Save the date!

●Interreligious Pilgrimage

to the Holy Door

Friday 18 NOVEMBER 2016 AT 5PM

(DEPARTURE FROM CASTEL SANT’ANGELO)

●SEDOS General Assembly

Thursday 1ST DECEMBER 2016 FROM 3PM TO 5PM, UISG HEADQUARTERS (PONTE CASTEL SANT’ANGELO 28)

SEDOS BULLETIN

Editor: Peter Baekelmans, CICM Administrator: Cristina Giustozzi, SMSM Secretary: Leila Benassi

Editorial Board: Celine Kokkat, JMJ Philippa Wooldridge

Advisory Board: Marina Cassarino, SMC Arlindo Dias, SVD Veronica Openibo, SHCJ André Schaminée, MAFR Kathy Schmittgens, SSND Gisela Schreyer, MSOLA Lissy Sebastian, RNDM Emili Turú, FMS

The digital version of the bulletin and some translations of the articles can be found on the SEDOS website: www.sedosmission.org Editorial

Dear Readers,

The present bulletin carries the theme “Inter- country in which they live: democracy, free- religious Dialogue”. The leading article is by dom of expression, etc. However, this is some- Michael Amaladoss. From his Indian experi- what of a contradiction because many of them ence he remarks the following: “While religion state that they belong to Islam, although per- rises above culture in its meta-cosmic dimen- haps more in terms of culture than religion. It is sion, it remains rooted and integrated with cul- difficult to denounce the culture in to which ture in its cosmic dimension. Inter-religious di- one has been born.” Here, the multi-culturalism alogue becomes complex since it is between re- has not yet grown into an inter-culturalism. ligions at different levels, namely cosmic and Opposed to the struggle of the dialogue with meta-cosmic.” For instance, are Asian practices Islam in the Belgian-European context, the ex- such as Yoga and Zen cultural practices or reli- perience of Egidio Picucci in Antioch among gious practices? If they are cultural they can be Catholicism, Orthodox Church, and Islam there adapted by Christians. However, the Church on the level of the parish is a friendly one. It tends to look at them as being religious, meta- encourages us in our belief that it is possible to cosmic. According to the author, we also have dialogue also on the parish level with other re- to free evangelization from its colonial context, ligions inter-cultural as well as inter-religious. so that it does not become a power game. For The last article is more on the level of theo- instance, is being a sannyasa Hindu or Indian? logical dialogue. John O’Brien points out For Le Saux it was Indian, and so he did not see through a thorough study of documents and his- a problem to dress as a Catholic monk in or- tory that the false belief in Islam, that Jesus did ange -as sannyasi do. Lastly, Amaladoss makes not die on the cross but instead Judas died, an appeal to implement the spirit of Second comes forth from a misreading of a particular Vatican: namely that the building of the King- passage in the Koran. dom -mission/evangelization- can only be done If the five-year old Document on how to re- through inculturation, collegiality, and dia- late with other religions as a Christian had been logue. written today, the aspect of “forgiveness” in The problem of inculturation relating to inter- this Holy Year of Mercy would surely have re- religious dialogue we find again in the next ar- ceived an important consideration. Dealing ticle on Islam in Europe by Agustin Arteche with people of other religions is not different as Gorostegui. He is of the opinion that side by within our own religion. We cannot be perfect side with inter-religious dialogue one needs to as human beings in our love for the religious embrace an open and respectful “inter- neighbor. SEDOS has therefore taken the initia- culturalism”. In speaking from his own person- tive to ask forgiveness to other religions for our al relations with Belgian muslims he observes wrongdoing –and to forgive their wrongdoing that there is a movement for openness towards to us- by going through the Holy Door together other religions. However, the power of money with them two days before the doors will put up by petroleum-dollars blocks this evolu- close… Be there! Or join from a distance in our tion in many countries and creates a tension praying together there at that moment. within Islam itself. The author then goes on to We close our bulletin with News Today where describe the situation of Islam in Europe and we ask attention to one of the six saints that sees there the same movement on the rise, but were canonized by Pope Francis this month of with another tension added: “Surveys show that October: Sister Elisabeth of the Trinity. Her young people identify with the values of the short life and great teachings stick to the heart: to live and experience Christ every moment of our life, for better or worse.

1

Michael Amaladoss, SJ

Gospel-culture encounter as intercultural and interreligious dialogue: an Indian experience

The Gospel is already an inculturated docu- be avoided and have to be taken into account. ment: the Aramaic discourses of Jesus as un- Even today, Christianity would be popularly derstood and narrated in Greek in their own identified with European dress and customs living context by four different communities. and organ music. A look at its liturgical ritu- When it encounters a particular community als will only confirm this impression. The with its own culture it becomes an intercultur- Hindu fundamentalists declare Christianity al encounter. Intercultural encounters also take (and Islam) foreign, not only by origin, but al- place in other contexts like migration, com- so culturally. merce and conquest and have their own rules and problems linked to social and cultural Interculturation favoring Cultural power. A more developed culture seeks to Dominance dominate a less developed one. In a colonial Evangelization as intercultural encounter situation, the subject culture tries to adapt it- evokes also another problematic perspective. self to the dominant one. Proclamation of the Though today the Gospel comes to a commu- Gospel will have to take into account such fac- nity embodied in a complex of other cultures, tors. For example, India becomes Anglophone Greco-Latin-European, since the Gospel because of British colonialism. At the reli- transcends all cultures and seeks to become gious level, for instance, people belonging to a incarnate in every culture in view of trans- more developed cultural level were ready to forming it (cf. Evangelii Nuntiandi, 20), the follow Jesus as their Guru, while hesitant to community hearing the Gospel should try to join the Christian community seen as socially free it from its cultural embodiment through and culturally foreign. Even at the popular interpretation, interact with it and respond to level we have today a group of Kristubhaktas it, embodying and expressing it in its own cul- (devotees of Christ), who pray to Christ, but ture. This happened in the early Church, giv- have not become institutionally Christian. On ing rise to many ritual traditions. That such a the other hand, socially oppressed groups like Gospel-culture encounter will take place in the the Dalits (untouchables) and Tribals embrace context of an intercultural encounter is inevi- Christianity precisely because of its different table, but secondary, since the local culture and politically dominant culture in order to es- keeps its identity and dominance. But such in- cape the locally dominant Hindu/Indian cul- tercultural encounter becomes problematic ture and religion. The Christian schools may when the culture in which the Gospel comes also have mediated a British culture and scien- embodied is to be considered normative. To- tific and technological modernity with it, fur- day, some think that the encounter of the Gos- ther strengthened today by the global media. pel with Greek culture is providential. Since Some missionaries may have promote Christ- this encounter is of the Gospel with human ianity as an element of socio-cultural devel- reason and since human reason is universal, opment. The process of conversion to the the Gospel-Greek culture encounter is consid- Gospel then becomes ambiguous. Such pro- cesses of inter-cultural encounter have nothing to do with the Gospel as such. But they cannot 2 ered universally valid.1 But John Paul II has Intercultural is also Interreligious also said: My aim in this brief presentation, however, “Simply because the mission of preaching is to show that Gospel-culture encounter is not the Gospel came first upon Greek philosophy only intercultural, but also interreligious.2 in its journey, this is not taken to mean that Every culture is animated by a religion which other approaches are excluded… An immense seeks to answer the more ultimate questions, spiritual impulse compels the Indian mind to like the meaning of life, of unmerited suffer- an acquiring of that experience which would, ing, of death and of after-life. Culture as a sys- with a spirit freed from the distractions of time tem of meanings is supplemented by religion, and space, attain to the absolute good. This is so that it can be considered as the deeper ele- the time, above all for Indian Christians, to un- ment of culture. In secularized situations ideo- lock these treasures from their inheritance.” logies may serve as quasi-religions. So the (John Paul II, Fides et Ratio, 72) Gospel encountering a culture is also encoun- It is, however, a fact tering the religion or that the Latin Church religions that are ani- has thought of its in- mating it. So it be- culturation of the Gos- comes an interreli- pel as having universal gious encounter. This value till the Second can be difficult and Vatican Council and complex when the re- even later in practice. ligions that the Gospel Colonialism which encounters are devel- provide the context for oped ones with their mission probably en- own theological and couraged this ap- spiritual framework, proach. like Hinduism and Matteo Ricci and Buddhism. Roberto de Nobili are often held up as pio- neers of inculturation. It is true that they de- The Cosmic Religions fended the possibility that an Asian can be- Talking of religions, Aloysius Pieris distin- come a Christian, while remaining an Asian guishes between cosmic and meta-cosmic socio-culturally. But they did not seek to fully ones.3 Cosmic religions see the world perme- inculturate Christianity in the local cultures ated by spirits, good and evil, with which the and transform Asian cultures in the light of the humans interact, requesting their aid, propiti- Gospel. De Nobili’s approach to Hinduism ating their anger and satisfying their needs was polemical, not dialogical. He and later through various rituals. They may recognize a missionaries like Beschi translated the mes- high God, but not be practically in touch with sage of the Gospel in the local language and Him/Her. Meta-cosmic religions seek to rise culture. But they left the cultural structures beyond the cosmos and reach out to the Trans- like the discriminatory and oppressive caste cendent. This is often known through a reve- system unchallenged, in order to reach out to lation/manifestation to sages and prophets. It the higher castes. That situation continues till can be encountered though various ascetical today. The liturgy remained and remains Lat- and spiritual practices that lead us beyond our in, though it is translated into the local lan- world, known through our sense experience guage after the Second Vatican Council. and reason. Hinduism, Islam, Taoism and Buddhism would be such meta-cosmic reli-

