The Sea Between Image and Imagination-The In- Vestigation of the Underwater World from the Re- Naissance to the Age of Enlightenment

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

The Sea Between Image and Imagination-The In- Vestigation of the Underwater World from the Re- Naissance to the Age of Enlightenment The Sea Between Image and Imagination-the In- vestigation of the Underwater World from the Re- naissance to the Age of Enlightenment A. Ceregato Institute of Marine Sciences, CNR, Bologna, Italy [email protected] Abstract The roots of modern Marine sciences as commonly meant stemmed from the work of Luigi Ferdinando Marsili (Bologna, 1658 - 1730), an eclectic military archi- tect who produced the first “scientific” descriptions of the seabed and its inhabitants. Coeval of the natural philosopher Vallisneri and introduced by Newton to the Royal Society of London, Marsili represents an ideal link between the observation of Na- ture according to the method developed in the sixteenth century by his co-citizen Ulisse Aldrovandi and the modern oceanographic disciplines. Curiously but perhaps not accidentally, the Institute of Marine Geology of CNR, now incorporated into the ISMAR, was founded by Raimondo Selli in Bologna, Marsili’s birthplace and Selli himself named after his ancient precursor one of the most impressive submarine vol- canoes of the Mediterranean. 1 Introduction Tracio [1] written during his earlier career, and the programmatic Histoire Physique The modern approach to the history of sci- de la Mer [2] published in the Nether- ence (and to history in general) tends to lands just five years before Marsili’s death, investigate rather the context than finding at the end of a life entirely spent on the the “first”, the “precursor” or the “father” field, through all over the Mediterranean of a discipline or of a theory. Nonetheless, from the Bosporus to Gibraltar. The first individual people undoubtedly boosted the work cited above contains analytical re- evolution of science, or they made a dis- sults of the investigations on some physi- covery before anybody else, with very di- cal features of the sea performed by Mar- verse outcomes according to many vari- sili during his first diplomatic mission from ables. Venice to the Ottoman Empire and his re- It is commonly accepted that the devel- turn trip to Venice, that can be considered opment of the marine sciences (the term as one of the first oceanographic surveys. “oceanography” appeared much later, af- The Histoire Physique represents somehow ter the 1872-1876 Challenger expeditions), the completion of this research, presenting took place after the work of Luigi Fer- new data on the seawater currents, temper- dinando Marsili (1658-1730) (Figure1), ature and salinity, but also descriptions of in particular from two of his published the seabottom and of the marine organisms works, Osservazioni intorno al Bosforo [3,4,5]. Oceanography Figure 1: Portrait of Luigi Ferdinando Marsili. (Courtesy of G.B Vai. University of Bologna) As a matter of fact, the most original ele- tiaries like the De arte venandi cum avibus ment of the approach of Luigi Ferdinando by Emperor Frederick II [6], the role of Marsili to investigation and to the dissemi- images was primarily ornamental or sym- nation of his observations is due to the ap- bolic, and their accuracy was poor or even plication of the scientific method codified fantastic. Until the Renaissance, most of some decades earlier by Galilei, Descartes the written knowledge about nature con- and Bacon, but also to the wide use of the sisted of a transmittance from generation to image as a scientific tool, introduced by generation of a mix of Latin texts, transla- Ulisse Aldrovandi (Figure2) in Marsili’s tions from Arabic authors and Arabic ver- hometown Bologna, about a century be- sions of Greek literature. These hand- fore. written books were enriched by comments (the “glossae”) and sometimes by drawings only occasionally taken from a real model 2 Imagine versus imagina- even in the case of depicted herbals or med- tion ical treatises; more commonly, texts and images were simply copied from volume The combined use of image and text as a to volume. This way of transmission of tool for describing the natural objects (man knowledge favoured the creation of stereo- included) is well known from the antiq- typical, simplified images, whose signifi- uity to medieval treatises, but except of cance carried rather symbolic significances some medical herbals and of particular bes- than real features of the natural objects. 