editorial board is responsible for errors or any concerns ensuing from the information provided in research articles, instead all the errors must be reported to the corresponding authors directly.

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University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences (UWJSS) Volume 1, Issue 1, December 2018

University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences

The ‘UW Journal of Social Sciences’ (UWJSS) is a bi-annual publication of the University of Wah, Wah Cantt, Pakistan. As an international journal it is dedicated to advancing the understanding of the intricacies of research in private and public sector through empirical investigations and theoretical descriptions. UWJSS is a double-blind peer-reviewed journal that publishes quality articles in the field of social sciences.

Aim and Scope

The main purpose of the UWJSS is to invite the novel work of policy makers, educationist, social engineers, doctors, University teachers, post – graduate research scholars in seeking excellence in the field of education at national and international level.

Consequently, the aim of the UWJSS is to publish articles that contribute significantly to the body of knowledge in the field of social sciences. It will publish articles and case studies relating to all fields of Social Sciences and Humanities.

The editorial board of UWJSS welcomes quality research articles from all areas of social sciences. The board encourages quality research from the new scholars seeking to advance in their academic careers. Therefore, ‘UWJSS’ welcomes research articles in the areas of:

 Economics  Education  English Literature and Linguistics  Pakistan Studies  Islamic Studies  Sociology  Anthropology  Psychology  Political Science  International Relations  Mass Communication

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University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences (UWJSS) Volume 1, Issue 1, December 2018

EDITORIAL BOARD

Patron

Prof. Khaliq Ur Rehman Shad

Vice Chancellor, University of Wah

Executive Editor

Prof. Mushtaq Ahmad

Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, University of Wah

Editor-in-Chief

Dr. Wajiha Kanwal

HOD / Assistant Professor Education Department - UW

Associate Editor

Dr. Samina Rashid

Assistant Professor Psychology Department - UW

______

ADVISORY BOARD

Dr. Muhammad Imran Yousaf Leeds Beckett University - UK Director / Associate Professor Prof. Saif – ur – Rehman Abbasi Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Professor Rawalpindi International Islamic University - Islamabad Prof. Dr. Mahmood Ahmed Azhar Dr. Umer – ud - Din Rector / Professor Associate Professor Aims Institute of Management Sciences - Lahore Government Islamia College - Lahore Dr. Muhammad Ali Nasir Dr. Ihtsham – ul – Haq Padda Senior Lecturer Associate Professor Leeds Business School Federal Urdu University - Islamabad

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University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences (UWJSS) Volume 1, Issue 1, December 2018

Dr. Manzoor Ahmed Al-Azhari Dr. Anwaar Mohyuddin Associate Professor Assistant Professor HITEC University - Taxila Quaid – e – Azam University - Islamabad Dr. Badshah Sardar Dr. Muhammad Saleem Associate Professor Assistant Professor Allama Iqbal Open University - Islamabad Islamia University - Bahawalpur Dr. Sarwat Sultan Dr. Akbar Khan Associate Professor Associate Professor Bahauddin Zakria University - Multan University of Lahore - Gujrat Dr. Aneela Sultana Dr. Waheed Iqbal Chudhary Assistant Professor Assistant Professor Quaid – e – Azam University - Islamabad Quaid – e – Azam University, Islamabad

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University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences (UWJSS) Volume 1, Issue 1, December 2018

The Editorial

Dear Readers,

This first issue of Volume 1 of UW Journal of Social Sciences is an emblem of diverse pool of quantitative as well as qualitative research in the field of Social Sciences. It mainly focuses on investigating into the social sciences determining the link between authors’ views and diversity of thought with that of subject gurus in the field. It is committed to finding ways to investigate into the behaviors of human portfolios to the optimal level.

Our editorial policy is governed by independent quality control, blind peer-review, strict adherence to HEC policy requirements, zero tolerance to plagiarism and adherence to academic ethics in publishing. These guiding principles are guaranteed by our Advisory Board that contains world renowned national and international scholars who have great contribution in the field of social sciences. This issue contains the research related to the areas of social sciences and humanities.

We are grateful to the contributors of this issue. Our team led by imminent scholars and administrators aspire to lead this journal to reach the height of perfection, and authenticity in the field of management sciences. We are pleased to share that we aspire to make this journal a world-class publishing platform by producing original research and getting membership in renowned abstracting agencies. Our goal is to make it recognized journal by all regulating agencies including HEC very soon. It is only possible when the contributors of this journal share their valuable wisdom in the shape of up-to-date knowledge in the form of research papers whether qualitative or quantitative to this journal.

In conclusion, I would like to thank our Vice Chancellor (University of Wah) and all members of our Editorial Board/Advisory Board and Contributors for joining us in this new fascinating and promising academic project.

Editor-in-Chief

University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences

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University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences (UWJSS) Volume 1, Issue 1, December 2018

UNIVERSITY OF WAH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES Volume 1, Issue 1, December 2018

Titles Page

1. Social Problems faced by Non-Muslim citizens of Rawalpindi 01-22 Dr. Khalid Mehmood, Malik Akhtar Hussain, Irfanullah

2. Comparative Study on University teachers’ attitude towards weak and bright students 22-39 Ammara Ajaib, Dr. Imran Yousaf

3. Attributional Complexity: A required constituent for social competence among students 40-53 Dr. Sarwat Sultan, Frasat Kanwal

4. Natural Change of Sex – in Islamic perspective 54-62 Dr. Muhammad Yaseen, Dr. Shams ul Basar

5. Impact of Government expenditures on human welfare: An empirical analysis for Pakistan 63-82 Dr. Ihtsham ul Haq Padda, Murad Khan, Talah Numan Khan

6. Norman Fairclough’s model as a research tool in the critical discourse analysis of Robert Frost’s poem Fire and Ice 83-99 Maryam Sabir, Nadia Kanwal

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Social Problems faced by Non-Muslim Citizens of Rawalpindi

University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 1, December 2018, pp. 01-22

Social Problems faced by Non-Muslim Citizens of Rawalpindi

Dr. Khalid Mahmood1, Malik Akhtar Hussain2, Mr. Irfanullah3

Article History: ABSTRACT

Received: Pakistan is an Islamic Republic having 96 percent of Muslim population. The 23 Oct, 2018 other population is composed of Hindus, Christians, Sikhs, Qadianies, Parsis and Bihais. Some of these are well settled but a large number of them are Accepted: underprivileged. The social problems of non-Muslim citizens in Rawalpindi 4 Dec, 2018 based on religion are discussed in this research. Rawalpindi city was universe in this research while Hindu and Christian respondents were the population. A large number of non-Muslim citizens face these issues due to being minority in the country. Lack of freedom for religious practices to non-Muslims in Pakistan is the most important issue for the minority groups. Even they cannot perform their religious festivals with ease in some areas. The religious identity of non-Muslim citizens has also been affected. Moreover, they have to face religious bias in the society, due to this bias minority groups have to face social discrimination. One reason of this discrimination is the old caste system in our society. Rapidly growing intolerance has been changed into extremism and violence. The minorities in Pakistan are living as a depressed class of the society. Having a reasonable job is also a difficult task for the marginalized minority groups. In this research some issues of non-Muslims citizen residing in Rawalpindi are discussed based on religion.

Key Words: Minorities, Discrimination, Marginalized, Conversion, Extremism.

1. Introduction

The article 18 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights gives total freedom of belief, religion and thought to everyone. It also allows everyone to worship and practice the teachings of their religion (UN). Article 26 (1) of the constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan provides the equal rights to every citizen of the country and there is no discrimination on the bases of race, religion, caste and sex (NA). Pakistan is the country where freedom of minority groups is limited in the society. The access to justice is ======1. Lecturer (Department of Pakistan Studies, Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad) 2. Assistant Professor (Department of Pakistan Studies, Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad) 3. Lecturer (Department of Pakistan Studies, Virtual University of Pakistan, Lahore)

Dr. Khalid Mahmood, Malik Akhtar Hussain, Mr. Irfanullah

difficult for majority people therefore the non-Muslims are deprived of it. A Christian couple was burned alive by a mob near in Kot Radha Kishan of Qasur District in Punjab in 2014. A very remarkable step was taken then by the anti-terrorism court to sentence Five men to death involved in the incident (Gabol). Moreover the non-Muslim citizens also have to face social discrimination and bias due to their poverty and undesirable professions (Sultan). Some important social issues faced by the non-Muslim citizens of Pakistan are discussed here in the light of available published literature.

2. Literature Review

Religious minorities have played a key role in the history of Pakistan and their services cannot be denied in various fields. Sikh and Hindu community also had an important role in business and trade especially in villages (Majid). Pakistan was established as the result of division of Subcontinent for the Muslims and according to constitution all of the citizens have an equal right to live according to their own faith or religion but practically the religious minorities have not been provided their fundamental rights to live (Imdar).

Farooq Yousaf (2016) has the opinion that Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah created Pakistan on the basic principle of secularism where all the citizens may enjoy equal rights, but right wing religious groups had imposed their desire that Pakistan would be the country for the Muslims. After the arrival of Talibanization in the country; the wave of intolerance spread all over the country rapidly and because of this issue, non- Muslims of Pakistan feel themselves more insecure in the society (Yousaf).

According to UKFCO (2009) Pakistan has become a symbol of Alienation for the religious minorities at all level as, since her creation non-Muslim citizens of the county have been subject to attacks (CW). Junaid Qaisar (2010) discussed the responsibilities of the state and government as the religious minorities in Pakistan have been facing severe issues but the process of “prolonged silence” opted by the ruling class

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shows that they never remained sincere to solve the problems. This is a real gap between state and non-Muslim citizens of Pakistan and due to this gap the religious minorities of the country have become isolated and disappointed (Qaisar, Situation of Minorities in Pakistan).

Religious minorities can play more effective role if they are awarded respect in the society. Now the media has grown positive in its effect and violence against minorities is reported regularly on media. The local media has been instrumental in bringing the issues of the non-Muslim citizens. Moreover, media should also have to fulfill the responsibility to promote inter religious harmony among the nation by presenting exclusive programs (Amber Mubeen).

Churches and temples have been attacked at a large scale in Pakistan by the extremists. The minorities of Pakistan remained under the stress because not only their buses, worship places and social congregation were attacked but they also feel unsafe within their own houses. One hundred and twenty-seven Christians lost their lives during their worship in Peshawar in 2013 as result of a suicide attack on the church. These types of incidents show a very less space for the non-Muslims in Pakistani society. This is the matter of concern that highly ranked religious and political leaders played a rare role to support the minority groups emotionally (PIPS).

The rights of minorities are being violated all over the world. The minority groups are looking for the states and governments, they need to secure their rights of religious freedom, identity, languages, religious practices and the promotion of culture (UNHR).

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Dr. Khalid Mahmood, Malik Akhtar Hussain, Mr. Irfanullah

3. Religious Freedom

All the citizens of Pakistan have religious freedom according to Constitution. But some discriminatory laws make this freedom limited for the religious minorities. The examples can be seen in the society commonly. Above discussion shows that minorities are not granted religious liberty in Pakistan as per constitution. Practically they are considered as second class citizens in the country. Discriminatory laws are used to take revenge of personal rivalries. Under-privileged non-Muslim citizens are seen from the eyes of aversion.

Islam and Christianity are both called missionary religions by Norin Nazir while discussing socio-religious issues. In this regard, referring to the Meesaq-e-Madina, she said that all the religious groups had the freedom of worship and preaching of their religions in the Islamic state of Madina (Nazir).

According to Dr. Mubarak Ali untouchable class is marginalized by a planned conspiracy in our society, so that they may remain oppressed to raise the voice for their rights and in this way the upper class will enjoy their rights. Still the lives, properties and honor of untouchable are not secure. Their women are raped, their houses and shops burned and they are not allowed to excel. This is a historical reality that Christians and untouchable were discouraged when they tried to accept Islam only to deprive them of benefits which they could get after converting to Islam (Aabdi). In some areas, it is very difficult for non-Muslims to perform the religious rituals. In Pakistan the situation of marginalized minorities is very pitiable (Khaliq).

4. Religious Identity

All the Pakistani minority groups have a wish to be recognized and identified on the base of religion. The sense of being a minority encourages them to maintain their presence. Although they have been maintaining the existence of their culture and customs

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Social Problems faced by Non-Muslim Citizens of Rawalpindi

living with the majority group, but in this respect, the non-Muslim citizens of Karachi have been facing several problems. Hindus were in majority here before the existence of Pakistan and all the others were in minority. The larger roads, highways and settlements were attributed with the names of Hindus but later on their names were changed. These buildings and settlements were the reasons of identities of Hindus as these were designated with their names. But after the creation of Pakistan the names of these roads and areas were gradually replaced with those of the Muslim leaders. Now few pristine roads or settlements are left connected with the Hindu names.

Regarding the identity of religious minorities Ghulam Muhiuddin said that the Hindus of Karachi are losing their identities. The settlements attributed to Hindu names were very popular and no one had the objection to these names. But despite this, the names were altered due to discrimination. The name of popular Guru Mandir Chowk of Karachi was converted into Babri Chowk. But despite it, public calls it as Guru Mandir. The identification of Hindus had been affected due to changing names of roads. The clear ancient proofs of Hindus are disappearing rapidly. It's regrettable that Hindus’ temples are now deserted. They perform their religious rituals at their homes. We cannot easily identify the Hindus living in the city. The persons who wear dhoti can be rarely seen. Hindu men wear shalwar kameez and also have beards like Muslims. Their own identity has suffered living within the Muslim culture. The Hindus of Karachi are like Muslims, eat meat and don’t demonstrate bias. That is why when the hotels of Muslims are commonly closed in the month of Ramazan then the Muslims visit Hindu hotels in a large number. Some Hindus arrange rallies to mourn in the month of Muharram. However, some of their customs are different than Muslims, for example Hindus marriages are not common in the family and they keep distance of a few generations. If someone dies, then the family of deceased prepares meal on the 12th day after death. This meal is eaten by the Pundit first and no one is allowed to eat it before the pundit. At this occasion, pundit announces to make the house pure, so it is necessary to pay some money to the pundit for

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Dr. Khalid Mahmood, Malik Akhtar Hussain, Mr. Irfanullah

his pleasure. Like this, if any Hindu kills any animal the killer is considered as unholy. The pundit makes him holy after he begs from seven villages (Mohayuddin).

In India the Hindus are divided into four castes Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Shudras. However, in Pakistan the fifth caste also exists namely Balmeek who had forsaken their religious identity for their survival in the Muslim majority community. Therefore, they have sometimes been seen to partake in Muslims’ religious festivals or rituals etc. this trend started in the backdrop of Babri Masjid incident that took place in 1992 in India (Shinker, A Hindu Respondent of Goal Mandi, Rawalpindi). According to Sada, the biggest problem of Christians is of their religious identity since the establishment of Pakistan till today (Sada, Pakistan men Masihi Hona”, in Zakyia Tariq and Father Emanuel Aasi).

The customs and culture also play significant role in the identity of minority citizens. Their identity somehow remains intact due to these customs. Although some customs need expenses and if the economic conditions are better than no minority group wishes to leave these but due to compulsion minority groups living in Pakistan had to abandon their customs. Sada has discussed only about the identity of Christians while Ghulam Muhiuddin has written widely about the customs of Hindus of Karachi. It is the matter of concern that no one has discussed about the identity of Sikhs, but Sikhs have lost their identity all over Pakistan. Sikhs also wish to maintain their identity like Hindus but they avoid being prominent due to the fear of majority group. One of its reasons is the rare population of Sikhs in Pakistan. Contrary to it, the population of Christians is very large but the people of this group don’t use the word “Masih” with their names because they have to face discrimination due to it. Particularly the Christians living in big cities want to keep themselves secure in the society.

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Social Problems faced by Non-Muslim Citizens of Rawalpindi

5. Religious Biases

Hindus, Christians, Sikhs and other marginalized religious minorities are frequently seen with prejudice in Pakistan and this bias has spread so much that it can be a dangerous menace to society. At first these problems were for non-Muslims but much of community itself is now divided on religious grounds. In this context, Father Pascal Robert said that the religion has restricted us, but when we get out of religion then humanity connects the people. When we work for humanity, the religious discrimination ends automatically (O.F.M). According to Mahboob Sada let us change our attitudes to eliminate the biases. Christians and Muslims should live together not only in the society but should benefit each other (Sada, op.cit.,).

Father Emanuel Aasi writes that Christians have made valuable contributions to the education and health and everyone acknowledges their services. Being a minority Christians have served the people of various other religions. In contrast, Christians have to face many difficulties, and intolerance and discrimination are the issues on top. Aasi said about his childhood that he attended the morning assembly at school and had led other students saying “Lab p aati hay dua ban k tamana meri” but after that he had to be seated in a corner of class on the sackcloth. According to him, he was considered hateful due to being a Christian (Aasi).