2 Cf. M. Amaladoss, Beyond Inculturation. (Delhi: ISPCK, 1998). 1 Cf. The conference of Pope Benedict XVI in Regens- 3 For the distinction between cosmic and meta-cosmic burg (Sept 12, 2006). Also John Paul II, Fides et Ratio, religions see Aloysius Pieris, An Asian Theology of Lib- 72. eration. (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1988), pp.71-73. 3 gions. Pieris suggests that meta-cosmic reli- the Pentecostal practices are also taken over gions transcend cultures and cosmic religions. by the “official” Church. But they can function only when they are The Gospel is here encountering popular or rooted in a culture, that is, inculturated. In this cosmic religion. For the Church whose liturgy process, they do not completely do away with seems to be shaped largely by monastic prac- cosmic religious elements of the culture, but tice it may seem superstitious. For people who are superposed on them, integrating and trans- identify Christianity with European culture forming them in the process. For example, the and do not know to distinguish between cos- spirits, good and evil, become angels and de- mic religion and Hinduism, these practices mons and ancestors become saints. The sac- will appear syncretistic. But the people are of- ramental system integrates the cosmic dimen- ten profoundly Christian. Let us not forget sions of life. Mother Mary replaces some of that the official Church has been critical even the local mother goddesses. of Asian practices of meditation like Yoga and What happens then in the Indian situation Zen. It would be interesting to explore wheth- (or elsewhere in Asia, Africa, Latin America er these practice should be considered cultural and even in Europe)? Side by side with the of- or religious. When the liturgy and other spir- ficial Latin liturgical practices which are meta- itual practices are not really inculturated such cosmic, there is a flourishing popular religiosi- popular religious practices are not only inevi- ty consisting of popular devotions, pilgrimag- table, but necessary. Even an inculturated offi- es, penitential practices, healing rituals, rites cial liturgy will have to take these practices in- of passage, seasonal rituals, etc.4 Of course, to account, since it does not take into account these will be suitably Christianized by the re- all the needs of the people. Popular religious placement and/or addition of symbols (e.g. the practices are not absent in Euro-America ei- sign of the cross or blessed water and oil, the ther, not to speak of Latin America and Africa. decor) or prayers (the Our Father, Creed, etc.). There has not been much theological and spir- The minister will be invited to bless some of itual reflection on these, since reflection is the these. At an extreme level, such practices can preserve of the religious elite. When seculari- become syncretistic, when there is a mixture zation spreads, it is this cosmic religiosity that of symbols and meanings – like the Candom- will be hit first, since it seeks to cut away or- ble in Brazil. But more often they cater to a dinary life in the world, seen as secular and more popular and different kind of religiosity self-sufficient, from the divine. People whose consisting of penitential actions, pilgrimages, religious practice has remained at a cosmic vows and offerings, though the religious con- level, easily give it up. text remains Christian. Most pastors tend to This more or less successful integration of tolerate and even encourage them, since, being various cosmic religions with the meta-cosmic need-based, they “bring people to the dimensions of Christianity is certainly one Church”. Some of these people may be non- problem of interreligious dialogue in the pro- Christian, attracted to a holy place reputed for cess of inculturation that needs attention and miracles of healing and comfort. Some priests discussion. While religion rises above culture seek to improve it with the introduction of in its meta-cosmic dimension, it remains root- readings from the Bible or a Eucharistic cele- ed and integrated with culture in its cosmic bration. The adoration of the Blessed Sacra- dimension. Interreligious dialogue becomes ment (exposed) is actively promoted in many complex since it is between religions at differ- parishes in my part of the country. Some of ent levels, namely cosmic and meta-cosmic. the popular elements like healing, anointing, In my remaining reflection, however, I shall blessing, exorcism, etc. are taken over by con- limit myself to the meta-cosmic dimension, temporary Pentecostal movements. Some of remembering however that the meta-cosmic is rooted in the cosmic culture and religion, while transcending it. The meacosmic dimen- 4 See Thomas Bamat and Jean-Paul Wiest (eds), Popu- sion of religion also develops a meta-cosmic lar Catholicism in a World Church. Seven Case Studies in Inculturation. (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1999). level of culture. While cosmic religious cul- 4 ture will consist of mythical narratives, pil- Mystics like Meister Eckhart and Ignatius of grimages and rituals, meta-cosmic religious Loyola do speak of a more intimate relation- culture will manifest itself in philosophico- ship. theological reflection and spiritual practices Impressions of a different, more intimate, like meditation. kind of relationship can be seen in some Jo- Let me now leave aside cosmic religiosity hannine texts like “The Father and I are one” and proceed to explore the dialogue between (Jn 10:30) or “As you, Father, are in me and I two meta-cosmic religions in India, namely am in you, may they also be in us” (Jn 17:21). Hinduism and Christianity. As a case study, I But they are often interpreted as functional shall take the efforts of two older contempo- and do not reflect the main stream Christian raries from Europe, Bede Griffiths (British: experience. They do not represent the domi- 1905-1993) and Henri le Saux (French: 1910- nant spiritual tradition. This vision of the rela- 1973), and two Indians, Vandana Mataji tionship between God and the world is seen as (1921-2013) and Sebastian Painadath (1942-), dualistic. to integrate Christian and Indian spiritualities. In later philosophico-religious Hinduism, Let me make it clear from the beginning that called the Vedanta, there are three main their dialogue with Hinduism does not consist streams, represented by Madhava, Ramanuja in adopting the Hindu images of God. They and Sankara, which explore the God-world re- remain profoundly Christian. But they seek to lationship.5 Madhava is dualistic. The other understand God through Hindu cultural- two propose a non-dual or adual vision which philosophical and religious categories and to is called advaita (not-two). Sankara is strictly use Hindu/Indian methods of sadhana (spi- adual. He is popularly considered monistic, ritual practice) to experience God. Let me, though some commentators, especially Christ- first of all, set the spiritual and theological ian ones, assert that he is not monistic, but context in which these encounters are taking adual.6 The world (the humans) is not outside place. God, but is in God, though totally dependent on God. I do not have the space here to go in- Encountering God in Hinduism and to the philosophical intricacies of Sankara. Christianity Ramanuja defends “qualified aduality” – The traditional Christian understanding ob- vishistadvaita. He uses the human image of jectifies God as the Creator, Father, Master, the “spirit-in-body” to understand the relation Judge, etc. God is between God and the world. The our Father in heaven. world is the body of God. The created world is While Sankara proposes our ab- projected outside solute, though dependent, one- God, as the effect of ness with God, Ramanuja de- which God is the fends the possibility of a rela- cause. Jesus, as the tionship of love and surrender incarnate God, is the between the humans and God. mediator between My reason for evoking this God and the world. complex philosophico-religious In and through Jesus, vision of divine-human relation- God shares God’s ship here is the fact that some life with us. The sac- Christians in the 20th century ramental celebrations have found this advaitic or facilitate this divine- adual vision attractive and have human encounter. But the distance between the finite and the infinite is clearly affirmed. The relation between the bride and the bride- 5 Cf. Eric Lott, Vedantic Approaches to God. (London: groom is used as an image to understand and Macmillan, 1980). 6 See, for example, Sara Grant, Saṅkarācārya's Concept experience the divine-human relationship. of Relation. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,1999). 5 tried to live it spiritually in an ashram setting. great admirer of the contemporary philosopher I see this as an inter-cultural encounter in the Sri Aurobindo, and like him often pointed out context of an inter-religious dialogue. Let me that advaita was not the only interpretation of now briefly focus on the four persons whom I the Vedic revelation. There is also visist- have evoked above as exemplifying this en- advaita, for example, the qualified non-duality counter, though there are many others.7 With of the 11th century philosopher-theologian regard to Bede Griffiths and Henri Le Saux, Ramanuja that drew its language from the whose Indian name was Abhishiktananda, the philosophical school of sâmkhya. One other best is to cite a summary of Cyprian Consi- practical example drawn from their lives: Ab- glio: hishiktananda lived out his sannyasa life as a “In studying the lives and thought of both wandering hermit; Fr. Bede, on the other hand, Bede Griffiths and Abhishiktananda, it is diffi- remained nestled in the community life of the cult to compare them, per se, but one has to ashram.”8 point out their distinct different approaches, of- Le Saux was acosmic, transcending while ten to the same topic. A helpful distinction I integrating Hinduism and Christianity. He have found is this: Abhishiktananda often leans considered sannyasa as Indian rather than on the idea of union by identity; whereas Fr. merely Hindu. He initiated his only disciple Bede tends to speak of union by commun- Marc into sannyasa jointly with a Hindu guru, ion.This is evidenced, for example, in Abhishik- Swami Chidananda.9 Bede Griffiths sought to tananda‘s great love for the Upanishads and his integrate the cosmos, reaching out to science, introduction to them that accompanies The Fur- and the feminine. He was inspired not only by ther Shore; on the other hand, Fr. Bede had a Aurobindo, but also by Teilhard de Chardin.10 great love for the Bhagavad Gîtâ, so much so Towards the end of his life he had a mystical that he produced a Christian commentary on experience of God as Mother. it, The River of Compassion. When speaking Sister Vandana also sought advaitic oneness of Jesus, to show another example, for Ab- with the divine, but was sensitive to the medi- hishiktananda the pivotal moment is Jesus ation of art and symbols. Her preferred way to Baptism, when he discovered that the I AM of realization was music in the form of bhajans God belonged to himself, or to put it the other or repetitive chants leading to deeper concen- way around, when ―in the brilliant light of tration and inner silence.11 Sebastian his own I AM he discovered the true meaning, Painadath has been preaching retreats based total and unimaginable, of the name of God. on the Bhagavad Gita to Christian groups. He This is how Abhishiktananda interprets Jesus has also been using the meditative practices of saying, “The Father and I are one”. Fr. Bede Yoga to achieve oneness with the divine.12 instead laid more stress on recognizing that Interculturation is obviously a two-way there are distinctions in the Godhead and dis- street. Hindus like Keshub Chandra Sen, Ma- tinctions between God and creation that do not hatma Gandhi and others have considered negate the underlying unity of all reality. The example that he used very often was the same one, that Jesus says, “the Father and I are 8 Cyprian Consiglio, OSBCam, “The Purusha and the one”, but he never says, “I am the Father.” In Guru: Identity and Communion for Bede Griffiths and terms of advaita–non-duality, Abhishiktanan- Abhishktananda” in www.dimmid.org . 9 da was a faithful disciple of Ramana Maharshi Swami Abhishiktananda, Ascent to the Depth of the Heart. The Spiritual Diary (1948-1973) of Swami Ab- and Gnanananda, both proponents of pure hishiktananda (Delhi: ISPCK 1998); The Further Shore. advaita. Fr. Bede on the other hand was a (Delhi: ISPCK, 1984). 10 See Bede Griffiths, Marriage of East and West. (Springfield: Templegate, 1982); River of Compassion: 7 For example, Sara Grant, Towards an Alternative The- A Christian Commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, (Rock- ology. Confessions of a Non-dualist Christian. (Banga- port: Element Books, 1987). lore: Asian Trading Corporation, 1991) and Raimon 11 Vandana Mataji, Nama Japa. (Delhi: Motilal Banar- Panikkar, The Cosmotheandric Experience. (Maryknoll: sidas, 1995). Orbis, 1994); The Rhythm of Being. (Maryknoll: Orbis, 12 Sebastian Painadath, The Spiritual Journey. Towards 2010). an Indian Christian Spirituality. (Delhi: ISPCK, 2006). 6 themselves disciples of Christ, while remain- poses that our evangelistic goal is the promo- ing Hindus. A more organized movement of tion of the Kingdom of God that embraces all Hindu disciples of Christ was animated by K. cultures and religions and promotes an active Subba Rao (1912-1981).13 Many similar ex- and permanent dialogue between them. amples have been documented.14 This vision was spelt out in the Second Vati- can Council. But fifty years after the Council Inculturation and Evangelization we have not yet grasped all its implications. I began my reflections setting inculturation We still do not fully realize that we are now in in the context of evangelization. I have been a post-colonial world, at least politically, cul- focusing on the processes and tensions of gos- turally and religiously, in spite of the globali- pel-culture, inter-cultural and inter-religious zation of the market. encounters. The tensions arise because of a We have not interiorized the perspectives of clash of identities of the people who live them. inculturation, collegiality and dialogue spelt At that level it becomes a game of power in out by the Council. The “other” has not be- which, often, one group wants to dominate come a brother/sister for us. The Kingdom of and assimilate the others. The spreading of the God, transcending and yet integrating all cul- gospel linked, historically, to the spreading of tures and religions in the power of the risen colonialism had become a power game. Peo- Jesus and the Spirit, has not become our ple like Bartolomeo de las Casas, Matteo Ricci UTOPIA! and Roberto de Nobili saw through the game and sought to free evangelization from it. But they were not successful. The game continues. Simply because the mission of The only way of escaping the game is to set preaching the Gospel came first the encounter between gospel and culture in upon Greek philosophy in its the context of building the Kingdom of God journey, this is not taken to mean which transcends and integrates all cultures that other approaches are ex- and religions. This happens through dialogue cluded… An immense spiritual which will avoid conflicts and tensions, pre- impulse compels the Indian mind cisely through transcending them. If the evan- to an acquiring of that experience gelizers had sought to build Kingdom com- which would, with a spirit freed munities of freedom, fellowship and justice from the distractions of time and through the proclamation of the gospel with- space, attain to the absolute out seeking to establish Latin Rite communi- good. This is the time, above all ties in their European incarnations in Africa, for Indian Christians, to unlock Asia and Latin America they would have met these treasures from their inher- with less resistance and more success. The itance. (John Paul II, Fides et Ra- problem is that the situation and the tensions tio, 72) still continue. The vision of the Kingdom will be the “utopia” of which Gomez-Muller speaks in his paper. If people are committed to the Kingdom they may not go back to their traditional practices in Africa. In the secular field too, becoming a citizen will be easier for the migrant than becoming culturally French, Ref: Spiritus,n.219, Juin 2015, pp. 181-194. especially with its “laicité”. But all this sup- (French version)

13 Cf. L. Richard, Exploring the Depths of the Mystery of Christ: K. Subba Rao's Eclectic Praxis of Hindu Dis- cipleship to Jesus. (Bangalore: Centre for Contemporary Christianity, 2005). 14 Herbert E. Hoefer, Churchless Christianity. (Pasade- na: William Carey Library, 2000). 7