1278 Marine research at CNR Figure 2: Portrait of Ulisse Aldrovandi (copy from the original by Pelagio Pelagi, early 1800) Courtesy of G.B. Vai. (Photo Mattei-Zannoni, BUB, ASUB) Starting from the XV century, the strong Theory of Earth based on the Neo-Platonist interaction between art and science and a relationship between Man’s Microcosm renewed attention to the physical reality led and Nature’s Macrocosm, demonstrated to an increased accuracy of the images. that fossils are the remains of ancient or- The new fame of the Naturalis Historia of ganisms that the Deluge could not carry to Pliny and novelties imported from the voy- the highest mountains [7]. ages of exploration explosively expanded At the end of the XV century, Leonardo the list of terrestrial and marine organisms, in Italy and Albrecht Durer¨ (1471-1528) in forcing the natural philosophers to review Germany, started two different approaches the old classifications and try to build a new to the figurative description of natural ob- inventory of the world. jects: while Leonardo, drawing natural ob- The introduction of printing and of more jects and anatomic studies, always tended accurate and analytical illustrations, fed an to represent the dynamism, the continuous irreversible process of liberation from the transformation of the objects and the rela- old scholasticism, based on a dogmatic in- tionship between the subject and its con- terpretation of Aristotle (filtered from me- text in order to stress their evocative power, dieval tradition) which conditioned most of on the other hand Durer¨ isolated the objects the knowledge on nature. to concentrate the analysis on the physical Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519), in search nature of the objects themselves; the best of proving a geocentric, ”protoscientific” techniques to achieve the finest detail were 1279 Oceanography Figure 3: Section of the Earth surface with the hypothetical profile of the seabed. A. Kircher, Mundus Subterraneus (III Ed. 1678), Cap. XV, p. 97. G.B. Vai (2004) Ed., Critical reprint by A. Forni Editore. (A. Ceregato, personal archive and photo) the drawing by ink pen, the engraving and sively as possible the diversity of natural a mix of tempera and watercolors [8]. objects, animals, plants and minerals and The new generation of natural philoso- to compose a natural history rich in im- phers will choose the model proposed by ages as much accurate as possible. For Durer¨ and his pupils as the best for their this purpose Aldrovandi created an artis- descriptions. The Swiss Conrad Gess- tic laboratory within his home museum and ner (or Gesner;1516-1565) will attempt invited some of the best illustrators and for first to build an updated inventory of engravers of his time to take their draw- the Three Kingdoms of Nature: Animalia, ings directly from his specimens; he also Plantae and Mineralia. The technique of acquired and exchanged watercolours and engraving on wood and later on copper engraved images from his correspondents sheets developed by Durer¨ was immedi- and collectors as the Archidukes of Tus- ately adopted for printing the new trea- cany and the Duke of Mantua. He per- tises [9]. The Counter-Reformation lim- sonally maintained for years some artists, ited the freedom of Italian natural philoso- and looked at Durer’s¨ legacy when he de- phers (Galileo Galilei and Giordano Bruno cided to print his books, so he hired Cor- were only the most famous victims), who nelius Schwindt and Christopher Lederlein were denied to venture interpretations dan- (Cristoforo Coriolano) who produced more gerously dissonant with the Scriptures, but than 3000 woodcuts at the end of 1598 (i.e. did not prevent to investigate the “order” [10]; see also [11] for a complete reference of Nature: Ulisse Aldrovandi (Bologna, review). 1522-1605) set up the first natural history A part of four volumes (Ornithologiae. I, museum at home, a microcosm of Na- II, III and De Animalibus Insectis) pub- ture tended to show as more comprehen- lished from 1599 to 1603, the remaining 1280 Marine research at CNR Figure 4: Map of the surface oceanic currents after Athanasius Kircher. Kircher did not perform any direct measurement, differently from what Marsili did some decades later, but it is one earliest attempt of representing the sea currents. From Athanasius Kircher, Mundus Subterraneus (III Ed. 1678). Crit. Ed. by G.B. Vai, 2004. A. Forni ed. (A. Ceregato, personal archive and photo) books of the Ulisse Aldrovandi’s Historia of the images. He also was used to list Naturalis were printed after his death, of- all the current, popular, foreign names re- ten remarkably modified by the curators ferred to each “species”, both within his and only one of the planned botanical vol- books and in his collection of more than umes was published in 1668. According 2000 colour drawings he used also for his to the common approach of that age, the lessons as the first professor of Natural His- taxonomy was adapted from those of Aris- tory at the Bologna University. totle or, as Aldrovandi tended to prefer, The XVII century is apparently charac- from Pliny. Each section included a re- terized by a paradox: on one hand, it is view of the previous knowledge about a the age of the Scientific Revolution intro- group of natural objects, not only “sci- duced by Galileo Galilei, Rene` Descartes entific” descriptions but also symbolic at- and Francis Bacon, of the experimental tributes and their eventual pharmaceutical methodology, of the discovery of the new use.