It can be estimated with the above discussion of the authors that prejudices have come to a terrible situation in the Pakistani society. Humans are seen on religious grounds rather than humanity. Often minority citizens are treated with inhuman behavior. Marginalized minorities are considered inferior through which they have to face social discrimination.

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6. Forced Conversions of minorities

Article 20 of the constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan guaranteed liberty to all the citizens of the country to profess, practice and propagate their religion and everyone has the right to establish and manage his or her religious institution (Pakistan). Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah promised (Malik, I.H. 2002) to the minorities of Pakistan that they will be awarded equal rights and fully religious freedom in the country but with the passage of time; their rights have gone limited. The long process of Islamization in the country has not only limited the sphere of religious practices for the non-Muslims but the alarming wave of forced conversion of Hindus and Christian girls spread almost all over the country particularly in the Sindh (Malik). The cases of forced conversion and rape cannot be neglected against the minorities in the society. Two Christian girls near Lahore, in the mid of 2004 were raped, one of them was seven years old and the other was less than three years (Gregory).

Nasir Saeed (2016) discussed the case of Asma a disabled Christian girl of Sialkot who was kidnapped by her Muslim neighbor Ghulam Hussain. After a few months, Asma was succeeded to escape and reached her father. Ghulam Hussain later claimed that Asma have accepted Islam and got married with him, so she cannot live with their parents as they were Christians. Nasir also described the case of Shazia from Pattoki of Qasur District. She was a married Christian woman having four children and was converted after kidnapping by influential person of the area. She escaped luckily from his clutches and was able to reach and join her family. The landlord had the statement that she had accepted Islam and her previous marriage had been revoked, therefore, Shazia had to live with him. The concerned person trapped her family in a false case due to his power and was succeeded to get her in his custody again (Saeed).

Bina Shah (2016) said that kidnapping of the vulnerable Hindu girls by the powerful Muslims has become a daily routine in Sindh. The abductors have access to get a marriage certificate (nikahnama) by paying its price and this page or paper declares the

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Social Problems faced by Non-Muslim Citizens of Rawalpindi

marriage as legal step. Although government of Sindh has taken initiative in this regard after passing a bill against forced conversion and marriages of the non-Muslims girls but this legislation will not be able to fulfill the requirement of Hindu girls because they require a law that should protect them more effectively (shah).

7. Social discrimination towards minorities

Since ancient times, poverty and retardation in Pakistan are existing and caste system is also centuries old. Despite extreme hardwork, the poor could not save their upcoming generations from poverty. Although citizens may have some opportunities to proceed in the society in any way, but minority citizens do not get the opportunity of growth due to social discrimination. In this context, Akhtar Hussain Baloch said that due to caste system not only minorities but majority groups also have to face numerous problems, however Minorities face exclusively severe problems in the society. Its first reason is their being minority because if the minority groups belong to lower caste, they have to bear the invasive of majority group on one hand and on the other hand they have persecution to face from their upper caste people belonging to their religion. Therefore, they are forced to live in slavery generation after generation (Baloch).

When the British formed their government in India, they tried to make Christianity the state religion, however when they failed in their mission, they paid attention to the poor Hindus to protect their interests and admitted them into Christianity. Marginalized Hindus were in miserable social condition at that time. They lived a humiliating life in the society. Thus they had to accept Christianity for the purpose of changing their circumstances and having a positive change in their lives. But socially and politically, they were pushed back more. When they accepted Christianity, they were kept separate from the rest of society in separate communities far from the cities. Even those belonging to the Shudra caste people had adopted Christianity; they could not worship with the British and churches were also different for their worship (Noreen Nazir).

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Discussing the situation of Christians living in diocese of Multan, Sultan said that now in Pakistan the existence of separate settlements is an indication of the fact that they are placed with discriminatory social behavior because of which people who live in “Basties” (slum) are suffering from mental retardation and a sense of inferiority because other people avoid to make relationship with them. The communities of their own religion living in settled areas also hate the Christians living in the Basties.

Sultan also said while discussing Hyderabad that it comprises the entire Sind except Karachi and in Sind Schedule caste Hindus are largest majority. Most of them work as agriculture laborer in the fields of Muslim landlords. They have specific tribal life style. They do not assimilate with common people. While second largest minority group is of Hindus Caste who do business or trade. The caste and schedule caste Hindus of Sind are two percent of the total population of Pakistan. Although they are mostly not involved in conflicts, but Hindus of Sind would suffer the penalty of sins they did not commit due to breakdown of Indo- Pakistan relations and because of attacks on Muslims by the Hindu extremists in India (Dr. Pervez Sultan).

8. Intolerance, Extremism and Attacks on Minorities

Today in Pakistan, culture of intolerance and violence has been developed. The religious minorities are not only vulnerable, but the majority of community is also facing numerous problems. After the era of Zia's Islamization in Pakistan, an un-ending series of attacks started on religious minorities. The revenge of martyrdom of Babri Mosque in India was taken from the non-Muslim citizens of Pakistan. Christians and Sikhs were also targeted along with Hindus. The minority settlements and places of worship are targeted especially. When the majority of the country is vulnerable then the atmosphere is much more alarming for minority communities. In this context Junaid Qaisar has the opinion that attacks on Christian institutions and churches have become a daily routine due to increasing intolerance and extremism in Pakistan. Governments have continued the practice to divide people by the discriminatory rules. When a great tragedy happens in the

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Social Problems faced by Non-Muslim Citizens of Rawalpindi

world then Pakistan's marginalized religious minorities are targeted. As government of Pakistan sided with the United States in the global campaign against terror, its impact was also on the Christian minority in Pakistan. Churches of Christians and their other organizations were targeted by the terrorists in Pakistan (Qaisar). Prof. Dr. Syed Jaffar Ahmed said that the rapidly increasing trend of violence and intolerance is the problem for religious minorities in the country. According to him although Muslims themselves are victims of intolerance and violence but non-Muslim citizens are the main targets (Ahmed).

The trend of extremism has promoted as a result of attacks on non-Muslims. Often the entire towns of non-Muslims are devastated and are usually resorted to blasphemy laws for these goals. Although these laws were enforced for good purpose so that no one would be able to insult the religion of others, and if anyone does so, the law enforcement agencies will arrange the judicial punishment after filling a case against him. However, when such an event occurs then the majority class takes laws in hands, attacks the minority communities considering a good deed for themselves without differentiating between the sinner and the innocent. If this trend continues further, it will have highly negative impact on future in the country and it will be more difficult for the non-Muslim citizens to live in the country.

In April 2009 at Taisar Town of Karachi, a local Church was attacked by the Taliban or Taliban-pro Pakhtun community. The church was desecrated at night and in response to it the Christians of Taisar Town rallied to record their protest. It was the matter of concern that during the protest, the Christians were attacked by a mob of Taliban-pro local Pakhtun and as a result an eight years old boy Irfan Masih was killed, and some were injured also. The aim of this attack was to expel the Christian community from the area of Taisar Town (Naqeeb).

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Dr. Khalid Mahmood, Malik Akhtar Hussain, Mr. Irfanullah

9. Methodology of the Research

The universe of this research was Rawalpindi City and a survey for this purpose was conducted in different areas of Rawalpindi including Chaklala scheme III, Gracey Line, Sadiqabad and Goaal-mandi. Simple Random Method was used for sampling while Hindus and Christians were included in population. 80 non-Muslims were interviewed in a survey out of which 68 males and 12 females. The religious minorities face a number of problems in Pakistani society. To find out the social problems of non-Muslims of Rawalpindi was its main objective. 20 percent Hindus and 80 percent Christians respondents were included in the sample. According to educational qualification 10 percent Literate, 45 percent middle, 20 percent Matric and 25 percent were intermediate and above.

The findings of this research are discussed in the following.

1. Type of Family Type of family Type of Family Frequency Percentage Joint Family 24 30 Nuclear Family 56 70

According to the findings 30 percent non-Muslim citizens were living in joint and 70 percent in nuclear families. Most of the people had wished to live in joint family but they had less space at their homes, therefore their offspring are bound to live in nuclear family.

2. Important Sources of Income

A large number of the non-Muslim citizens were working as sweepers in government and private sectors; however, some of them had other professions like driving, teaching,

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Social Problems faced by Non-Muslim Citizens of Rawalpindi

nursing, business of scrap etc. Most of the minority women do the work as maid or sweepers and get very little in return as their wages. They spend it to fulfill the needs of their children. In nursing, the Christian girls had lost their jobs because this profession is being adopted by the Muslim girls rapidly.

3. Satisfaction with Income

Due to very less income, large family size and high rate of inflation the non- Muslims of Rawalpindi are living hand to mouth. Very fewer respondents were satisfied with their income. Only 10 percent respondents were satisfied while 90 percent were dissatisfied with their earning.

4. Range of Income

The range of monthly income or earning was up-to Rs. 10,000 (20 percent), Rs. 10,001 to 15,000 (55 percent), and only 25 percent respondents were able to earn above 15,000 Rs. per month.

5. Reasons of Economic Problems

Reasons of Economic Problems (N=80, Multiple answers) Reasons of Economic Problems Frequency Percentage Inflation 64 80 Lack of Education 56 70 Large Family Size 48 60 Unavailability of good job 44 55 Un-sustainable Income 24 30 High Rates of Electricity Bill 20 25

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Dr. Khalid Mahmood, Malik Akhtar Hussain, Mr. Irfanullah

Seventy percent respondents replied that they have to face economic problems due to being non-Muslims living in Pakistan while thirty percent had the opinion that their economic issues are due to their own hard-luck and not related or linked to their religion.

6. Educational Problems:

Educational Problems (N=80, Multiple answers) Problems faced for Education Frequency Percentage Inflation 56 70 Poverty 48 60 Uneducated Parents 24 30 Early Marriages 12 15 Blue Collar Jobs 08 10

Some parents wished to educate their children, but they thought after getting education their offspring would work as sweepers therefore they don’t take interest in educating their children at all. Some parents can’t provide lunch to their school going children. Most of the respondents said that their children had to face social and religious discrimination in the schools by the other children and teachers. The non-Muslim citizens, who send their boys to school, don’t send their girls, and the reason is that their girls would be converted to Islam.

7. Sources of Treatment Sources of Treatment (N=80, Multiple answers) Sources of Treatment Frequency Percentage Government hospital 24 30 Private hospital 60 75 Herbal treatment 12 15 Spiritual 08 10

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Social Problems faced by Non-Muslim Citizens of Rawalpindi

8. Problems in taking Treatment

Table No. 5, Problems in Treatment (N=80, Multiple answers) Problems Frequency Percentage Shortage of money 40 50 Un-availability of medicine from 40 50 government hospital Lower quality medicine 32 40 Uneasy access to government hospital 28 35

Most of the non- Muslim citizens use private source of treatment due to different reasons. In this context they said that the quality of medicine provided in the government hospitals is lower so they have to take treatment from their nearby private clinics. Heart problems, Diabetic, Arthritis, psychological problems and mental disorders were very common diseases in the minority households.

9. Condition of Houses

Table No. 6, Housing Conditions Condition of Houses Frequency Percentage Semi-structured 48 60 Structured 20 25 Un-structured 12 15

10. Situation of Houses Table No. 7, Situation of Houses Situation of Houses Frequency Percentage Personal 32 40 Government / without rent 28 35 On rent 20 25

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Dr. Khalid Mahmood, Malik Akhtar Hussain, Mr. Irfanullah

11. Area of Houses Table No. 8, Area of Houses Area of Houses Frequency Percentage Upto 3 Marlas 36 45 Upto 4 Marlas 28 35 More than 4 Marlas 16 20

Twenty five Percent respondents were living in pakka houses while 60 percent in semi-pakka houses. Only fifteen percent are those who live in kaccha houses. 75 percent of respondents were living in personal and government houses and 25 percent had to pay rent in lieu of houses. 45 percent respondents have been living in houses comprising the area of up-to three Marlas.

12. Residential Problems

The non-Muslims of Rawalpindi have to face different residential problems too. Some respondents from Chaklala scheme III and Gracey Line told that they had been living for more than one hundred years in their self-made small homes. The plots of their houses were allotted to them by the British state but now the governments’ representatives force them to leave their houses. Some respondents told that they were unable to hire a house on rent due to religious bias. Particularly the Hindus are not considered to be good citizens in the society and no one agrees to let them the house on rent. Some respondents told that they have a large family size and face difficulty in living in smaller homes. Various non-Muslims live in very old houses which have no ventilation and drainage system.

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If we look at the condition, situation and area of houses in which minority groups of Rawalpindi have been living, the situation is better than the groups of those non-Muslims who live in Karachi.

13. Family Problems

The non-Muslims of our society are embroiled in family problems. There is some difference in the problems of Hindu and Christian families. Most of the Christian families have the trend to have small family size and they use the methods to control the growth of their family but contrary to it the Hindus have the trend to have large family size and they think it a sin to control the growth. Moreover, the Christians have financial issues when it comes to marry their children but the Hindus of Rawalpindi have to face difficulties to decide the wedding of their children. The pure or orthodox Hindus do the marriages of their offspring in only pure Hindu families, and for this purpose they search the perfect match in Peshawar or other cities of K.P.K. However, the Balmeek Hindus are not very strict in this regard (Shinker).

14. Loan on Interest

The non-Muslims are trapped in the clutches of interest due to their compulsions. The non-Muslims of Rawalpindi take interest-based loan on very high markup rates. The loan providers get 15 percent markup per month. Some non-Muslim citizens told that they pay 15,000 per month in respect of interest if they take Rs. one lac and the actual amount remains intact. The respondents told that they take loan in case of extreme compulsion including illness, on the occasion of girls’ wedding and in case of long duration of joblessness (Masih).

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Dr. Khalid Mahmood, Malik Akhtar Hussain, Mr. Irfanullah

15. Political Issues

The non-Muslim citizens are not interested in the regional politics due to being cut off from their representatives. Most of them demanded the restoration of separate electorate as the politicians neglect the non-Muslim citizens because they can be elected on the basis of their party. The minority groups want to have their own representatives for the solution of their problems (Pitter).

10. Summary

The religious minorities of Rawalpindi including Hindus and Christians have to face many social problems due to being non-Muslims. Living in small and old homes, deprived of education, fearful from the majority community, joblessness, confronting social discrimination, social injustice and oversaturated loans are the common issues of Hindus and Christians of Rawalpindi. Due to long illness and unavailability of jobs, they are compelled to take loan with high interest rate.

11. Recommendations

1. There is a dire need of land or housing societies for the non-Muslim citizens as a large number of them have been living in the slums. 2. The government should fulfill the responsibility of providing jobs to the non-Muslim citizens on priority basis. 3. The financial institution may provide the interest free easy loans to the non-Muslims to help them to start their business. 4. There should be no social and religious discrimination in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, the role of civil society is very useful in this regard. 5. There should be the representatives for the non-Muslims, in among themselves who can solve their issues.

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Social Problems faced by Non-Muslim Citizens of Rawalpindi

6. There is strong need to provide them the educational facility; there may be established community based schools.

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Dr. Khalid Mahmood, Malik Akhtar Hussain, Mr. Irfanullah

References Aabdi, Dr. Mubarak Ali and Razi. Achoot Logon ka Adab. Lahore: Fiction House, 2004.

Aasi, Father Emanuel. “Aqliat: Aksariat kay leay Barkat.” Risalat kay Ufaq - Gujranwala: Maktaba Anaweem Pakistan 2002: 103-10.

Ahmed, Dr. Syed Jaffar. Pakistan Kay Ghair Muslim Shehri: Siyasi Jamaaton Ka Kirdar aur Zima Darian. Lahore: Pakfral, 2008.

Amber Mubeen, Dr. Arshad. Rabia Qusien. “Minorities in Pakistan: Role of Pakistani Private TV Channels in Highlighting Minorities’ Rights.” Global Media Journal (2016): 2 (9).

Baloch, Akhtar Hussain. Sindh Men Schedule Caste Se Mutaliq Survey. Karachi: HRCP, 2005.

CW. Annual Report on human Rights 2009. NY: United Kingdom Foreign & Commonwealth Office, 2010. www.fco.gov.uk .

Dr. Pervez Sultan, op.cit.,. n.d.

Gabol, Imran. ATC sentences five to death over burning alive Christian couple in Kot Radha Kishan in 2014. Karachi: DAWN, 2016.

Gregory, Shaun. “Under the shadow of Islam: The Plight of the Christian Minority in Pakistan .” Contemporary South Asia (2012): 20.

Imdar, Sahr. South Asians for Human Rights, Report on issues faced by minorities in Pakistan. 13 May 2017.

Khaliq, Syed Abdul. Religious Minorities: Charter of Demands. Lahore: Minority Rights Commission, 2008.

Majid, Abdul. “Religious Minorities in Pakistan.” Journal of the Punjab University Historical Society (2014): 27.

Malik, I. H. “Religious Minorities in Pakistan.” Minority Rights Group International - London (2002).

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Masih, Shahzad. a Christian respondent of Sadiqabad, Rawalpindi 10 Dec 2016.