Agustín Arteche Gorostegui*

Contornos del Islam en Europa

Introducción Formo parte de un equipo de tres Misioneros como la democracia, los Derechos Huma- de África (Padres Blancos), dedicado a un nos, la paz, la fraternidad, la integración mu- proyecto en Bruselas que lleva el nombre de tua de pueblos y personas. Está en juego el fu- “Acción para las Relaciones Culturales y Re- turo de la Iglesia, que después de dominar du- ligiosas en Europa” (ARCRE). Se trata de un rante siglos la escena política y cultural, se en- proyecto novedoso cuyos contornos vamos cuentra confrontada ahora a la pluralidad de precisando poco a poco. “Se hace camino al convicciones y creencias, al laicismo y a las andar”, decía el poeta Antonio Machado. Este diferentes religiones, el Islam, el budismo, a la artículo trata de describirlo, situándolo en el indiferencia religiosa, el agnosticismo y el objetivo de la misión que se nos confía: el diá- ateísmo... ¿Conseguirá la Iglesia identificarse logo intercultural e interreligioso, sobre todo en continuidad al diálogo abierto por Jesús en con el Islam. Para ello necesito situar el tema la Encarnación, como una comunidad peregri- del Islam en el contexto de Europa. Y prácti- na y acompañante de toda la humanidad, camente en la Unión Europea, un terreno para abierta y dialogante, capaz de integrar en sí mí, hasta ahora, bastante desconocido. misma las diferencias de razas, lenguas reli- Me doy cuenta que para tratar de dibujar los giones y culturas? contornos del Islam en Europa, hace falta refe- Europa es un ejemplo vivo de lo que es y rirse a muchos y variados aspectos: a su histo- desea ser un mundo plural y globalizado, que ria, su crecimiento y su situación actual dentro trata de ajustar en sus leyes y en sus estructu- del contexto mundial, es decir, en referencia a ras la presencia de lo diverso y lo diferente. los acontecimientos recientes en torno a las Europa, que hace 60 años era homogénea cul- "primaveras árabes", la violencia, el uso y el tural y religiosamente, se ha convertido, por abuso de las noticias en los medios de comu- los azares de la historia, en un conglomerado nicación, el miedo y el rechazo que, con razón de razas, lenguas, culturas y religiones. La in- y sin razón, provoca el Islam en mucha gente, migración ha traído a Europa gentes de toda la sicología y los prejuicios que se esconden raza, religión y cultura. Consideradas como detrás de ese rechazo, el fenómeno de la glo- extranjeras en un principio, se han convertido, balización y los cambios que está generando al paso de los años, en ciudadanos europeos. en todas partes. El problema que se plantea es el de la integra- Vivimos, sin lugar a dudas, un proceso de ción de todas las diferencias en un vivir juntos cambios sin precedentes. Está naciendo un armonioso, lejos de exclusiones y asimilacio- mundo nuevo que genera entusiasmos y de- nes. ¿Es ello posible? ¿Cómo hacerlo respe- cepciones. La crisis económica ha hundido en tando la identidad y los derechos de todos? la más negra miseria a mucha gente. La socie- dad necesita ajustes y adaptaciones, pero las soluciones no se producen. Los procesos a los que estamos sometidos no son lineales; tienen altibajos, hay éxitos pero también fracasos. * Misionero de África (Padres Blancos). En Uno no sabe a qué atenerse. La crisis no es so- la actualidad está trabajando en Bruselas, en lamente económica. Es también cultural y re- “Acción para las Relaciones Culturales y Re- ligiosa. ¿Cómo integrarse en la nueva visión ligiosas en Europa” (ARCRE). del mundo que aflora? Están en juego valores

8

Para terminar este preámbulo contextual, me vina del hombre”, decía en la noche de Navi- gustaría transmitir la importancia de este pro- dad, el papa Benedicto XVI. yecto. Nace sin oropeles. El tema del Islam no Personalmente he conocido lo mejor y lo goza de las mejores reputaciones entre muchos peor del Islam. Lo mejor de él en la espiritua- cristianos. El fenómeno de la multiculturalidad lidad de los sencillos, gente con un gran senti- es un hecho que no tiene vuelta de hoja. Lo do de la transcendencia de Dios, en su vida que importa es pasar de la multiculturalidad concreta, ritmada por la fidelidad a Dios y a factual, fría e indiferente, a la interculturalidad sus mandamientos; musulmanes generosos en abierta y respetuosa. Pensamos que nuestro la limosna y en el ejercicio de la hospitalidad, proyecto, todavía en ciernes y frágil, es impor- piadosos, tolerantes y buenos en su relación tante para la Iglesia y para el futuro de la mi- con los creyentes de otras religiones. Lo peor, sión de los Padres Blancos en Europa y en en los excesos cometidos en Sudán por un go- África. Somos Misioneros de África. Pero, bierno islamista que todavía perdura en el po- África se encuentra también en Europa. der. Sus dirigentes tenían la boca llena de Dios. Bellas sus invocaciones sobre el Dios Recursos personales Clemente y Misericordioso, pero incapaces de Mi recurso más seguro es el de mi experien- expresar un átomo de misericordia hacia los cia personal, las vivencias de mi vida misione- ciudadanos pertenecientes a otras religiones. ra. Un refrán africano dice que “nadie reniega La religión se había pervertido en pura ideolo- de sus canas”. Llevo con orgullo las de mis 4 gía. Cuando olvidamos la unidad profunda que años pasados en Túnez, los 20 años en Burki- existe entre el culto a Dios y el respeto a la na Faso, y los 10 años en Sudán. No puedo re- persona humana, la religión se convierte en negar de ellas. Tengo que añadir, además, que ideología sin corazón. Desgraciadamente las mi azarosa vida de misión me llevó de manera perversiones de lo religioso han existido siem- esporádica, pero fructuosa, a muchos otros pre en la historia de todas las religiones. países africanos: Senegal, Malí, Togo, Níger, Observo una evolución en la percepción que RD del Congo, Ruanda, Uganda, Burundi, tuve del Islam en los comienzos de mi vida Etiopía, Tanzania, Kenia y Argelia. Ahora, misionera y la que ahora tengo. No hablo des- como ya he dicho, me encuentro en Bélgica de el punto de vista teórico. Hablo del clima desde hace algo más de un año. Un misionero general. Los valores que descubrí, se han no se jubila nunca. Ser misionero es una ma- desarrollado y enriquecido. Han cambiado las nera de ser. Se puede ser misionero siempre. relaciones, tanto en el seno mismo del Islam La misión no está definida ni por el trabajo ni como en el de sus relaciones hacia los demás. por el lugar, sino más bien por el impulso de El Islam que conocí en Túnez entre 1960 y un corazón abierto a lo universal. Espero serlo 1964 y en los primeros años de mi vida misio- hasta que llegue el momento de mi último nera, en los años 70, me parecía más integrado suspiro. y sereno que el de los 80, años en que empe- No deseo detenerme en conceptos abstractos zaban a aparecer los nubarrones del funda- sobre lo que es el Islam. Me desviaría del pro- mentalismo y de la intolerancia detrás de los pósito de este artículo, que es hablar de mi ex- cuales se encontraba el dinero de los petrodó- periencia relacional con los musulmanes. Esta lares, distribuido a profusión por Arabia Sau- me muestra por un lado, las diferencias exis- dí. Las demandas en pro de la instauración de tentes entre el Islam de África del Norte y el la "charía" comenzaron a sentirse, primero tí- de África subsahariana y por otro lado, la ca- midamente en algunos países de África del pacidad que tenemos las personas de desvir- Oeste y después más abiertamente, in cres- tuar la religión, convirtiéndola en instrumento cendo, como es el caso hoy en Nigeria y Malí. del mal. “Las religiones han deformado lo sa- En Sudán, se desarrolló la misma dinámica: la grado, pero esa deformación se debe al hecho obtención, en primer lugar, del poder político de que las personas, cuando apagan la luz sa- para imponer después el poder ideológico y la grada, apagan al mismo tiempo la dignidad di- aplicación de la "charía". Es lo que ha ocurri- do en Egipto. 9

Las recientes convulsiones políticas que tie- el Sabio a finales del siglo XI, esos momentos nen lugar en estos momentos en Túnez, Libia fueron más bien excepcionales. Los musulma- y Egipto, y cuya interpretación es muy com- nes retienen en sus mentes las masacres que pleja, tienen mucho que ver con las divisiones perpetraron los cruzados, la Reconquista y la internas que atraviesan las sociedades musul- expulsión de los moriscos. El esplendor de Al- manas entre partidarios de una sociedad de- Andalus permanece en el corazón de muchos mocrática, secular y moderna y la de los parti- musulmanes como una herida abierta y mal darios de una sociedad basada en la religión. curada, que clama venganza. "No olvidamos", Este debate era impensable hace 20 años. decían en el Cairo los eslóganes de los que se Hasta hace relativamente poco tiempo, el Is- oponían a la conmemoración del 521 aniversa- lam había vivido en un área protegida, que los rio de la toma de Granada por los Reyes Cató- musulmanes llamaban "dar el Islam" o ámbito licos. islámico de países de mayoría musulmana. En Hablar del Islam en el continente europeo este ámbito las leyes, la cultura y los modos de requiere igualmente pensar en la presencia po- vida protegían a los musulmanes del influjo co conocida de un Islam de vieja raigambre, externo, todo lo ajeno al Islam y a sus modos cuyos inicios remontan a las incursiones y de existencia. El Corán y la “charía” regulaban conquistas del Imperio otomano en Europa. Es la vida y la fe de los musulmanes. Ese mundo el caso de países como Albania, Bosnia Her- está a punto de desaparecer. zegovina, Bulgaria y Macedonia... Hoy, estamos pasando de sociedades bien La relación de Europa con el Islam no puede integradas, religiosa y cultural-mente, a socie- obviar tampoco el impacto negativo de la co- dades multiculturales y multireligiosas regidas lonización. Los países musulmanes la experi- por regímenes democráticos que funcionan mentaron como una humillación de la que con leyes promulgadas por parlamentos civiles consiguieron liberarse. Las paradojas de la totalmente autónomos con respecto a las reli- historia hicieron que la descolonización favo- giones. reciera el trasvase de poblaciones, muchas de ellas musulmanas hacia Europa a través de la Contexto histórico y geográfico europeo inmigración: indo-pakistaníes a Inglaterra; ar- Situar la presencia del Islam en Europa re- gelinos, marroquíes y africanos subsaharianos quiere hacerlo en su larga historia de varios a Francia y Bélgica, turcos a Alemania, indo- siglos. Sería un error pensar que la implanta- nesios a los Países Bajos, ción del Islam en Europa es solamente produc- Según el escritor y sociólogo, Felice Dasset- to de la inmigración actual. Hay un pasado. to, las estadísticas hablan de 12 a 15 millones Los primeros escarceos del Islam con el Occi- de musulmanes en Europa Occidental que, dente cristiano remontan muy lejos, en los sumados a los de vieja raigambre de Europa años cercanos a la muerte de Mahoma, en el del este, alcanzarían los 25 millones, sin in- año 632 de nuestra era. En la historia de Espa- cluir Turquía, que suma ella sola más de 70 ña aprendimos que la invasión de las tropas millones de habitantes, un dato a tener muy en musulmanas guiadas por Tariq y Musa se cuenta en el caso de que algún día entren en la efectuó en los albores del siglo VIII, exten- comunidad Europea. Claro está que, como to- diéndose rápidamente por casi toda la geogra- da estadística, requiere prudencia para inter- fía española, el sur de Francia, Portugal y Sici- pretarla. Las cifras no suelen determinar con lia. exactitud el grado de adhesión al Islam. Des- Acaso pueda parecer poco ecuménico decir- cubriríamos probablemente que muchos de lo, pero en líneas generales, se trata de una ellos, que han abandonado la práctica religio- historia de desencuentros y de intolerancias. Si sa, continúan identificándose con el Islam en tampoco faltaron en ella momentos cumbres referencia al origen de sus padres o a su cultu- de entendimiento, que propiciaron relaciones ra. La clasificación por pertenencia religiosa abiertas al desarrollo de la ciencia y de la cul- está prohibida en la mayoría de los países eu- tura, como el desarrollado por la Escuela de ropeos. Así mismo, según el mismo sociólogo, traductores de Toledo, fundada por Alfonso X sería un error hablar de los musulmanes euro- 10 peos a partir de la inmigración, porque mu- chos de ellos están naturalizados en Europa y son por lo tanto ciudadanos europeos. El tablero estadístico Musulmán en Europa daría poco más o menos el siguiente resultado:

