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South Africa's Muslim (d.1699) and Qadi abdm Salam (d.1807) who laid the foımtlations for the emergence of South Coınmunity : Marginalized Africa's Cape Muslim community in this part of the A/rican co1ıtinent. It foCI/Ses primari/y on two by Apartheid, Recognized histoncal penotis; the first be ing the era ofaparthe ­ i d, and the second beıitg the penod ofdemocracy. by Democracy The essay rej/ects upon the variot/S social, histori­ cal, educational, cu/tura!, economic and political 301 dimensıons that contributed towards shopilıg and transfonning this commwıity's religioı/S identity to what one wilnesses totlay; at the heart of this es­ say the questıon ofidentity looms large. It divides its contents info two broad time-frames; the first seetion assesses the Muslıins' activities dunitg the apartheid era (circa 1948-1994); and the second Muhammed Haron * segment ı:ooms in on the community's involvement in the coımtry's civic affairs in the post-apartheid era (circa 1994 to 2016). Though the essay aims to use identity as a theoretical /rame, it does not explore the concept as such but make contimtous reference to iı throughout the essay.

1. Introduction

The South A/rican Muslıin community South Africa's Muslim community takes great pride in thezi· lineage; one that they' forrns an integral part of a secular multi-cul­ (raced back to parts of Southeast Asia and South tural, multi-lingual, multi-ethnic, and mul­ Aria, This essa)~ however, does not intend to ret­ ti-religious society (Frankental & Sichane race this commımity's socio-historical roots to the 2005); one that has been psychologically Indonesian Archipelago or to India's coast ofBen­ pockmarked and socially scarred by the cat­ gol; and nor does it wish to unpack the fomilial ties between individuals and families with respe­ alogue of adverse policies that were imposed cted fig,ures such as Shaykh Yusıtf Al-Makassari (*) Univmity ofBotswana/Univem'ty ofPreloniz by the different discriminatory regimes for tion that gave rise to numerous conversions much of the 20th century (circa 1910-1994) in all the racial population groups (Africans, as well as earlier. Like other religious minor­ Coloureds, Indians and Whites), and the ities, this community has generally worked process of immigration that opened the way tirelessly towards its cohesiveness over the for an influx of immigrants throughout the centuries and during South Africa's demo­ post-apartheid period; some of them hailed cratic era it has contributed along with others from North/Northeast Africa (Moroccans, towards the process of nation-building (Ger­ Algerians, Egyptians, and Somalis), and oth­ main 2007); hence their participation and in­ ers came from South Asia (Pakistanis, Bang­ volvement in various democratic structures. ladeshis, Indians, and Sri Lankans) through This essay's purpose is to shed light on their its porous borders. And since these immi­ circumstances during the apartheid era and grants came from specific geographical re­ to share portions of their story as ~ey made gions, they were also accompanied by their their inputs during the democratic period. cultural baggages, ı;nystical orders, theologi­ cal schools and jurisprudential outlooks that It therefore narrates the development added to an ever-changing South African of a (religious) community that, according Muslim identity. to the 2001 census survey conducted by the South African Department of Statistics, only Leaving aside the census and ac!mowl­ consisted of 2% out of 43 million people. edging the fact that the South African Mus­ Although the statistics revealed that South lims are a heterogeneous rather than' homo­ Africa's Muslims only amounted to 654,064 geneous community, it is perhaps prudent to out of a population of 44,819,778 by then preface the essay by making mention of a few 302 (Haron 2003), this figure has since changed salient events that took place during the first because by the country' s population figures twentyyears (circa 1994-2014) ofSouthAfri­ shot up to more than 54 million by 2016; ca's democracy: (a) The 47th of April in 1994 and it is assurned that their demographics in­ signaled the first event; on this day the South creased to more than a million if one factors Africans went to the polls for the very first in the number of refugees, asylum seekers, time to democratically vote into power South and migrants that came to South Africa from Africa's first constitutionally elected govem­ other regions of the continent (North Africa, ment. Since Nelson Mandela (d.2014) was East and West Africa) as well as from South the ANC's president, he was naturally their · Asia (Pakistanis, Bangladeshis and Indians) popular choice and was elected president. (b) that are the geographical locations of large 1694 was the year during whicJ:ı Southeast Muslim populations. Asia's Shaykh Yusuf al-Makassari (d.1699), At present, it is rather difficult to cal­ one of the Muslim community's respected cuiate and predict the exact figures since the forebears, was incarcerated by the Dutch at ~e!ltioned Department excluded 'religion' the Cape of Good Hope {Ward 1996; Jep­ as a category in the 2011 census survey; the pie 1996); they thus used the opportunity statistics estimated that by July 2015 the to commemorate their tercentenary during numbers reached 54.9 million. In spite of this particular year. (c) South Africa's Indi­ the Department' s oversight in having exclud­ ans commemorated the 150 anniversary of ed 'religion,' it may be speculatively argued the first Indian indeotured labourers' artiv­ that this percentage might have moved past al from South Asia to Natal in 1860 (Stiebel 2%; in other words, totaling more than a mil­ 2011). (d) And during the same year when lion and more. One reached this conclusion South Africa's Indian Muslims observed the by factoring in (a) the process of socializa- commemorations along with their compa- triots who hailed from South Asia, a South whether South Africa' s Muslim community is African Non-Governmental Organization, indeed 'a model community.' AwqafSA (www.awqafsa.org.za) initiated the Since it is well-nigh impossible to cap­ 'Muslim charter' project (AwqafSA 2012). ture all aspects of this community's social his­ The project was drafted to act as an impor­ tory and development, it adapts a selective tant guide for South Africa's Muslims as they approach in terms of its coverage. It attempts encounter the future (Haron et al2011). to deal with issues and events discriminat­ After the draft document was cir­ ingly, and via this approach it chronologically culated country-wide for communal input highlights salient characteristics and features at the end of 2010, certain groups publicly of this community. That being the case and expressed their rnisgivings and raised objec­ for one to appreciate the Muslims' position tions for having been excluded and for having in the South African setting, the essay avoids overlooked important issues; the outcome - as stated a few lines ago - using a theoret­ of this long process forced AwqafSA and its ical frame; but despite sidestepping the the­ co-signatories to shelve it. And (e) between oretical frame, one should draw upon the the 29ıh and the 3P' of March 2013, the notian of 'identity' as a critica! variable and World for All Foundation' (www.worldforall. concept that would assist in understanding org) founded by Ebrahim Rasool (b.1961), South Africa's Muslim community. In un­ South Africa's former Westem Cape prernier derscoring the relevance and importance of and Arnbassadar to the USA, and the Qatar the question of identity, one should perhaps based 'Organization for International Un­ briefl.y highlight how, why, and in which way ion of Muslim Scholars' (www.iumsonline. the Muslim community's identity in South net) jointly coordinated a Muslim Minority Africa's multi-religious, multi-cultural, mul­ 303 Leaders Colloquium under the theme 'Liv­ ti-linguistic, and multi-ethnic setting should ing where we do not make the rules' in Paris. be seriously considered. . According to Mahnıood (2013 ), the partic­ South Africa's Muslim community ipants "noted the good example of South is multi-ethnic in that it members current­ Africa where Muslims participated in the ly comes from various ethnic backgrounds. struggle against apartheid, integraring with · This community's members are is multi-cul­ demecratic values, mutual dignity and en­ tural because they hail from different cultural richment, thus demonstrating the potential geographies and they many of them speak di­ for barınanizing the relationship between verse languages; bence, their multi-linguistic faith and society." This observation seem to identity. And since they have demonstrated have caused sections of South Africa's Mus­ that they are not a homogenous community lims to cansicler the colloquium resolution to as sametimes thought, one should take cog­ mean that they, from among all the world's nizance of the multi-religious identities that Muslim minorities, be regarded as 'a mod­ they refl.ect; by implication, this means the el community.' H this was or rather if this is following: that whilst they do hold onto Is­ indeed the case, then it begs the fallawing lam as their major tradition, they follow with­ two questions: 'Wh.at measurement tool was in it dissimilar theological schools of thought used to. arrive at this condusion? And, is it (such as the Asha'rites, Maturidites, and acceptabl~ for two organizations and their Mu'tazalites, they hold onto divergent juris­ participants to judge South Africa' s Muslim prudential traditions (such as the Shafi'ites, community as 'a model community'? Now to Hanafites, Hanbalites, and Malikites), and find.a response to the last question, this essay they adlıere to assorted sufi orders (such as cursorily explores and carefully investigates the Naqshbandiyyah, Qadriyyah, Chistiyyah, Khalwatiyyah, Muricliyyah, and Tijaniyyah) period cannot ignore the fact that it was an that are opposed by those classified as Wah­ era that was preceded by British and Dutch habis/Salafis (Haron 2005). colonization; two colonial powers that con­ tributed substantially to the character and From this list of identities, some com­ munities possess from three to four identity nature of the apartheid regime. Two exam­ markers depeneling on their definition and ples will suffice: soon after South Africa was description of themselves. Bence, Vahed & baptized asa Union in 1910, it legislated the Jeppie's (2005) descriptive term: multi-com­ Mines and Works Act; this Act was imple­ munities is quite apt. Nevertheless, two ex­ mented to use Africans as cheap labor and amples will be adequate to illustrate what it one that only appointed Whites in the high being conveyed here: Whilst the Cape Mus­ paid posts. And the second was the imposi­ lims, for example, were mainly Shafi'ites and tion of the notorious 1913 Natives Land Act; Asha'arites who, in turn, were disciples of this particular legislation earmarked most of either the Naqshbandi or the Chistiyya or­ the country's land for Whites, and one that ders; and the Durban Muslims were mainly forbade Africans from owning land except in Hanafites and Asha' arites who were too dis­ those areas that had been set aside for them. ciples of either the mentioned orders. But These Acts, however, complemented the Acts since the arrival of peoples to South Africa from other parts of Africa (West, East, and that the apartheid government devised from North) and South Asia, other traclitions have the time the Nationalist Party (NP) ştepped gradually settled here; one of these is the into office during 1948 to form the apartheid Shi'ite school that has been vilified by Sunni government. 