Mohayuddin, Ghulam. “Hindu Aqliat kay Shab-o-Roz: Mazi Aur Haal Kay Aainay Me.” Jang: Midweek Magazine 25 April 2001: 2-6.

NA. The constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan: 1973. Islamabad: National Assembly of Pakistan, 2012.

Naqeeb, Mr. Arif. Social Worker of Christian Community of Taisar Town, Karachi n.d.

Nazir, Noreen. Mazhabi wa Muasharti Masail. Gujranwala: Maktaba Anaweem Pakistan, 2002.

Noreen Nazir, op.cit.,. n.d.

O.F.M, Father Pascal Robert. “Kaleesa Fitartan Missionary Hay .” Risalat kay Ufaq - Gujranwala: Maktaba Anaweem Pakistan, 2002: 35.

Pakistan, Govt of. “Article 20 of the constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.” n.d.

PIPS. “Minority Rights in Pakistan: Historic Neglect or State Complicity? .” 2014.

Pitter, Younas. a Christian Respondent of Chaklala scheme iii, 7 Dec 2016.

Qaisar, Junaid. Pakistani Aqliton Ka Noha. Lahore: Fiction House, 2007.

—. “Situation of Minorities in Pakistan.” https://lubpak.com/archives/4930 (2010).

Sada, Mehboob. “op.cit.,.” n.d.: 68.

—. “Pakistan men Masihi Hona”, in Zakyia Tariq and Father Emanuel Aasi.” Risalat kay Ufaq - Gujranwala: Maktaba Anaweem Pakistan 2002: 89.

Saeed, Nasir. “Forced conversions in Pakistan: a dark reality.” Daily Times 11 Aug 2016. shah, Bina. “Forced Conversions.” Dawn 25 Dec 2016.

Shinker, Rawi. a Hindu respondent of Goal Mandi, Rawalpindi. 14 Dec 2016.

Shinker, Rawi. A Hindu Respondent of Goal Mandi, Rawalpindi 14 Dec 2016.

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Sultan, Dr. Pervez. “Church & Development.” Fact Publication (2001): 174-87.

UN. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 10 Dec 1948. Electronic. 5 Nov 2018.

UNHR. Pamphlet No. 2: The U.N Working Group on Minorities. NY: Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2017.

Yousaf, Farooq. “The plight of Religious Minorities in Pakistan.” SADF FOCUS (2016): 12. http://sadf.eu/new/wpcontent/uploads/2016/02/FOCUS.N.12.Yousaf.pdf .

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Comparative Study On University Teacher’s Attitude Towards Weak and Bright Students

University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 1, December 2018, pp. 23-39

Comparative Study On University Teachers’ Attitude Towards Weak and Bright Students

Ammara Ajaib1, Dr. Imran Yousaf2

Article History: ABSTRACT

Received: Teachers’ attitude and instructional style has its influence on learners’ 9 Nov, 2018 character, learning and their educational achievement. The main purpose of the study was to explore the attitude of university teachers towards weak and bright Accepted: students based on four categories of professional, reinforcement, interaction 9 Dec, 2018 and attention aspects of teachers’ attitude. Population of this study consisted of all university students. The target population was the weak and bright students of four universities of Islamabad enrolled in BS and Masters Programs of Business Administration, Economics and Computer Science. Program wise target population for four universities were identified as 10420 students. For sample selection, program wise results of previous semester were collected from respective departments and list was arranged from highest to lowest CGPA obtained by students. Five percent top bright students and five percent bottom weak students from each category were considered within sample. Finally, a sample of 1042 students was available for conduct of research. Self- developed questionnaire consisted of 33 items based on four categories of teachers’ attitude was used. To access the validity and reliability different experts were involved in this pilot testing process. The collected data was analyzed through mean, standard deviations, F, t- test. The results of the study highlighted teachers have unequal treatment with the weak and bright students. Suggestions were given in the light of the findings.

Key Words: Teacher’s attitude, Weak Students, Bright Students

1. Introduction

Higher education plays a leadership role in education. There is a demand for a higher education in the world today and higher education provides people a chance to change the world. The higher education can deliver an individual with tools and expertise required to become a useful member of society, to achieve individual economic aims as

======1. Department of Education – PMHS – Arid Agriculture University - Rawalpindi 2. Assistant Professor (Department of Education – PMHS – Arid Agriculture University Rawalpindi)

Ammara Ajaib, Dr. Imran Yousaf

well as to increase intelligent curiosity. Quality is a broad concept, which covers all the related functions and events that form part of the educational life in a university system. Therefore, any agenda for the assessment of quality should take into account the quality of pupils, lecturers, arrangement, student support services, syllabuses, assessment and learning source. Teacher is the main person of the entire arrangement of education. Inspires the pupils for education improves the pupils’ success level are the most essential roles of teachers. Without instructor the procedure of education cannot be run. Teachers play an essential part in the renovation process to make the university as a learning association (Rashid & Mansor, 2018).

The teacher is a mentor, a planner, a promoter, a modal, and a supervisor, but he is an individual too. He feels, he observes, he thinks, and he also has a lot of attitudes about different things connected to himself and his life (Haq, 2006). A good teacher can shape a student's life. Teacher and learner connection is important for the success of both teacher and learner. A teacher must display brilliant sympathy, determination, care, morality as a being. Usually, teachers respond by, with admiration, approval or disapproval in reacting to learners (Derk, 1974). To effectively educate pupils at any level, teachers must evaluate the students’ requirements and how best the info should be presented (Chen & Howard, 2010)

Sebastian (2016) admits that education is relevant only if we take care of our students. Teachers must therefore be sensitive not to the cover whole of the course but to the knowledge that has taken place in the transaction. Teachers cannot pay any attention to the learners who do not keep pace with the teaching-learning procedure. Some learners do feel ignored in the whole transaction of the system. This group of learners needs to be taken greatest care and tackled in a way that will create well output from them. In the process, they will tend to understand themselves in an apt manner and improve positive attitudes towards themselves. Teacher’s attitude towards learners also affects instruction style and its influence on learners’ character as well as knowledge. Teacher’s attitude

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Comparative Study On University Teacher’s Attitude Towards Weak and Bright Students

towards the students is also vital in shaping classroom environment, attitudes exist of two types, positive and negative. The personal side of teaching contains teachers’ attitudes in three common parts of attitude about teaching and learning, attitude towards pupil and attitude towards self (Sprinthall & Sprinthall, 1990).

Teachers become models for their students when they use their social and emotional competencies (Yavuzer & Gundogdu, 2012). The best rules of teaching skills are helpful for the learner and for the instructor to set for their supportive beliefs in order to inspire the learner to study (Yavuzer, 2000). While the constructive attitude of the teacher lets him/her to build a helpful connection with learners, it permits for the lecturer to develop helpful attitude towards learners as opposite to the bad, taking on a supporting part as well (Yavuzer, 2000). For a teacher, being able to cooperate with the learner and show helpful attitude such as understanding their views, show attention, asking queries, raises the learners’ inspiration and achievement. While in work to give pupils at an improvement level data, practice and attitude on a certain subject matter, instructors convert hero out of learners by method of their individual actions and behavior. Encouraging behavior may lead to achievement while bad behavior lead to disappointment and as an outcome achievement can lead to optimistic ego-behavior while disappointment leads to harmful ego-behavior. For example, if the instructor involves in belittling remarks to a pupil due to his/her bad result, the bad effects of this will be expected (Gecer, 2002).

An instructor who recognizes the information and talents straight, touches his/her pupils and environments takes responsibility for his/her individual understanding and skills, produces optimistic relations with his/her pupils and can send these to learners in the best effective way (Blazar & Kraft, 2017). Teachers’ favorable or unfavorable approaches to their pupils have an important influence on their educational achievement. In the learning condition, instructors express their attitudes towards students with disabilities (Yara, 2009). Good (1983) in his study shows while asking difficult questions

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Ammara Ajaib, Dr. Imran Yousaf

to weak students, teachers give less wait time for answering to weak students, and are less likely to give prompts. Teacher’s changeable feedback can be very confusing for weak students. According to Good and Brophy (2003) students who are expected to complete, asked more and harder questions, to be given more chances and a longer time to answer, and less often than students who are weak students. Teachers also give their high expectation students hints and help; they have beliefs that the pupils can reply the problem. Teachers’ different behavior to low achievers shows their bad attitudes. Teachers need to be aware of their attitude and try to be fair in their communication with pupils who have changed characteristics with their educational success otherwise their students may suffer more due to teachers’ attitude rather than personal deficiencies’

1.2 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are:

i. To study the university teachers’ professional, reinforcement, interaction and attention related attitude towards students. ii. To differentiate the attitude of university teachers towards weak and bright students.

1.3 Research Questions

i. What kind of attitude the university teachers are displaying towards weak and bright students? ii. What is the difference between the attitude of university teachers towards weak and bright students?

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Comparative Study On University Teacher’s Attitude Towards Weak and Bright Students

2. Methods and Materials

2.1 Population

Population of this study consisted of all university students. The target population was the weak and bright students of four universities of Islamabad enrolled in BS and Master’s programs of Business Administration, Economics and Computer Science. Program wise target population for four universities was identified as 10420 students.

2.2 Delimitations of the Study

The student was delimited to:

i. Public sector universities of Islamabad ii. Students of BS and master’s program of Computer Science, Management Sciences and Economics.

2.3 Sample

At first phase, program wise results of previous semester were collected from respective departments and list was arranged from highest to lowest CGPA obtained by students. Further five percent top as bright students and five percent bottom as weak students from each category were considered within sample. Finally, a total sample of 1042 students was available for conduct of research.

2.4 Instrument

Self-developed questionnaire was used as an instrument for this research. The instrument consisted of 33 items based on four categories of professional, reinforcement, interaction and attention aspects of teachers’ attitude.

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Ammara Ajaib, Dr. Imran Yousaf

2.5 Pilot Study

To confirm the validity and reliability, educational experts were involved in the pilot testing process. The questionnaire was modified in the light of the views of the experts. The questionnaire was pre-tested on a small group of 20 BS Economics students to see whether the questionnaire items were simple to understand and easy to respond. The value of Cronbach’s alpha was 0.907 which shows the reliability of the instrument, and questionnaire with 33 items was finalized for data collection.

2.6 Data Collection

The questionnaire was administered personally to the respondents of the study for the data collection. The participants were asked to fill the questionnaire according to their perceptions.

2.7 Analysis of the Data

The collected data was analyzed through mean, standard deviations, F, t- value. The results were drawn with the help of the data findings and recommendations were given in the light of the results.

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Comparative Study On University Teacher’s Attitude Towards Weak and Bright Students

Table 1: Comparison of students’ perceptions towards their teachers’ professional aspects

Variables Student Responses t- Mean SD F value Sig

SA A UN DA SDA

Ask questions Weak 65 165 7 274 10 3.00 1.192 518.426 18.867 .000 Bright 150 326 22 20 3 1.85 0.717 Give enough time to Weak 44 148 46 250 33 3.15 1.155 answer 156.647 16.522 .000 Bright 115 299 57 43 8 2.10 0.888 Listens answers Weak 74 133 28 263 23 3.05 1.227 303.971 16.637 .000 patiently. Bright 132 325 20 38 7 1.97 0.839 Give hints and help Weak 44 134 47 255 41 3.22 1.163 78.189 15.842 .000 in answering Bright 119 294 36 55 18 2.16 1.003 Inform about quality Weak 75 125 62 231 28 3.02 1.215 204.106 15.224 .000 of answer Bright 127 295 58 38 4 2.04 .845 Timely Check Weak 67 134 48 246 26 3.06 1.201 0.950 2.933 .330 assignments Bright 85 161 55 196 25 2.84 1.226 Timely feedback on Weak 56 114 43 229 79 3.31 1.266 137.887 17.842 .000 assignments Bright 143 251 83 34 11 2.08 .937 Provide guidance in Weak 73 147 29 252 20 3.00 1.218 learning 157.018 13.273 .000 Bright 119 342 26 28 6 2.00 1.201

Table 1 depicts the professional aspects of teachers towards their weak and bright students. In all statements the calculated t-value was found significant at .000 levels because the significant value is less than alpha 0.05. There is significant difference between the teacher’s attitudes towards weak and bright students in terms of asking questions, giving enough time to answer, listening answers patiently, giving hints and helping in answering the questions, giving timely feedback on assignments and providing guidance in learning. Regarding a prominent professional aspect of teachers to check students’ assignments in time, the calculated t-value was found to be 2.933 which were significant at .330 levels with .950 F. So there is no significant difference between the teacher’s attitudes towards weak and bright students in this regard.

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Asking question is a significant aspect of a professional teaching which leads towards further process of teaching learning and it is being demonstrated differently by the teacher towards weak and bright students.

Table 2: Students’ perceptions towards their teachers’ aspect of reinforcement

Variables Student Responses t-value Mean SD F Sig

SA A UN DA SDA

Praise on right Weak 80 293 65 69 14 2.32 0.975 70.496 8.481 .000 answers Bright 139 336 28 14 5 1.87 0.705 Appreciate with good Weak 97 298 35 77 14 2.26 1.011 43.139 7.507 .000 words Bright 159 309 28 19 4 1.84 0.744 Believe you can Weak 75 154 23 233 36 3.00 1.264 improve 255.540 14.641 .000 Bright 144 301 24 40 13 2.00 0.924 Encourages in Weak 95 238 28 116 44 2.57 1.251 1.896 -9.767 .169 learning process Bright 48 135 19 235 85 3.33 1.273 Criticize on wrong Weak 203 134 60 80 44 2.29 1.342 6.771 -4.615 .009 answers Bright 77 225 65 114 41 2.65 1.197 Insult in front of the Weak 107 234 44 73 63 2.52 1.292 18.188 -15.489 .000 class Bright 37 59 53 248 125 3.70 1.159 Ridicule you Weak 80 260 71 83 27 2.46 1.090 30.276 -19.571 .000 Bright 14 44 110 288 66 3.67 0.898 Feedback is Weak 46 158 42 231 44 3.13 1.193 205.223 13.706 .000 Constructive Bright 63 318 91 42 8 2.26 0.830

Table 2 illustrates the students’ perceptions towards their teachers’ aspect of reinforcement and sketch of teacher’s attitude towards their weak and bright students. Regarding teachers’ encouragement in learning process, the calculated t-value was found to be -9.767 which was significant at .169 levels with 1.896 F. The significant value is greater than alpha 0.05, which shows that there is no significant difference between the teacher’s attitude towards weak and bright students.

There is significant difference between the teacher’s attitudes towards weak and bright students in expressions of praising on right answers, appreciating with good words,

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Comparative Study On University Teacher’s Attitude Towards Weak and Bright Students

believing they can improve, teachers’ criticism of students on wrong answers, discouraging and insulting in front of the whole class and giving them constructive feedback. The results show that bright students were more favored by the teachers. The calculated t-value was found significant at .000 levels because the significant value is less than alpha 0.05.

Teachers beliefs are vital component and have important influence on their practices. In this study the teachers do not show any believe about the improvement of their weak students.

Table 3: Comparison of students’ perceptions towards their teachers’ direct interaction

Variables Student Responses t-value Mean SD F Sig SA A UN DA SDA

Teach while having eye Weak 77 192 38 190 24 2.79 1.212 450.259 16.679 .000 contact Bright 173 305 32 10 2 1.78 0.675 Smile to you Weak 47 153 49 193 79 3.20 1.263 220.811 18.386 .000 Bright 160 266 55 37 4 1.96 0.874 Show interest Weak 59 114 80 189 79 3.22 1.263 109.969 14.496 .000 Bright 101 275 87 47 12 2.22 0.938 Give respect Weak 89 121 31 241 39 3.04 1.296 283.666 18.140 .000 Bright 197 261 34 24 6 1.81 0.835 Polite with you Weak 64 150 21 192 94 3.20 1.355 496.355 20.951 .000 Bright 178 303 19 19 3 1.79 0.728 Treat you well. Weak 90 135 57 213 26 2.90 1.246 329.313 17.668 .000 Bright 184 291 26 18 3 1.78 0.739 Suggest something nice Weak 73 168 22 193 65 3.02 1.325 523.751 18.879 .000 Bright 180 298 28 13 3 1.78 0.707 Solve learning problems Weak 73 125 47 247 29 3.07 1.223 249.150 17.955 .000 Bright 153 311 21 29 8 1.90 0.828

Table 3 portrays the students’ perceptions towards their teachers’ direct interaction. In all statements the calculated t-value was found significant at .000 levels because the significant value is lesser than alpha 0.05. The results show that teachers have more eye contact, give more smile, showing more interest, more respect, politeness and more nicely suggest something and solve the learning problems of bright students as

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Ammara Ajaib, Dr. Imran Yousaf

compared to weak students. The study result exposed teachers’ unequal treatment with the weak and bright students who were perceived to have more direct interaction with bright students. The supportive teacher is one who creates efficiently a positive classroom environment through optimum direct interaction with the students but here the under studied teachers do not sufficiently interact with the weak students as compare to the bright students.