1. Islam de arraigo reciente

Países Habitantes Musulmanes Porcentajes Europa 437.261.244 13.922.120 3,18% Alema- 82.500.000 3.000.000 3,6% nia Bélgica 10.300.000 400.000 4% España 43.100.000 1.000.000 2,3% Francia 62.300.000 5 o 6.000.000 8 o 9,6% Inglate- 59.200.000 1.480.000 2,5% rra Italia 58.400.000 825.000 1,4% Grecia 10.000.000 370.000 3,7% Holanda 16.300.000 945.000 5,8%

2. Islam de vieja raigambre

Países Habitantes Musulmanes Porcentajes Albania 3.100.000 1.200.000 70% Bosnia- 3.800.000 1.500.000 40% Hercegovina Bulgaria 8.487.317 !.026.758 14% Macedonia 2.100.000 630.000 30% Ser- 8.100.000 450.000 5% via y Mon- tenegro Kosovo 405.000 1.800.000 90% Sources: Uk Foreign Office 1999-2005

Una de las características demográficas de la La historia reciente población musulmana en Europa es su juven- La historia reciente del Islam en el conjunto tud. Basta con recorrer los nombres de los ni- de la UE tiene sus raíces en el fenómeno de la ños registrados en los Ayuntamientos de Bél- inmigración. Este es un hecho sociológico y gica, por ejemplo, para percatarse que una económico incontestable. Su estudio tiene in- buena proporción de ellos lleva nombres mu- terés, sobre todo, por la manera en que se ha sulmanes, como Mohammed, Ahmed, Sara, producido, como un proceso in crescendo no Fátima, etc., hasta el punto que en Bruselas, sólo numéricamente, sino también cua- algunas escuelas católicas se plantean el tema litativamente. Algunos hablan de este proceso de la educación islámica, debido al número de en términos de islamización. El término me musulmanes que asisten a sus aulas. En Bélgi- parece exagerado. ca, este es un tema de debate que levanta mu- chas ampollas.

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La etapa de los inicios, en los albores de La etapa institucional los años 60 Esta visibilidad se hizo cada vez más real no Fue la época de la independencia de casi to- solamente en el espacio público de la ciudad, dos los países africanos y del boom industrial sino también en las instituciones: escuelas, y económico de los países europeos. Hacía fal- hospitales, servicios sociales, administraciones ta mano de obra y Europa no dudó en solici- públicas, etc. Las organizaciones islámicas, tarla allí donde podía encontrarla. El resultado cada vez más numerosas y mejor organizadas, fue una inmigración masiva de mano de obra unificaron sus esfuerzos para lograr acuerdos extranjera que provenía principalmente de paí- que les permitieran asentar su adecuada ubica- ses islámicos. Se trataba de gente que venía a ción jurídica en los diferentes países europeos. Europa a trabajar, sin intenciones de asenta- De esta manera, de la implantación cuasi- miento. Su estancia en Europa no requería privada del Islam en Europa, se pasó a una demasiadas estructuras ni religiosas ni cultura- presencia pública jurídicamente adecuada. les, solo un mínimo de bienestar, un contrato Ejemplo de ello fue el acuerdo, en 1992, entre de trabajo justo, una vivienda y, a menudo, el Estado español y las diferentes instituciones una mezquita como lugar de encuentro para musulmanas afincadas en nuestro país. Estos satisfacer a sus necesidades espirituales. Ve- acuerdos alcanzan temas tan delicados como nían a Europa y volvían regularmente a sus el de las escuelas islámicas, los cementerios, países de origen. la comida halal, las capellanías en las prisio- nes y el Ejército, las mezquitas, la formación La etapa de afianzamiento de los funcionarios religiosos, etc. El objetivo A esta etapa inicial siguió la de su afianza- de las organizaciones musulmanas en todos miento. Los inmigrantes no se contentaban los países de Europa ha sido claro: obtener pa- con ir de vacaciones a sus respectivos países ra la religión musulmana la igualdad de dere- de origen, sino que, al amparo de las políticas chos, comparable a la de las demás religiones. favorables a los reagrupamientos familiares, fueron estableciéndose en Europa de manera Contexto Mundial definitiva. El sociólogo Felice Dassetto pone Este proceso no ha sido una empresa fácil. el ejemplo de Bruselas: “la presencia de las Dos realidades han acompañado de manera poblaciones de origen musulmán ha dado na- concomitante el proceso de afianzamiento del cimiento a barrios en los que el espacio públi- Islam en Europa: la crónica de la violencia is- co ha cobrado una nueva dimensión. En efec- lámica y el aumento de la islamofobia; dos to, desde los comienzos de los años 70, estos procesos de signo contrario, pero que tienen el lugares han visto la emergencia de un Islam mismo punto de partida: una sicología inma- cada vez más visible: salas de oración, carni- dura y una mente de corto alcance intelectual. cerías halal, librerías, tiendas de objetos reli- Recordemos esta crónica de la violencia, a giosos, librerías islámicas, etc. En concomi- través de los acontecimientos más significati- tancia, a finales de los años 80, comenzaron a vos, producidos en el mundo en relación al Is- verse expresiones más afirmativas de identi- lam, durante estos últimos cuarenta años. Los dad musulmana en los ámbitos públicos: el enumero sin tratar de ser exhaustivo: la crisis uso de la barba y la gandura entre los hombres del petróleo, la revolución iraní liderada por el y el pañuelo (hijab) y a veces el velo (niqab) imán Jomeini, la fatua contra Salman Rusdhie, de color azul fuerte o estrictamente negro, en 1989, por su libro: "Los Versos Satánicos", propio de los salafistas, en las mujeres”, que las polémicas en torno al porte del velo islá- no dejaron de provocar reacciones de rechazo mico en los lugares públicos, los cientos de en el resto de la población. miles de muertos durante la guerra civil de la década de los 90 en Argelia, el nacimiento del movimiento yihadista de Al Qaeda, el atenta- do a las Torres Gemelas y al Pentágono en septiembre de 2001, y posteriormente los de Madrid (2004) y Londres (julio de 2005), el 12 asesinato selectivo de Teo Van Gogh en los Descripción aproximativa del Islam euro- Países Bajos, las reacciones violentas posterio- peo res a la publicación de las caricaturas de El Islam, en general, no existe. Existen los Mahoma en Dinamarca asi como las reac- musulmanes de carne y hueso, que pertenecen ciones al discurso del Papa Benedicto XVI en a muchas y variadas tendencias. Existen mu- Ratisbona. Y todavía recientemente, la situa- chas maneras de ser y de vivir el Islam. Lo ción generada por las revueltas político- mismo que hay muchas maneras de ser y de sociales en torno a los países que han protago- vivir el Cristianismo. Meter a todos en el nizado las mal llamadas "primaveras árabes", mismo saco nos lleva a cometer errores de la guerra civil en Siria, la interminable saga de perspectiva. Los elementos básicos de la fe y Afganistán, el polvorín pakistaní y la ocupa- de la práctica cultual musulmana son relati- ción del norte de Malí por parte de una nebu- vamente pocos. La diversidad es una de las losa de grupos yihadistas e islamistas. notas comunes del Islam. Dentro de lo funda- Estos hechos, interpretados mental que es la fe en un Dios muchas veces de manera Único y en la revelación del Co- sesgada por los medios de rán, el Islam admite interpreta- comunicación social, han ciones muy variadas, que depen- contribuido a una progresiva den de la adhesión a las dos gran- reacción de miedo generali- des ramas mayoritarias del Islam: zado hacia el Islam y hacia el chiismo y el sunnismo. Ambos los musulmanes. El análisis, tienen su propio sistema de pen- deliberadamente unilateral y samiento y sus propias escuelas torcido de estos aconteci- jurídicas. Así ocurre, por ejemplo, mientos, apoyado en prejui- dentro del sunnismo, en cuyo cios nacionales y xenófo- From arabic: “The patience and the seno se desarrollan cuatro tradi- bos, ha convertido a los Grace” ciones jurídicas: el hanefismo, extranjeros y, sobre todo, al Islam en una el chafiismo, el hanbalismo y el malekismo. amenaza para Europa, considerada como víc- Hago observar que una de las características tima de una voluntad programada de islamiza- del Islam es la enorme permisividad de con- ción, que sería ella misma obra de oscuros di- ciencia, cuando se trata de la práctica de la re- seños expansionistas de los dirigentes de las ligión, una libertad garantizada, siempre que más altas instancias islámicas, como la Orga- no redunde en mal ejemplo para el resto de la nización de los países Islámicos, apoyados por comunidad musulmana. las finanzas de la Arabia Saudí. Esta sensación El Islam ha desarrollado en sus seguidores de amenaza ha dado lugar al desarrollo de par- una convicción muy arraigada de pertenencia tidos políticos y movimientos de extrema de- a la comunidad islámica, pero en la realidad, recha hostiles a los extranjeros, sobre todo existen musulmanes de toda clase y condición: musulmanes. Entre ellos se encuentran el practicantes y no practicantes, conformistas, Vlaams Belang en Bélgica, el Partij voor de místicos, sabios y pensadores, tradicionalistas, Vrijheid de Geert Wilders, la Liga Norte en retrógados y violentos. Este paisaje variopinto Italia y el Frente Nacional de Marine le Pen, del Islam es sobre todo realidad en la comuni- en Francia, entre otros... En el peor de los ca- dad europea. La permanencia prolongada de sos, se trata de movimientos racistas y xenó- los inmigrantes en Europa, les ha convertido fobos, cuyo punto de mira es el Islam y el ju- en ciudadanos europeos y ha dejado en ellos daismo, y que desgraciadamente se inspiran una mentalidad peculiar. Hanifa Touag, una del pasado cristiano menos evangélico. Su joven musulmana que prepara su doctorado en propaganda circula en la libertad que otorgan sociología por la Universidad Católica de Lo- los multimedia. vaina y es miembro del Centre Interdiscipli- naire d'Etudes de l'Islam dans le Monde Con- temporain (CISMOC), afirmaba recientemente que “los jóvenes musulmanes se parecen mu- 13 cho a los demás jóvenes europeos”. Y añadía cultura. Ese mundo ha desaparecido. En Euro- que, tanto musulmanes como no musulmanes, pa, la mayoría de los juristas musulmanes han son el resultado de una misma formación en la abandonado esa terminología y usan otros me- escuela y en la universidad, se bañan en la dios -las fatuas- para responder a problemas misma cultura individualista, secularizante, concretos de los fieles que quieren ser fieles a independiente, informatizada, autónoma y ale- los preceptos del Islam en el contexto europeo. jada de las instituciones oficiales que todos Mohammed Charfi, jurista tunecino, descri- conocemos. Las encuestas muestran que los be muy bien el proceso que sufren las socie- jóvenes se identifican con los valores de los dades musulmanas y las dificultades que en- países en donde viven: la democracia, la liber- cuentran para integrarse en los cambios mo- tad de expresión, etc. Pero, en cierta manera, dernos. Charfi dice que este proceso toma su hay una contradicción, porque muchos de punto de partida en la diferencia existente en- ellos confiesan su adhesión al Islam, aunque tre el Estado moderno y el Estado antiguo. acaso más como cultura que como religión. Es Antaño, el Estado musulmán era de tipo reli- difícil renunciar a la cultura en que uno ha na- gioso; formaban parte de él los musulmanes. cido. Los que no eran musulmanes tenían un estatu- Los musulmanes que desarrollan posturas to especial de extranjeros. El jefe del Estado radicales existen, pero son relativamente poco era califa del profeta y príncipe de los creyen- numerosos. Los sociólogos, que analizan la si- tes. Su misión era religiosa y su objetivo la tuación, afirman que los radicalismos nacen ejecución de la ley de Dios. En cambio, el Es- sobre todo en contextos de pobreza y margi- tado moderno en Occidente es nacional. nación social: el hacinamiento de los barrios Agrupa en su seno a todos los ciudadanos, tan- pobres, la falta de expectativas de trabajo y de to musulmanes como no. Su misión se confina futuro personal, familiar y social. al ámbito social de organizar la coexistencia de todos, promulgando leyes para todo el Cómo se plantea el tema del Islam en Eu mundo. El debate sobre la reforma del Islam ropa dura más de dos siglos. Es un problema in- Es una pregunta que tiene su importancia. El terno al Islam, entre musulmanes tradicionalis- problema más arduo del encuentro del Islam tas y progresistas. Uno de los musulmanes que con Europa se presenta fundamentalmente ba- más lucha por la apertura del Islam a una con- jo el signo de una crisis cultural, un malestar cepción más adaptada a los tiempos modernos profundo, que se deriva de la dificultad con- es el filósofo francés, Abdennour Bidar. Se creta que tienen los musulmanes para adaptar- expresa en los siguientes términos: “la mayor se a los cambios de la modernidad. En el fon- parte de los musulmanes rehusan y recusan el do es una cuestión de integración y de co- derecho a discutir lo que la tradición ha esta- inclusión mutua. Es una afirmación general blecido desde hace milenios: ritos, principios, que necesito explicar. costumbres que no corresponden para nada a Hasta hace relativamente poco tiempo, el Is- las necesidades del tiempo presente”. lam ha vivido en un área protegida, el “dar el En el mundo de hoy, los ámbitos religiosos o Islam” o ámbito islámico, compuesto por paí- culturales no contaminados ya no existen o es- ses de mayoría musulmana. En este ámbito, tán a punto de desaparecer. Vivimos en un las leyes, la cultura, los modos de vida prote- mundo barajado a saciedad. El turismo, las gían a los musulmanes del influjo externo, del inmigraciones, las tecnologías modernas, los ámbito que los juristas musulmanes llamaban medios de comunicación social, el Internet, los “dar el harb”, es decir, el ámbito donde se intercambios económicos, han transformado la producen hostilidades guerreras. El término faz de la tierra. El mundo se ha convertido en “Harb” en árabe significa guerra. En otras pa- la casa común de todos, la casa de todas las labras, dar el harb se refiere a los países que convicciones y de todas las religiones. Vivi- no son musulmanes. En los países islámicos, mos en un mundo globalizado y plural al todo exteriormente ayudaba a los musulmanes mismo tiempo. Los acontecimientos más di- a vivir bien integrados en su propia religión y versos, ocurridos en los lugares más alejados 14 de la tierra, pueden verse en tiempo real, en no encajan. Temas como el origen del univer- cualquier parte del mundo: la peregrinación a so y de la vida, la revelación, los fundamentos la Meca, las ceremonias del Vaticano, los fu- de la ética, las relaciones entre la fe y la ra- nerales de los políticos, la elección de un jefe zón... El sociólogo Felice Dassetto señala de Estado, los Juegos Olímpicos, etc. El mun- igualmente la incapacidad de los musulmanes do ha cambiado. Nos toca aprender a vivir en europeos a producir un discurso independiente este mundo diferente en lo social, en lo cultu- con respecto a sus países de origen, la mayoría ral y en lo religioso. El problema no está en de los cuales se rigen todavía por criterios ve- cómo asimilar la tecnología, la informática, el tustos entresacados de la ley islámica. manejo de una lavadora o de un coche. La ha- El referencial de las sociedades modernas no bilidad en el manejo de la técnica se puede es el dogma religioso ni la moral propuesta combinar con una fe auténtica. El problema es por las religiones, sino las leyes elaboradas más profundo. Está en la mentalidad, en el democráticamente y de manera autónoma en modo de relación que establecemos con las función del bien común de todos los que for- personas, el "otro" diferente, el dinero, el po- man parte del país. Vivimos en sociedades der, el sexo, las leyes, las religiones. globales, pluralistas, multiculturales y multire- Antonio Gramsci, político italiano de finales ligiosas. La visión de la vida social en Europa del siglo XIX, declaraba que “cuando lo viejo se construye sobre una visión del hombre y la no muere y lo nuevo no acaba de nacer se pro- sociedad basada en la autonomía de lo político duce una crisis”. Cuando digo que el Islam es- respecto a lo religioso. tá en crisis no quiero decir que se trate de una El Islam ha irrumpido en Europa con su pro- crisis de identidad de fe. Es importante decir- pia visión del mundo. La integración del Islam lo. En este sentido no hay crisis. En su mayo- en Europa no parece cosa fácil, pero es posi- ría, los musulmanes se muestran seguros en su ble. Aprender a vivir juntos, requiere debates, fe. Mi experiencia de encuentro con el Islam, acuerdos y compromisos que hagan justicia a tanto en Sudán, como en Burkina Faso y en la parte de razón que todos llevamos con noso- otras partes del mundo, me ha permitido cons- tros. La integración del Islam en Europa no tatar la fuerza y el arraigo de la fe musulmana. quiere decir asimilación ni exclusión, sino La pertenencia a la gran comunidad musulma- coinclusión en el respeto de las diferencias. na, la Umma, es un sentimiento que ha calado Traducirlo en la práctica requiere sentido del muy profundamente en las mentalidades. El bien común. Es difícil, sobre todo en los casos Islam es una religión y al mismo tiempo una litigiosos en los que parece que no se respeta cultura, una tradición que no se abandona, ni la identidad de cada uno. De ahí, los debates siquiera cuando uno es poco practicante. Lo he en torno al velo islámico, a la laicidad del Es- constatado muchas veces. Esta es la razón por tado, la libertad de expresión, la libertad de la que apostatar de la fe y convertirse a otra re- conciencia, el derecho a la enseñanza religio- ligión es cosa que ocurre muy raramente entre sa, a los cuidados médicos, a los problemas los musulmanes. que plantea la bioética, los tabúes alimenti- La crisis se refiere a la dificultad que tienen cios, la comida halal, el derecho al trabajo sin las sociedades musulmanas en general -pero lo discriminación por motivos de sexo o convi- mismo ocurre en otro tipo de sociedades- para ción religiosa, tradiciones y ritos religiosos combinar fe y razón, fe y ciencia. La seculari- como la circuncisión, la oración en la vía pú- zación de las sociedades musulmanas es me- blica, el derecho a la representatividad políti- nos visible exteriormente, pero se produce. La ca, etc. ¿Hasta dónde pueden ir las concesio- explicación del mundo ya no es monopolio de nes? Las soluciones son diferentes según las las religiones. La ciencia ofrece explicaciones legislaciones estatales. El Reino Unido admite que contradicen lo que dicen las religiones. La la jurisdicción de los tribunales islámicos en educación que reciben los jóvenes musulma- materias que conciernen el estatuto personal, nes en los colegios y en las universidades eu- por ejemplo en temas como el divorcio y el ropeas y la enseñanza en las mezquitas no se derecho de sucesión. corresponden. Hay temas y explicaciones que 15