304 theologians that are Wahhabi/Salafi inclined One of the Acts that it was in their thinking and their behavior (Da Cas­ effe~ted the Population Registration Act of 1950; this ta &Davids 1994; Vahed &Jeppie 2005). Act required each person in South Africa to Maving on and reflecting on this es­ be classified and registered accor~g to his/ say's contents, one notes that it is divided her racial group; that is, he/she should state into basically two broad twentieth/twen­ on the forms whether he/she is an African, a ty-first century time-frames: the first seetion Coloured, an Indian, or a White. Since the assesses the Muslims' activities during the members of South Africa's Muslim commu­ apartheid era (circa 1948-1994); and the nity was mainly found among Coloureds and second segment turns to the coroinunity's involvement in the country's civic affairs Indians, they either registered themselves as throughout the post-apartheid era (circa Indians or Coloureds. The 'Cape Malays,' 1994-2016). The essay, however, touches who were all customarily Muslims, were con­ various aspects with the hope of providing an sidered a sub-category within the Coloured insightful view of this community. It, marea­ community; and whoseever entered into Is­ ver, "readily acknowledges that an essay such lam from the White community or if an In­ as this contains inherent shortcomings; and dian married a Cape Malay then that_person one hastily adds that it was, furthermore, be­ would automatically be de-classified, and yond its scope to cover all the aspects in a from that point onwards be called a 'Cape balanced fashion. Malay'! Bearing in mind these and other­ That said, the essay begins by turning apartheid developments, the essay shifts the its focus immediately to the apartheid era. focus to the apartheid state and its Muslim However, anyone assessing this particular population. 2. Apartheid State and its Muslims · ısm, Pan-Arabism and Pan-Islarnism. This (circa 1948-1994) was clearly the case soan after the Freedam Charter was adopted by the Congress of the Indeed, the struggle against oppres­ People during 1955. sion and all forms of racial discrimination was a fierce and bitter one; it was a fight that 2.1 Youth Groups and Study Circles witnessed the incarceration of many such as Sedick Isaacs (d.2015) on Robben Isiand in The year 1955 when the Freedam the 1960s, the tragic death of, among others, Charter was adopted Abdullah Haron was Imam Abdullah Haron (1924-1969) - whilst appointed Imam of Al-Jarni'a mosque in he was in detention between May and Sep­ Cape Town' s Claremont; at this mosque, tember 1969 (Desai & Marney 1987), and he was one of the founding members of the protests that escalared from the 1970s the Claremont Muslim Youth Assodation onwards. All of these events illustrated to (CMYA) that wa~s established in 1958 (Ha­ what extent the NP imposed its battery of in­ ran 1994). This youth organization was, how­ humane policies from the early 1950s; same ever, preceded by anather group known as of which was mentioned earlier. This palirical the Cape Muslim Youth Mavement (CMYM party with the blessings of its White daminat­ est. 1957). The larter organization, for the re­ ed Dutch Reformed Church (DRC) justified cord, should not be confused with the Mus­ its various apartheid policies; it did so in ac­ lim YouthMovement of SouthAfrica (MYM­ cordance with the DRC and its religious lead­ SA) that was created in Durhan during 1970 ers' deliherare skewed reading of the Biblical that Tayob (1995) wrote about. In any case, text. From the time of the enforcement of CMYA and CMYM's members - of whom these brutallaws, the anti-apartheid struggle 305 same were teachers and students - were alsa intensified.with the formatian of, inter alia, the Defiance Campaign in 1952. TISNUM members (Adhikari 1994). Both groups may be deseribed ;s- to use Moosa's Many secular-oriented and committed words (1995) - "the purveyors of a modem­ Muslims threw in their lot with this national ising t~ndency". Whilst CMYM' s members campaign. Interestingly, organizations such hailed from Cape Town's District Six and the as the Unity Mavement (UM), which had a Bo-Kaap, CMYA's members came from the few Muslims as members, voiced their. views Cape Town's southem suburbs. Since these against this campaign. Their objections, how­ youth groups were basically disenchanted ever, did not deter the majority of oppressed with the theological bodies, they encouraged masses from continuing with it. During that the formatian of reading circles to grasp the time, the Muslim theological groups such essence of the (rranslated) Qur'an and the as the Jarni'at ul-Ulama (JUT est.1935) and relevance of the prophetic model in the mod­ Muslim Judicial Council (MJC est.1945) re­ em period; something similar to what the mained conspicuously silent regarding .the Arabic Study Circle (est. 1950) in Durhan oppressive system (Naude 1982). These the­ advocated Geppie 2007). ological bodies advocated an apolitical stance since they argued that they were granted the Like other youth groups they were 'freeddm' to practice Islam in public and pri­ influenced by extemal and internal develop­ vate with6ut any governmental interference. ments. Apart from having been influenced These traditional bodies were naturally op­ by same of the afore-mentioned continental posed by the emerging vibrant Muslim youth forces, they alsa discussed and debated the groups that were inspired by the anti-colonial literatures that were written by ideologues on movements and by the forces ofPan-African- the continent. They, for example, drew from the writings of Sayed Qutb (d.l966) andAbul welfare and he was willing to empower them Ala Mawdudi (d.1979) and extracted ideas through educarianal programs. Under the from their works that were applicable in. the Imam's leadership and guidance in the early South African socio-political context. And 1960s the CMYA forum invited notable po­ they, of course, countered the views of the litical figures such as Alex la Guma (the nov­ MJC and other theological bodies that were elist and treason trialist who died in 1985) extremely cautious in making any anti-apart­ and Ray Alexandçr Simons (the trade union­ heid statements. Even though the MJC was İst who died in 2004) to share their thoughts a signatory to the 1961 'Call of Islam' pam­ on the South African status quo. The CMYA phlet - by default - in which apartheid was issued a monthly Islamic Min·or that was ed­ viciously condemned, many of MJC's key ited by i ts members such as Abu Bakr Fakier; members such as Shaykh Behardien and the the latter, who later wrote a very useful le­ young Gamieldien brothers (that is, Shaykhs gal tome titled Manual of Prayer and Fasting, Shakir and Ighsaan) did not identlfy with this regularly contributed to this magazine and he anti-goverrunent call despite their rationalist was among Imam' s· chief critics. · tendencies. Fakier was amongst the few Muslim None of these theological groups' teachers who passionately pursued the west­ members came out in open support of the em intellectual tradition, and he was one of Treason trialists (e.g. Isınail Meer [d.2007] the main CMYA members who strongly iden­ & Mahomed 'Chota' Matala [d.2005]) be­ tified with the TLSNUM ideals. Since Abu tween 1956 and 1961 and nor did they show Bakr engaged with the Trotskyist interpreta­ their interest in the fate of the Rivonia tri­ tion of sociallife in South Africa, he critically 306 alists (e.g. Ahniad Katlırada [d.2017]) who read the works that assisted him ip under­ were charged by the apartheid state for their standing South Africa's socio-political affairs. supposedly 'terrorist' activities. The Rivonia Fakier absorbed the works of an array of trialists were eventually found guilty by the Muslim intellectuals and ideologues whose apartheid state, and they were all banished impact has been incisive in parts of the Mus­ to Robben Isiand in 1964. By then, many an­ lim heartlands during the 20th century. He, ti-apartheid activists decided to go into exile; for example, read The Spirit ofislam by Sayed among the long list was the well respected Ameer Ali, The Theology of Unity by Shaykh Cape jazz musician, Abdullah Ebrahim (aka Muhammad Abduh (d.1905), and Social Jus­ Dallar Brand), the barrister-at-law Barney tice in Islam by Sayed Qutb (d.1966). Fakier Desai (PAC member), 'Molvi' Isınail Cacha­ was not the only person in South Africa who lia (ANC member), and Zainab Asvat (ANC read these works; Durban's ASC members Women' s League member) (Vahed 2012). were also exposed to these works (Haron 2002a; Gamieldien 2004). The 'ASC mem­ Nonetheless, the t:wo Cape youth bers used their study circles to pursue a ra­ organizations respected Imam Haron for tional approach to the study of the Quran naVing publicly voiced his support for these and this was along the same lines that Fakier trialists; in their view the Imam was an in­ and his circle of friends did after the Imam's spirational person who was prepared to de­ death in detention. The same may be said for bate socio-political issue~ and sameone who individuals such as A.S.K Joomal as refl.ect­ was willing to take criticisms. Imam Haron's ed in a publication titled The Best of AS.~ MJC colleagues were not prepared to llsten Joomal. o~ and learn from the youth; they were insens­ E-< ...... z tive and beyand reproach. In their opinion, But whilst these modem progressive ~ Imam Haron was concemed with the youth's youth groups participated in study circles to get a better insight into Islam, they were preferred an apoliticallifestyle similar to that continuously challenged by conservative el­ of the 1J. So instead of adapting a political­ ements. In the Iate .1950s and early 1960s ly active anti-apartheid approach, it adopted South African Muslims were introduced to a more docile approach by threading softly the Tabligh Jama'at (1J), a highly conserva­ and working within the South African can­ tive and apolitical (Indian) mavement that text. Whilst the MA opted to distance itself was founded by Mawlana Muhammad ll­ from the political scene it operated enthusi­ yas (d.