Recommended publications
  • Ingenuous Investigators”: Antonio Vallisneri’S Correspondents and The
    Ivano Dal Prete Italian Academy for Advanced Studies in America Columbia University Fellows Seminar October 24, 2012 “Ingenuous Investigators”: Antonio Vallisneri’s Correspondents and the Making of Natural Knowledge in 18 th -century Italy 1. History of Science in the Postmodern Age In the last two centuries, science has been regarded as the most important agent of change and progress in our society. The narrative of how and why it came to be such a commanding force contributed powerfully to this perception. The rise of modern science has long been portrayed as the triumph of human reason over superstition and authority; its history, a gallery adorned with the images of heroes like Copernicus, Galileo or Darwin who upheld self-evident facts against the prejudices of their times; experimental results and the laws of nature, the only objective “truths” that human beings could attain and agree upon. This narrative still largely informs popular views of the scientific enterprise; yet, the image of science as a disinterested pursuit of truth has come increasingly under question during the last decades, to the point that mistrust of science as a source of objectivie knowledge is considered a defining feature of postmodernity. The history of science as an 1 academic discipline has long participated in this trend,1 but it was not until the 1980s that it ceased to identify with the development of ideas and theories, as formulated by the most illustrious scientists. In their influential 1985 book Leviathan and the Air Pump , Steven Shapin and Simon
    [Show full text]
  • Talking Science at the University of Padua in the Age of Antonio Vallisneri
    Feingold run04.tex V1 - 07/20/2009 4:10pm Page 117 Talking Science at the University of Padua in the Age of Antonio Vallisneri Brendan Dooley Even for an accomplished scholar like Antonio Vallisneri, it was no simple matter to declaim extemporaneously in Latin before a public possibly demanding the best from a setting where Vesalius and Fabricius had once changed medical education forever in the West. Therefore successful completion of the inaugural lecture was a cause for celebration, so he wrote to the Tuscan grand ducal librarian Antonio Magliabechi in 1700: ‘Today is a holy day for me, since I made my solemn entrance into the university favoured by the applause of all the learned, the podesta` [of Padua] and the captain of the city’. The difficulty of the task was underscored by the special requirements of this setting: ‘I was able to speak for a whole hour with total clarity of memory and self-possession, such that I was myself surprised at my weak nature rendered so daring on this magnificently terrible occasion’. He recalled the unfortunate case of a law professor who failed at the same task ‘and died of woe a few days later’.1 But his work was far from done; and already as the school year began, he considered the daunting task before him: ‘I find the job particularly difficult, moreover, having to learn so many lessons by heart, which arrive at the number of eighty or more’2 As first professor of practical medicine, he was supposed to deliver a given number of lessons over portions of the period between September and June when classes were in session; and following a well-established custom, he walked into class each time without notes.