El equipo arcre/pecre Deseo añadir otras pocas constataciones. El dialogo interreligioso pasa por este Apenas ha pasado un año desde que nuestro preámbulo societario. Tenemos que acostum- pequeño equipo de Padres Blancos se instaló brarnos a distinguir entre los valores enraiza- en la capital de Europa con el encargo de se- dos en el Evangelio y las ideologías o preten- guir la evolución cultural y religiosa que se es- siones de la Iglesia como grupo sociológico. tá operando en Europa, una evolución de la El diálogo con la sociedad requiere atención a que forma parte el Islam de manera irreversi- los derechos humanos, la justicia, la igualdad ble. Señalo algunas constataciones que me y la libertad. Se han acabado los derechos di- afectan personalmente. vinos, las prerrogativas, los privilegios y las Mi primera constatación es que Europa ha exenciones. Todas las religiones son iguales cambiado mucho desde hace tres o cuatro dé- ante las leyes. ¿Cuándo lo entenderemos? cadas. La Europa que conocí cuando me mar- En Europa, podemos decir que las leyes ga- ché a África por primera vez ya no es la mis- rantizan a todos el respeto de los derechos in- ma. Me cuesta entender lo que pasa. Constato dividuales, en la igualdad, sin distinción de que Europa es otro mundo. Cuando nos mar- sexo, raza, religión o cultura, el derecho a la chamos a África por primera vez, los misione- libertad de conciencia y la libertad de culto y ros éramos respetados, admirados y queridos de expresión. No se trata de derechos sino por la mayoría de la gente, incluso los menos también de deberes. La sociedad europea plu- practicantes. Eramos un punto de referencia, ral exige de todos, ateos, agnósticos, musul- un modelo. No lo digo porque tenga nostalgia manes y cristianos asumir sus res- de ello, sino para subrayar el cambio cultural ponsabilidades ciudadanas, promover leyes que se ha operado en Europa. La cultura reli- que tengan en cuenta la identidad de todos los giosa ha desaparecido. Nos cuesta admitirlo que forman parte de ella y hacerlas operativas como un signo de los tiempos. para vivir en paz y armonía. En este mundo De esto se deriva otra constatación. En la globalizado que vivimos está claro que no se misión, los misioneros gozábamos de mucho puede vivir con una mentalidad de conquista, protagonismo. Nuestras relaciones con la gen- basada en la superioridad de una religión o de te eran fáciles y cercanas. Lo que decíamos una cultura sobre otra, con el deseo de contro- tenía relevancia. Se nos escuchaba. Eramos lar y ejercer cualquier tipo de hegemonía, reli- considerados como los especialistas del diálo- giosa, política, cultural o económica. La so- go interreligioso. Teníamos la experiencia de ciedad es cosa de todos los que la componen. los muchos años pasados en África. Esta expe- Andrea Riccardi, fundador de San Egidio y riencia es preciosa y sigue siendo válida, por presidente de la Cátedra de los Bernardinos de lo menos hasta cierto punto. Pero, en Europa, París, abundaba sobre este tema, diciendo en el debate no es de orden religioso, sino social. el discurso inaugurativo que el problema de Los derechos se refieren no a la religión sino a Europa no es tanto “la secularización de la so- la persona y al bien común de todos en la so- ciedad, sino la globalización: La Iglesia ha ha- ciedad. Deriva en deberes y derechos cuya blado mucho de la secularización”. Riccardi administración es competencia del Estado. piensa que nos hemos dejado atormentar por El debate se sitúa en la ciudad, en la calle, en esta idea y que nos gana el pesimismo: “Hoy las instituciones, en la política, en la econo- día, en este mundo globalizado, la gente, los mía. Los interlocutores más idóneos son los hombres y mujeres viven como si estuvieran intelectuales, los juristas, los sociólogos, polí- fuera de órbita, con el sentimiento de insegu- ticos y economistas. La sociedad civil y el Es- ridad metido en el cuerpo... el catolicismo eu- tado. Las religiones son un complemento ético ropeo vive atormentado con el sentimiento de y espiritual, que no siempre es bien recibido. fracaso. La idea es que cuanto más nos mo- Necesitamos humildad para encontrar nuestro dernizamos más nos alejamos de la religión. sitio en una sociedad multicultural y multireli- Sería algo así como una ley ineluctable. Pero, giosa. el problema, no es tanto la secularización, que convierte al cristianismo en algo privado y lo 16 conduce a los márgenes de la vida social, sino nuestra experiencia misionera, un "plus" de la globalización”. Riccardi piensa igualmente sentido que me parece muy significativo. Sa- que el fenómeno del pluralismo es una especie bemos lo que quiere decir el respeto de otras de “kayrós”, una oportunidad misionera hacia culturas y religiones. Nuestra experiencia es lo universal: “Hoy día, lo lejano se ha conver- valiosa y la ofrecemos a los que nos la piden. tido en algo cercano. Pero, solo físicamente. Hay también limitaciones. Acaso en Europa Hace falta que esa cercanía física se convier- nos faltan los contactos personales que tanto ta en espiritual. La espiritualidad que tenemos apreciábamos en África. Pero, no trabajamos que crear es la de abrirnos a todos, responder a solos y de manera aislada. Lo hacemos en co- los desafíos del hombre planetario de hoy y munión con la Iglesia local, el clero, las con- establecer cercanías entre mundos diferentes. gregaciones religiosas, la sociedad civil y las En otros tiempos, las culturas diferían unas de instituciones tanto católicas como las que no otras porque se desconocían y no hacían nada lo son, tratando ser sal y fermento de la socie- para conocerse; hoy día, tenemos más contac- dad. Como en todas las cosas, en este tema tos y nos conocemos mejor, pero tenemos el también, nuestro miedo de actuar se refiere a peligro de enfrentarnos la universalidad profundamente espiritual de Los conflictos existen y existirán siempre. Jesús, abierta a Dios y a la fraternidad univer- Su solución no es la respuesta airada ni la vio- sal. Desde la atalaya de nuestra página web lencia física, sino el entendimiento, la volun- (www.arcre.org), puede uno darse cuenta de tad de vivir juntos, el aprecio y el respeto mu- los temas que atraen nuestra atención y preo- tuo y una adecuada educación a la vida en so- cupan a la sociedad europea en que vivimos. ciedad. Aprender a vivir juntos en sociedades multiculturales y multireligiosas es una nece- Conclusión sidad en el mundo de hoy. Los criterios basa- El biólogo y moralista, Jean Rostand, dice dos en el predominio de una religión, raza o algo muy importante en su libro: "Inquietudes cultura no sirven. La democracia, la igualdad de un biólogo": "No me importa saber cómo de derechos, la libertad de religión y de con- será el aspecto de las ciudades el día de maña- ciencia, sin privilegios y exclusiones, son la na, la arquitectura de las casas y la velocidad garantía y la condición de una vida en paz y de los vehículos. Me importa, sobre todo, sa- armonía. Una buena integración mutua no ex- ber el sabor que tendrá la vida, las razones pa- cluye evidentemente el aprecio de la propia ra amar y actuar. Me pregunto ¿de qué pozo identidad, aquilatada a través de una larga his- sacaremos el aliento para vivir? Se gana más toria. El respeto hacia esa identidad es funda- amando que entendiendo las cosas... prefiero mental para el entendimiento mutuo. La aco- el amor a la inteligencia". gida requiere reciprocidad. Añado otra referencia que me conforta en mi Nos encontramos en Bruselas, la capital de tarea. Es del fundador de San Egidio, que ya la Unión Europea. En Bruselas se juega el fu- he citado antes. Dice así: “nos encontramos en turo de una nueva Europa diversa y plural el umbral de una era por explorar, un momen- desde muchos puntos de vista: cultural, reli- to histórico del mundo que Antonio Gramsci, giosa, política, económica y racial; una Europa pensador marxista del siglo pasado, definía no excluyeme, libre y democrática, de acceso como grande, hermoso y terrible”. Suerte y para todos los que se acogen a ella. Europa gracia de Dios. existe todavía como proceso. El premio Nobel de la paz que han atribuido a Europa es una manera de reconocer que ese proceso es válido Ref: Misiones Extranjeras, n.252, Enero- y legítimo. En su crisol se construye una nue- Febrero 2013, pp.45-49. va visión del mundo, siempre perfectible. Nos The English version of this article can be queda mucho camino por recorrer. Acompañar found in the SEDOS website: este proceso es el trabajo que nos proponemos www.sedosmission.org los miembros de nuestro equipo, aportando