~944); a theologian who was aligned astically in the socio-educational welfare sec­ to the Deobandi theological school (Moosa tor where it addressed some of the Muslim 2000). At the time of its appearance, the 1J community's needs. The MA unconsciously seemed to be an ineffective religious force. gave space to other organizations to fill the But with its speci.fic 1J program that dissemi­ political vacuum that existed; these organiza­ nated a few fundamental teachings that were tions emerged and mushroomed in the 1970s contained in Mawlana Zakariyya's (d.1982) and 1980s. Fazail-e-Amaat (Vırtues of Deeds) - one of its key texts, it made an indelible impact upon 2.2 Religio-Political Movements organizations and individuals who came and Professional Bodies from various professional and non-profes­ sianal backgrounds. The 1J took effect in By the time the Muslim Youth Mave­ the Transvaal and N atal where organizations ment of South Africa (MYMSA) was es­ such as the Lenasia Muslim Assodation tablished by a few business persons (e.g. (LMA est.1962) played a key role in educat­ Mahmud Moosa) and professionals (e.g. Ad­ ing the Muslim community. During the later vocate Hafiz Abu Bakr Mohamed) in Dur­ 307 years when: the Muslim seminaries such as ban during December 1970, it opportunely the Darul-Ulum Newcastle (1973), Madra­ invited MA's Kotwal to be a keynote speaker sa Arabia Islamia (1982), and Darul 'Ulum at the AI. Kajee Memorial Hall; at that point Zakariyya (1983) were set up, they acted as in time the MYMSA was very much non-po­ conduits that continued with 1J work. litical in its attitude, and it thus aligned it- . self with those who expressed the same ide­ Over the years these institutions have as. Being a medical doctor who was heavily produced large numbers of graduates who influenced by Sayed Ahmad Khan, Kotwal currently serve in various capacities (such as single-mindedly followed a socio-educational madrasa teachers and Imams), and they au­ approach and he gave much stress to the con­ tomatically became members of the Jamiat cept of tawhid as Muslim education's foun­ ul-'Ulama bodies in which they play critica! dational philosophy. theological roles. As a result of the consist­ ent work of the 1J's itinerant preachers, it Nevertheless, since MYMS.Ns forma­ spread its conformist tentacles to the Cape tion during 1970 until the end of that decade, where it subtly influenced the thinking of the it remained - like the MA and other related Cape's lower and middle class Muslims. It Muslim organizations - an apolitical, reli­ was, however, not able to persuade Muslim gio-cultural organization even though some organizati~ns such as the Muslim Assembly of its members were politically conscious. (MA est.1967) to adopt its (internal) mis­ The MYMSA set itself the task of projecting sionary approach to Islam; the MA, which Islam as 'a comprehensive way of life' for was founded by Dr. Hoosen Kotwal (i.e. an South Africa's Muslims; this it did through Aligarh University graduate who drew his the hosting of conventions during the early ideas from Sir SayedAhmad Khan [d.1898]), years and Islamic Training Programs (ITP) after the student protests of 1976 against the refugees and those who had been wounded iınposing of Afrikaans in most African dom­ in the Arabic spring conflicts. GoG has since inated high schools. During this period·the been joined by related organizations with Black Consciousness Movement's presence similar ideals and objectives; among these was felt in the high schools and universities. are Muslim Hands, Nakhlistan, and Al-I.m­ Even though many of MYMSA's founding daad Foundation. members were not deeply influenced by this palirical movement, they realized that it had Returning to the MYMSA, it was ob­ gained ground-swell support within the ranks served that when its leadership underwent of the Muslim students who gathered togeth­ a radical change its influence and iınpact were countered by two other Muslim polit­ er in 1974 to establish the Muslim Student ical organizations. It was challenged, on the Assodation with Inqilaab as its mouthpiece. The MYMSA leadership managed to win one hand, by Qibla Mass Mavement (Qib­ over quite a few vibrant youth, despite the la) that was under Imam Achmat Cassiem's fact that it failed to get the majority of MSA's leadership and by' the Call of Islam (COI) that was under Maulana Farid Esack's guid­ members into its camp because of1J's grow­ ance. As a consequence of the creation of ing iınpact on the university youth. these two organizations, the MYMSA was In the MYMSA's second phase (dr­ spurred on to adopt a palirical position vis­ ca 1974-1977) that coincided with the in­ a-vis the apartheid state. The COI was set troduction of ITPs, it creatively established up in 1984 and Qibla was bom in 1980 (i.e. independent projects such as the Islamic during the a&ermath of the Islamic Revolu­ Dawah Mavement (IDM), the South Afri­ tion of Iran in 1979). The MYMSA made 308 can National Zakat Fund (SANZAF), Asso­ ample use of its mouthpiece, Al-O.alam, to ciation of Muslim Accountants and Lawyers share its ideas about Islam and Muslims in (AMAL) and Islarnic Relief Ageney (ISRA). and beyand the South African shores. Esack This phase maybe deseribed as the profes­ (1988) deseribed the MYMSA as a centrist sionalization phase of Muslim activities in organization as compared to Qibla that was the Natal and 1Iansvaal provinces respec­ le&ist \vith Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) tively and it indirecdy laid the foundation leanings and the COI that identified strongly for many more Muslim organizations that withANC policies. In fact, its newspaper (i.e. were established in the iate apartheid era Al-Qalam) was radicalized in the 1980s and and during the post-apartheid period. Dur­ a few issues were banned; it was, however, ing the Iate apartheid years, the Cape based rivaled by the Cape based Muslim News that Al-Mustadafin Foundation came onto the was established by Imam Haron and others scene to address social welfare issues and it in 1960; this. paper was regularly banned is currently considered one of the most iın­ from the mid 1970s until its forced dosure portant Muslim organizations in the develop­ in 1986. By then Al-Qalam under a new set mental sector. And during the post-apartheid of youthful political minded editers and ed­ period the community has witnessed the for­ itorial teams demonstrated its preparedness mation of a number of Muslims organiza­ to fearlessly report on the socio-political and tions that have focused on humanitarian aid. religious matters in and outside the Muslim For example, Dr. Faizal Suliman founded the community. These developments took place Gift of the Givers ( GoG) that has since part­ when MYMSA was led by among others nered with the South African government to Imam Abdul Rashid Omar and Mawlana extend their joint assistance to the Tsunarni Ebrahim Moosa; both are now attached to victims, Somalia civil war casualties, African the University of Notre Dame where they perform academic tasks. Under their lead­ neither of them was swayed. Consequently, ership it was decided to shift MYMSRs both being strong minded individuals opted headquarters &om Durhan to Cape Town; to establish their own organizations; each something that was &owned upon by same of them had their respective socio-religious of MYMSRs (apolitical) old-guard. In any and palirical agendas. Cassiem unlike Esack, event, MYMSR s print media along with its who was theologian/lecturer, was a draughts­ &esh leadership helped to bring about inter­ man/teacher by profession. Cassiem, a for­ nal transformatian and this boded well for mer Robben Isiand prisoner, was inspired by MYMSA politically. Iran's (Shi'ite) revolution and expressed his dislike for MYM's elitist composition; an im­ 2.3 Political System: Changes and age Esack (1988), a Pakistani (Sunni) trained Challenges theologian, underlined when he assessed the MYMSA. Both Cassiem and E sa ek's insights During this period when MYMSA into and understanding of South Africa dif­ was encountering internal changes and fered manifestly &om those held by the Mus­ gearing itself to deal with the impact of the lim theological bodies (i.e. JUT and MJC). United Democratic Front (UDF est.1983) In the eyes of these bodies, both Esack and that emerged against the apartheid state's Cassiem's theological interpretations and po­ Th-Cameral governmental system, the Mus­ litical opinions were highly questionable and lim media as mentioned was in the fore­ problematic. Amusingly, Qibla and the East­ front in reporting the oppressive actions of em Cape's highly-conservative Muslim tab­ the state. These Muslim papers were further loid The Majlis (est. 1978) were alsa among bolstered by the ~oices of ( a fe w secular Esack's most strident critics. 309 and non-se~ular oriented) Muslim creative writers such as Ahmed Essop (b.1931) who The PAC-oriented Cassiem, who in­ wrote The Hajji and other stories (1978), Ach­ itially advocated for the es·tablishment of a mat Dangor (b.1948) who penned Waiting Khomeini inspired 'Islamic state' in SouthM­ /or Leila in 1978, and Umaruddin Don Mat­ rica and who coined the phrase 'one oppres­ tera (b.1935) who published his autobiogra­ sor one bullet', opposed anyone collaborat­ phy Memory is My Weapon in 1978 and com­ ·ingwith the ANC aligned UDF. Esack, being posed Azanian Love Poems in 1983. Dangor COis leading exponent along with Ebrahim and Mattera were well kno'\\7fi for addressing Rasool and Hasan Solomons (d.2009), argued socio-political issues in their writings. Mat­ that COI noticeably departed &om these two tera has been among those writers who were positions by shoring up complete support asked to recite their poetry and share their for the UDF (Kelly 2009). He averred that ideas on MYMSA and MSA platforms. Dur­ instead of importing and extracting external ing May 2013 Mattera was publicly honoured ideas which do not have much relevance to by the MYMSA leadership for his canttibu­ South A&ica's oppressed communities' exis­ tion towards social justice and reconciliation tential situation, COI drew upon a distinctly in South A&ica. South A&ican experience by working with non-Muslims in the South A&ican Chapter Notwithstanding MYMSRs trans­ of the World Council for Religion & Peace formation, it had to deal with the ideas es­ (WCRP) (Haron 2006); an experience that poused by the religious leaders of Qibla and allawed the South A&ican Muslim identity to COI. In the late 1970s the MYMSA tried to be absorbed into the broader anti-apartheid convince both Imam Cassiem and Mawlana South A&ican identity and one that obvious­ Esack of the viablity of its TIP program but ly accommodated secularist ideals alongside Cüi's Islamist - in the positive sense of the Farid Esack, Ebrahim Moosa and Sa' diyyah word - leanings. Even though both of them Shaikh as South Africa's key Muslim intel­ held strong anti-apartheid sentiments, ·they lectuals in his Progressive Muslıins: On ]ustice, adopted divergent approaches to the struggle Gender and Plıeralism (2003), suggest that and this was demonstrated in their writings the term encompasses those intellectuals that and their practices. are non-traditionalliberal imaginative think­ Cassiem's radical Qibla, which was ers (Haron 2016). Whilst ümid Safi may deeply influenced by Ayatellah Khomeini's (partially) be correct in his assessments, the leadership and Imam Haron's martyrdom, conservative Muslim leadership under the employed Shi'ite theological interpretive tools. In contrast, Esack admired the Iranian guidance of UUCSA and other traditional revolution but remained faithful to the Sun­ organizations such as Majlish Shura al-Isla­ ni theological school; he and COI generally mi might not agree with this view at all. The drew their inspiration from many South Af­ controversial PE based Majlis tabloid, in fact, rican stalwarts such as Nelson Mandela. By not only condemned these progressive Mus­ the time Cassiem and Esack established their lim groups but it theologically vilified them as respective organizations, they became known having bordered on ku/r (unbelief) for their for their public rhetoric against the apartheid modernist interperations of Islam. regime. In the