Table 4: Comparison of students’ perceptions towards their teachers’ personal attention

Variables Student Responses t-value Mean SD F Sig SA A UN DA SDA Give special attention. Weak 16 116 82 288 19 3.34 0.964 9.389 19.315 .002 Bright 125 247 82 63 5 2.19 0.965 Like to talk within and Weak 82 238 29 142 30 2.62 1.202 291.206 15.213 .000 outside the class. Bright 215 268 25 13 1 1.69 0.695 Behave positively Weak 80 174 15 222 30 2.90 1.264 554.628 17.908 .000 Bright 179 308 16 16 3 1.77 0.703 Ensure class participation Weak 64 133 40 228 56 6.15 1.263 285.912 18.262 .000 Bright 145 299 42 32 4 1.95 0.819 Accept your ideas. Weak 36 157 65 190 73 3.21 .2101 179.861 17.293 .000 Bright 122 293 63 35 9 2.07 0.880 Aware of academic needs Weak 25 118 76 235 67 3.39 1.112 50.558 18.291 .000 Bright 105 272 95 30 20 2.21 0.957 Give special attention in Weak 38 100 53 256 73 3.43 1.163 their spare time 3.195 13.713 .074 Bright 92 230 94 76 30 2.47 1.113 Value the facial and body Weak 40 104 77 257 42 3.30 1.112 posture 30.814 14.229 .000 Bright 69 272 96 77 8 2.39 0.944

Table 4 portrays the aspect of personal attention of teachers towards weak and bright students. In these statements the calculated t-value was found significant at .000 levels because the significant value is less than at alpha 0.05. There is significant difference between the teacher’s attitudes towards weak and bright students in terms of

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Comparative Study On University Teacher’s Attitude Towards Weak and Bright Students

teachers’ talking with students in and outside the class, behaving positively, accepting their ideas, awareness with the needs and valuing the facial and body posture. The study outcomes in the light of learner’s opinion presented that lecturer ensure the participation of bright students in class while the result shows teachers don’t ensure class participation of weak students. There was no significant difference between teacher’s attitude towards weak and bright students for giving special attention in their spare time and personal attention.

The study strongly highlights that the weak students are badly ignored in terms of valuing their ideas by the teacher.

3. Discussion

Teacher is the key person of the whole process of education. Encourage the learners for education enhances the pupil success level and these are the significant roles of teachers. The teacher’s personality and style of interaction with the students has been reported to be a very crucial variable in student’s achievement. Bright student’s views showed that teachers ask more questions, give hints, help in answering the questions, give enough wait time to answers, as compared to weak students. This idea is supported by Brophy and Good (2003).

Good (1983) in his research defines while asking tough queries to weak students, and are less likely to give hints, teachers give less wait time for responding. This idea also supported Frymier’s (1993), his research defines in study concerning the effect of positive teacher behavior on the student’s motivation level, the author has concentrated on certain behaviors for teachers such as giving feedback for student works, complimenting, wanting to listen to students and being interested. The results of the study show that teachers’ nonverbal actions such as smiling, having a relaxed stance,

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various gestures and facial expressions come first in improving the learning experience for students whereas the topic of the class itself comes in second.

The current study shows that teachers did not give due praise to weak students on their right answering attempts, and further they may criticize on wrong answers made by weak students. Similar findings were seen in a study by Brophy & Good (1974) who viewed that teachers criticize bright students less often; admire bright students more frequently as compared to weak students.

The study results revealed that weak students stated that teachers did not treat them well and did not behave with them positively as compared to bright students. The students complained that their teachers behave more nicely to some students. This idea supported Shah (2009) who viewed that students complained that their teachers behave nicely to some students. This idea supported Stipek (2002) who viewed that Learners who do not do well in institute constantly do not have positive relation with their instructors. Similar findings were observed in a study by Gecer (2002) which revealed that for a teacher, being able to interact with the student and display positive behavior such as asking questions, understanding their thoughts, showing interest and appreciation increases the students’ motivation and success.

The current study shows that teachers believed that only bright students can improve. Instructors’ difference attitude shows their negative attitude towards weak students that finally outcomes in low expectations from them. This idea is supported Tyler and Boelter (2008), who viewed that teacher’s positive expectations were associated with high academic performance or academic gains; whereas negative expectations resulted in decrease in academic performance. This idea also supported (Kuklinski, Madison & Weinstein, 1995) who viewed that a significant teaching approach is to monitor your expectations and be sure to have encouraging and positive expectations for weak learners. Researchers have studied that with such support

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Comparative Study On University Teacher’s Attitude Towards Weak and Bright Students

professors can adapt and increase their expectations for weak students. This idea is supported by Whitaker (2004), who viewed that the main variable in the classroom is not the student, but the teacher. Great teachers have high expectations for their students, but even higher expectations for themselves.

The study results show that teachers have less eye contact with weak students, don’t accept their ideas, did not talk with them and did not show interest in them as compared to bright students. This idea supported Good and Brophy (1991) who viewed that Teacher’s attitude towards weak and bright students is different in class according to their perception. Fewer interaction teaching, fewer eye interaction and, less interaction in communication, fewer acceptances of thoughts. This idea is not supported Gecer (2002) who viewed that for a teacher, being able to interact with the student and display positive behavior such as understanding their thoughts, showing interest and appreciation increases the students’ motivation and success. While working towards providing students at a certain development level information, experience and behavior on a certain topic, teachers become role models for students by way of their own behavior and attitude.

The study results show that both weak and bright students agreed that their teachers did not check their assignment in time. This idea is in contrast with Shah (2009) who viewed that Teachers check the given assignments of the students in time. The study results show that teachers did not give respect to weak students as compared to bright students. Everyone wishes his respect. The students in the class want their respect by the teacher. This idea supported Sarojini & Gopinath (2018) who viewed that more successful teacher made more extensive use of admiration during class debates, and treated pupil contributions with respect. This idea is supported by Stipek (2002) who posits a student wants to feel connected to people and feel as though he or she deserves to be loved and respected.

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4. Conclusion

The bright students reported that teachers suggest something nice to them, polite with them, more concerned about them, solve their learning problems, behave with them positively, show more interest in them, teachers ensure their class participation, give them timely feedback, value their facial and body postures, give them special attention in their spare time, teachers appreciate them with good words when they perfume well in class, respect them, guide and help them when they needed and teachers have believed that bright students can improve. A large number of weak students than bright students said that teachers did not talk with them in and outside the class, did not had eye contact with them while teaching, did not treat them well, did not ask them more questions, did not give them hints and help in answering the questions, did not give them enough time to answers after asking the questions, did not give them praise on right answers, did not give them much information about the quality of their answers, did not provide them guidance in learning, did not accept their ideas, did not give them smile, did not give them constrictive feedback, ridicule them and criticized them more on wrong answer as compared to bright students. Weak students described that their teachers discourage and insult them in front of whole class. Weak students stated that teachers were not aware with the needs of weak students. Both weak and bright students agreed that their teachers did not check their assignment in time and encourage in learning process. Teachers did not give special attention in their spare time and personal attention to weak and bright students.

5. Recommendations

a. Teachers should treat equally while asking questions to weak and bright students. Questioning as an effective strategy may help the weak students for their improvements and make them feel as concerned.

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Comparative Study On University Teacher’s Attitude Towards Weak and Bright Students

b. Teachers should not ridicule and criticize the weak students as a results of wrong answer. Training of university teachers is recommended to cover the practical aspect of improving communication and dealing with weak and bright students.

c. Teachers should give due consideration to the ideas generated by weak students instead of ignoring such ideas. This may help the weak students for improving creativeness among them, further bright students may be organized to work in collaborative way with weak students.

d. The university teachers should create a positive classroom environment through more direct interaction with the weak students.

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Ammara Ajaib, Dr. Imran Yousaf

References

Blazar, D. & Kraft, M. A. (2017). Teacher and teaching effects on students’ attitudes and behaviors. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 39(1), 146-170. Brophy, J. E., & Good, T. L. (1974) Teacher-student relationships: Causes and consequences. Oxford, England: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Chen, C. H., & Howard, B. C. (2010). Effect of live simulation on middle school students' attitudes and learning toward science. Educational Technology & Society, 13(1), 133-139. Derk, R. (1974). Educational technology in curriculum development. New York, NY: Harper and Row Publications. Frymier, A. B. (1993). The impact of teacher immediacy on students' motivation: Is it the same for all students? Communication Quarterly, 41(4), 454-464. Gecer, A. K. (2002). The effect of teacher immediacy on students’ performance, attitude and motivation (Doctoral thesis). University of Ankara, Ankara. Good, I. J. (1983). Good thinking: The foundations of probability and its applications. University of Minnesota Press. Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E. (2003). Looking in classrooms (9th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Haq, E. U. (2006). Effects of attitude of teacher towards performance of slow learners (Doctoral thesis). Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamababd. Rashid, R. A., & Mansor, M. (2018). The Influence of Organizational Learning on Teacher Leadership. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 8(4), 1254-1267. Sarojini, T. K. & Gobinath, R. (2018). Admiration of internal and external factors affecting teachers implementation of seminal evaluation to support learning. International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, 119(10), 209-213.

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Comparative Study On University Teacher’s Attitude Towards Weak and Bright Students

Sebastian, V. (2016). Ensuring learning in slow learners. Educational Quest: An International Journal of Education and Applied Social Sciences, 7(2), 45-50 Shah, S. S. A. (2009). Impact of teacher's behaviour on the academic achievement of university students. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 6(1), 69-74. Sprinthall, N. A., & Sprinthall, R. C. (1990). Educational psychology: A developmental approach. (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Stipek, D. J. (2002). Motivation to learn: Integrating theory and practice. Boston, Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon. Tyler, K. M., & Boelter, C. M. (2008). Linking black middle school students' perceptions of teachers' expectations to academic engagement and efficacy. Negro Educational Review, 59(1/2), 27. Weinstein, R. S., Madison, S. M., & Kuklinski, M. R. (1995). Raising expectations in schooling: Obstacles and opportunities for change. American Educational Research Journal, 32(1), 121-159. Whitaker, T. (2004). What great principals do differently? Larchmont, NY: Eye On Education, Inc. Yara, P. O. (2009). Relationship between teachers’ attitude and students’ academic achievement in mathematics in some selected senior secondary schools in southwestern Nigeria. European Journal of Social Sciences, 11(3), 364-369. Yavuzer, H. (2000). Okul cagi cocugu (School age child). Istanbul: Remzi. Dağlıoğlu, Yavuzer, Y., & Gundogdu, R. (2012). Teachers responsibilities in preventing school violence: A case study in Turkey. Educational Research and Reviews, 7(17), 362- 371.

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Attributional Complexity: A Required Constituent for Social Competence among Students

University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 1, December 2018, pp. 40-53

Attributional Complexity: A Required Constituent for Social Competence among Students

Dr. Sarwat Sultan1, Frasat Kanwal2

Article History: ABSTRACT

Received: This article accosts the findings of a study conducted on identifying the role of 12 Oct, 2018 attributional complexity in determining the social competence among students. A sample of 188 students with age of 12 to 14 years (mean age of 13.45, SD = Accepted: .773) from public schools of Multan Pakistan was contacted through 3 Dec, 2018 convenience sampling technique. To measure study variables, Attributional Complexity Scale and Social Competence Scale were administered to the participants. Employing correlation, regression analysis, and t-test, findings showed a positive significant correlation between attributional complexity and social competence. Students who were high in attributional complexity were found more socially competent as compared to those having low score on attributional complexity scale. Regression analysis further shows that seven components of attributional complexity are significantly contributing in the prediction of social competence except motivation component and abstract vs. casual. On the basis of these findings, it is underlined that students’ attributional styles should be considered in the explanation and understanding of their social interactions and adjustment.

Key Words: Attributional Complexity, Social competence, Social Adjustment, Social Judgement

1. Introduction

Attributional complexity is a psychological concept that explains the degree to which one is interested in understanding the causes of behavior of other individuals and looks at various potential causes (Fletcher, Danilovics, Fernandez, Peterson, & Reeder). The individuals who have high attributional complexity are conceptually considered as ‘‘like good social psychologists’’ in a sense that they are highly prone to believe in dispositional factors, situational factors, and factors emerged from the past (Fletcher et al.). On the other hand, the individuals who are low in attributional complexity are

======1. Assistant Professor (Department of Applied Psychology – BZU – Multan - Pakistan) 2. Department of Applied Psychology, Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan - Pakistan Attributional Complexity: A Required Constituent for Social Competence among Students

considered as to be less likely to imagine and conceive about the causes of behavior or to understand several explanations. Many studies have postulated that attributional complex individuals are relatively less likely to think for multiple errors of social judgment and in some cases attain greater accuracy, that may provide keen perceptiveness into the psychological basis of good social judgment (Fletcher, Reeder, & Bull, Follett & Hess, Stalder & Baron).

However, the previous research is inadequate to understand how attributional complex individuals behave and how others view them in their social world. Speaking on this gap in the literature is crucial for three reasons. First, attributional complexity would seem to take part an important role in social interactions because it requires a particular interest in understanding the behavior of others. Looking into the behavior and reputation may extend insight into how attributional complexity affects individual’s position in his/her social world. Second, many reviewers in the recent past have found that personality and social psychology, usually depend on self-report measures, seldom directly observes the social behaviors related with significant constructs (Baumeister & Vohs; Funder). Third, observing one’s behavior and collecting judgments formed by those who acknowledge that people considerably are important because people do not always behave what they say they behave (Gosling, John, Craik, & Robins) and reputations have social consequences that matter (Hofstee; Hogan).

Social competence is defined as social, emotional, and cognitive skills and behaviors that children demand for successful social adjustment. Regardless of this simple definition, social competence is a subtle and difficult construct because the skills and behaviors involved in healthy social development vary across the different age cycles of the child and with the requirement of specific situations. A child who is socially competent would behave in a very different way as compared to a socially competent adolescent; conversely, the same behaviors (e.g., aggression, shyness) have different

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implications for social adaptation depending upon the age of the child and the particulars of the social context.

Furthermore, research into the relationship of attributional complexity with other self-reported personality domains have presented a blended picture of the attributional complex. Some findings report that attributional complex individuals may possess a positive reputation and would act in a socially skilled way, while other findings report that they may be socially isolated and inapt, sticky, and awkward. Therefore, in short, this research has wider implications for social competence research. Since attributional complexity seems to be connected with better social interaction and social initiative behaviors, understanding and cognition of the behaviors of social interaction and initiatives correlates may propose what behaviors are correlated with attributional complexity, and knowledge of the attributional complexity correlates might furnish some insight of its social aftermaths in terms of social competence (Ambady, Hallahan, & Rosenthal).

Since the early 1940s, social psychologists have been found concerned for how lay social observers define whether the causes of another individual’s behavior are internal, external, or a combination of the two (Jones & Davis; Kelley). Various perspectives about attributional process have established, and they usually classified into one of two categories. One perspective suggests that people are cognitive hoarders and depend upon simple heuristics when ascribing and attributing the causes of behavior of others (Tversky & Kahneman), while the other perspective proposes that the attributional process is complex and that people form and conceive various causes (Ross & Fletcher). In addition, there is empirical prove to affirm both perspectives (Fletcher; Read). Fletcher et al. (1986) developed the Attributional Complexity Scale (ACS) to reconcile these contrasting views. Despite this categorically argument that all individuals are attributional simple or all are complex, the ACS was developed to measure the possibility

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Attributional Complexity: A Required Constituent for Social Competence among Students

that people may differ in the extent to which their attributions are more or less advanced. In other words, ‘‘some people are simpletons and others are experts’’ (Fletcher et al.).

For the account that attributional complexity appears to greatly determine how an individual considers and perceives about his/her social world, it is suitable to search to explore more pertaining to the social competence and behavior of the attributional complex. Directly observing what attributional complex individuals behave is significant because it might present some understanding into how they interact with others, and why they likely to have better social judgment. Although it is proposed that they have better social interaction because they think profoundly and intricately about social information, it may also be that they act in manners that alleviate better prosocial orientation. For instance, attributional complex people might call for more questions and collect more information about their social worlds (Baumeister & Vohs; Funder).

Very limited literature is available on possible social outcomes of attributional complexity, and the views that others have of an individual may be one such consequence. Social competence is valued because it influences the chances an individual is given and it affects the way a person is dealt by people around him/her (Hofstee; Hogan). For instance, if a person is viewed as affectionate and insightful, then the people around him/her will tend to look at interactions with and befriend that person. In opposed to, potential peers will likely to be away from and dislike a person who is cold and inconsiderate. Moreover, there is evidence to propose that other’s point of views have a causal influence on behavior (Rosenthal & Rubin); an individual who is expected to be cold and inconsiderate may be more likely to behave that way. Analyzing social competence might facilitate insight regarding the social consequences of attributional complexity.

