Orphans, Immigrants, and Empire: Making and Unmaking Identity in the Victorian Novel

ORPHANS, IMMIGRANTS, AND EMPIRE: MAKING AND UNMAKING IDENTITY IN THE VICTORIAN NOVEL A dissertation presented by Duyen Xuan Nguyen to The Department of English In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the field of English Northeastern University Boston, Massachusetts April, 2015 1 ORPHANS, IMMIGRANTS, AND EMPIRE: MAKING AND UNMAKING IDENTITY IN THE VICTORIAN NOVEL by Duyen Xuan Nguyen ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English in the College of Social Sciences and Humanities of Northeastern University April, 2015 2 ABSTRACT As the British Empire neared its height in second half of the nineteenth century, the question of who and what counted as British became a major concern for both the English “at home” and the colonies abroad. Novels contributed to the resulting attempts to consolidate a British identity. Focusing on the Victorian novel, this project argues that underlying such narratives of identity formation is a concurrent narrative of unmaking—one embodied in the proliferation of the orphan figure in much of nineteenth-century British fiction. In the nineteenth century, the figure of the orphan was both ubiquitous and ambiguous. The workhouse and the orphanage, institutions that were established in the previous century, had begun to flourish, attracting the attention of social welfare reformers to the plight of poor and working-class children. The novel reflected this fascination with destitute and orphaned children. Yet in the Victorian legal system, orphans held no fixed status, putting them in a liminal position that made their representation in the novel equally tenuous. My project suggests that the presence of the orphan figure in many British novels of formation complicates the work of the Victorian novel in defining a British identity by revealing how fiction also unmakes identity— not only the identities of orphan figures themselves, but also the particular social, cultural, political, and national identities that works of fiction have been understood to shape and consolidate. This process of making and unmaking, which I call “orphanization,” necessitates the erasure of any preexisting markers of identity and results in the refiguration of individuals as blank slates on which new identities are written, sometimes by the orphan figures themselves, but more often than not, by external forces invested in the fashioning of particular identities. By focusing on the literary production of orphans at the height of the British Empire, this project examines the impact of imperial formations on conceptions of national identity. 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am grateful to my committee—Laura Green, Nicole Aljoe, and Patrick Mullen—for all of your support, without which this project would not have been possible. The feedback with which you’ve provided me—on seminar papers, comprehensive exams, and of course, drafts of this dissertation—has been invaluable to the shaping of my ideas and to my development as a scholar. To my advisor Laura, especially, thank you for your encouragement, your kindness, and your sense of humor throughout this process. I am indebted to Melissa Daigle, Linda Collins, Jean Duddy, and Kelly Gould of the English department for your timely and reassuring responses to so many last-minute emails and questions. To my fellow graduate students in the English department, more than colleagues and friends, you have been like a family to me. I’d like to thank Emily Artiano, in particular, for reading almost everything I’ve written in the last seven years, including drafts of emails. I am so grateful to have started and ended this journey with such a compassionate, honest, and patient friend at my side. To Lauren Thacker, Genie Giaimo, Shun Kiang, Jenna Sciuto, David Ober, Michael Dedek, Jeffrey Cottrell, Victoria Papa, and all of my officemates, past and present, thank you for all of the advice, the laughs, and the drinks. To Alixandra Krzemien and Kareemah Sabur, thank you for reminding me that friendship knows no bounds, neither temporal nor spatial. And last but certainly not least, to my parents and my brothers, I am eternally grateful for your unconditional love and support. In countless and unmeasurable ways, I would not be here without you. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract 2 Acknowledgments 3 Table of Contents 4 Introduction 5 Chapter 1: Adoption, (Re-)Naming, and the Middle-Class Family in Charles Dickens’s Novels 21 Chapter 2: Racing/Erasing the Orphan Figure in Dinah Craik’s Olive and Maxwell Philip’s Emmanuel Appadocca 62 Chapter 3: The “Return” of the Native in Olive Schreiner’s The Story of an African Farm and Rudyard Kipling’s Kim 96 Works Cited 129 5 Introduction In 2009, Slumdog Millionaire, a British film set and shot in India, became a critical and box office hit, grossing nearly half a billion dollars and winning eight Academy Awards, including Best Director and Best Picture. With an orphan from the slums of Mumbai as its protagonist and a third-world setting as