process of participating in public protests, they expressed their ideas by Since everyone has been granted authoring salient tracks and book{let)s, and the demecratic space in the post-apartheid acting as columnists for the mentioned Mus­ 310 lim print media. Whilst Cassiem occupied South Africa, both the progressive..s and the by writing, among others, Dıinensions of the conservatives continue to enjoy the demo­ Kalimah (i.e. Islamic Creed [1985]) and The cratic opportunities. A ~ew years before the Intel/ectual Roots of the Oppressed and Islam's South Africans went to the polis-the COI Triumph over Apartheid (1992), Esack pro­ diplomatically convened what was regarded duced Musa went to Fir'aun (1988) and The as the first National Muslim Conference. Struggle: A Manual for Islamicists in the midst The theme was 'Muslims in a Future South of the South African Crucible (1988). Both Cassiem and Esack' s publications formed Africa' and it was held between the 4ıh and part of a few incisive (theologicaVpolitical) 6ıh of May 1990 at the University of the texts that applied Islamic principles within Westem Cape. The national conference was the South African apartheid system. attended by more than 600 delegates who touched upon diverse topics; the issues that When Esack moved into the academ­ ia, he expanded upon his insights of the they acidressed were miscellaneous; they, for şt:tuggle when he embarked upon a nuanced example, discussed their palirical rights in a hermeneutical interpretation of the Qur' an; new dispensation, the status of their Muslim this resulted in him publishing Quran, Lı"b­ institutions and organizations, the social wel­ eration and Pluralism: An Islamic Perspective fare and health sector, the perennial issue of of Inten·elı"gıous Solidarity against Oppres­ Muslim personal law, and the economy. The sion (1997). And it was this approach that organizers invited Judge Albie Sachs, the caught the attention of scholars who advo­ cated a Progressive Islam model not only in ANC cadre, to address the Muslim delegates the post-apartheid cantext but alsa in the and they, in a sense, psychologically prepared post-9/11 context; ümid Safi, who identified theMuslimsfor the 'democratic future'. 3. Post-Apartheid Democracy and Its a UDF affiliate and that brought represent­ Muslims (1994-2016) atives of religious traditions (example, the COI) together, was among those organiza­ So when the South Africans went to tions that had a hand in formulation certain the polis on the 27dı of April 1994 to vote for dauses of the Constitution. The 'Freedom of their 'democratic future', everyone, except Religion, Belief and Opinion' under the 'Bill the harciline right-wing Afri.kaner community, ofRights' (Chapter 2 Ciause 15 [1]) was one was excited and elated at this histarical event. seetion in which the WCRP made a critica! For the first time the appressed communities input. The clause, as it stands at present, - of which the Muslims formed an integral guarantees each and every South African part - were able to freely vote for a govern­ citizen the freedam to hold onto his/her re­ ment that they desired. Since the Muslims ligious beliefs and conscience and it permits were actively involved in the UDF and other him/her to freely express his/her thoughts related political organizations, their efforts and opinion in public/private (Haron 2006). were not only recognized by Nelson Mandela as the newly democratically elected president It is indeed this liberal constitution but they were alsa handsomely rewarded in that encouraged religious minority commu­ terms of political appointments. nities to take advantage of the Bill of Rights, and the Muslims were indeed among those Mandela did so by paying tribute that have to da te benefitted from these daus­ to the Muslims and their forebears such as es. These rights were given an added boost Shaykh Yusuf Al-Makassari when he had a when the government created a constitu­ special audience with the MJC that was then tional body, namely the Commission for the spearheaded by Shaykh Nazeem Mohamed; Promotion and Protection of the Rights of 311 the latter was a close friend of Imam Haron Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Communi­ and one of the Muslim leaders who identi­ ties, in January 2004. When South Africans fied with the oppressed communities in the emerged out of a scarred and traumatic past, 1980s. Nonetheless, when Mandela gathered Mandela's government tasked Omar- along his cabinet, he appointed Advocate Abdul­ with NGOs - to form the South African lah Omar as his first Minister of Justice. For ·'Ihıth and Reconciliation Commission (1RC years Omar was an ardent UM member but circa 1995-1997); a 1RC that consisted of 17 like many others such as Mahomed 'Chota' commissioners - of whom one was a Muslim Matala he switched allegiances. So when (namely, Dr. Faize! Randeree) - under Rev. Omar became a UDF patron, he automati­ Desmond Tutu's leadership. cally found hirnself aligned with ANC ideals and even though Omar was not aligned to Besides Omar, Mandela and his suc­ COI, he was quite open to its ideas on Islam. cessors, namely Thabo Mbeki and J acob Zuma, alsa co-opted Muslims into their re­ 3.1 Political Plane: Cabinet Ministers) · spective cabinets. Under Mbeki's leadership Omar was transferred to the Ministry of Members ofParliamentı and Councilors 'fransport, secular-minded Kader Asınal was During Omar's term as Minister of tasked to be Minister of Education, and the Justice iri·the new demecratic dispensation, secular-oriented Pahad brothers, namely Es­ he set the t~ne for the new South Africa by sap and Aziz, were appointed as Ministers; ratifying the interim Constitution and by later the formerwas a Ministerwithout portfolio in endorsing the final Constitution in 1996. The the presidency, and the latter was appointed South African Chapter of the World Council the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs; both for Religion and Peace (WCRP), which was held those posts for two terms. In Zuma's cabinet Nalecli Pandor, after having served des. All of these appointments and palirical as Minister of Education in Mbeki's cabi­ outcomes proved that they were generally net, first served as Minister of Science and well received and accepted in South Africa's Technology and she was thereafter moved to new demecratic clispensation. When the Is­ Home Affairs where she was joined by Fati­ larnic Party folded and the African Muslim ma Chehan who is still the Ministry's deputy. Party weakened, they were complement­ During cabinet reshuffles, Zuma re-appoint­ ed and replaced by others: the first was the ed her as Minister of Science and Technolo­ Al-Jama'at Party led by Ganief Hendricks, gy. Alongside her, Zuma appointed Ebrahim who was a former MSA president, the second Patel, who was deeply involved with the trade was the Cape Muslim Congress led by Yahya unions, as the Minister of Economic Devel­ Adams, who was a former ANC councillor, opment, and Enver Surty was swom in as and the third w as the Peace & J ustice Party Deputy Minister of Basic Education. led by Rashaard Khan, the former attorney who took the MJC to court in the 1980s re­ The government also appointed oth­ garding the Dawood Sydoo Ahınecli case. er Muslims in prominent positions since the first 1994 demecratic elections: Isınail Mo­ hamed was the Chief Justice of the country, 3.2 Economic Empowerment: From Farid Esack served on a Gender Commission Family Trusts to Muslim Managed during the first few years of its formation, Banks Gamiet Gabier was the country's arnbas­ sader to Saucli Arabia for one term during The mere fact that these smail Mus­ Mbeki's rule, and Ebrahim Rasool, apart lim parties came into existence illustrated 312 from having served as the Premier of the that the Muslim community, though not very Western Cape under Mbeki, formed part of prosperous, was able to finance "the forma­ a team of N arianal Religious Leaders that tion of these parties. The implication is that advise President Jacob Zuma on religious they succeeded in securing funds to make so­ matters (Vahed &Jeppie 2005; Tayob 2007; cio-political interventions \vith the econom­ Nadvi 2009); he was, however, subsequently ic clout that they wielded. This, however, posted to the USA where he served as South is not a new phenomenon among Muslims. Africa's arnbassader until the end of 2014. It will be recalled when Malıatma Gandhi In adclition the cabinet appointments since founded the Natal Inclian Congress (NIC), 1994, a sizeable number of Muslims was vet­ it was the Muslim merchants that aided him ed into Parliament. Whilst most of them were financially and when glancing at the econom­ ANC members (e.g. Fatima Hajjaij, Fatima ic developments among Muslims through­ Mohamed, and Manie), there were atlıers out the twentieth century it is interesting to who were from the Inkatha Freedem Party note how many trusts and fo~dations were (e.g. Farcuk Ismail) and the PAC (e.g. Yas- established. In Natal, for example, a variety . ien Mohamed); later Shaykh Shaheed Esau of socio-cultural and educarianal trusts (viz . joined the Demecratic Alliance (DA) and A.M. Moolla Charity Thıst [est.1959]) were became the Speaker of the House when the established. DA wrested palirical control from the ANC Whereas same of these managed to (Vahed 2012). establish Muslim (state-aided) schools and Besides these inclividuals, the Islamic even technikons (e.g. M.L. Sultan Technikon Party and the Africa Muslim Party were alsa [est. 1956]) from which many Muslim chil­ represented at the munidpality levels where dren graduated, others chose to build hos­ they had won seats in their local constituen- pitals and clinics (e.g. R.K. Khan Hospital [est.1969]) to serve the health seeter of the Amid these financial developments, South African society. Whenever family busi­ Muslim Chartered Accountants (CA) and nesses flourished as was the case with the economists have created new economic op­ Hajji AM. Lockhat Wakuff (est.1922), the portunities for the Muslim community by directors of the group of companies chan­ setting up Asset Management companies; nelled their extra funds into social and ed­ one of the smail but well known compa­ ucational projects; the Wakuff set up in the nies, namely Oasis Asset Management, was KwaZulu-Natal region, inter alia, the Kwa founded by Adam Ebrahim who is its Chief Nyuswa ·A.M. Lockhat Clinic, the Phoenix Executive Officer (CEO) . Instead of forming Baghcladi mosque, the Mayville Lockhat Is­ independent companies, other Muslim CAs lamia College, and the N dwedwe Lockhat opened up opportunities for potential clients High School. The general impression that in the companies that they have been work­ one gets when assessing each of these trusts ing for over many years (e.g. Kagiso 'Iiust and is that the Muslim business personuel have Old Mutual). All of these companies provide had a good sense of how and in which pro­ economic opportunities to invest their funds jects to invest their funds so that the disad­ in a 'halal' manner. Of course, the debates vantaged communities may benefit. Since continue among Muslim scholars as regards Muslims were not the only beneficiaries of the 'Halal' status of products but these dis­ these funds, non-Muslims have come to val­ cussions have not deterred economically mo­ ue their financial inputs over the years, and bile Muslims