Predicting the social competence and behaviors of the attributional complex is difficult because the theory focuses on cognitive aspects of the construct rather than

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behavior or personality characteristics. Moreover, two rather opposing views can be imagined. One might hypothesize that they would have a favorable social competence and be viewed as having personality characteristics associated with interpersonal effectiveness (e.g. warmth and compassion) because they have good understanding of human behavior. The attributional complex may behave in an empathic and socially skilled manner because they are motivated and able to read the cues others display and act accordingly. On the other hand, one can also imagine that the attributional complex might come off as socially detached, awkward, and vulnerable. Others may be aware that the attributional complex dedicate much energy to scrutinizing the causes of their behavior and this could be perceived as anxiety, social detachment, or even obsessiveness.

Taken together, presently available literature does not draw an absolute picture of the attributional complex individual. Research on correlating self-reports of several personality characteristics present indirect support for two contrasting views. Furthermore, very little can be said about how people higher and lower in attributional complexity behave socially—a comment that also applies to many other constructs in the psychological literature—and therefore purpose of the present study was to address this gap in knowledge. The current study was planned to examine the attributional complexity as a significant factor in determining the social competence among students. We hypothesize that because attributional complexity and its dimensions are theorized to be a specific social orientation, it will be positively correlated with social competency. We further predict that because higher levels of attributional complexity are theorized to be related to deeper thought and greater accuracy in social judgment, thus attributional complex will be higher in social competence as compare to attributional simpler individuals

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Attributional Complexity: A Required Constituent for Social Competence among Students

2. Methods

2.1 Participants

Participants were 188 students with age of 12 to 14 years (mean age of 13.45, SD = .773) taken from public schools of Multan Pakistan. Among them 98 were male and 90 were female students with age range of 20-24 years. Convenient sampling technique was used to approach the participants. All the participants were more or less similar with social background.

2.2 Measures

2.2.1 Attributional Complexity Scale (ACS)

Attributional Complexity Scale (Fletcher) is a 7-point self-reported scale, designed to measure the individual differences in attributional complexity. It consists of 7 subscales with 4 items each that measure motivation component (to understand the causes of behavior), complex vs. simple (Preference for complexity), meta cognitions (of thinking processes involved in attribution), interactions with others, abstract vs. casual (infer internal causes of behavior), external causes, and past causes. The response options for each item are 0 to ±3 as ‘-3’ for strongly disagree, ‘+3’ for strongly agree, and 0 for neither agree nor disagree. To score the scale, simply sum up the responses to each of the 28 items after reverse score these items; 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 26, and 28. The scale has scoring range of minimum 28 to maximum 196, higher scores on the scale show complex attributional process and lower scores reveals simple attributional process. The test-retest reliability of the scale is found to range from 0.79 to 0.84.

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2.2.2 Social Competence Scale

Social Competence Scale is a measure developed by Child Trends for the Flourishing Children Project, as part of the Flourishing Children Project. It is a 9-item questionnaire with 5 point Likert Scale; Not at all like me = 0, A little like me = 1, Somewhat like me = 2, A lot like me = 3, and Exactly like me = 4. Social Competence in adolescence is defined as a set of positive social skills necessary to get along well with others and function constructively in groups, including, a) respecting and expressing appreciation for others; b) being able to work and communicate well with others and listen to others' ideas; c) demonstrating context-appropriate behaviour that is consistent with social norms; and) using a range of skills or processes aimed at resolving conflict. The maximum score for this scale equals 36. Total scores allow for quick overviews of how individuals are doing. The scale has the reliability alpha of .079.

2.2.3 Procedure

Participants were approached through convenience sampling technique at their campus. Both the questionnaires along with a demographic variable sheet were administered to the participants of this study after obtaining consent from them. They were instructed about how to fill the questionnaires. They were also assured that the information sought from them will be kept confidential and will be used only for research purpose. Results were then analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences, 17 version).

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Attributional Complexity: A Required Constituent for Social Competence among Students

2.2.4 Results Table 1

Descriptive Data and Correlation between the Scores of Parenting Practices And Delinquency Behavior M SD Social Competence Attributional Complexity 142.34 14.62 .73** Motivation Component 118.31 13.73 .42* Complex vs. Simple 117.01 14.22 .73** Meta Cognition 139.13 14.03 .47* Interactions with others 133.51 13.18 .62** Abstract vs. Casual 126.32 14.15 .44* External Causes 135.93 15.33 .59** Past Causes 131.14 13.57 .56** *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01

Table 1 shows the mean, SD, and correlations for the scores of attributional complexity and social competence. Results indicate that attributional complexity and it’s

all seven dimensions are positively correlated with social competence.

Table 2

Standard Regression Model showing impact of Attributional Complexity and its Subscale on Social Competence

Predictors B Std. Error Beta t p (Constant) 6343.11 142.12 1.55 .147 Attributional Complexity .612 .077 .721 3.63 .000** Motivation Component .372 .061 .275 1.09 .097 Complex vs. Simple .587 .064 .656 2.47 .000** Meta Cognition .389 .085 .289 1.99 .043* Interactions with others .411 .073 .367 3.47 .021* Abstract vs. Casual .379 .068 .491 1.38 .095 External Causes .587 .042 .448 2.73 .001** Past Causes .472 .072 .327 3.81 .001** R2 = 0.76, Adjusted R2 = 0.61, (F (8, 185) = 14.17, p < = 0.001) *p < = 0.05, **p < = 0.001,

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Table 2 reveals that dependent variable of social competence is 76% explained by the independent variables of attributional complexity as indicted by the value of R2 = 0.61. A significant F-value for the standard regression model (F (8, 185) = 14.17, p < = 0.001) also depicts that model significantly explains the outcome variable. Examining the t-values from the table is also an indicative of the notion that subscales of attributional complexity are significantly contributing in the prediction of social competence except motivation component and abstract vs. casual.

Table 3

Means, Standard Deviations and t-value for the Scores of Complex and Simpler Attributional Students on Social Competence (N = 101, 87)

Group t p M SD Attributional Complex 168.14 13.92 Students 3.44 0.00*** Attributional Simpler 107.02 15.61 Students df = 398, ***p < 0.001

Table 3 indicates that attributional complex and attributional simpler students highly significantly differ in terms of reporting level of social competence. Attributional complex individuals tend to have high level of social competence as compared to attributional simpler individuals.

3 Discussion

Attributional complexity has a certain outward aspect of contributing an important role in social competence because it calls for a particular concern in understanding the behavior of others. Analyzing or probing behavior might provide understanding into how attributional complexity determines one’s enduring in his/her social world. One purpose of the present research was to explore the relationship between

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Attributional Complexity: A Required Constituent for Social Competence among Students

attributional complexity and social competence. Findings provided the support for this assumption that attributional complexity and social competence were positively correlated with each other. The study conducted by Joireman (2004) has provided the evidence for this findings who confirmed that attributional complexity always has been found connected with social competence and social judgment of one’s life. Joireman (2004) correlated attributional complexity with the empathic concern and interpersonal reactivity.

Further extending purpose of this research was to look into how attributional complexity and its sub-facets influences the social competence among students. It was hypothesized that attributional complexity with its component will affect social competence. Results indicated that social competence was found significantly regressed upon attributional complexity. These findings are in consistent with the findings of a study by Stalder and Baron (1998) who investigated the influences of attributional complexity on social competence and social interactions, and they found significant effects of attributional complexity on social competence.

The present study also reported the effects of seven aspects of attributional complexity on social competence through regression analysis. Except the motivation component and abstract vs. casual aspect, all other have been found significant contributors in directing the level of social competence. Many previous studies have supported the findings of present research. Such as Blumberg, & Silvera (1998) studied attributional complexity and cognitive development, and they explored the motivational and cognitive requirements for attribution. The present study strengthened these findings by presenting the notions that meta cognition as a vital part of attribution influences the social competence. However, present findings failed to support the role of motivational component in social competence.

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One of the findings also suggested the impact of complex vs. simple aspect on social competence. This finding is in tune with the findings by Devine (1989) who also examined the attribution effect, and found significant role of confidence and attributional complexity in understanding the social interactions. Similarly, Fletcher, Rosanowski, Rhodes, and Lange (1992) examined accuracy and speed of causal processing. Their study postulated that the external causes explain the social judgment. The present study also reported the same findings that show the significant impact of external and past causes on social competence.

4 Conclusion

Attributional complex individuals are thought as ―good social psychologists’’ because they believe in consideration of dispositional factors, situational factors, and factors operating from the past for better understanding of other behaviors. Attributional complexity in turn is theorized to be associated with the development of social competence. Present research has concluded that attributional complexity is a significant contributor in determining the social competence. Overall, thinking profoundly about social interactions, judgment, and information will be involved in engaging with others using clear, communicative, and positive behavior that might be crucial elements for interpersonal accuracy, and attributional complexity, socially skilled behavior. Shortly, interpersonal accuracy may lead to a highly well-disposed social reputation.

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References Ambady, N., Hallahan, M., & Rosenthal, R. (1995). On judging and being judged accurately in zero acquaintance situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 518–529.

Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2006). Are personality and social psychologists behaving themselves? Dialogue, 21, 3–7.

Blumberg, S., & Silvera, D. (1998). Attributional complexity and cognitive development: A look at the motivational and cognitive requirements for attribution. Social Cognition, 16, 253–266.

Child Trends for the Templeton Foundation (). Social Competence Scale for Teenagers, Flourishing Children Project

Devine, P. G. (1989). Over attribution effect: The role of confidence and attributional complexity. Social Psychology Quarterly, 52, 149–158.

Fletcher, G. (1983). The analysis of verbal explanations for marital separation: Implications for attribution theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 13, 245– 258.

Fletcher, G. J., Reeder, G. D., & Bull, V. (1990). Bias and accuracy in attitude attribution: The role of attributional complexity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 275–288.

Fletcher, G. J., Rosanowski, J., Rhodes, G., & Lange, C. (1992). Accuracy and speed of causal processing: Experts versus novices in social judgment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 320–338.

Fletcher, G. J. O., Danilovics, P., Fernandez, G., Peterson, D., & Reeder, G. D. (1986). Attributional complexity: An individual differences measure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 875–884.

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Follett, K., & Hess, T. M. (2002). Aging, cognitive complexity, and the fundamental attribution error. Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57B, 312–323.

Funder, D. C. (2001). Personality. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 197–221.

Gosling, S., John, O. P., Craik, K. H., & Robins, R. W. (1998). Do people know how they behave? Self-reported act frequencies compared with on-line codings by observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(5), 1337–1349.

Hofstee, W. (1994). Who should own the definition of personality? European Journal of Personality, 8(3), 149–162.

Hogan, R. (2005). In defense of personality measurement: New wine for old whiners. Human Performance, 18, 331–341.

Joireman, J. (2004). Relationships between attributional complexity and empathy. Individual Differences Research, 2, 197–202.

Jones, E., & Davis, K. (1965). From acts to dispositions: The attribution process in person perception. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.). Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 220–266). New York: Academic Press.

Kelley, H. (1973). The process of causal attribution. American Psychologist, 28, 107–128.

Read, S. J. (1983). Once is enough: Causal reasoning from a single instance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 323–334.

Rosenthal, R., & Rubin, R. (1978). Interpersonal expectancy effects: The first 345 studies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1, 377–415.

Ross, M., & Fletcher, G. J. O. (1985). Attribution and social perception. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (3rd ed., pp. 73–122). New York: Random House.

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Stalder, D. R., & Baron, R. S. (1998). Attributional complexity as a moderator of dissonance-produced attitude change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 449–455.

Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124–1131.

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Natural Change of Sex in Islamic Perspective

University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 1, December 2018, pp. 54-62

Natural Change of sex in Islamic perspective

Dr. Muhammad Yaseen1, Dr. Shams-ul-Basar2

Article History: ABSTRACT

Received: Contemporary Technologies are having an exceptionally deep 01 Nov, 2018 influence on human beings for giving delight and satisfaction in one Accepted: side, whilst they are creating many questions in their brains whether 3 Dec, 2018 they can actualize and use them in their life. Natural Change of sex is among such concerns, which requires contention about their pragmatic adaptation. This article will highlight the need of natural sex change and Islamic concept regarding its validation

Key Words: Sex Change, Counter activity surgery, Sex Relocation surgery

1. Introduction

Radical changes have been brought by modern science in every field especially in the fields of medicinal discipline. The diseases which were never analyzed and cured in past are currently being dealt with effectively. Sex change through surgery for transsexuals is subsequently superb improvement and rational movement in the field of science. It saves the transsexuals from humiliating behavior of the people. They are ultimately, able to get their true sex by surgery. But some People are still reluctant to adopt this surgery because a number of questions i.e. Is it the altering in the creation of Allah? Does Islam allow such surgeries? If yes, to which extent? And if not why? etc.

======1. Assistant Professor, Department of Islamic Studies Sadiq Public School Bahawalpur, Pakistan 2. Ex-Chairman Department of Islamic Studies, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan Natural Change of Sex in Islamic Perspective

2. Description

Human being and ailments are going on side by side. Muslims always turn in all aspects of their life including (ﷺ) toward Holy Quran and Hadith of Prophet motivated his followers to seek medical treatment (ﷺ) medical issues. The Holy Prophet by declaring that there is no such disease on the planet which has not its treatment. He ,said (ﷺ)

عي اتی ھریرٍ رضی ہللا عٌہ عي الٌثی ﷺ قال: ها اًسل ہللا داء اال اًسل لہ شف ٰاء (Bukhari, Sahih-ul-Bukhari)

,said (ﷺ) Hazrat Abu Hurairah (R.Allah) narrated that the Messenger of Allah“ “There is no disease that Allah has sent down but He also has sent down its treatment” (Al-Bukhari).

This hadith validates that whole medicinal disclosures for the treatment of illnesses are occurring with the will of Almighty Allah. the Messenger of Allah ;himself induced the people for the treatment of maladies by saying(ﷺ)

عي اساهہ تي شریک رضی ہللا عٌہ قال قالت االعراب یا رسول ہللا ﷺ !اال ًتداوی قال۔ ًعن یا عثادہللا۔ تداووا، فاى ہللالن یضع داء اال وضع لہ شفاء۔ او قال دواء اال داء واحد۔ فقال یا رسول ہللا ﷺ! وها ھو؟ قال الھسم۔ (A. I. Al-Tirmidzi)

,of Allah (ﷺ) Usama bin Sharik “said that desert Arabs asked the prophet“ said O (ﷺ) would it be advisable for us to make utilization of restorative treatment? He slaves of Allah! Make utilization of therapeutic treatment. For Allah has not made an ailment on the planet without a solution for it, except for one illness. They asked about that sickness, he answered "Old age." (A. I. Al-Tirmidzi). In Sunan Abu Dawud this hadith is stated with the addition of few words:

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Dr. Muhammad Yaseen, Dr. Shams – ul - Basar

حدثٌا حفص تي عور الٌوری ، حدثٌا شعة عي زیاد تي عالفۃ عي اساهہ تي شریک رضی ہللا عٌہ قال اتیت الٌثی ﷺ و اصحاتہ کاًوا علی رءوسھن الطیر۔ فسلوت۔ ثن قعدت۔ فجاء االعراب هي ھا ھٌا و ھا ھٌا، فقالوا یا رسول ہللا ﷺ اًتداوی؟ فقال تداووا۔ فاى ہللا عسوجل یضع داء اال وضع لہ دواء غیر داء واجد الھسم (A. I. Al-Tirmidzi)

and his (ﷺ) Osama bin Sharik narrated: I went to the Messenger of Allah“ companions were sitting in the way that the birds were on their heads. I greeted and sat. The desert Arabs then arrived from here and there. They inquired O Messenger of Allah Should we make utilization of restorative treatment? He replied, make utilization of !(ﷺ) medicinal treatment, for Allah has not made a sickness without its treatment, except for one ailment that is Old age. (Al-Sijistani).

;encouraged for the treatment as (ﷺ) On other occasion, the Messenger of Allah حد ثٌا یحیی تي تکیرحدثٌا اللیک عي عقیل عي شھاب قال اخثرًی اتو سلوہ و سعید تي الوسیة رضی ہللا عٌہ اى اتا ھریرج رضی ہللا عٌہ اخثرھوا اًہ سوع رسول ہللا ﷺ یقول فی الحثۃ سوداء شفاء هي کل داء اال السام۔ قال اتي شھاب : والسام الووت والحثۃ السوداء الشوًیس۔ (Bukhari)

says (ﷺ) Hazrat Abu Hurairah (R. Allah) narrated that I heard Allah’s apostle“ that there is curing in black seed for all diseases excluding “Sam” Ibne Shahab said that “Sam” is death and “Black seed” is black cumin. (Bukhari)

(ﷺ) show that the cure of disease is prophet’s (ﷺ) All these sayings of prophet Sunnah. Transsexuality is syndrome therefore a person can utilize the contemporary techniques of treatments. But no one should cross the limits set by Islam in this concern.