    [Show full text]
  • Marsili's Oceanographic Cruise
    APRIL 2018 P I N A R D I E T A L . 845 Measuring the Sea: Marsili’s Oceanographic Cruise (1679–80) and the Roots of Oceanography a b b c d NADIA PINARDI, EMIN ÖZSOY, MOHAMMED ABDUL LATIF, FRANCA MORONI, ALESSANDRO GRANDI, e e f GIUSEPPE MANZELLA, FEDERICO DE STROBEL, AND VLADYSLAV LYUBARTSEV a Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy b Institute of Marine Sciences, Erdemli, Mersin, Turkey c Emilia Romagna Regional Agency, Bologna, Italy d Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Bologna, Italy e Historical Oceanography Society, La Spezia, Italy f Centro Euro-Mediterraneo per i Cambiamenti Climatici, Bologna, Italy (Manuscript received 25 August 2017, in final form 3 February 2018) ABSTRACT The first in situ measurements of seawater density that referred to a geographical position at sea and time of the year were carried out by Count Luigi Ferdinando Marsili between 1679 and 1680 in the Adriatic Sea, Aegean Sea, Marmara Sea, and the Bosporus. Not only was this the first investigation with documented oceanographic mea- surements carried out at stations, but the measurements were described in such an accurate way that the authors were able to reconstruct the observations in modern units. These first measurements concern the ‘‘specific gravity’’ of seawaters (i.e., the ratio between fluid densities). The data reported in the historical oceanographic treatise Osservazioni intorno al Bosforo Tracio (Marsili) allowed the reconstruction of the seawater density at different geographic locations between 1679 and 1680. Marsili’s experimental methodology included the collection of surface and deep water samples, the analysis of the samples with a hydrostatic ampoule, and the use of a reference water to standardize the measurements.
    [Show full text]
  • Experiment and Speculation in Seventeenth-Century Italy : the Case of Geminiano Montanari
    Original citation: Vanzo, Alberto. (2016) Experiment and speculation in seventeenth-century Italy : the case of Geminiano Montanari. Studies In History and Philosophy of Science Part A, 56 . pp. 52-61. Permanent WRAP url: http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/75572 Copyright and reuse: The Warwick Research Archive Portal (WRAP) makes this work of researchers of the University of Warwick available open access under the following conditions. This article is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0) and may be reused according to the conditions of the license. For more details see: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ A note on versions: The version presented in WRAP is the published version, or, version of record, and may be cited as it appears here. For more information, please contact the WRAP Team at: [email protected] http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 56 (2016) 52e61 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Studies in History and Philosophy of Science journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/shpsa Experiment and speculation in seventeenth-century Italy: The case of Geminiano Montanari Alberto Vanzo Department of Philosophy, Social Sciences Building, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom article info abstract Article history: This paper reconstructs the natural philosophical method of Geminiano Montanari, one of the most Received 29 July 2015 prominent Italian natural philosophers of the late seventeenth century. Montanari’s views are used as a Received in revised form case study to assess recent claims concerning early modern experimental philosophy. Having presented 24 October 2015 the distinctive tenets of seventeenth-century experimental philosophers, I argue that Montanari adheres Available online xxx to them explicitly, thoroughly, and consistently.
    [Show full text]
  • Ulisse Aldrovandi and Antonio Vallisneri: the Italian Contribution to Knowledge of Neuropterous Insects Between the 16Th and the Early 18Th Centuries*
    Ann. Mus. civ. St. nat. Ferrara Vol. 8 2005 [2007] pp.9-26 ISSN 1127-4476 Ulisse Aldrovandi and Antonio Vallisneri: the Italian contribution to knowledge of Neuropterous Insects between the 16th and the early 18th centuries* Rinaldo Nicoli Aldini 1, 2 1) Istituto di Entomologia e Patologia vegetale, Facolta di Agraria, Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Via E­ milia Parmense 84,1-29100 Piacenza (Italy); 2) Scienze degli Alimenti, Polo Scientifico-Didattico di Cesena del­ Ia Facolta di Agraria, Alma Mater Studiorum, Universita degli Studi di Bologna, Piazza Goidanich 60, 1-47023 Cesena (Italy). e-mail: rinaldo.nicoli@unicatUt The oldest evidence of neuropterous insects in Italian scientific literature dates back at least to the 15th-16th centuries and regards antlions. Documents concerning antiions and green lacewings are present in the outstanding corpus of watercolour illustrations of insects built up in the 16th cen­ tury by the great naturalist from Bologna, Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522-1605), and then reproduced in his work De animalibus insectis (1602). His illustrations of some adult antlions and a green lace­ wing are among the earliest to be found in printed works. Between the 16th and the early 18th cen­ turies, other Italian authors mention or deal with lacewings, mainly the outstanding scientist from Reggio, Antonio Vallisneri (1661-1730), who published bionomical and behavioural observations on anti ions and green lacewings; he was the first to publish the life cycle of an antlion and to describe and illustrate the stalked eggs of green lacewings. Key words - entomology, neuropterology, history, Italy, anti ions, green lacewings, early authors.