to invest in them. It is indeed this has led to a better understanding and these various Shari' a compliant products that relationship between themin parts of the fi­ have caused the Muslims to continuously nancial industry tha~ have been quite open raise these important matters in the print and 313 to the idea of introducing Shari' a compliant electronic media. products. · 3.3 Media Moguls: From the Print to As the entrance of the Islarnic Bank (est. 19B8) and Al-Baraka Bank (est.1990) the Digital into the Western dominated banking environ­ Although the Muslim electronic media ment, the traditional banks did not cansicler has been preceeded by the Muslim print me­ these two as a threat because they served a dia by a few decades, the electronic media tiny portion of the popula tion. Over the years revolutionized the way Muslims deal with Al-Baraka Bank and related institutions (ex­ issues privately and publicly. As a result of cept for the MYMSA' s J aarne Limited and the variety of media that emerged over the the Islamic Bank) managed to survive the decades, Muslim journalists have been con­ econonüc meltdowns in the financial sector. nected to the dailies and weeklies that have The reason for this was attributed to the fact appeared. For example, the secular-minded that they offered a range of Shari' a comp~­ Rashied Seria was for a long while the editer ant products that seem to resİst the negative of South that was vociferously anti-apartheid impact of the economic crises; these have, as .but he has since moved; to date he is the ed­ expected, caught the eyes of the traditional iter of the highly sensational, controversial, banks. Thes~ banks (such as First National and inexpensive The Voice. Moegsien Wıl­ Bank and Standard Bank) have since opted liams, who was also part of South for a num­ to provide sirnilar Shari' a compliant products ber of years, has since been the editer of the for their Muslim clients; hence, the institu­ Cape Argus, and he subsequently shifted to tionalization of these products in the pulsat­ the Johannesburg based The Star. Apart from ing economic market (Vahed & Vawda 2008). them, there was Zuleikha Mayat who was a colmnist for Indian Views and Graphic for set up MV in 1986- to continue with MN's manyyears. rich legacy-is Farid Sayed; at present, he an­ chors programs for Radio 786 that rivals the These joumalists were later joined by VOC in and beyand the Cape. At the VOC, Khadija Bradlow as a columnist and Ferial Mundia Karaan (d.2014) - along with others Haffajee as editar for the Mail & Guardi­ such as Yusuf Fisher (d.2016) - had been a an; the last mentioned had sinee moved to key anehor lady until her death. edit the City Press where she remained until June 2016. During this time, Ra'eesa Pather All of these media were, however, joined Mail & Guardian after having worked preceded by the first two short-lived news­ for The Daıly VOx and Zubeida J affer went on papers, namely Al-Islam (Durban) - which to establish the online The Journalist. Others appeared in Gujarati, and the Moslem Out­ such as Mogamat Allie and Yazid Kamaldien look (Cape Town) that performed critica! worked on a freelance basis for media out­ functions in the 1910s and 1920s respective­ lets such as the BBC; the latter is a respect­ ly; these papers reported on issues such as ed photo joumalist like Omar Badsha who is the anti-imperialist protests that took place currently in charge of South Afiican History in 1908 and the South African Khilaphate online, and the former is a well-respected Committee that was established. Unlike the sport's- ericket and football- commentatar early 20th century with only two Muslim pa­ and analyst. Anather noteworthy radio jour­ pers serving the Muslims in Durbari and the nalist is Aslıraf Garda; he started out work­ Cape respectively, the late 1990s :and early ing for community radio stations such as The 2000s saw the establishriıent of a variety of Voice but he has since shifted to the SABC Muslim magazines by different individuals 314 where he functions as a successful present­ and groups in the Muslim community. Since er. Aslıraf Garda's relative Imran Garda who same of these groups were econoÖıically mo­ had been working for South African media, bile they invested their fundsin ineome gen­ joined Al-Jazeera for a few years; since then erating; as a result, they founded, ~ong oth­ he moved to TRT World which is a Turkish ers, The Muslim ~man (www.magzter.com), Radio and Television Corporation. Quite a Muslim Bn'de Magazine (www.muslimbride. few other South African Muslim joumalists co.za), Islam Today (www.islamtoday.co.za), have also moved to Al-Jazeera and other in­ and Irtiqa (www.irtiqa.co.za). ternational media outlets to ply their trade. Be that as it may, from the late 1920s Whilst the mentioned and many other until the late 1950s disparate Muslim organi­ journalists were working mainly for the seeu­ zations produced various types of magazines lar print media, a few of them such as Moga­ that reflect on various aspects of Islam and mat Allie also assisted the developing Muslim Muslims. When the Sayed & Sons family media that were set up and owned my Mus- business invested in the founding of the MN .lli.n moguls. Shafiq Mortan, a former Surf with Imam Haron as its editor, it realized by magazine editor, has been involved with the the mid 1960s how important the paper was Muslim print and electronic media; he is still viewed by the Muslim communities across associated as a columnist and commentatar Southem Africa. During the first few years of with some of the Muslim print media such as its life it was rather mediocre in its reporting Muslım Vı"ews (MV) and Al-Qalam. He has, and it thus did not deal with apartheid South however, been one of the key anchors at the Africa's socio-political circumstances; this, Voice of the Cape radio station. The other however, radically changed in the aftermath prominent Muslim joumalist who was the of Imam Haron's death and with the rise editar of Muslım News (MN) and who had and influence of the BCM ona few Muslim leaders and their circle of friends. By then the a policy to share and exchange programmes newspaper underwent a far-reaching change with sister stations such as CIL A similar and since then was constantly under surveil­ agreement seems to exist between CII and lance by the apartheid state's security forces. the VOC; one that provides a platform for In the 1970s when many issues of the MN the conservative Mufti Abdul-Kader Hossein were banned, Al-Qalam remained tame in who has a regular Q & A program on both terms of its reporting; it was only in the 1980s stations, and who printed some of these in that Al-Qalam came under the state's radar his 2008 Contemporary Q & A: A Calleetion screens: In the post-apartheid era, MV and ofFataawa. Al-Qalam were challenged by the electronic media; the formatipn of the Muslim radio In addition to using the radio frequen­ stations in at least four of the nine provinces cies, most of these radio stations have also changed the manner in which Muslims dis­ transferred their broadcasts to audio-stteam­ cussed and debated issues in public. ing and this has broadend their reach to a wider audience; since this development took The Muslim radio stations have oc­ place the few Muslim stations have llsteners casionally even defied the hegemony of the who tune in from countries such Canada, J ami' at ul-illama bodies and it is for this very Australia and the UK where many South Af­ reason that these bodies have pushed them­ rican Muslims have emigrated to during the selves onto the Boards of these stations in or­ past two decades. And since the television der to decide on the stations' programming. has also brought into the homes a variety In Cape Town two Muslim radio stations, of secular and religious channels, it is not namely the VOC and Radio 786, were set uncommon to find those who have DSTV up; since their establishment during the mid watching Islam TV or Iqra instead of SABC 315 1990s they r~mained rivals. The same applied programmes. Islam TV (ITV) is, in fact, a at one stage to Johannesburg's Muslims who South African Muslim owned station that also had two radio stations; the one was The broadcasts daily. The South African Muslims, Voice, a station managed by former MYMSA who have been concemed with the protec­ members, and Radio Islam, a station con­ tion of their religious identity within a pre­ trolled and run by JUG (formerly JUT). The ·dominantly non-Muslim environment, have Voice, unfortunately, was forced to close as a sought di.fferent methods of reinforcing their result of a lack of funding and during that pe­ Muslimness; for them watclıing these Muslim riod Channel Islam International (CII), a sat­ channels or tuning into Muslim radio stations ellite Muslim radio station that complerİıents are ways that assist in achieving that goal. Radio Islam in many ways was established. Though the Port Elizabeth Muslim 3.4. Legal Landscape: Judges, community only formed the Eastern Cape Advocates, Attorneys, and Personal Muslim B roadeasting Assodation by 2002 to Law vie for a permanent lleense for its Radio IFM during 2003, it had already started with two Besides debating Muslim identity on hour broadcasts since 1996 by sharing fre­ the radio and TV channels, South African quencies-with other stations. In Durhan the Muslims have heatedly discoursed about the Muslims, who were represented by Al-Ansaar introduction of Muslim Personal Law (.MPL). Foundation, launched Radio Al-Ansaar in Before commenting on the .MPL process, 1996; it, however, only began to broadcast on mention should be made of the fact that the a daily basis as from the end of 2012. Being South African legal system absorbed many an emerging Muslim radio station it adopted Muslims who became attorneys, advocates, magistrates and judges. Earlier mention was Many Muslim representatives sub­ made of South Africa's Chief Justice !smail mitted proposals towards the formulation of Mohamed (d.2000) who was formerly a Con­ an acceptable draft Muslim Marriages Bill to stitutional Court judge and who was a con­ the South African Ministry of Justice for ap­ temporary of Abu Bakr Mohammed who also proval during 2003. Unfortunately, no deci­ served asa judge in the South African judici­ sion has as yet been reached on this sensitive ary. Among the many who serve the judiciary and problematic matter. The approval of this mention may bemade ofJustice Mohammed Bill would permit non-Muslim courts to en­ Navsa who serves as a Supreme Court judge, force Shari' a compliant regulations on Mus­ Megamat Esau who serves as a magistrate, lim married couples and it would provide and Sheriff Mohamed who serves as an ad­ the necessary legal protection to the women vocate. Besides these individuals, many legal folk who have been the most vulnerable and companies such as Zakiya Bulbulia Attoıneys who generally suffered the most because of (in Sandton) and Gaironesa Davids Attor­ the misinterpretaçion of aspects of Shari'a by neys (in Cape Town) have been formed over certain theologians. H and when approved, the years; some of them are members of the the courts will then be assisted by a Muslim Muslim Lawyers Assodation (MLA) and judge and a set of assessors who have been the Assodation of Muslim Accountants and trained in the finer aspects of this religious Lawyers (AMAL). legal system.