its backdrop, Slumdog Millionaire’s success in the United States was unexpected. The film was as much of an underdog as its hero, Jamal Malik. Based on the novel Q & A by Vikas Swarup, Slumdog Millionaire follows Jamal’s journey from the slums to being a contestant on the Indian version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? While on the game show, Jamal’s surprising success causes the host and producers to suspect him of cheating and, before the final, million-dollar question, the police detain and torture him. The film intersperses scenes of Jamal’s interrogation with flashbacks that reveal the defining moments in his life that have enabled him to answer the questions on the show. Over the course of two hours, the audience learns that, along with his brother Salim and another orphan, Latika, with whom he falls in love, Jamal has spent his entire life trying to escape the impoverished and criminal underworld into which he was born. While the film’s “universal underdog theme,” along with its “global perspective” (Sharma 197, 198), has no doubt contributed to its success, Slumdog Millionaire also echoes familiar Western narratives about orphans, particularly the Victorian novels whose conventions of realism and social commentary have continued to influence postcolonial writers, including Swarup. Like Charles Dickens’s Oliver Twist (1838), the film features a Fagin-like character who lures children into working for him as beggars, as well as precocious orphan figures who endure heartbreaking trials of separation and betrayal. Also like Dickens’s popular orphan, Slumdog Millionaire’s hero concludes his perilous journey with a fairytale reunion: convinced by the sheer improbability of his life’s story, the police release Jamal, who correctly guesses the 6 answer to the final question and reunites with Latika. As the film’s meteoric rise suggests, stories about orphans have compelled audiences and readers across generational, class, and racial divides. However, Slumdog Millionaire’s heroic portrayal of the Indian orphan Jamal points to only one traditional characterization of the orphan figure. Cheryl Nixon observes in her 2011 study on the legal and literary value of the orphan figure that, since the Victorian Age, the novel genre has contributed to the “archetypal status” of the orphan as “ultimate ‘other’”: foreign, marginalized, and threatening—an outsider to both the family and the nation (7). In nineteenth- century Great Britain, the novel, a previously maligned genre, rose to prominence and respectability, becoming an acceptable forum for registering and commenting on social and political issues. At the same time, social welfare advocates directed their reform efforts toward relief institutions, like the orphanage and the workhouse, for the poor and abandoned (Nixon 7). This conjunction gave rise to popular and cultural figurations of the orphan as multitudinous “other.” The nineteenth-century orphan’s nebulous legal definition and status—as one without any parents, as well as one with only one living parent (Peters 1)—contributed to such representations, particularly in literature.1 Indeed, as enduring as the American rags-to-riches tales by Horatio Alger have been the Victorian images of little Oliver Twist’s pathetic plea for more gruel and Fagin’s band of juvenile pickpockets. Twenty-first century popular culture has reproduced this narrative of the orphan figure as well. For instance, in the 2009 horror film, Orphan, John and Kate Coleman, a middle-class American couple, adopt a nine-year-old Russian girl, Esther, whose foreignness—embodied in her Victorian dress and apparent sense of propriety—represents very real threats to both the Colemans’ marriage and their lives. As the 1 As Lydia Murdoch notes, popular representations of poor children consigned to the workhouse or the infirmary further extended the definition of the term “orphan” to include those whose living parents had been deemed unfit by the state. 7 film unfolds Esther’s mysterious past, we learn that the orphan is, in fact, a homicidal and manipulative 33-year-old woman with a hormone disorder that has stunted her growth, allowing her to pass as a little girl. Having murdered her previous adoptive family after the father had rejected her sexual advances, Esther kills John for the same reason before Kate discovers the orphan’s true identity and puts an end to her homicidal rampage. Orphan draws on prevailing nationalistic and sexist discourses to figure Esther as a sinister and illegitimate pretender to the dominant culture epitomized by the white, middle-class Colemans. In this way, the film not only reproduces Victorian concerns about the threat of the orphan to the family, the accepted microcosmic representation of the nation; it also reappropriates them in new contexts.2 Esther’s characterization echoes the common representation of Russian orphans in the media as psychologically and medically damaged by abandonment, while her intrusion into the Colemans’ marriage reiterates Cold War anxieties about Russians as invaders.

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