    [Show full text]
  • Experimental Philosophy and Religion in Seventeenth-Century Italy*
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by PhilPapers 1 Alberto Vanzo Experimental Philosophy and Religion in Seventeenth-Century Italy* Published in Experiment, Speculation and Religion in Early Modern Philosophy, edited by Alberto Vanzo and Peter Anstey (New York: Routledge, 2019), 204–228. 1. Introduction As is well known, several English advocates of early modern experimental philosophy posited a strong connection between religion and experimental philosophy. According to Robert Boyle, Joseph Glanvill and Thomas Sprat, by practising experimental philosophy we can shed light on God’s attributes,1 will and providence (B 11: 298–299). We can draw on the discoveries of experimental philosophers to prove the existence of God and spirits,2 refute atheism, materialism, superstition and religious enthusiasm,3 and distinguish authentic miracles from fake miracles (ibid., 316). The practice of experimental philosophy leads to the worship of God4 and embodies the Christian virtues of humility, innocence and piety.5 In the light of this, early modern experimental philosophy might seem to corroborate the view that the study of nature in the seventeenth century was closely related to theology, driven by theological concerns, and pursued primarily to shed light on God. This view has been put forward by Amos Funkenstein, Stephen Gaukroger and Andrew Cunningham. According to Funkenstein (1986, 72), a ‘fusion between theology and physics’ took place in the seventeenth century. ‘Theological and physical arguments became nearly indistinguishable’ (ibid., 73). ‘[S]cience’ and ‘theology’ were ‘seen as one and the same occupation’.6 For Gaukroger (2006, 3), ‘the Scientific Revolution’ was ‘driven, often explicitly, by religious considerations’.
    [Show full text]
  • A Special Place in the History of Oceanography
    BLACK SEA OCEANOGRAPHY TThehe BosporusBosporus SStraittrait A SpecialSpecial PPlacelace inin thethe HHistoryistory ooff OOceanographyceanography Th is article has been published in Oceanography, Volume 18, Number 2, a quarterly journal of Th e Oceanography Society. Copyright 2005 by Th e Oceanography Society. All rights reserved. Reproduction of any portion of this article by photo- 16 Oceanography Vol.18, No.2, June 2005 copy machine, reposting, or other means without prior authorization of Th e Oceanography Society is strictly prohibited. Send all correspondence to: [email protected] or Th e Oceanography Society, PO Box 1931, Rockville, MD 20849-1931, USA. BY BRUNO SOFFIENTINO AND MICHAEL E.Q. PILSON The Black Sea and the Bosporus Strait hold an important place in the history of oceanography. In 1680, the impressive geographical features and remark- able current patterns of the Bosporus sparked the imagination of young Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli to solve the long-standing puzzle of two-layer fl ow. The observations and experiments were published in the 1681 book by Marsigli, originally published in Italian, Observations around the Bosporus Strait or True Canal of Constantinople, Presented in a letter to Her Sacred Royal Majesty Queen The Bosporus Strait Christina of Sweden by Luigi Ferdinando Marsigli. (This book was recently translated into English by the authors of this article.) Marsigli understood that the Bosporus currents were a simple consequence of the different water densi- ties in the Black and Mediterranean Seas. He demonstrated this density differ- ence by building a physical model that captured the salient features of the phe- nomenon (Figure 1). Marsigli made a two-compartment box with the divider connected by two openings at top and bottom, and showed that waters of dif- ferent densities in the two compartments would fl ow to the opposite side in a manner consistent with his observations.