Many years prior to South Africa's Sadly, couples divorced · because shift to a democracy, its Muslims clamored Imams/Shaykhs who were not appropriately for the recognition of their marriages and or­ trained in this legal system either provided 316 ganizations such asAMAL were also involved incorrect advice or had an incorr.'ect under­ in this process. Muslim couples were strongly standing of the issue. Though the MPL is encouraged to marry in court soon after they still under review wit:h.i.q. the legal system, the performed the act in the mosque; however, Ministry of Home Affairs opted to choose an­ very few Muslims were prepared to do be­ other route to deal with MPL matters; it, af­ cause they, by and large, could not see how ter extensive consultation with various Mus­ a non-Muslim court can decide on a Muslim lim community stakeholders such as UUCSA marriage. Efforts were made by the J arni' at and AMAL, decided to appoint Muslim mar­ ul-Ulama groups and others to seek the rec­ riage officers as from 2014. This move was ognition of MPL within the South African undeniably a bold one that also included the legal system; but due to internal theologi­ appointment of individuals who were trained cal wranglings and jurisprudential disagree­ at Muslim seminaries; it may be argued that ments, it was a matter that did not reach far. this is one pÖsitive method that would assist However, during the presideney of Mandela in taking the MPL matter forward. andasa consequence of Omar's position as Minister of Justice, Muslims once again got 3.5. Educational Engagements: Secular together to see whether they could find a Institutions and Religious Semif!aries solution to the internal dissensions that ex­ isted and to overcome the impasse that they Alongside the efforts surraunding the encountered; some were optimistic, others MPL affair, the serting up of Muslim private were pessimistic. Even though many Muslim schools that adopt a secular curriculum aiıd scholars such as Ebrahim Moosa (1991) and establishment of seminaries that offer theo­ Wahieda Amien (2010) have written on the logical programs were too gready debatable subject, no solution has been in sight. issues during the Iate 1960s and early 1970s when the idea was mooted. During the early ticnal market and this has resulted in Muslim and mid 20ıh century the Muslim communi­ schools competing with both the state and ty with partial support from the government private secular schools, on the one hand, and established Muslim· state-aided primary \vith each another, on the other hand. Way schools from which many Muslims graduat­ back in 1989 the Muslim private schools, ed and from where they shifted to second­ which excludes the earlier mentioned Muslim ary schools; this was the case in the Cape stated-aided primary schools, formed the As­ and Durhan respectively. The formatian of sodation of Muslim Schools with the inten­ privately funded Muslim high schools were, tion of producing their own text books and however, a phenomenon that only took place offering in-service training to their teachers. during the latter half of the 20th century. One of the most prominent Muslim private schools is the Islamia College Cape Town Interestingly, from the 1950s onwards and during 2010 it received $350,000 from one witnessed a growing number of Muslim the Islamic Development Bank to improve teachers who were employed in state racially its facilities; it has since established satellite structured schools; from among them were a branches in other parts of Cape Town. Aleng­ few who moved up the administrative ladder side the expansion of this college, the Turks to take up posts as principals. This was quite conspicuous by the 1980s and 1990s when and Egyptians alsa entered the educarion­ al arena by laying the foundations for their many schools in the Cape, D urban, and J o­ hannesburg were headed by Muslim princi­ schools. Egypt's Al-Azhar University extend­ pals and same were appointed as deputies; ed its internationalization program by includ­ for example, the twin Erneran twin brothers, ing South Africa; it first established a school Hasan and Hussein, headed Cape Town's in Cape Town and thereafter branched out to 317 Oaklands and Trafalgar High Schools respec­ Port Elizabeth and Johannesburg respective­ tively in the 1990s and Yusuf Cajee was the ly. And Turkey's Star Schools followed suite headmaster of Meadowlands' Thembalethu by opening up schools in Cape Town and Primary school in Johannesburg. And at Durhan respectively. the tertiary level quite a few were appoint­ Since the schools in these cities have ed vice-chancellors (V-C); at the University · acted as feeders to the universities where Ar­ of Wıtwatersrand Adam Habib is i ts current abic and Islamic studies have been on offer, V-C, Saleem Badat was Rhodes University's students have intermittently combined their V-C for two terms, and Ahmed Bawa was economic and science programs by doing V-C of Durhan University of Technology, and elective 'Islam' courses in the Department of Yunus Ballim was Sol Plaatjie University's Religion/Religious Studies at UCT, Univer­ V-C. These educational developments ran sity of South Africa (UNISA), University of parallel to other related changes such as giv­ KwaZulu-Natal, and the University of]ohan­ ing support to the idea of opening up Muslim nesburg. At each of these universities, new seminaries and the introduction of Islamic leeturers were appointed to teach the Arabic studies courses at universities. And according and Islamic studies courses. UCT co-opted to the respected surveys that were conduct­ Professor Muneer Fareed to lecture in Islam­ ed by Tayob and Reetz, sizeable numbers k law and edit the annual accredited Journal of Muslim ,private high schools and Muslim for Islamic Studies; slight changes took place seminaries came into existence over the past thereafter. Dr. Andrea Brigaglia who current­ three decades. ly directs the C entre for Contemporary Islam During the post-apartheid period more took over the editorial duties of the men­ Muslim institutions joined the open educa- tioned journal, and he brought Muhammed Haron on board to co-edit the Annual Re­ Ulum Isipingo, Darul ~abiyya Islamiyya and search ofIslam ı·n Africa. Jam'iyat ul-Ulum Islamiyya (Haron 2016).

UNISA roped in Auwais Rafucİeen, Apart from these South Asian orient­ who was at IPSA for a while, to deal with its ed insti.tuti.ons, other types of Muslim insti.­ distance learning Islamic studies program, tutions were alsa established; one of these and OJ appointed Shaheed Mathee, who reg­ was the International Peace College of South ularly comments on religious affairs on Radio Africa (IPSA www.ipsa-edu.org); its under­ 786, to provide assistance in both the Arabic graduate degree program was officially rec­ and Islam courses that have been mounted. ognized by the South African Ministry of And UKZN appointed Shehnaaz Muslim to Higher Educati.on during the early part of teach its Islam courses. UKZN's Islam pro­ 2013. At the beginning of 2016 IPSA intro­ gram used to be part of a complete under­ duced its first BA Honours program with the graduate and postgraduate program in an hope of mounti.ng an MA course within the independent but now defunct Department next two years. And duringJanuary 2014 the of Islamic Studies (circa 1974-1994). The Medina Institute (www.madinainstitute.org. appointment of new staff members should za) opened its doors in Cape Town; its pro­ assist in revitalizing same of the fl.agging gram included fi'qh as well as courses such as programs at same of these insti.tuti.ons; and financi al management, Muslim Personal Law, with revaruping of post-graduate programs intra-faith and inter-faith considerati.ons, and at OJ and elsewhere, one is optimisti.c that the art of dialogue. graduates from the Muslim seıninaries might find these academic opportuniti.es attracti.ve As a matter of interest, its executi.ve 318 to pursue further studies. Previously many members dialogued with the University of Muslim seminarians did not view the teach­ Free State's adminsitration to mÖunt a ful­ ing of Islam at these insti.tuti.ons in a positi.ve ly-fledged Islamic Studies program. Apart light; this, however, has since changed (Ha­ from these instituti.ons, various forms of ran 2012). Islamic studies courses have been on offer at other secular terti.ary insti.tuti.ons as well. At the Muslim seminary level, a fresh The MPL course has, for eample, been part educarianal development took place in of UCT's Law curriculum and an Islamic fi­ Southem Africa over the past two and a half nance program has been on offer at MAN­ decades. The well-known South Asian De­ COSA, which is an undergraduate institute oband theological insti.tuti.on perin.itted its that cancenttates on courses in commerce. program to be exported to other regions with These courses and programs have undoubt­ the intenti.on of not only replicati.ng it but to edly become central to the live's of Muslims more importandy influence the theological who reside in minority environments; and the thinking of the region' s communiti.es. During modules have alsa assisted them to be geared these years Muslim sem.inaries - mention was for the secular market where Shari' a compli­ inade of a few of them earlier in this essay ant products have been on offer. - mushroomed in different parts of the coun­ try and they essenti.ally introduced the South 3. 6. Cultural Concerns: From Cuisine Asian Dars-e-Nizami curriculum. Apart from to Sporting Codes the ones that were established in the 1980s, new ones were bome; among them were: Whilst this is indeed the case, courses Madrasah Inaamiyya, Darul Ulum Numani­ focusing on Muslim cuisine and the Muslim yya, Darul Ulum Qasimiyya, Darul Ulum Arts (such as Islamic calligraphy) have alsa Springs, Darul Ulum Camperdown, Darul been developed and taught at insti.tutions such as IPSA. The Muslim cuisine has, in hams' (her husband) name was closely con­ fact, been an integral part of South Africa's nected with the 'Cape Malay' sporting arena. variety of (eastern) dishes and indeed key to Since the mid 1960s Yusuf Abrahams' name the feasts that Muslims usually organize when along with many others such as Rushdi and a child is bom or when sameone enters into Said Majiet were linked to the respective marriage (Baderoon 2007). The rich Mus­ rugby and ericket clubs that were prominent lim cuisine is basically made up of two tra­ at the Cape. Rushdi Majiet and YUsuf Abra­ ditions; the first is what has been deseribed hams were students of Imam Haron who was as the 'Cape Malay' tradition and the other a patton of Primrose Rugby Club (PRC). the 'Indian' tradition (Mayet 1961; Waetjen Yusuf Abrahams was not only one of the & Vahed 2011). During the past two anda club's key adminstrators but he too became half centuries these traditions have made an its president. Since Cape rugby clubs did not indelible impact upon South Africa's rich function separately from the ericket clubs, it cuisine and as a consequence these traditions was not surprisngJo have found these dubs have been recognized as a vital part of the linked to ericket clubs and singing groups. South African cuisine tradition. In both the PRC's sister club was the Primrose Crick­ Cape and Natal a few Muslim women played et Club and its singing group was called an important role in making these dishes part the Prirnrose Malay Choir; the latter was a of the South African cuisine tradition. - member of the Cape Malay Choir Board that organized annually music and singing com­ When Zuleikha Mayat, who received petitions. What this all me ant was that histor­ an honorary doctorate from UKZN for her ically the Cape Muslim community weaved contribution to Indian (Muslim) culture, their sporting and recreational activities into published her well researched Indian Delights their socio-religious activities. 