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Egidio Picucci, OFMCAP

Antiochia, isola felice del dialogo interreligioso

orse è la prima volta che succede in sindaco di Antiochia ha voluto con la parteci- Paesi a prevalenza islamica nel mon- pazione di cantori musulmani, ebrei, ortodossi, Fdo: sulla porta della chiesa cattolica, il cattolici e protestanti per eseguire canti popo- parroco ha dovuto esporre l'orario delle visite. lari turchi in tutta Europa? O del Presidente Accade ad Antiochia (Turchia), dove il cap- degli affari religiosi, Prof. Ali Bardakoğlu, che puccino P. Domenico Bertogli, per riservarsi ha raccomandato agli iman di comportarsi nel almeno lo spazio necessario alla preghiera, ha loro ufficio come i parroci cattolici, visitando dovuto notificare ai molti visitatori turchi, e le famiglie, istruendo i giovani e rappacifican- quindi musulmani, che la Katolik Kilisesi si do eventuali contendenti? può visitare dalle 9 alle 12 e dalle 15 alle 17. Per chi conosce Antiochia la notizia rientra E, tra i cattolici, chi sa che ad Antiochia da nella “normalità”, perché probabilmente solo una decina d'anni ortodossi e cattolici celebra- qui la pacifica convivenza e il rispetto tra le no la Pasqua nello stesso giorno; che hanno un varie religioni risale ai unico ufficio della Ca- tempi degli Apostoli ritas per aiutare i po- Pietro e Paolo, quando veri; che la “missione” la città, miscuglio di si trova, a detta di un culture, di etnie e di re- gruppo di archeologi ligioni, anziché bandi- francesi, nel nucleo in re gli ultimi arrivati - i cui fu fondata la prima seguaci di Cristo - li comunità cristiana, chiamò con un nome dove si trovavano le che ha resistito al tem- “chiese-famiglia?”. po: cristiani. Piccole cose, ma Per chi non conosce preziosi tasselli di un Antiochia è, invece, mosaico in cui si inse- una piccola-grande ri- Ancient Roman road map, 1624 riscono la festa ecu- velazione che si ag- http://www.californiamapsociety.org menica di S. Pietro giunge a tante altre che la Cronaca annuale, nella “sua” Grotta il 29 giugno; la partecipa- preparata da P. Domenico e inviata anche al zione alla preghiera comunitaria di giovani Papa, riporta con scrupolosa fedeltà, al punto musulmani, ortodossi e cattolici nel cortile che gli storici di domani non potranno assolu- della missione; la stima che gode il parroco tamente ignorarla, pena l'incompletezza della cattolico presso le autorità, al punto che il Mi- loro esposizione. nistro della Giustizia il giorno dei funerali di Le “rivelazioni” riguardano non solo il mo- Mons. Luigi Padovese a Iskenderun, ha dato vimento intorno alla cappella posta all'interno ordine alla polizia di non fermarlo per eccesso della missione cattolica, situata in un triangolo di velocità, dovendo arrivare in tempo alla ecumenico unico al mondo (chiesa cattolica, missione per la celebrazione festiva? moschea e sinagoga sono così vicine che si Tasselli più interessanti sono le segnalazioni toccano), ma anche la vita cittadina e naziona- delle visite di alte personalità dello Stato, di le, sulle quali P. Domenico apre finestre che le Ministri, di ambasciatori, giornalisti, registi, grandi agenzie ignorano. Chi ha mai parlato, scrittori, alla cappella ricavata nella missione, per esempio, del “Coro delle civiltà”, che il un piccolo capolavoro che, rispettando l'antico

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stile orientale, indulge a tracce di classicismo Le parentesi sulla vita nazionale aperte dalla in cui si inseriscono bene anche le icone dipin- Cronaca inquadrano notizie introvabili altrove, te da un musulmano e che splendono come come: l'abolizione del visto fra Turchia e Siria; quelle delle absidi bizantine. la risposta di un giornalista turco all'indignazio- Esse sono silenziose testimoni di incontri ne per il referendum svizzero sul no alla costru- ecumenici, di battesimi di neo-convertiti, della zione dei minareti (“La Svizzera -ha scritto Ser- visita di decine di giovani che chiedono spie- kan Ocak - ha agito male, ma in Turchia la gazioni sul cristianesimo; di pellegrini che ar- Chiesa è davvero libera”?); la nascita di un en- rivano o tornano tra i vicoli della vecchia An- nesimo Partito, TDH (Partito del cambiamento); tiochia che, “per ricon- l'aumento dei carcerati, raddop- ciliarsi con la storia”, piati nel giro di cinque anni; la sarà riportata non all'età sistemazione dell'Oronte, fiume romana, quando i palaz- imperiale e cristiano che s'impa- zi erano circondati da luda e si sfalda in acquitrini ma- giardini meravigliosi e larici; la crisi economica che im- una flora da riviera, ma pone di risparmiare perfino sui agli inizi dell'800, al La Cronaca di P. montoni sacrificati per il Kurban tempo in cui nacque il Domenico risusci- Bayram (Festa del sacrifìcio); la ta tempi, luoghi e quartiere attuale. Realtà situazioni, facen- prima visita di un Presidente tur- così vive che la TV na- do di Antiochia un co a una sinagoga (ad Antiochia, zionale ha inserito An- santuario a cielo naturalmente!), accolto dal suono tiochia nella serie “Bi- aperto, un paese del shofar; la progressiva perdita ryer var” (C’è un luo- dell'anima, il luo- di potere dei militari; l'ammissio- go di convegno di go), che presenta le rari- quanti vogliono ne di una “pluralità dell'identità tà del Paese. immergersi in turca”; il riconoscimento dell'esi- Stupendi i “quadretti” un'atmosfera che stenza di un problema armeno e descritti con parole velo- ha conservato le curdo. ci, come quello del denti- orme delle scene e Tutti sappiamo che Antiochia è dei fatti che vi ac- sta ortodosso, morto caddero e che nes- più viva negli “Atti degli Aposto- qualche mese fa, che ogni sun fanatismo po- li” che nei luoghi che rimangono: sabato portava una rosa trà mai sconsa- se si toglie la Grotta di S. Pietro, alla Madonna e caramelle crare. alta fra rocce indolenzite che si per i bambini che curava sgretolano impedendo l'ingresso, gratuitamente; dell'imam la città è una fotocopia d'un qual- che si sente onorato siasi agglomerato turco, domina- dell'amicizia del prete to da una selva di minareti. La cattolico; del vecchietto Cronaca di P. Domenico risuscita che, avendo bisogno di tempi, luoghi e situazioni, facen- denaro per un intervento chirurgico, supplica il do di Antiochia un santuario a cielo aperto, un missionario di comprare un vecchio orologio a paese dell'anima, il luogo di convegno di quanti pendolo e si asciuga una lacrima mentre si al- vogliono immergersi in un'atmosfera che ha lontana guardandolo per l'ultima volta; della ra- conservato le orme delle scene e dei fatti che vi gazza violentata dal padre che chiede preghiere; accaddero e che nessun fanatismo potrà mai della “morte” di Babbo Natale, sostituito dai sconsacrare. Magi per restituire al Natale la sua sacralità; del rifugiato marocchino che ruba Bibbie in varie Ref: Religioni in Italia, n.382, gennaio- lingue; delle monache trappiste dirette in Siria febbraio 2011, pp. 28-30. per aprire un monastero; dei pellegrini che arri- The English version of this article can be vano a piedi attraversando la vasta pianura found in the SEDOS website: dell'Athay, ridente di uve e dorati frumenti. www.sedosmission.org