    [Show full text]
  • RASC Toronto Centre – the Sky This Month – June 4, 2014 to July 8, 2014 by Chris Vaughan
    RASC Toronto Centre – www.rascto.ca The Sky This Month – June 4, 2014 to July 8, 2014 by Chris Vaughan NEWS Space Exploration – Public and Private Ref. http://www.spaceflightnow.com/tracking/index.html Launches June 11 pm - SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, payload six 2nd- generation Orbcomm comsats June 14 pm - Soyuz rocket from Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia, payload Glonass M navsat June 17 TBD - Orbital Science Antares rocket from Wallops Island, Virginia, payload 3rd Cygnus cargo freighter on 2nd operational flight to ISS June TBD - Ariane 5 rocket from Kourou, French Guiana, payload Measat 3b and Optus 10 comsats June TBD - Polar Sat Launch Vehicle from Satish Dhawan Space Center, Sriharikota, India, payload Spot 7 remote sensing sat June 19 pm - ICS Kosmotras Dnepr rocket from Dombarovsky, Russia, payload Earth observation sats June 20 pm - Proton rocket from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan, secretive payload reportedly known as Olymp or Luch June 25 TBD - Angara rocket from Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Russia, suborbital demonstration flight June 28 TBD - Soyuz rocket from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan, payload Meteor M2 weather sat and others July TBD - SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, payload AsiaSat 8 comsat July 1 am - United Launch Alliance Delta 2 rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base, Ca, payload Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 satellite for NASA New Hubble Ultra Deep Field 2014 Area between Fornax and Eridanus (RA. 3h32m38.5s Dec -27°47’00“). It’s comprised of ~600 hours of exposure, from July 2002 to Sep 2012. Hubble instruments include the Advanced Camera for Surveys (far-UV to visible) and the Wide Field Camera 3 (High res near-IR, visible, and near-UV).
    [Show full text]
  • Gordon Myers AAVSO Speakers Bureau ALCON 2009
    Gordon Myers AAVSO Speakers Bureau ALCON 2009 ! David Fabricius discovered “omicron ceti” in 1596 " BriGHtened from 3rd to 2nd maGnitude, tHen disappeared – tHouGHt to be nova. (Actually disappears from view varyinG from 2nd to 9th magnitude) " Re-observed in 1609 by Fabricius, and re-discovered in 1631 by JoHann Fokkens Holwarda wHo determined 11 montH period " JoHannes Hevelius observed in 1639 and 1642, and named tHe star “Mira” – The Wonderful ! Earlier ancient discovery records unclear. HipparcHus may Have discovered Mira in 134 BC ! As an aside - Fabricius and His son JoHannes discovered sunspots before Galileo (1611)! ! Geminiano Montanari discovered “beta Perseii” in 1667 " BriGHtness varies from 2.1 to 3.4 maGnitude in 2.87 days " Period of less tHan 3 days credited to JoHn Goodricke in 1782-83 " In 1881 Edward PickerinG tHeorized (correctly) tHat it was an eclipsinG binary star system ! European, Arab, and CHinese cultures knew its variability and considered it evil " “Demon’s Head” – Arab " “MiscHief-maker” – Arab " “Satan’s Head” – Hebrew " “LilitH” – Adam’s leGendary demonic first wife – Babylon/Hebrew " “THe Spectre’s Head” - Europe " “Piled-up Corpses” - CHinese HST ImaGe of ! CHinese astronomers Have tHe first SN 1054 recorded Histories of supernova " Over 20 candidates identified over tHe past 2000 years. " Confirmed dates include 185, 393, 1006 (briGHtest and also recorded in EGypt, Iraq, Italy, Japan and Switzerland), 1054 (Crab nebula remnant sHown above) ! In 1572 TycHo BraHe observed SN 1572 and argued it was very far
    [Show full text]
  • One Morning in *******1701 Antonio Vallisneri, First Professor Of