319 in the 1960s it became an extremely popu­ lar cook book not only among Inciian house­ Put differendy, the 'Gape Malay' clubs holds but in other homes that followed the did not operate independendy of one an­ western tradition. Even though many other other; they were effectively attached to the Inciian cook books subsequendy appeared, mosques from where they came and with the Mayat text remained a sought after text. . their cangrega tion' s support they partook Mayat's publication has, however, been chal­ in the sporting and religious activities on a lenged by the Muslim cooks &om the Cape. weekly basis. When one travels araund the Among the short list of cookbooks is: Faldela country, it does not come as a surprise to find Wılliams Cape Malay Cookbook, Sonia Allisan that the religio-cultural activities are prac­ & Myrna Robin' s Cape Malay Cuisine, Zainab ticed in various cities such as Port Elizabeth, Lagardien's Everyday Cape Malay, and Kash­ East London, and Kimberley where Muslims iefa Abrahams' The Cuisine and·Culture ofthe have settled and have expanded numerically. Cape Malays as we as her Cass Cook Cape Ma­ The religio-cultural activities were, howev­ lay. These books along with other published er, not structured along theselinesin Natal texts on the subject made the contributions where ericket has been one of the most pop­ of these two Muslim cuisine traditions very ular sporting codes among the Indian Mus­ visible. Both Mayat and Cass' contributions lims. have be~İı widely acknowledged in the hos­ pitality industry (Baderoon 2007; Waetjen & In any event, over the years many Vahed 2011). Muslim adminstrators were involved in the rugby and ericket sporting codes; for exam­ ·Though Cass' name was associated ple, A.R. Abbas, after whom the Kimberley with the Cape Malay cuisine, Yusuf Abra- stadium has been named, and Ebrahim Pa- tel, who becam.e president of the Interna­ impressions in the fiction writing arena as tional Rugby. Board, were associated with short story writers and novelists. Comple­ the rugby unions. Hassan Howa (d.1992), menting their creative works are anather set the fonnder of the South African Board of of creative minds; these are contemporary Control (est.1974), and Haroon Lorgat, the Muslim poets who dealt with Islamic themes current CEO of the International Cricket in much if not all of their poems. Among Council, were and are leading adminstrators them are Shabbir Banoobhai, Gabeba Bade­ in the ericket fraternity. At present the nam.es roon, Malika Ndlovu, Rasool Snyman, Saale­ of Hashim Amla and Moneeb Joseph have ha Bhamjee, and Aaliyah Kara. Some of them been associated with South Africa's ericket produced anthologies (for example, Banoo­ and soccer teams respectively; whilst Amla is bhai published Drums beat all night (2013) a key Proteas' batsman, Joseph was one of and Baderoon circulated A Hwıdı-ed Silenc­ Bafana's selected goal keepers .. Apart from es (2006), whilst others have yet to release these individuals, there is an array of others theirs. Important to note is the fact that their whose names have been and are associated poems essentially underscore and express with many other sporring codes that ranges ideas and values that are inherendy Islamic, from golf, baseball, softball, tennis, swim­ and hence universal in meaning. ming to martial arts. Whilst one lauds the work of these creative individuals, one finds thaf anather 3. 7. Artsfor All: Creative Wrı"ters, group of young artists emerged; these young Artists, Musicians, and Comedians men and women, instead of using novels and short stories, they employed art and related 320 When one gives attention the Arts, means to express their Muslim identity. Ig­ one finds that an interesting coterie of indi­ saan Adam, for exam.ple, held sÖlo exhibi­ viduals found different ways of expressing tions over the past few years that displayed their Muslim identity. Earlier in this essay his art works that underlined his _identity as reference was made to a few Muslim poets a Muslim. Then there are the award winning and short story writers whose ideas were stili the twin brothers, namely Hasan and Hussein very much embedded in a secular environ­ Essop; these brothers have used photography ment. Towards the close of the century and as their vehicle to convey their ideas; they during the decade of the new millennium, a narrated their stories in such a manner that new breed of creative writers have çome onto they broke down the stereotypical nations the scene; these writers produced novels and that one encountered in the West and East. novellas that in one way or the other refl.ect In other words, they have made a huge im­ aspects of this community' s religious identity. pression as noteworthy artists by, inter alla, Both Isınail Joubert (aka Tatamkulu Afrika) reshaping the attitudes of ı:nisrepresenting and Rayda J acobs wrote a series of novels Islam and Muslims . .that touched on this issue. The former wrote, among others, The Innocents and Nine Lives In a different arena, the Muslim com­ that are autobiographical reflections, and the munity produced many talented individuals latter permed The Slave Book and Eyes ofthe such as Zain Bhikha and Muhammed Yaseen Sk:y that are basically histarical romances. Mohamed who are both song writers and singers. The latter's stardom is on the rise Aside from these two novelists, one even before he released his international al­ may mention the name of the following: Is­ bum The One during 2016, and the former mail Davids, Cassiem D'Arcy, Farida Karo­ is a well-established traditional nasheed artist dia, and Shafinaz Hashim have made huge who produced many albums since he had been in the Muslim entertainment industry Areff who was threatened with legal action for more than two decades. Bhikha teamed by the South African Halal Authority for his up with prominent Muslim artists such as spoof when he cleverly used S.ANI:iNs logo British Yusuf Islam and Canadian Dawud in advertising his stand-up comedy show ti­ Whamsby Ali to do, among others, charity tled 'SimmiAreffHAHA-LaalAuthority.' shows such as supporting the Palestine cause and collecting funds for the Islamic Relief 3.8. Dark Side: Gangsters, Syndicates, that carries out regular humanitarian aid and Murderers across the globe. These Muslim artists follow the footsteps of other Muslim musicians such Before raunding off this portrait of the as Abdullah Ihrahim and Yusuf Ali; the !at­ Muslim community in the two histarical pe­ ter was a respected lead guitarist for Greek riods, the essay would like to briefly wrap up singer, N ana Mouskouri, and the form er has with a fewwords regarding this community's been a pianist for more than five decades. dark side; by this is meant that this commu­ nity like all other communities have elements Apart from these singers, songwriters, that bring them into disrepute or that taint and musicians that have been araund for a their reputation as a loyal and respectable while to entertain both non-Muslim and community. Among those that have tarnished Muslim audiences who appreciate the arts, theirimage are the criminal syndicates, gang­ anather group of entertainers entered the sters, and murderers. arena; they are the stand-up comedians. 1bis group who only came onto the scene during Even though the issue gangsterism is the past decade and a half have made an im­ not a widespread phenomenon among South pact since their htimour dealt with themes Africa' s different Muslim communities that 321 and topics 'that have been drawn from the are located in various parts of the country, the community and shared with audiences that phenomenon has been affected them in dif­ had little idea of the types of issues that ferentways. During November 1996theMail Muslims have and are grappling with with­ & Guardian carried an article that highlighted in their own circles. Fortunately, the list of the role of the 'Muslim mafia' that operated Muslim comedians is not long as compared · for eight years (circa 1988-1996) in greater to the register of Muslim musicians and art­ Johannesburg; this syndicate was, apparently, ists. Riaad Moosa, who was raised in Cape an untouchable syndicate since they func­ Town and is a medical doctor, left his med­ tioned in the open and they had many palice officers on their payroll; this mafia group was ical profession to become a full-time stand­ led by two brothers, namely Yusef (Ushi) and up comedian. Since then he performed at Mohammed (Abla) Seedat. They, according many sold-out shows and this illustrated his to Angella Johnson who wrote the article, ran huge success in this industry. He was joined a lucrative criminal family business; one that by the Cape Town born Yaseen Bames w~o was involved in theft, fraud, stolen vehicles, has also made in-roads into this industry. Two and other vehicle related crimes. The palice others have made names for themselves too took a while to apprehend the group and put but they, unlike Moosa and Bames, seemed in place 'Operation Mynah' in 1995 that cost to have· ch~enged the conservative Muslim the tax payers more than half a million rand mindset. The first of the two is J ohannes­ before they were able to trap and incarcerate burg bornJoey Rasdien who was heavily crit­ them. icized for having sardonically mocked at Abu Hurayra's memorization of prophetic state­ More-or-less the same time when this ments; and the other is Durhan bom Simmi syndicate was reaching its end, a Cape Town gang led by the Staggie brothers was operat­ case that rocked the Cape Muslim commu­ ing in the Cape Flat's law-ineome areas. The nity, others have also been guilty of similar twin brothers, namely Rashaard and Rashied crimes; the case of Shameema Mohammed Staggie led the strong and influential gang Shamoon who was killed by her husband known as the Hard Livings that rivaled the with a crossbow during April2014 in Benani Americans and the Mongrols. The Hard Liv­ is yet anather example of familial erime. ings had members in different parts of the sprawling city and was quite powerful since In a letter (8 J une 2017) to the editar they also had members of the palice on its of a Cape newspaper, Councilor Yahya Ad­ payroll. This gang's activities like other gangs ams who heads the Cape Muslim Congress, negatively affected the poorer, disadvantaged passionately appealed that the death penalty, communities of which the Muslims formed which was abolished when South Africa be­ an integral part. In response, a vigilante group came a demecratic state, be reinstituted. He called the People against Gangsterism and argued that criminal acts have increased man­ Drugs (PAGAD) was formed to counter the ifold and that these acts have become uncon­ spread of gansterism. PAGAD's emergence trollable and widespread. Adams' sentiments challenged the Hard Livings, the American have been echoed by many non-governmen­ and all the other Cape gangs. When PAGAD tal organizations and communities that felt started its protests and stood-up against that they have fallen victim to a system that them, there was a ground-swell support for seems to favour eriminals and gangs rather PAGAD, and the eventual conflict between than the victims. Theological bodies such the the two caused the death of Rashaard in a MJC and JU have added their voices since they represented sections of the communities 322 shoot-out during 1996. From then onwards, PAGAD intensifi.ed its activities and it adapt­ that have been and continuously Challenged ed an extremist stance towards the gangs; the by their drug-addicted and gangster ridden outcome of this deeply unsettled the Cape environments where cıjme has become the community, and the state had to step in by order of the day. apprehending PAGAD's leadership (Bang­ stad 2005). 