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John O’Brien, CSSp

Misreading Qur’ân 4:157 as denying Christian belief

Starting in the nineteenth century and con- Ibn Kathir (d.1373) avoids reference to Za- tinuing up to the present, popularized exegesis makshari even though by then Zamakshari’s of Qur’ân 4:157, forgetting its original con- tafsir had acquired wide fame. It is surprising text, reads into that verse a denial of Christian that a scholar as great as Al-Suyuti (d.1505) doctrine. In the nineteenth century, especially continues the emphasis on tradition found in in the Subcontinent, Muslims, so long con- ibn Kathir, with no new interpretation of querors and colonizers, experienced them- 4:157. Of eleven Traditions he presents, three selves as conquered and colonized. As their are new. The first two describe Jesus’ ascen- previous position put other religions under sion and the third, citing al-Jabbar, holds that threat, their new position was experienced as Jesus was raised: “In an assembly of truth in threatening to theirs. A new apologetic the presence of Sovereign Omnipotent” as ar- emerged, its key element, disparaging the ticulated in 54:55. Al-Suyuti surpasses loco- Christian scriptures as corrupted and unrelia- motive ascension but sticks with the traditions ble. This led to a new interpretation of Qur’ân which affirm what for him is the most im- 4:157 as denying a purportedly false Christian portant aspect of the verse: God is ever-ready belief that Jesus had been crucified. to protect the righteous and humiliate the dis- dainful. Medieval exegesis Overall, classical and medieval exegesis ab- The innovation of ‘Abd al-Jabbar (d.1025) solves Christians from spreading false doc- had been to put Judas at the centre of the cru- trines.16 Al-Suyuti continues that tradition. cifixion drama, as much for putative, historical Moreover he criticizes the principle of muta- reasons as for psychological ones. Pseudo- watur, continuous attestation where there is no Barnabas’ would do the same in a later fabri- real source; introduces radical criticism of tra- cated attempt to provide a foundation for what ditions; in some instances seemingly affirms had become commonplace. ‘Abd al-Jabbar the historicity of the crucifixion; and rejects draws on the apocrypha to achieve this:15 Ju- the supposition of identity transfer. Subse- das allegedly identified an innocent man as Je- quent commentators will choose to forget sus; the Romans knew neither Jesus, nor the much of this. one they crucified; miraculous intervention is thus eliminated; the duplicate, explicable ra- Religion of the Hearth tionally. Both Catholics and Protestants of the eight- Al-Razi (d.1207) dwells at length on the an- eenth century experienced: “a connection be- thropomorphisms in the traditional reading of tween the rise of early modern subjectivity, Qur’ân 3:55, stressing that God is not located the religion of the heart, the cultivation of “somewhere”. To that extent he moves closer spiritual self-discipline, and the concurrent to the Christian affirmation of Christ’s real rise of global Christianity.”17 While Pietism death by crucifixion. His tafsir however, had

little influence on later Muslim exegesis. 16 Todd Lawson, ‘The Crucifixion and the Qur’an” pp. 112 -142, esp. Pp, 112, 114, 121, 123, 126,129, 15 S. M Stearn, Quotations from Apocryphal Gospels 133,137, 140-1 & 142. in ‘Abd al-Jabbar, “Journal of Theological Studies” 17 David Hempton, “The Church in the Long Eight- NS 18 (1) 1967, 34-57. eenth Century,” (Tauris, London, 2011), p.52. 20

enlivened Christianity, the Enlightenment breakup of scholarly networks previously sup- challenged it, provoking much rethinking and ported by Muslim patronage, coincided with re-evaluation. the decline of philosophical traditions and in- Interaction between the spread of Christiani- terest in Indian culture, along with the rise of ty and secular powers was more complex and scripturalist reformism concentrating on fun- nuanced than sometimes portrayed. To de- damental Islamic texts and addressing a scribe the rise of Christian missions during broader Muslim public. this time in terms of complicity with colonial- In Bilgrami’s world Arabia is the ritual cen- ism, is one-sided and stereotyped. Pace Ed- tre but networks of religious scholarship and ward Said, there was never a unified Oriental- humanistic culture are firmly based in India. ist voice; missionaries provide one example of His wide intellectual formation included the images of India different from colonial con- study of authoritative Islamic religious texts, structions.18 logical and philosophical treatises, humanistic The interaction of enlightenment with reli- Arabic and Persian poetry, plus the rich re- gion of the heart might have found resonance sources of non-Muslim Indian literature and with the great Sufi poet Khwäjah Mir aesthetics. It exhibited a pragmatic pluralism “Dard”19 (d. 1785), one of the foundational soon to go out of fashion. The contrast be- pillars of Urdu poetry. Dard embodies initia- tween Bilgrami and Imdad Allah is suggestive tion into and incorporation of religious philos- of the changing cultural landscape of Muslims ophy and praxis of multiple lineages, effecting in transition from pre-colonial to colonial In- a wider range of acceptable, orthodox practice. dia. One of the overarching principles of Dard's The context has changed; miracle stories of venture is the essential unity of key methods pilgrimage ships rescued by saintly interven- of self-understanding and access to the divine. tion now featured European Christian ship Law, shariat, the spiritual path, tariqat and captains, a sign of colonial domination turned experiential knowledge, marafat, are unified to legitimate a saint. Imdad Allah was not in- with regard to ultimate reality, haqiqat. Shari- terested in philosophy, the rational sciences, or at is the outer level, tariqat the inner. Marifat the literary traditions of Hindu India. That re- is the secret, sirr, connected to the essence of flects a significant change of emphasis in the each thing, and haqiqat is the secret of the se- nineteenth century. A splintered intellectual cret, sirr-i sûr. Their reality and substance are environment cannot bridge the gap between the same. the intellectual and traditional Islamic scienc- Deep shifts in South Asian Islamic culture es. occurred between the eighteenth and nine- A crystallization of Islamic identity, in op- teenth centuries. Writings by and about Ghu- position to the British and the Hindus, lam 'Ali Azad Bilgrami (d. 1786) and Hajji trumped traditional intra-Islamic rivalries. Im- Imdad Allah Muhajir Makki (d. 1899), illus- dad Allah's exile in Mecca vaunted Arab sanc- trate this.20 The cosmopolitanism of Bilgrami tuaries as the authentic home of Islam, making yields to defensiveness in Hajji Imdad Allah, India an abode of alienation, and prefiguring engaged in resistance to British rule. The the concept of Pakistan. An ironic conse- quence was the objectification of religion and 18 Geoffrey A. Oddie, “Orientalism and British its instrumentalization for political ends. Protestant Missionary Constructions of India in the Nineteenth Century,” South Asia 17, 2 (1994): 28, Mission from the eighteenth to the nine 37. teenth century 19 Homayra Ziad, “I transcend myself like a melody” In Punjab, visits from Agra to Lahore in Khwäjah Mir Dard and Music in Eighteenth-century 1648, 1714 and in 1735 had indicated: “nu- Delhi,’ The Muslim World, 97 no 4 Oct 2007, 548- merous Christians at Lahore apart from the 570. 20 Carl W. Ernst, “Reconfiguring South Asian Islam: From the 18th to the 19th Century,” Comparative Islamic Studies, 5 no 2 Nov 2009, 247-272. 21

army.”21 They were left unharmed during the of the missionary cause. Francis Libermann Afghan invasion in 1752. In the second half of (1802-1852), a convert from Judaism, was the the eighteenth century, Catholic missionary thinker who profoundly integrated the mis- activity went into decline, caused by the sionary ideal into the spiritual life.25 If Ste- eclipse of Spain, the Enlightenment, the sup- phen Neill’s “History of Christian Missions”, pression of the Jesuits22, and the organization- never mentions Libermann, Owen Chad- al destruction following the French Revolu- wick’s, “The Victorian Church” never men- tion. Agra was taken over by the Carmelites in tions missions. That enormous commitment of 1784. The last of the Jesuits had the Church lives and resources went unnoticed. Through- there reconstructed in 1769 and later in 1772, out the second half of the nineteenth century, and it was enlarged in 1835 under Bishop Pez- the Catholic Church in the Punjab was being zoni who in 1832 wrote of the churches in La- restructured. Leo X111’s “Humanae Salus” of hore as: “uguagliate al suolo o abban- 188626 finally concluded centuries of conten- donate.”23 A French priest Fr. Cafferel arrived tion over the Padroado. Lahore became a di- at Lahore from Agra in 1846 and constructed a ocese comprising the whole of the Punjab, the chapel in Lahore paid for by Catholic soldiers. new Bishop Mouard taking up his responsi- It was replaced in 1861. bilities in March 1887. At the same time, the The first half of the 19th century was an age Capuchin order was rearranging its missionary of Protestant mission. By August 1855, the strategy, assigning the Punjab mission to the United Presbyterian Church had begun its Antwerp province with the first missionaries work in the Punjab.24 For Catholics, rebuilding arriving shortly after the new bishop. the Church within Europe took priority. Histo- In the British Protestant case, the relation be- ry normally focuses on Lavigerie (1826-’92) tween missions and governments was one of or Comboni (1831-’81) when it turns to Cath- mutual suspicion. During the missionary re- olic missions in the 19th century. But the cru- vival in the 1790s, most missionaries felt bet- cial point of recovery was earlier, around ter off without state aid, while the imperial 1840. Pope Gregory XVI (1831-46) while government was suspicious of the missionar- conservative at home, was a strong supporter ies’ religious enthusiasm as posing a threat to socio-political order, especially in India. Over 21 E. Maclagan “The Jesuits at the Court of the Great time, these attitudes varied considerably from Mughal” (Dublin, 1938), p 287 n. 149, p.22 n.38. mutually supportive to deeply hostile. This 22 Two volumes of Documenta Indica, in Monu- shifting, complex picture belies the simplistic menta Missionum Societatis Jesu, cover 1540-1549 view of missionary enterprise as a tool of im- and Volume 2 (MHSJ, V), 1550-1553. The second perialism. Four overlapping chronological volume of ‘The Jesuits in Malabar,’ narrates activi- phases from the 1790s to the 1950s are distin- ties in southwest India from the mid-seventeenth guishable.27 The first until c.1840 was marked century to the suspension of the order. R. Pierce by mutual discomfort, missionaries sometimes Beaver, “Jesuit Missions through the Eighteenth Century”, Church History, 22 no 4 Dec 1953, 329- 336. 25 Paul Coulon, Paule Brasseur, “Libermann 1802- 23 Ibid. pp. 30 and 320.n 61. The Afghan invasion of 1852: Une Pensée et une Mystique Missio- Lahore resulted in the expulsion of its Christian ar- naires”,(Paris, Cerf, 1988). tillery corps to Kabul. J. Tieffenthaller, “Brevis ac 26 “Acta Apostolicae Sedis” 19 (1886), 176-184. In succinta narratio expeditionis bellicae” in 1784 following the suppression of the Jesuits, and a "Beschreibung von Hindustan” (Berlin, 1785[sic] Carmelite interlude, Propaganda Fide transferred the vol.2, part 2, pp.174-5. Some of their descendents whole of N. India to the Capuchin mission of Tibet. are in Peshawar to this day. J. Rooney, “On Heels of “Indice dei Decreti della Sacra Congregazione de Battles” pp.98-99, gives the references to the Mill P.Fide,” (1719-1789), 1, 296R. Hill Archives. 27 Andrew Porter, “Church History, History of 24 On the early history of these missions cf. A. Gor- Christianity, Religious History: Some Reflections on don, “Our Indian Mission.” (Philadelphia, 1914); British Missionary Enterprise since the Late Eight- J.W. Pickett “Christian Mass Movements in India” eenth Century,” Church History, 71 no 3 Sep 2002, (Lucknow, 1933). p 555-584. 22

ridiculed as: “little detachments of maniacs.”28 Courteous relations with muslims More persistent was the ambiguous attitude of To a remarkable extent, and for a variety of missions and colonial governments not least in reasons, the nineteenth century was a time of India. From the 1850s to the 1890s, rap- disengagement between Christians and Mus- prochement reflected social realities. Mission- lims. One notable exception is Samuel Adjai aries were now “respectable” their supporters Crowther and the African missionaries of the more widely drawn from the middle and upper Niger.30 In Sierra Leone, the first Christian classes. settlement knew Muslim neighbours and regu- Studies of nineteenth-century recruitment lar Muslim visitors. Missionaries there and and training of Protestant missionaries indi- their sponsoring societies, did not think of cate four clear lines of development: the grow- Muslims as less likely to respond to the Gos- ing proportion of well-educated, middle-class pel than others. Later disengagement between missionaries; rapid recruitment of single Christianity and Islam arose, not from avoid- women after 1860; increasing status and pro- ance of Muslims as unresponsive, but from fessionalization supported by recruitment of new, burgeoning, missionary tasks elsewhere. university graduates, and by more systematic Crowther’s experience in Sierra Leone had training from c.1910 onwards; and the mount- taught him that confrontation was useless. He ing conservatism of lay volunteers aspiring to sought common ground at the nexus of Qur’ân ordination. Missionaries working among Mus- and Bible. He had courteous relations with lims however, were never more than a tiny Muslim rulers, nourishing a hope of reaching minority of the total. “To cite only the beyond them to their barely Islamized peasant- Protestant record of the last century and a half, ry. He recognized the horror Muslims felt at everywhere we find that direct work with Mo- what they misunderstood Christians to be say- hammadans has been the adventure of only a ing. Often, what Muslims shrank from was not courageous few...29” Christian doctrine at all. Crowther and the Af- Nineteenth century encounter with Islam rican missionaries operated in a quite different was often shaped, not by active engagement, Islamic context to India and developed a basis but by factors arising from the long past histo- for continuing operations, seemingly not fol- ries of Europe and Asia, and in settings where lowed up. genuine inter-religious exchange was unthink- In India, Henry Martyn (1781-1812) brought able. For much of the century, writers on mis- a depth of scholarship to the Protestant mis- sion lamented the closed doors of the Ottoman sionary movement. With Martyn, and Samuel Empire. Turkish exclusion of missions, or Lee, comes the first literary response to arise their presence on terms that made engagement out of direct encounter with Muslims since the with Islam at most, indirect, meant that an ex- Jesuit missionaries at Akbar’s court. The near- panding missionary movement which by the est Martyn had to a successor in this respect 1830s reached many parts of the globe, had was Karl Gottlieb Pfänder. only a very small number closely involved In a Europe no longer menaced by Turkey, with Muslims on any regular basis. Turkey the depiction of Islam was becoming more be- expelled all missionaries following conver- nign. Thomas Carlyle’s “Heroes and Hero sions to Christianity accomplished by Karl Worship” (1840) represented Muhammad as a Pfander [v.i.] in 1864. But western perceptions hero. If in areas of engagement, the debate of Islam continued to be moulded by associa- was about the truth of revelation, by 1840, in- tions with the Ottoman Empire, long after the tellectual Europe, suspending that question, political reality had changed. was turning to the issue of whether Islam might be good for “other people.” For Re-