    1 The University of Padua and the Learned Journal in the Early Eighteenth Century L'université de Padoue et les journaux savants au début du XVIIIe siècle. - Les leçons de médecine et d'histoire naturelle d’Antonio Vallisneri à l'université de Padoue constituent une source significative pour étudier l'usage des journaux savants dans l'enseignement universitaire au début du XVIIIe siècle. En effet, Vallisneri cite très souvent les journaux et il lui arrive de construire des leçons presqu'entières à partir d'extraits d'articles. Dans ce chapitre, on tentera de dégager la signification de cette utilisation pour l'histoire des journaux savants mais aussi celle des universités. One morning in 1701 Antonio Vallisneri, First Professor of Practical Medicine at the University of Padua, delivered his lecture on diseases of the head to the usual packed audience. As was his custom, he paid as little attention as possible to the official text upon which the lesson was to be based according to the university statutes and the course description as stated in the yearly rotulo or class schedule. In fact, on this particular day he entirely ignored the first Fen, entitled De Febribus, of Avicenna’s Liber Canonis, preferring instead to devote the lesson to recent cases and theories. And in explaining a case of headache caused by worms, he told the story of a young woman who had been resting by a field in a prone position when a worm crawled into her ear and remained there for several weeks—a condition to which the doctors thereupon applied their most ingenious methods.
    [Show full text]
  • Printing Natural Knowledge
    Chapter 3: Printing Natural Knowledge “The purpose of writing may be to persuade the wise and intelligent; or else it may be to persuade everyone in town.” So wrote Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, pro- fessor at the university of Pisa and already the author of an important work on Euclid, to his ex-colleague Marcello Malpighi, just starting out on the faculty at the university of Bologna and about to publish his fundamental work revealing the microstructure of the lungs. Deciding what to publish, and for whom, was no easy matter, still some thirty years after the twin trials of Orazio Morandi and Galileo Galilei. “But if you choose to write to the common citizens of Bo- logna to persuade them about the calumnies made against truth,” Borelli con- tinued, “I conceive that in this case you may use every effort to deride any per- son who peddles a pile of idiocies just to offend virtuous and meritorious people.” 1 Of course, for Borelli, “virtuous and meritorious people” meant per- sons who followed empirical method for the study of nature, exemplified by Galileo; and “truth” meant the truth drawn from the use of that method. “Idio- cies” meant ideas conceived by those whom the Galileians conceived as dogma- tists and mystifiers. Still in the 1660s, whether Galileo’s disciples and their followers would triumph against the dogmatists and mystifiers was by no means clear. The story of their campaign to capture public attention, with all its fits and starts, is far less well known than the content of their ideas. It will occupy us here.
    [Show full text]
  • Galileo's Microscope Test
    Galileo's microscope Test This is the Test material for verifying the contents of the History and Explore sections of the web application. Texts prepared by the Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence. Why a test? The structured test consists of 40 multiple-choice questions designed to verify the main content of the application. Galileo's microscope was created for the purpose of furnishing, in an attractive but strictly scientific way, a great body of information on microscopy in the 17 th and 18 th centuries. To reinforce the educational effect, it has been deemed useful to provide a tool of evaluation to be used by teachers, or of self-evaluation for others. For each question, reference is made to the section in which the answer can be found, allowing users the chance to verify the content. Standard timing for the answers is generally 1 minute for each multiple-choice question (34) and 30 seconds for each true/false question (6). The whole test should thus be completed within 37 minutes. 2 1. During what period was the microscope invented? a) □ In the late 15 th – early 16 th century. b) □ Around the middle of the 16 th century. c) □ In the late 16 th – early 17 th century . d) □ Around the middle of the 17 th century. Reference: HISTORY section – The compound microscope. 2. During what period was the “Galilean” microscope constructed (IMSS inv. 3429)? a) □ First half of the 17 th century. b) □ Second half of the 17 th century . c) □ First half of the 18 th century.
    [Show full text]