4. Towards a Conclusion Amidst rampant gangsterism in South The essay provided a broad overview Africa's major cities, other criminal activi­ of the status of South African Muslims within ties such as arson, rape, and murder have the general South African setting. It, on the also been happening and a few Muslims one hand, showed to what extent the Muslim have been found guilty for having commit­ community, along with the m~jority of the ted these crimes. In Cape Town, the famous oppressed masses, was racially ·marginalized singer, composer, and director of numerous by the apartheid system and how sections of musicals, Talip Petersen was shot dead by his this community represented by youth groups Wife, Najwa Petersen's accomplishes during countered this system. On the other hand, 2006; she was only arrested a while after the it went on to illustrate to what degree the incident when all the evidence pointed to Muslim community was recognized by the her. She was convicted with her accomplish­ democratically elected govemment as a re­ es, namely Abdoer Emjedi and Waheed Has­ sult of their contribution towards the strug­ san. Judge Siraj Desai, who presided over gle against the apartheid regime. Apart from the case, found them guilty of robbery and electing Muslims into parliament and ap­ murder, and he sentences Najwa Petersen to pointing some into cabinet positions, its rep­ 28 years in prison. Apart from this prominent resentatives in civil society such as theological bodies and humanitarian aid organizations upon their foundations; in same instances, have been granted equal space together with they expanded them to accommodate new other religious groups. developments, and in others they derived ideas and initiated fresh changes. The emerg­ Whilst it was not able to offer insight­ ing nascent Muslim community grew expo­ ful details on the various issues that the com­ nentially during the fust three decades of the munity contributed to, it served as a canvass 19ıh century and the colonial pow ers were from which one can get a bird's eyeview of unable to stern this tied; as a result, these how the community evolved during the sec­ colonists had no alternative but to contend ond half of the 20ıh century and how its mem­ with the Muslims' permanent presence even bers played their role during the apartheid though they sought ways to counter the Mus­ era until it was replaced by a democracy in lims' nurnerical expansion; they, of course, 1994. Even though the community remains were given added support by the Anglican relatively smail compared to other religious and Dutch Refo!m rnissionaries (Bradlow minorities, its representative personalities & Caims 1987). But despite their valiant at­ and organizations helped to carve out a fairly tempts to limit and restrict the Muslims, the striking image of a vibrant Muslim communi­ colonists had to come to terms with the fact ty; one that continuously underscored their that they failed to stave off the Muslims' sub­ religious identity. This community's 'found­ tle influence. ing fathers' such as Shaykh Yusuf, Qadi m,_ dus Salam, Shaykh Abu Bakr Effendi, and a The Muslims worked in different see­ host of others that this essay was unable to ters of the South African society; in the Cape discuss have definitely been instrumental in some worked in the building industry, and laying the foundations for the development others in the clothing industry where they left 323 of this effervescent community (Bradlow & their footprints as reliable workers. The Cape Cairs 1987; Da Costa & Davids 1994; Va­ colonists heavily depended upon the 'Cape bed & Jeppie 2005); their ideas and their Malay' members' skills as cook, carpenters, texts such as Effendi's famous Bayan-ud Din bricklayers, fishermen, and tailors. On the (Brandel-Syrier 1960) not only contributed whole, they were known for having been, towards shaping their theological and reli­ . among others, skilled artisans and craftsmen. gious outlook as the years and decades un­ In addition to their skills, the colonists con­ folded but they too made substantial iiıputs sidered them to be exceptionally trustworthy to the linguistic development of the Afrikaans individuals since most of them never drank language that was written in Ajami (that is, aleohal and never came to work drunk. the Arabic) script (Davids 2011). Besides being dependable, they were also viewed to be highly respectable in spite of When they established schools and the fact that they were not treated as equals built mosques, it was a clear indication that by their colonial masters. One may argue that these founding fathers had a visian of t#e the British colonists generally held the same future. It seems that they had a hunch that opinion of those Muslim workers who they later communities would not only draw from brought from South Asia and East Africa. their texts and benefit from their ideas, but that the·structures such as the mosques and Being part of the colonized commu­ madrasas, ~hich they had set up, would en­ nities meant that the Muslims invariably trench their identity as a religious commu­ mingled and interacted with individuals who nity. Indeed, the subsequent generations of hailed from other socio-cultural, linguistic, Muslims were inspired by their forebears' ef­ and religious communities. But since they forts and they thus reciprocated by building were the dominant community culturally at the Cape and were brought in sizeable mun­ study law, commerce, medicine and the allied bers to Natal, their habits and customs inevi­ sciences. However, by the time same of legal tably influenced and affected those who came restrictions were lifted, they moved into the into contact with them. As a consequence of social sciences and other sectors. At present, the Cape Muslims' friendly dispositian and the community can rightly daim to have rep­ being very sociable, they married spouses resentatives in almost every available field who came from the other communities; via from nuclear physics to specialists such as the institution of marriage and through the Professor Jerry Coovadia in HIV/Aids. twin processes of socialization and educa­ tion, they succeeded to bring into the house Unfortunately, the Muslim community of Islam a sizeable number of individuals; it has not monitored nar kept a data base that is for this reason that Cape Malays' numbers assists them to identify in which areas Mus­ swelled dramatically. lims have specialized; asa result of this short­ coming, Muslim organizations such as the They were markedly different from South African Muslim Network (SAMNET) their co-religionists in Natal; this region's does not have any specific record of individ­ new immigrant community was stili very uals who are engineers and oor do they have much under the influence of their ethnic a list of those who specialized in building in­ and cultural traditions that they brought with dustry. The same can be said about the Islam­ them from South Asia. They thus preferred k Medical Assodation (est.1976); this pro­ to marry and socialize within their linguistic fessional body, as far as is known, 'does not and cultural communities; in other words, possess data that provides an update of those a marriage between a Surtee speaking boy who studied medicine and nar does it have 324 and a Gujarati speaking girl was totally for­ statistics to give one an idea of th~ range of bidden, and it meant that each of them was Muslim specialists that work in various clin­ compelled to find a marriage partner within ics and hospitals across the country. One may their particular language cum cultural group. also argue that AMAL that represents those That aside, when comparing the Cape Mus­ who work in the commercial and legal sec­ lims with those in N atal and 'fransvaal, one tors too do not have that data. That being the observed that the Indian Muslims' impact case, it is high time that organizations such was deeply felt in certain sectors (from busi­ as SAMNET make an efEort to gradually col­ ness, sports, and politics to education); these lect the data from the various ministries and Indian Muslims were indeed particularly suc­ universities so that they have a fair idea who cessful in the business seetar where they have from amongst the Muslim pursued a particu­ been critica! players for many decades. lar area of specialization and which field of science or engineering they need to invest in. Over this period the Muslim commu­ nity' s presence has been felt and noted in And finally, since the South African ~erent segments of society, and this may census survey did not take into account the be attributed to their gradual economic mo­ religious demographics it is an issue that the bility. Being economically mobile implied Muslim community's leadership will have to that they were able to send their children to seriously address in the near fu~e. They secular schools and to the tertiary institutions should make all the necessary efforts to do where they pursued diverse fields of studies; so because it will not only help them to have since this took place under restricted apart­ a good sense of the available skills in the heid conditions during the Iate 1950s and community but it will also give them an idea 1960s, Muslim families that had the neces­ of their nurnerical strength and it will assist sary finances sent their children overseas to them to plan for the country's future gener- ation of Muslims; in this regard, they should Baderoon, Gabeba. 2007. 'Catch with the Eye': factor in the process of socialization that at Stories of MuslimFoodin Cape Town'. In lmagining the times lead to inter-marriage and conversion. City: Memon'es and Cultures in Cape Town (Eds. Sean Field, Renate Meyer & Felicity Swanson), (pp. 115-32). For the record, when AwqafSA and a few HSRC Press, Cape Town. Ch. 6 pp. 115-131. pro-active Muslim organizations drafted the Muslim Charter, they had this and other as­ Bangstad Sindre. 2005. 'Hydra Heads: PA­ GAD and Respanses to the PAGAD phenomenon in a pects in mind. They were, worded dilierent­ Ca pe Muslim Community.' In Journal ofSouthem Afri­ ly, forward looking with the hope of giving catı Studies. 31(1): 187-208. the generations to come clear directions; but Bradlow Frank & Margeret Cairns. 1987. The since this Muslim Charter has been stalled as Early Cape Muslims: A Study ojthe Mosques, Geneology a result of other organizations having major and Origins. Cape Town: AA. Balkema. problems with it, one will have to wait and Brandel-Syrier M. 1960. The Religious Duties observe whether the document wil1 eventu­ of Islam as explaıiıed by Abu Bakr Effendi. Leiden: E.J. ally be appropriated and be given life in the Brill; 1960. years that lay ahead. Da Costa, Yusuf &Achmat Davids. 1994. Pages 5. Bibliography from Cape Muslıiıı History. Pietermaritzburg: Shooter & Shouter and Cape Town, Gatesville: Naqshbandi-Mu­ Before listing all the relevant texts that were haınmadi South A&ica. generally consulted for this essay, this researcher wishes to mention that anyone keen on re.searching aspects of Davids, Achmat. 2011. The Afrikaans of the SouthA&ica's Muslims should consult this researcher's Cape Muslims ed. Hein Wıllemse & Suleiman Dangor. 1997 South A/rican Muslıi11s: An Aıınotated Bibliography Pretoria: Protea Books. (Cape Town: South African Library) that contains pub­ Desai, Barney & Cardiff Mamey. 1978. The lished texts that appeared at the begi.nning of the cen­ Killıiıg ofthe Imam. London: Quartet Publishers. tury up un til the time before the bibliography went to 325 into print. Thiş bibliography, in its unannotated form, Esack, Farid. 1988. Three Strands in the South was occasionally updated and the updated versions A&ican Struggle for Justice. Third World Quarterly. appeared in the Amma/ Review of Islam in Africa. For 10(2):473-498. some updates, one suggest that the researcher consults Fataar, Aslam &Farid Esack (Eds.). 2009.After the onlin~ site: www.africabib.org that is hosted by Rijks the Honeymoon: Muslim Religious Leadership and Polıii­ Universiteit te Leiden (Netherlands). And lastly, those cal Engagement ıiı the Post-Apartheid South Africa. Cape farniliar with Ebrahim Mahida's 1993 History of Mus­ ·Town: Centre for the Study of Progressive Islam. lıins in South Africa: A Chronology (Durban: The Ara­ bic Study Circle) will realize that it is a chronological Frankental, Sally & Owen Sichone. 2005. South treatment of the Muslim coınmunity and that it should A/rica's Diverse People's: A Reference Sourcebook. New not be viewed as text that can be used as a reference. It York:CUO is far from that and researchers should therefore refer Gamieldien, Fahm.i. 2004. The History of the to the essays and articles that dealt with the histarical Claremont Main Road Mosque: JJs People and their Con­ event or occurrence. tributicms to Islam in South Africa. Claremont, Cape A.dhikari, Mohamed.1994. Coloured Identity Town:CMRM. and the Politics of Coloured Education: The Origin of Germain, Eric. 2007. I:Afrique du Sud musu­ the Teachers' League of South A&ica. In bıtemational /ane: Histoire des relations entre bıdie1ıs et Malais du Cap. Journal ofAfrican Histoncal Studies 27(1): 101-126. Paris: IFAS-Karthala. Amien, Wahieda. 2010. South A&ican case Haron, Muhammed. 1994. Towards a sacred study for the recognition and regulation of Mus­ biography: the life & thoughts of Imam Abdullah Ha­ lim family ·law in a minority Muslim secular context. ron.' Infouma/for Islamic Studies 14:64-83. 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