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3. Natural Sex Change and Islam

Presently different procedures are used for sex change, i.e. hormonal treatment and sex reassignment surgery. Our main concern is sex reassignment surgery. It is the last stage which cannot be reversed. Hence Muslim world is worried about its uses. The real reason behind this solution is to restore the original appearance from a confused sexual identity that led to parental denial and harassments by law enforcing agencies etc. (mentioned in previous chapter).

This method was permitted by Imam Khomeini in Iran in 1963, by saying that there is no religious prohibition against corrective surgery (Tait). This fatwa proved very helpful for the people who were in troubled because of their wrong bodies. Later on many other fatwas came for this concern. Here are some of them which granted permission for sex change.

In 1988, when Sayyid cAbd Allah got his sex changed from male to female. It became the burning issue in Egypt. Sayyid Tantawai stated if the doctor testified that sex change surgery is the only cure against the disease then it is allowed. Be this transformation ought not to be made by the desire of a male to convert to a female. (Habib).

The jurists clearly said that a person cannot get sex reassignment surgery by his own will. The doctor must endorse it as a last alternative and assured that this is the only way of obtaining his factual sex. (J. Skovgaard-Petersen).

Dr. Sayyid Tantawai spoke in detail about sex change operation of Sayyid cAbd Allah, when the opponents and the in-favor people look for his fatwa concerning it. He said, “2" it's a really extreme decision. The adversaries and backings gave their contentions to fortify their case. Keeping in mind the end goal to understand it, we should

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Dr. Muhammad Yaseen, Dr. Shams – ul - Basar

focus. The initial segment comprises of different Hadith which say that there is a cure for each sickness, and thusly likewise for hermaphroditism." (J. Skovgaard-Petersen). This is a standard verdict in Tantawai's therapeutic fatwas: for instance, in the fatwa from 1989 on organ transplantation (J. Skovgaard-Petersen, Sex change in cairo: gender and Islamic law).

Tantawai infers that hermaphroditism, if conceivable must be treated, if a medical specialist recommend that the surgery is the only solution he should take step for it. Here he puts forth a remarkable expression: if the doctor considers that a particular person is in disguise female or male and wishes to get his/her original nature by the help of surgery it is recommendable for such person. This reveals that each person has his/her genuine sex which might be hidden by appendages or organs of the inverse sex. The truth of the matter is dependably underneath. Tantawai therefore marks difference within external presence, that might be illusory whereas the internal appearance, is genuine. (Keddie).

sent a doctor to a man to cutﷺ Afterward, the Hadith which shows that Prophet his vein, legitimate the removing of the organs through surgery. Consolidating this with ibn Hajar al-cAsqalani's declaration that the bisexual must endeavor to relinquish his state, Tantawai derives that it is passable to carry out surgical procedure to evacuate appendages or organs which don't have a place with the bisexual's actual sex. Tantawai finally narrates Hadith which says that the Prophet reviled bisexuals and excessively mannish females and ousted one of them from his home. This Hadith, in any case, is taken not to show a general revile on bisexuals, but instead a denial against playing out a sex-change operation for the sake of fun. It must be just as a treatment, curing bisexuals by uncovering their actual sex. (J. Skovgaard-Petersen, Sex change in cairo: gender and Islamic law).

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Natural Change of Sex in Islamic Perspective

Dr. Abdullah Al-faqih, issued a fatwa in 6 Zulhajj 1423, when a person sought direction about surgical treatment of his transsexual friend. He said, “We recommend the said person to visit a trustworthy medical center or reliable doctor to carry out the necessary medical checks for him. If results show that his reproductive system is natural, it is Haram for him to follow sex-change surgery, as it constitutes a form of change in Allah’s creation. We recommend you to resort to physical therapy or treatment by al- Ruqiah al-Shar'iah (Qur'anic recitals and Prophetic prayers). But, if outcomes of medical assessment show that you have a female reproductive system, then there is no haram in carrying out the sex change surgery.” (web).

Buenos Aires, Argentina, says, “I was born hermaphrodite. My diagnostic shows my masculinity. Am I obligated to operate? “Concerning it a fatwa was issued in 2009, which narrates, “If you are certain that you are a male, you should be treated as a male and it is not permitted for you to undergo any operation to change into a feminine. Though, you are allowed to undergo an operation to remove the features of womanliness.” (web).

In Eastern societies the hermaphrodite is spending a wretched life. They cannot do any job because people refuse to employ them. If they are surgical treated they can spend respectable life. Mohd. Al- Bakri said in his article in seminar held in Malaysia in 2011, "As indicated by Shariah, in these instances of Khuntha Musykil, surgical treatment might be performed if a valid doctor suggested to determine his original sex. So that he can be labelled a certain gender and capable to perform his or her obligations as a Muslim.” (Mohd. Al-Bakri).

A similar fatwa was issued by senior Ulama council in Saudi Arab which conclude, “The individuals with both masculine and feminine organs necessitate more investigation. If it diagnosed that a particular person has the signs of masculine comparatively, he can seek help from medical experts to take either hormones therapy or

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Dr. Muhammad Yaseen, Dr. Shams – ul - Basar

surgical process accordingly, recommended by the doctor. Thus he will get rid of the ambiguity of gender be able to spend his life like a man or the other way around.” (Zainuddin).

Nasir Am Al Jurayyan, wrote in his article that the people having male and female organs at a time necessitate further investigation, and if the indication is more suggestive of a masculine sexual orientation, then it is allowable to deal the person medicinally (by hormones or surgery) to remove his ambiguity and to raise him as a male. If the indication is suggestive of a feminine gender, then it is permitted to treat her medically (by hormones or surgery) to eliminate her ambiguity and to raise her as a female. (Al Jurayyan). Prof. Khalid Al-Muslih said in his fatwa that a person can pursue sex reassignment surgery in order to gain his original gender identity. (Al-Muslih). Molana Muhammad Khan Sherani, Chairman “Islamic Ideological Council Pakistan”, stated regarding human sex change that it is decided unanimously that both man and woman are not allowed to change their sex. However, he said, if a person has both male and female features then he can be operated. But keep in mind that this operation must be according to the rules and regulations set by Islam. (Dawn).

4. Conclusion

Change of sex is a modern technique, helpful to those people who are born in wrong bodies with undeveloped organs. At first stage they should take hormones therapy to develop them. If the doctor feels the need of surgery they are permitted for it. If anyone is born with two genitalia, the doctor can remove that organ which is opposite to his internal system. Such type of surgeries is not called as sex change rather it is called the corrective surgeries hence allowed in Islam.

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References Al Jurayyan, N. A. “Disorders of sex development: diagnostic approaches and management options-an islamic perspective.” The Malaysian journal of medical sciences: MJMS (2011): 4.

Al-Bukhari, M. I. I. The Translation of the Meanings of Sahih Al-Bukhari. Arabic-English (MM Khan, Trans.). Vol. 3. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1997.

Al-Muslih, Prof. Khalid. Marrying a person who had sex change. 27 Oct 2017. .

Al-Sijistani, A. D. Sunan Abi Daud, jilid 3. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1999.

Al-Tirmidzi, A. I. M. B. Isa. Sunan al-Tirmidzi. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Dar-us-Salam Publications, n.d.

Al-Tirmidzi, A. I. M. B. Isa. (A Khaliyl, Trans) Sunan al-Tirmidzi. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Dar- us-Salam Publications, 2007.

Bukhari, A. A. (D Daraz, Trans) Sahih-ul-Bukhari. Vol. 7. Lahore: Maktabe Qudoosia, 2004.

—. Sahih-ul-Bukhari. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1999.

—. Sahih-ul-Bukhari. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1999.

Dawn. Change of sex and cloning is illegitimate, Islamic Ideological Council,. 23 Aug 2013.

Habib, S. “Female homosexuality in the Middle East: histories and representations.” Routledge. (2012): 14.

Keddie, N. R. “Symbol and sincerity in Islam.” Studia Islamica (1963): 27-63.

Mohd. Al-Bakri, Z. “ working paper on understanding gender dysphoria issues from the Syariah’s perspective. A seminar on understanding gender dysphoria issues.”

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Bangi, Kuala Lumpur: Institut Latihan Islam Malaysia (ILIM) and Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (JAKIM)., 2011.

Skovgaard-Petersen, J. “Sex change in cairo: gender and Islamic law.” Journal of the International Institute (1995): 3.

Skovgaard-Petersen, J. “ Sex change in cairo: gender and Islamic law.” Journal of the International Institue (1995).

—. “Sex change in cairo: gender and Islamic law.” Journal of the International Institute (1995).

Skovgaard-Petersen, Jakob. “Sex Change in Cairo: Gender and Islamic Law.” The Journal of the International institute (1995). .

Tait, Robert. A fatwa for transsexuals. 28 July 2005. . web, Islam. n.d. .

—. n.d. .

Zainuddin, A. A., & Mahdy, Z. A. “The Islamic perspectives of gender-related issues in the management of patients with disorders of sex development.” Archives of sexual behavior (2017): 353-360.

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The Impact of Government expenditures on human welfare: An empirical analysis for Pakistan

University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 1, December 2018, pp. 63-82

The impact of government expenditures on human welfare: An empirical analysis for Pakistan

Dr. Ihtsham ul Haq Padda1, Murad Khan2, Talah Numan Khan3

Article History: ABSTRACT

Received: Fiscal policy is used to improve human development, reduce poverty 30 Nov, 2018 and stabilize economic growth. This study explores the relationship Revised: among human development index, defense expenditures, and non- 09 Dec, 2018 defense expenditures for Pakistan. It uses autoregressive distributed lag Accepted: model for investigating the long run and short run impacts of different 16 Dec, 2018 types of expenditures on human development. The findings show that in the long run per capita income, health expenditures, recurrent expenditures and development expenditures have positive effects on human development, while the impact of defense expenditures is insignificant. It is interesting to note that although defense expenditures have insignificant effect however the military government regime has positive impact on human development. The study suggests investing in human capital to improve human development in Pakistan.

Key Words: Government Expenditures, Bound Testing, Human Development.

1. Introduction

Fiscal policy is important to achieve macroeconomic objectives of government. Government expenditures and taxes are key tools of fiscal policy that are used to reduce

======1. Assistant Professor (Department of Economics, Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science and Technology, Islamabad) 2. PhD Scholar (Department of Economics, Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science and Technology, Islamabad) 3. PhD Scholar (Department of Economics, Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science and Technology, Islamabad)

Dr. Ihtesham ul Haq Padda, Murad Khan, Talah Numan Khan

poverty, improve human development and stabilize economic growth (Padda and Akram). Human capital plays vital role in promoting economic growth. Developing countries can stimulate human capital accumulation through expenditures on education as well as on health and other social services. Measuring human development has not unique technique. Firstly, United Nations Development Program developed a composite measure of human development and welfare namely: Human Development Index (HDI) in 1990 which is consist of health, education, and income. In Human Development Report of 2018 the HDI values positioning Pakistan at 150 out of 189 countries of the world.

The main elements of Human Development Index (HDI) are Education, Health and Income. Over the previous years there are improvements in these indicators. Figure 1 show trends in education, health and income (at secondary axis) of Pakistan from 1990 to 2017 while figure 2 presents Human Development Index for the same period. From these two figures we can conclude that there is not any notable change in HDI in the period.

Figure 1: Main Indicators of Human Development for Pakistan

70 6,000

60 5,000 50 4,000 40 3,000 30 2,000 20

10 1,000

0 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 2017 Life expectancy at birth Expected years of schooling Mean years of schooling GNI per capita (2011 PPP$)

Note: Gini per capita is on secondary axis while other variables are on primary axis.

Source: Human Development Indicators: 2018 Statistical Update (Pakistan).

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The Impact of Government expenditures on human welfare: An empirical analysis for Pakistan

Figure 2: Trends in Human Development Index of Pakistan (1990-2017)

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 2017 HDI value

Source: See note under figure 1.

Empirical studies argue that investment in human development activities has very important and significant role for economic growth of East Asian economies because well-educated labor force is capable to produce more output and quick in adaptation of new technology than poorly educated labor (Yah and Lioyd; Mattisson; Rowen and Erixen; Becker). Government affects human development through its fiscal policy. Therefore, it is important to estimate the effects of different type of expenditures by government for human development. The role played by government expenditure and its effects on human welfare are inconclusive. Some researchers showed government expenditures have positive effect on welfare and wellbeing of the people while other found negative. Fedra and Haliciouglu (2004) and Bhuria (2012) find both defense expenditures and growth are positively related, but non-defense expenditures boost up economic growth more than defense expenditure.

Mostly, objective of government expenditures is to maximize the welfare of the common people through strengthening the relationship between economic and human development of a country (Alyandro, Gustar and Frances; Suescun). Patrick (2009) examines increasing trend in government expenditure and finds that the trend of poverty

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Dr. Ihtesham ul Haq Padda, Murad Khan, Talah Numan Khan

is going up because the share of social spending is very low. Many studies have examined relationship in defense expenditures and growth in Pakistan. Some analyzed debt sustainability while others examined government expenditure and economic development, See for example, Saqib and Yasmin (1987), Nasir (1997), Zaman (2013), Shahbaz (2010), Anwar (2012), Chaudhary and Anwar (2000), Qaisar Abbas (2008), Nabila Asghar (2011), Mahmood et al. (2009) and Hassan (1999).

This present study intends to find out the relationship between different types of government expenditures and human development. This is very important issue but there is little empirical literature that investigates the association among expenditures and human development. Present study intends to explore the impact of the health expenditure, per capita income, defense expenditure, development expenditures, and recurrent expenditure on human development. It will also analyze the effect of different government regimes. After this introductory section, section 2 will review the previous studies. Section 3 consists of materials and methods used for analysis. Section 4 presents results whereas section 5 gives policy implications.

2. Literature Review

There is extensive literature available that discusses the effect of government expenditure on the development and prosperity of the common person presenting different results. Some studies found a negative relationship between government expenditure and welfare while few studies found the positive relationship. Effect of defense and non-defense expenditure on human development is basically extension of Barro (1990). Devarajan, et al. (1998) extended the basic proposition of the Barro’s model. Agenor (2005) explains that the optimal government expenditure depends on the parameters of school technology and goods producing technology. Agenor and Neanidis (2006) extend previous work and explain that optimal government expenditure depends on all parameters of fiscal spending policies. But in developing economies it is very difficult to find the simple rule to guide the policy makers.

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The Impact of Government expenditures on human welfare: An empirical analysis for Pakistan

Davies (2009) explains the relationship between the government expenditure and human wellbeing. The study uses Human Development Index as proxy of human wellbeing. However, UNDP uses other major indexes for wellbeing namely: human poverty index, gender empowerment measure index etc. Iganiga (2012) analyzes the wellbeing and social welfare of the Nigerian economy by government expenditure on the common peoples. The study finds that government expenditure can be very helpful to reduce the poverty, improve the health and improve human development. Devereux et al. (2000) argues that wellbeing of the people and the government spending has inverse relationship. Armey (1995) investigates the empirical association among government spending and economic development and finds inverted U shaped relationship.

Some researchers find negative association among government expenditures and the welfare of the common peoples. Human development is basic of the economic growth but it is not sufficient conditions for all the economies. The educated and productive public is foundation of the economic growth. Heitger (2001) empirically find the negative relationship between economic growth and government expenditures. Amakom (2010) explains that government expenditures on the education and better health facilities will increase the economic growth and expenditures on primary education have more positive impact on the human development in Nigeria. Gomanee et al. (2003) explore relationship between human development and aid and find the negative relationship between poverty and aid depending on human development index. Suescun (2007) analyses Latin Amercian economies using the latest econometric techniques. The study investigates that expenditure on infrastructures, health, government consumption and transfers have positive impact HDI.

Some studies are available that found the positive relationship between defense expenditure and welfare. Kentor and Kick (2008) find that defense expenditures have direct relationship with human development. Ando (2009) investigates the impact of defense expenditures on human development growth. The study finds that defense spending and human development have positive relationship. But non-military

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expenditures have more impact on the economic growth as compared to the military expenditures and long run relationship hold between them (Lai et al. 2002 and Yildrim and Sezgin 2005).

Some studies find negative association between military expenses and human development. In this regard, Hou (2009) determines negative relationship between human development and defense spending by using the data of the 36 developing economies. Many studies using the panel data with multiple equations models and nonlinear models find negative impact of defense expenditure on the economic growth directly and indirectly (Klein, 2004 and Stroup and Heckelman, 2001). Sudarlan (2015) explains that HDI depends on the per capita income, education, and health. The study finds that income does not significantly affecting the poverty and education. Ali et at. (2012) investigate the relationship between fiscal policy and wellbeing of the common people in Pakistan. The study finds that income and education have direct while current expenditures have inverse relationship with HDI. As the literature view shows that a limited literature is available of the subject of this study for Pakistan thus current study will investigate short run and long run relationship between different type of expenditures and political regimes and human development for Pakistan using recent data.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1 Sources of Data

Time series data are used in this empirical analysis from 1972 to 2012. The data of different variables such as, human development index (hdi), real health expenditure (lrhe), real per capita income (lrpi), real defense expenditure (lrdfe), real development expenditure (lrdve) and real recurrent expenditure (lrrue) are used for analysis. The data are taken from handbook of statistics on Pakistan economy, various issues of Economic Survey of Pakistan and UNDP reports. A dummy variable is also used for type of government: 1 for military government (mr) and 0 for civil government (cg).

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The Impact of Government expenditures on human welfare: An empirical analysis for Pakistan

3.2 Econometric Model

When countries manage their public expenditures well they show better performance in economic development. Human development is also depended on economic development. Therefore, the linear regression model is employed to measure the role of defense and non-defense expenditures in human development. Following Iganiga (2011) present study uses following model for analysis.

(1)

3.3 Unit Root Analysis

The time series data usually follow a random walk. In case of random walk series, non-stationary, ordinary least square estimates may be spurious. Therefore, first the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test is used to check the nature of the series i.e. whether the series has unit root or not.

3.4 ARDL Technique

The ARDL model is introduced by Pesaran (1997), Pesaran, Shin and Smith (1995, 1999), and Pesaran et al (2001). We can apply ARDL technique irrespective of the series are I (1) or I (0). Another advantage of this technique is selection of model from general to specific so in this method we can avoid the worse of data mining (Laurence son and Chai, 2003). Due to these advantages of this model, we use ARDL bound testing approach to estimate cointegration, thus writing equation (1) as representation of ARDL is;

∑ ∑ ∑

∑ ∑

(2)

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Dr. Ihtesham ul Haq Padda, Murad Khan, Talah Numan Khan

Using equation (2) we will estimate the co-integration among the variables in equation (1), hence ‘n’ are showing the optimal lag length selected for the model on the basis of minimum AIC and ‘Δ’ is the first difference operator.

Pesaran (1999), bound test methodology is applied to find the cointegration among the variables, testing the joint significance of the coefficients of lagged value of variables by F-test. In this case

Null hypothesis would be written as, , and

Alternative hypothesis would be .

The rejection of null hypothesis means cointegration exists among the variables, while the non-rejection of null hypothesis means no long run relationship of variables. If F stat (value) is in upper bound, cointegration exists, the long run relationship is present regardless series are stationary or not. If F stat (value) is in lower bound, cointegration does not exist, long run relationship is not present regardless series are stationary or not. If F test’s value lies between the two bounds, the test would be inconclusive. After the conformation of cointegration, the long run relationship is estimated. The ARDL model gives long run coefficient.

After ARDL estimation following Error Correction Mechanism (ECM) model is estimated for short results:

(3)

Where ‘deq’ is the ECM term and is the speed of adjustment. All equations are estimated by Oxmatrics software.

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The Impact of Government expenditures on human welfare: An empirical analysis for Pakistan

4. Results

First, ADF unit root test is conducted for each series individually. The ADF test results presented in Table-1 shows that all series are non-stationary at level while at first difference they are stationary. Thus, we can conclude that all variables are stationary at first difference. Therefore, we conclude that the results of ordinary least square will be spurious. Therefore, we move forward with ARDL for further analysis.

Table-1: Augmented Dickey-Fuller test’s results for unit root.

Variables Level P-value 1sDifference P-value Conclusion Hdi -2.068 0.550 4.959 0.001 I(1) Lrhe -3.096 0.120 -3.763 0.033 I(1) Lrpi -1.777 0.696 -5.930 0.000 I(1) Lrdf -1.413 0.894 -6.343 0.000 I(1) Lrrcue -0.398 0.983 -6.463 0.000 I(1) Lrdve -3.465 0.057 -4.986 0.001 I(1)

Next step is to estimate the optimal lag for the estimation of model for ARDL estimation. The model is estimated for minimum lag length by using Akaike Information Criteria (AIC). By doing this process, we have found that optimal lag is 3. After having this requirement, the model is estimated with difference and lag values of variables. The restrictions for exclusion are applied to check the existence of cointegration.

4.1 Cointegration Analysis:

Table-2 reports the calculated F-value and Pesaran bound critical values with unrestricted intercept and no trend. The results show that that calculated F- value is greater than the upper bound critical value, which is an indication of cointegration. After

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Dr. Ihtesham ul Haq Padda, Murad Khan, Talah Numan Khan

the confirmation of the cointegration the long run relationship is estimated with unrestricted ARDL model.

Table-2: Joint significance testing for existence of cointegration

Value Bound Critical value Unrestricted intercept and no trend

I(0) I(1)

F-stat 5.7886 1% 3.41 4.68

5% 2.62 3.79

10% 2.26 3.35

Table-3: Long run results (Dependent variable is HDI)

Co efficient Std.Error t-value t-prob

Constant -0.753 0.112 -6.68 0.000

Lrhe 0.043 0.015 2.83 0.008

Lrpi 0.285 0.030 9.26 0.000

Lrdf -0.050 0.036 -1.36 0.184

Lrrcue 0.043 0.011 3.68 0.000

Lrdve 0.088 0.015 5.78 0.005

Mr 0.018 0.008 2.16 0.008

Diagnostic tests summary: AR 1-2 test: F(2,28)= 4.172[0.065]; ARCH 1-1 test : F(1,28) = 6.824[0.094]; Normality test : Chi^2(2) =0.304[0.85]; Hetero test : F(11,18) = 3.065[0.057]; RESET test : F(1,29) = 0.281[0.049]

AR-1 (Auto correlation test): The p value is above the 0.05, so null hypothesis cannot be rejected, therefore no auto correlation in our model.

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The Impact of Government expenditures on human welfare: An empirical analysis for Pakistan

ARCH (Auto regressive conditional heteroscedasticity): tells variance depends on old variance, effect of fluctuations. Above in test summary the (P>0.05) shows that null hypotheses does not reject, it means no area effect.

Normality Test: the null hypothesis is that disturbance of error is normal. Above in the test summary the (P>0.05) shows that value is insignificant means hypotheses cannot be rejected.

Hetero-Test: white noise test - without cross term. The result shows that there is Eu()2 variance. i.e. i White test for hetroskedasticity with null hypothesis of no hetroskedastcity. It is clear from test summary the (P>0.05) null does not reject, so no hetero.

RESET test: tells the misspecification. Result shows that model is correctly specified because in test summary the (P<0.05).

The above output exhibits that there exists cointegration among the variables. The semi-log model (lin-log model) is used, so the interpretation of coefficients can be made by two ways. Either by dividing the slope coefficient by 100 for changing relative change to a percentage change or to get elasticity divides the slope coefficient by average value (mean) of response variable (Macpherson, 1999, Robert, 2009 and Hallorn, 2005). In present study the mean (average) value of hdi is 0.428. The per capita income is significant and has positive impact on human welfare. A one percent increase in per capita income leads to rise by (0.285/0.428)= 0.667 percent human welfare in the long run. Health expenditures are significant and play positive role in human development. One percent increase in health expenditures lead to raise by 0.103 percent human development. Defense expenditure has no role in promoting human welfare, because it is insignificant. One percent increase in recurrent and development expenditures raise human welfare by 0.102 and 0.207 percent, respectively. The dummy variable is used as type of government. The military government has significantly positive impact on human

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Dr. Ihtesham ul Haq Padda, Murad Khan, Talah Numan Khan

welfare. From the cointegration method we conform the long run relationship and error correction model will give us short run relationship between variables.

4.2 Error Correction Mechanism Representation

The output of the error correction model shows the short run relationship between HDI and other variables. Per capita income and health expenditure play significantly positive role in HDI in the short run. While development expenditure has significantly negative effect on HDI, because currently development expenditure on the construction of roads, dams, canal, schools, hospitals and many other projects give benefits and promoting human development in the long run. The error term shows the adjustment process towards the long run equilibrium. The deq_1 term in the ECM model has expected negative sign. Thus the deviation from the long run equilibrium is corrected by 32% in current year as shown in the ECM result.

Table 4: Error correction results

Co efficient Std.Error t-value t-prob

Dlrhe 0.026 0.008 3.25 0.049

Dlrpi 0.133 0.061 2.18 0.037

Dlrdf -0.011 0.025 -0.447 0.658

Dlrrcue 0.022 0.009 2.37 0.024

Dlrdve -0.021 0.009 -2.34 0.029

Mr 0.027 0.116 0.23 0.423 deq_1 -0.324 0.128 -2.52 0.017

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The Impact of Government expenditures on human welfare: An empirical analysis for Pakistan

All the variables have unit root is indicated by Augmented Dickey-Fuller test. They are integrated of order (1). The long run association exists between the variables and exist cointegration among the variables. Current expenditure and development expenditure have positive effect on HDI. The per capita income also has significant and positive impact human development. The findings are similar to the result found by Gomanee, Grima and Morrissey, 2013 and Iganiga, 2012. Similarly, the health expenditure has significant and positive effect on human welfare. Our result is analogous to the findings of Abbas and Peck (2007) and Imran (2012). But defense expenditure is insignificant and no role in human welfare. The finding about defense expenditures supports the results of Khan (2004) and Anwar (2012).

5. Conclusion

The present study estimated relationship between different types of government expenditure and human development. The attempt has been made to empirically investigate the long run as well as short run relationship among human development index and health expenditure, per capita income, defense expenditure, development expenditure and recurrent expenditure. A dummy variable is also used as proxy of type of government i.e. military or civilian. The time series data is used in empirical analysis for Pakistan. The ARDL cointegration and error correction model are used for the analysis because all variables are integrated of order one. A long run association exists between the variables as there is cointegration among the variables. The per capita income, health expenditure, current expenditure and development expenditure have significant and positive impact on human development but defense expenditure are insignificant and no role in human welfare but in military government regime has positive impact on the HDI in long run. However, in short run per capita income, health expenditures and current expenditures have positive effect on human development, while development expenditures have negative impact on it.

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On the basis of the analysis, present study concludes that the government should undertake macroeconomic policies in to raise per capita income. The expenses of the government should be properly monitored for efficient utilization of resources. The current expenditure comprises on expenditures on general administrative, law and order, community services, social services, economic services, subsidies and debt servicing, investible funds and grants, which are crucial for economic growth and human development. The government expenditures on community, economic services and law and order should be given more importance for boosting economic growth in Pakistan. The government should raise the share of development expenditure of GDP to alleviate poverty and get better human development in the country. The government institutions should improve efficiency to accelerate human welfare. Now the civilian government should emphasis on good governance and carry out proper measures to pick up economic development and human welfare.

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The Impact of Government expenditures on human welfare: An empirical analysis for Pakistan

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Iganiga, BO (2012). Cost of Governance and the Empirics of the Nigerian Welfare Question: An ARDL Option. International Journal of Research in Management, Economics and Commerce,2.5: 22-46.

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Devarajan, S., D. Xie and H. Zou (1998) “Should Public Capital Be Subsidized or

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Provided?” Journal of Monetary Economics, 41(2), p. 319-31.

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APPENDIX

Modeling Dhdi by OLS

Coefficient Std.Error t-value t-prob Part R^2

Dhdi_1 0.007 0.343 0.020 0.984 0 . 0 0 1

Dhdi_2 - 0.285 0.248 - 1.15 0.294 0 . 1 8 0

Dhdi_3 - 0.257 .258 - 0.997 0.357 0 . 1 4 2

Constant - 0.372 0.410 - 0.906 0.399 0 . 1 2 0

DLrhe 0.022 0.022 1.01 0.350 0 . 1 4 6

DLrhe_1 0.019 0.045 0.431 0.682 0 . 0 3 0

DLrhe_2 0.057 0.029 1.98 0.094 0 . 3 9 6

DLrhe_3 0.018 0.033 0.542 0.607 0 . 0 4 6

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DLrpi 0.188 0.191 0.983 0.363 0 . 1 3 8

DLrpi_1 0.333 0.137 2.43 0.051 0 . 4 9 6

DLrpi_2 0.146 0.136 1.08 0.323 0 . 1 6 1

DLrpi_3 0.237 0.108 2.18 0.072 0 . 4 4 1

DLrdfe 0.015 0.058 0.270 0.796 0 . 0 1 2

D L r d f e_1 - 0.087 0.052 - 1.66 0.147 0 . 3 1 5

DLrdfe_2 - 0.147 0.049 - 2.98 0.024 0 . 5 9 6

DLrdfe_3 - 0.170 0.035 - 4.88 0.002 0 . 7 9 8

DLrdve - 0.026 0.010 - 2.48 0.047 0.505

DLrdve_1 0.005 0.028 0.210 0.840 0 . 0 0 7

DLrdve_2 0.021 0.021 0.994 0.358 0 . 1 4 1

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DLrdve_3 0.004 0.022 0.021 0.983 0.001

DLrruce - 0.011 0.017 - 0.675 0.524 0 . 0 7 0

DLrruce_1 0.017 0.027 0.655 0.536 0.066

DLrruce_2 0.040 0.026 1.51 0.181 0 . 2 7 5

DLrruce_3 0.029 0.023 1.29 0.242 0 . 2 1 8 hdi_1 - 0.591 0.283 - 2 . 0 9 0 . 0 8 1 0 . 4 2 1

Lrhe_1 0.057 0.059 0.974 0.367 0.13

Lrpi_1 0.077 0.130 0.593 0.574 0.055

Lrdfe_1 0.051 0.076 0.664 0.531 0 . 0 6 8

Lrdve_1 - 0.045 0.042 - 1.07 0.325 0 . 1 6 7

Lrruce_1 - 0.032 0.047 - 0.683 0.520 0 . 0 7 2 mr 0.014 0.015 0.905 0.400 0 . 1 2 0

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University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 1, December 2018, pp. 83-99

Norman Fairclough’s model as a research tool in the critical discourse analysis of Robert Frost’s poem Fire and Ice

Maryam Sabir1, Nadia Kanwal2

Article History: ABSTRACT

Received: The goal of this research paper is to demonstrate the use of Fairclough‟s three- 16 Dec, 2018 part analytical model with its implementation on Robert Frost‟s poem Fire and Ice. This paper describes the inter-connections and patterns of the text of the Accepted: poem that needs to be described, interpreted and explained. It aims to analyze 26 Dec, 2018 the hidden agenda of the poem critically which is highly didactic. It sheds light on the methodology of Fairclough‟s model and explores the intended meaning of the poem. It tells the readers that how the use of simple words in a unique way can shape the minds of people in a particular society. The analysis is not so tidily done because the framework is complex and based on three different kinds of stages that are embedded into one inside the other.

Key Words: Critical Discourse Analysis, Fairclough‟s Model, Analysis of Fire and Ice, Ideology

1. Introduction

1.1 Origin and Development of CDA (Critical Discourse Analysis)

CDA has its origin in the twentieth century. CDA‟s foundation was established by „Critical Linguistics‟ in 1970s. Fowler et al., (1979) state that the foundations of CDA as a proper and developed field of linguistic research were laid by the „critical linguistics‟ in Britain in 1970s. CL was based on Halliday‟s Systemic Functional Linguistics. Trew (1979) states that a CL practitioner aims at „separating ideology in discourse and showing the ways in which ideology and ideological processes are manifested as systems of linguistics characteristics and processes. Louis Althusser made a great contribution to the theory of ideology in 1971 by showing the links among social practices and social

======1. Associate Lecturer (Department of English – University of Narowal, Narowal) 2. Elementary School Educator English (Narowal)

Maryam Sabir, Nadia Kanwal

institutions as well. Volosinov‟s work in 1973 can be called the first linguistic theory of ideology. According to Fowler et al., (1979) CL points out that, “There are strong connections between linguistic structures and social structures” (p.185). Fowler et al (1979) state that “Language is an integral part of social process” (p.189). It is with the rise of Systemic Functional Linguistics that DA had started to focus on the ways by which social and personal processes are encoded in the various texts. Fitch (2005) describes that the previous Discourse Analysis mostly focuses on the internal structure of texts. Halliday has a wonderful influence on DA as he gave field, tenor and mode as Meta functions of language which consists of phonology, lexicon-grammar and semantics. Halliday (1979) states that a particular text is a process as well as a product which is created, embedded and interpreted in a social context.

The word „critical‟ is also associated with Discourse Analysis. By the end of twentieth century, Chouliaraki, Fairclough and Van. Dijk used the word „Critical Discourse Analysis‟ frequently because the CL had been further enhanced, broadened and developed. Fairclough (1995) has raised two issues and complained that the previous and the earliest work in Critical Linguistics had ignored the „interpretive practices of audiences‟. The earliest CL believed that the audience and the readers interpret the text in the same way in which the analyst interpret. The second issue that was nominated by Fairclough in 1995 is; the earliest CL did not focus on the „intertextual analysis of text‟. He further claimed that: “the linguistic analysis of early CL is very much attached to clauses with little attention with little attention to higher-level properties of whole texts” (p.28). Despite of the reality that Fairclough had pointed out the limitations of early CL, he also praised the achievements of CL in 1995.

1.2 Van. Dijk’s Contribution to CDA

Van. Dijk (1988) claims that, “Discourse is not simply an isolated textual or dialogic structure. Rather it is a complex communicative event that also embodies a social context, featuring participants as well as production and reception processes (p.2).

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So Van.Dijk‟s analysis of media discourse focuses not only on the structural and semantic analysis but also on the higher level properties such as coherence, themes, headlines of news and the whole schematic and rhetorical dimensions of texts.

1.3 Ruth Wodak’s Contribution to CDA

Ruth Wodak constructs her model on „Sociolinguistics‟ and on the notions of Frankfurt school, particularly of Jurgen Habermas. According to Wodak (1996) “Discourse Sociolinguistics is a sociolinguistics which not only is definitely dedicated to the study of text in context but also gives equal weight age to both factors” (p.209). It is a kind of approach that can identify and describe the underlying mechanisms that are the part of those disorders in a discourse which are embedded in a particular context. Wodak has carried out most of his research on the vital social issues like sexism, anti-Semitism, and racism. Her research work on anti-Semitism discourse in 1990 led to the construction of an approach that is named as “Discourse Historical Method”. The term „Historical attempts “to integrate all available background information in the interpretation and analysis of a text” (1995, p.209). The research shows that the context of a discourse plays a vital role in the function and structure of an utterance. So the historical context of discourse, in the analysis of a text, is a feature that makes it better than the earlier approaches and theories in Critical Discourse Analysis. The „Discourse Historical Method Approach‟ is similar to Norman Fairclough‟s idea of inter textuality as this approach believes that language “shows social processes and interactions and builds those processes as well” (Wodak and Ludwig, 1999, p.12). According to Wodak and Ludwig (1999), “Discourse Historical Method Approach entails three main things; Firstly, Discourse always involves power relations and relevant ideologies. Secondly, discourse is always highly historical as it is connected with the events that had happened before or happening at the production of a text. Thirdly, the readers and listeners may have different interpretations of the same text just because of their different background knowledge, information and position (p.12, 13). Wodak and Ludwig (1999) also maintain the notion that “the right interpretation does not exist. Interpretations can be plausible but

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they can be false” (p.13). The same sort of question also raised by Fairclough earlier in 1995.

1.4 Relation of Discourse with Ideology

According to Widdowson (2000), Critical Discourse Analysis is an attempt to unveil the hidden ideologies in the texts. The notion of „Ideology‟ seems very important in Critical Discourse Analysis as many linguists talk about it in their frameworks of CDA. According to Hodge and Kress (1993), “Ideology contains an organized representation of reality”. Van.Dijk (1997) illustrates the same fact as the central point in the analysis of a text is to show that „how various ideologies are manifested in different kinds of text structures‟. There are three dimensions of Van. Dijk‟s ideology analysis; discourse, socio-cognition and social analysis. Some other linguistic theorists also present different dimensions of Critical Discourse Analysis in relation with ideology. Cameron (1992) describes some „stereotypes‟ which lead to social hegemonies. Reichenbach (2001) states that texts are replete with ideologically driven contents. Texts cannot be free of contexts and the contexts are connected with the ideology of social systems. As the texts are not neutral ideologically therefore language and text play a crucial role in manifesting, distinguishing, changing and even reproducing ideologies. Fairclough (1989) is of the view that the word Critical is added in Discourse Analysis in order to be focused on the main issue, ideology or the “basic hidden agenda” in the text and talk that has an original context. People have different ideologies regarding various things that exist in the community and society in which they live. They talk about different things in an opaque and invisible way that is why it is called “Hidden Agenda” by Fairclough.

In a nutshell, it can be said that a text reflects and constructs ideology that can only be explored with the help of CDA frameworks. Ideology is the strongest when it becomes invisible. When ideology becomes a part of everyday common sense then the discourse becomes natural. Words are available for the speakers and writers to express themselves unconsciously and naturally. It is the ideology that constitutes the identities

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and constructions of the world. With the change of ideology, new discourses arise for the people to produce and speak in the world. For the time being the production and reception of discourse transforms. For example, the formation of new discursive hegemony is also possible that can replace the old one. That is why the importance of CDA studies is more than DA studies because it starts with a fixed research topic or issue and explores the cave of a speaker‟s or writer‟s mind and tries to steal the hidden agenda or invisible ideology like an explorer. CDA jumps into the cave of mind by describing a map which is based on the words of a speaker or writer as rigorously as possible and explores the precious treasure of intention. As soon as the intention is interpreted, the invisible agenda becomes vivid. CDA snatches the mask and tells that how words are a tool to become a racist, moralist, conservative, liberal, terrorist and anti-terrorist etc.

1.5 Objective of the Research

The objective of the research is to sort out the hidden ideology of Robert Frost in producing the text of the poem „Fire and Ice‟ by using Fairclough‟s Model as a framework of research.

1.6 Research Question

What kind of ideology is presented by Robert Frost in his poem Fire and Ice?

2. Literature Review

Cary and Mutua (2010) to study the social structures and discursive relations present in them by using Norman Fairclough‟s Model as a tool of research. They visit different places such as Australia, US and Kenya in order to observe and do Critical Discourse Analysis.

Ye (2011) studies Barak Obama‟s speech that he has delivered at the time of victory, in the light of SFL that is a basic criterion in Fairclough‟s Model at first stage of analysis. He analyzes a speech like most of the researchers. But this research paper is

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based on the analysis of a poem according to the whole framework of Fairclough in order to change the trend.

Uggla (2011) tries to highlights the stereotypical images and colonial discourses in Tourism Discourse by using Fairclough‟s three stage Model of Critical Discourse Analysis. She completes her study at the Gambian Beech.

Kamalu and Tamunobelema (2013) explore the ideologies and identities constructed in genres of literary texts. They used the mood analysis technique of SFL while this paper focuses on the dimensions of SFL with respect to Fairclough‟s Model in Critical Discourse Analysis

Zahoor (2015) studies the emotional, psychological, political and social changes in various situations from the dropping of atomic bomb on Nagasaki to the incident of 9/11 (World Trade Center).

Noor et al. (2015) study the Interpersonal Metafunctions of The Last Address of Holy Prophet (PBUH). They analyze the clauses of Holy Prophet‟s Last Address and explain their functions.

Most of these research papers focus on the implementation of one aspect of SFL while the rest of the papers try to implement Fairclough‟s Model on other types of discourses. This very research paper attempts to analyze the genre of poetry which is not given importance by most of the researchers.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1 Research Methodology

The Qualitative Research method is used in the present research as there is no need of Quantitative measurement of data. Lincoln (2000) is of the view that the Quantitative research is an effective way of getting information about culture, norms,

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values, attitudes and opinions of a particular population group. Furthermore, Jennifer (2000) favours Quantitative research as it is based on methods of data generation that are flexible rather than rigid. It is also sensitive to social settings of text production. So the research is strictly descriptive in nature.

3.2 Research Framework

3.2.1 Norman Fairclough’s Model in CDA

Norman Fairclough is a CDA scholar. He is the only person who elaborates the link between power, language and ideology in his research in 1989. Fairclough has presented a model in 1989 and revised it in 1995. His model is considered a hub around which the wheel of critical discourse analysis revolves. He was the first to design a theoretical framework for CDA and gave guidelines for text interpretation. Fairclough‟s model consists of three-step process of analysis which is tied to three inter-related dimensions of discourse which are given below.

Text Production

TEXT

Text Consumption SOCIOCULTURAL PRACTICES

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Figure1: Norman Fairclough (1989)

. The object of analysis. . The process through which the object is produced and received. . The socio-historical conditions which control these processes. . All of these dimensions need a separate kind of analysis which is given below. In this step by step analysis and by studying the forms of language, one can discover the social processes and the ideology that is embedded in the language. Then the power relations that exist in the society can be found.

3.2.1 Text Analysis (Description)

The very first analytical attention of Fairclough‟s Model is „Text‟. According to Fairclough (1995), text analysis includes the linguistic analysis. Fairclough (1995) also state that, “Linguistic analysis includes the analysis of the grammar, vocabulary, sound system, semantics and cohesion organization above the sentence level” (p.57).

It is based on the linguistic description of the formal properties of text. Text is a form of data which is used for linguistic analysis. All the description of grammar is based on text. The term „text‟ refers to a specimen of language in any medium spoken or written that makes sense to someone who knows the language. When people speak or write they produce text with which readers and listeners engage end interpret. So text is a process of making meaning in context (Halliday and Hassan, 1976). It All the notable grammarians think that a text is a complex, rich and many-faceted phenomenon that means in many different ways. It can be interpreted from different perspectives. For the linguistic analysis Halliday‟s Functional Linguistic Theory of Grammar explains the meaning making resource of modern English. The model of grammar should be as rich as the grammar itself (Halliday, 1984). For the description of text, the most noticeable dimension of language is its compositional structure that is known as constituency. Constituency means the larger units of language consist of smaller ones.

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Figure 2

3.2.2 Processing Analysis (Interpretation)

It shows the relationship between discourse processes and the text. Reading is a product of an interface between the properties of the text and the interpretative resources and practices which the interpreter brings to bear upon the text. The range of potential interpretations will be constrained and delimited according to the nature of the text (Fairclough).

3.2.3 Social Analysis (Explanation)

This stage is a relationship between discourse and social and cultural reality. The immediate condition, from which a text is evolved, is important for the authentic interpretation of the text. This analysis focuses on the language and individual words that shape a text. This approach does not mind if the analyst begins the analysis by selecting the step of his own choice. One can select any stage to start the analysis which ultimately collaborate all the three steps in the end of discussion. Discourse is a part of social life is the main belief of this framework.

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4. Data Analysis

4.1 Introduction of the poet Robert Frost as a Symbolist (1874-1963)

Robert frost holds a separate and unique place in literature. Leonard Unger and William Van O‟ Corner points out in „Poems for Study‟ that “Frost‟s poetry depicts no marked difference from the poetry of the nineteenth century”. His poetry is profound with moral values and didactic style which is wrapped up in symbols. So Frost‟s poetry needs to be understood. Frost himself says the same thing in an interview: “One thing is important about which I care and also want that the new generation should care about is, taking poetry as the first form of understanding. If poetry is not understanding the whole world, it is not worth anything.

4.1 Introduction of the selected text for analysis

Fire and Ice is one of the most prominent poems that holds so many characteristics and makes a body of work for Frost. It was published in 1923. It is only nine lines long poem which is an excellent example of Robert Frost‟s literary work. Its language is simple and vernacular that can be easily understood. Let the CDA explore and highlight the underlying theme and ideology from this text of the poem that is given below.

4.2 Fire and Ice

Some say the world will end in fire; Some say in Ice. From what I‟ve tasted of desire I hold with those who favor fire. But if it had to perish twice, I think I know enough of hate To say that for destruction ice Is also great and would suffice.

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4.3 Poetry as a separate form of text

Since past times, literature had been used as a tool in the catharsis of the world which is a way of purification. In his essay „The Study of Poetry, Mathew Arnold (1880) states that, “Poetry is a criticism of life”. It means that poetry should be a true and sound manifestation of life. He also states in the same essay that “without poetry, our science is incomplete”. He considers „high truth‟ and „high seriousness‟ as a criterion for judging the value of poetry. Poetry should also conform to the norms of „poetic truth‟ and „poetic beauty‟ by sticking to facts of life as a subject matter of it.

All poetry evolves from a rich array of patterns of its own. Every language has its own natural rhythm. When someone reads a poem spontaneously without paying attention to the process of speaking then the strong syllables tend to occur at proper intervals that are called a rhythmic progression with which the listener keeps in phase. A rhythmic progression demonstrates a form of constituency. In poetry, the foot is a constituent of second system of English. The foot in poetry also has its origin in the foot of spoken language. The „metric foot‟ a foot with fixed number of syllables, had been used in poetry since the time of Chaucer. It remained the norm of the mainstream of English verse in the past few centuries. The pentameter or five feet verse in the poetry was the favorite of Chaucer, Milton, Shakespeare, Pope and Keats. A foot might have two, three or four syllables but it might also be ascending and descending. The two- syllabic foot might be trochaic (strong + weak) and iambic (weak + strong). Catford (1977) state that “A syllable is a fundamental unit of an articulatory gesture”. Like the foot, a syllable is also a structured unit. It is composed of an Onset + Rhyme. Onset is a consonant phoneme while the Rhyme can be a vowel + consonant or consonant phoneme. In the twentieth century, it stopped to dominate the new English verse and new forms of rhythms have been Included in poetry.

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4.4 Text Analysis

4.4.1 Transitivity and Functional Grammar

The line by line analysis of the selected text of the poem by following Halliday‟s Systemic Functional Linguistic is given below.

The indefinite pronoun Verb Modality Some Say the world will end in fire, Sayer Process Verbiage

This very first line of the text is a simple statement which is a kind of proposition. Modality is also present in this verse. Subject is uncertain as it is comprised of an indefinite pronoun “some”. According to Transitivity, the process is verbial.

Identity Verb Identity verb From what have tasted of desire, I hold With those I who favors fire. Sensor Process Phenomenon Sensor Process Phenomenon

The second line of the poem is also a statement in which he favors the destructive quality of fire as he himself experiences fire in the form of emotion. So the process of Transitivity is Mental here.

Conditional Verb Identity Verb Identity Verb But if it had to twice, I think I know enough of perish hate, Actor Process Sensor Process Sensor Process Phenomenon

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This line is a kind of conditional statements in which the condition is if the world will end two times then hate can also destroy it as a cold passion like ice. There is modality in this line. The material and sensor processes are functioning here.

Verb Conjunction Modal Verb To say that for is also great And would Suffice. destruction ice

Sayer Process Verbiage

The last line is also simple statement that is linked with the previous line and represents the idea that hatred and ice can also destroy the whole world. Grammar is performing the function of verbial process.

4.4.2 Meta Functions of Language

 Field (Ideational function)

The poem is based on a propositional content about the end of world which can be proved right or wrong in future.

 Tenor (Interpersonal Function)

The social role of Robert Frost is that of a poet here while the people have the role of readers.

 Mode (Textual Function)

The selected text is compiled by the poet in written form.

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4.5 Interpretation

In the first lines of Fire and Ice, Frost puts forward two options for the end of world. He says that the fire and ice both have destructive powers. The poet relates fire with human passion of desire. The use of „I‟ shows the personal connection with these human emotions. The final lines of the poem show the ideology that Fire and Ice in the guise of love and hate can harm the world and easily lead to its final destruction. The use of literary devices is also appropriate in making the intention of the poet clear. There is no cognitive problem in this text as the diction of the poem is very simple and understandable. As for as the power relations are concerned, the poet is powerful because he has the power of pen. Pen is mightier even than the sword so poet has utilized this power to express his didactic ideas.

4.6 Explanation

Interestingly in this poem, the poet talks about the two possible ways of the destruction of world. These possibilities are directly related to a common scientific debate that was running at the same time when Frost was compiling the poem Fire and Ice. Some scientists thought that the world will be reduced to ashes from the fire of its hot core. Some of them believed that an ice age would come and destroy all the living creatures on the surface of Earth. The immediate social context has always an influence on the literary writers so Frost recommended more emotional side of the social situation by linking passionate love and desire with Fire and Ice with hatred. So Earth, Fire and Ice are taken by the debate of scientists and used as metaphors for relationship, love and hate.

5. Results

After analyzing the poem Fire and Ice through the lens of Norman Fairclough‟s Model of Critical Discourse Analysis, it is evident that the poet has a profound ideology in this poem. He has a hidden intention that people should be moderate in their actions and do not touch the extreme ends as they are devastating for the soul of mankind. As

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poetry is a separate form of text so the poet also used „Symbolism‟ as a literary device to show the real face of extremism. Fire and ice words are used as concrete symbols to highlight the abstract ideas behind them. As a result, Frost successfully put forward his ideology that people should be moderate in all domains of life in order to create an ideal society and healthy mindset. To conclude, it is sure to state that the above analyzed text is highly didactic in nature. The readers can be impressed its thought provoking tone and ideology which is really a food for thought. So CDA has explored the underlying meaning of the poem. It is enhanced by the virtue of Fairclough‟s Model as a research tool in this research. It uncovers the moral lesson in the poem and teaches the readers to the maximum extent. The only way to escape destruction of mankind is to avoid the extreme passions of love and hate. Too much passions can instantly consume a relationship in the same way in which the Fire and Ice can destroy the Earth.

6. Limitations of the study

Although Norman Fairclough‟s Model in CDA can be applied to various genres of literature and on speeches as well but the present research is limited only to the analysis of Robert Frost‟s poem Fire and Ice.

7. Contribution

This paper will prove a great contribution to CDA in a sense that it is based on the analysis of a poem and finds out its hidden ideology with the help of Fairclough‟s Model as a reliable research method.

8. Suggestions

It is suggested that Critical Discourse Analysis of poetry should be done more, in order to dig out hidden major themes and ideologies in the poems.

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