28 Sydney Smith in “The Edinburgh Review,” 12 Apr. 1808, 179-8. 30 Andrew F. Walls, “Africa as the Theatre of Chris- 29 K. D. Wilson Anand, ‘Reorientation of Muslim tian Engagement with Islam in the Nineteenth Cen- Work in India and Pakistan,’ International Review tury,” Journal of Religion in Africa, 29 no 2 1999, of Mission, 39 no 153 Jan 1950, p 83-87. 155-174. 23

ginald Bosworth Smith, responsibilities fol- When in 1739, Nadir Shah sacked Delhi, in lowed British imperial power. In “Mohammed an invasion by other Muslims from which the and Mohammedanism” (1874), he formulates Mughal Empire never recovered, Muhammad the thesis that all religions are moral rather Shäh issued a Royal Order: “All public offic- than theological in origin and exist to meet so- ers should occupy themselves in the discharge cial and national moral needs. of their ordinary duties, except the historians. When with imperial expansion, Britain was These should refrain from recording the events ruling more and more peoples under Islamic of my reign, for at present the record cannot influence, Smith’s book could be read as a be a pleasant one”32. Although the third battle tract for the times: expansion of Islam might of Panipat in 1761 was a victory for Muslim improve the lot of “native peoples”. Truth arms, it marks the end of the Mughul Empire claims were bypassed; administrative conven- as a live force, imposing extended reflection ience held that Islam could be socially elevat- on bewildered, orthodox Muslims. For a pious ing. If in the age of imperialism, much of the Muslim theologian there seemed only one so- Muslim world came under the dominance of lution: the government that had marked not powers spoken of as Christian, this did not the balmy days of the Mughul Empire, but usher in missionary accessibility. The Cali- those of the rashidun in Arabia. phate kept its doors shut; elsewhere the colo- To secure the diffusion of Islamic ideas out- nial powers were often more practised gate- side of the Arabic cultural pattern, Shäh Wali- keepers. ullah (1703-’63) had translated the Qur’ân into Protestant missionary conferences consid- Persian, a move that incensed fundamentalist ered missions in Muslim lands at Cairo in theologians but proved popular.33 Two of his 1906 and Lucknow in 1911. Fifty years earli- sons each translated the Qur’ân into Urdu, the er, missionaries had complained that the Brit- language rapidly replacing Persian as Mughul ish administration was maintaining neutrality power eclipsed. Waliullah saw that more than in India instead of supporting Christianity. At high living and absorption of Hindu customs Cairo they complained that the British gov- had weakened Muslim society. There was no ernment did not practise neutrality. Muslim real unity; it was community divided against missionaries were allowed to go anywhere un- itself. The principal Sufi orders paid little at- der British administration, Christian mission- tention to each other, and all Sufïs faced a aries were restricted. The World Missionary running battle with the “orthodox” who in Conference in Edinburgh in 1919, documented turn, warred on both the Sufïs and the Shi’a. such perceived discrimination by Western Waliullah hoped to achieve unity by empha- governments against Christian missions in Is- sizing early Islam, constantly emphasizing the lamic contexts, and made an official protest to spirit of balance. Ironically, his attempt to uni- the British government. fy the Islamic community produced the oppo- site effect. Increasing reliance on solely scrip- Decline & fall tural norms to define Islamic identity, mutated Muslim political presence in the Indian sub- continent was predicated on rule. Islam was constructed as the apex of universal order, its relationship to power, divinely endorsed. For traditionalists: “It was really very difficult to imagine how a thinking Muslim of the early mad Khan and Jamäl al-Din al-Afghäni,” Hamdard twentieth century could have looked at the Islamicus Vol. XXIII, No. 3, 33-51. events of the past 200 years as less than a his- 32 ‘Tarikh-i-Chaghatai of Muhammad Shafi’, in El- toric catastrophe for the religion and the civi- liot and Dowson, “The History of India as Told by lization to which he belonged.”31 its own Historians,” vol 19, S. Gupta, Calcutta, 19- 20. 33 Freeland Knight Abbott, “The Decline of the 31 Abdul Majid Khan, “Western Impact and the Mughul Empire and Shah Waliullah,” The Muslim Muslim Responses: A Case study of Sir Syed Ah- World, 52 no 2 Apr 1962, 115-123. 24

into a full-blown, deeply divisive, sectarian, January and August 1845. Pfander expressed scripturalist movement.34 confidence in “the efficacy of a technological- ly superior and socially progressive Europe in Fundamentalists of the book ensuring the eventual success of the Gospel”. William Carey (1761-1834)35 recorded how Although the East India Company claimed a his first meeting with Muslims in January policy of religious neutrality, support given to 1794, turned into a disputation on the relative some missions by some sympathetic colonial merits of Bible and Qur’ân. Muslims argued officials seemed part of an effort to undermine that Jews and Christians had corrupted the Bi- India's religious heritage. The bitterly anti- ble, which was why God revealed the Qur’ân Christian literature that Pfander's books pro- to Muhammad. The ensuing theological im- voked, still colours Muslim polemic today, as passe was typical of most subsequent encoun- in the work of Ahmed Deedat38. ters. On another occasion, Carey was called In Agra, polemical Christian books against before Lord Minto's staff to answer for a tract Islam were being published. 'Balance of Truth' questioning the wisdom of anyone who fol- was used by generations of Protestant mis- lowed the “tyrant”36 Muhammad or subscribed sionaries as a tool to refute Islam, reprinted to his religion. The British policy was that many times even up to the present. Rahmat- printed works which called for people to leave ullâh Ibn Khalîl al-'Uthmânî al-Kairânawî their traditions behind could only breed public (1818-91) who had battled against Protestant strife. Carey eventually discovered that the missionaries in India from the beginning of tract about Muhammad had been altered by a the 1850s, had by 1855 already written three Muslim convert before its publication and was polemical works against Christianity, often not the work of the missionaries. with the help of a Bengali physician Muham- Karl Gottlieb Pfander37 (1803-1865), a pie- mad Wazîr Khân. In 1854, after a decade of tistic, evangelical Protestant, wrote scholarly antagonistic literary exchange, al-Kairânawî works to convince Muslims of what he saw as challenged Pfander to a public debate, with Christianity's “ineffable superiority”. The Muhammad Wazîr Khân acting as interpreter German manuscript of his Mizan-al-haqq between the Urdu and English speaking partic- (Balance of Truth) was completed in 1829. ipants. The 1854 Agra debate was a mile- The Urdu version appeared in 1843. For stone,39 still recalled in the Muslim world to- Pfander, since both Islam and Christianity day. Whereas it had been planned to extend claim to be God's final revelation, one must be the discussion to the Trinity, the Qur’ân as right, one wrong. Muslims soon responded to Word of God, and the sending of Muhammad, his arguments with letters, pamphlets, and ar- the debate never got beyond discussing the ticles in the Urdu press especially between “deviation” of the Christian Scriptures.40 Pfander was unprepared for his opponents'

34 use of European biblical criticism to impugn David Gilmartin, “Empire and Islam: Punjab and the historicity of Scripture, especially George the Making of Pakistan,” (London: Uni. of CA Eliot's 1847 translation of D. F. Strauss's Das Press, 1988). 61. 35 Galen Κ. Johnson, ‘William Carey's Muslim En- Leben Jesu (1835), published when he had al- counters in India,’ Baptist History and Heritage, Spring 2004, 100-108. 38 Goolam Vahed, “Ahmad Deedat's theology of re- 36 Here as elsewhere in this article I am summarizing ligion: apologetics through polemics”, Journal for what various scholars wrote and not offering my Islamic Studies, 29 2009, 2-32. own view. 39 Narayani Gupta. ‘Delhi, between two Empires 37 Clinton Bennet, ‘The Legacy of Karl Gottlieb 1803-1931,’(Delhi, 1981), 79. Pfander,’ International Bulletin of Missionary Re- 40 Christine Schirrmacher, “The Influence of Euro- search, April 1996, 76-81. Christine Schirrmacher, pean Higher Criticism on Muslim Apologetics in the ‘The influence of German Biblical criticism on Mus- Nineteenth Century”, appendix to [ed. Ruth Bald- lim apologetics in the 19th century”, win], ‘The Islamic View of Major Christian Teach- http://www.contra- ings’ (WEA, Global Issues Series Volume 2, Bonn mundum.org/schirrmacher/rationalism.html 2008), 119- 139. 25

ready been ten years abroad, and found it im- haqq is the basic work which continues to possible not to admit to disharmonies between function as an arsenal for Muslim apologetics the four Gospels explicable by mere copyist from the nineteenth century down to today.43 error. These books were probably brought from England by Muhammad Wazîr Khân Critical redaction history who had studied there.41 New Testament (NT) Al-Kairânawî took advantage of the critical textual criticism had developed from the be- orientation of nineteenth-century European ginning of the eighteenth century42 but this theology which quickly found its way into the was not yet the form-criticism of Strauss Muslim world, its findings enthusiastically which confounded Pfander. Against this new taken as proof of the Muslim polemic of a cor- attack he was helpless. His writings responded rupted Bible. During the Agra-debate, he to traditional Muslim charges against Christi- quoted these critical liberals to “show” con- anity, not to critical Redaktionsgeschichte now servative missionaries that Christian theology presented from a Muslim perspective. To his had already produced evidence that the Bible Muslim audience this was taken as evidence is historically unreliable. He was probably the that the NT had been abrogated by the Qur’ân. first Muslim apologist to do so. This line of The debate was a prelude to al-Kairânawî’s argument has strongly marked Muslim con- future impact, especially in his: “Demonstra- troversy ever since. tion of the Truth”, Izhâr al-haqq, composed as Al-Kairânawî mentioned the “Gospel of a response to Pfander's “Balance of Truth”, Barnabas” for the first time in 1854, his Urdu Mîzân al-haqq. It is still being reprinted: in work I'jâz-i 'Isâwî, possibly introducing it to 1964 in Morocco; Arabic editions in 1978; in the Muslim world, and afterwards in “Demon- 1989 a short version in English, published in stration of the Truth,” from 1867 onwards, as London. The Sunni 19th century “reform- an old Christian Gospel which foretells the wing” theologian Rashîd Ridâ made extensive coming of Muhammad. Only a few fragments use of it. George Anawati wrote that izhâr al- were known when al-Kairânawî used it as a weapon against the Christian rejection of Mu-

41 hammad. It was lauded in numerous books A repeated allegation - highly unlikely - that al- Kairânawî received these works from Catholic mis- and pamphlets by Muslim apologists as the sionaries, is traceable to Eugene Stock, “The History only true Gospel because it “proves that Jesus of the Church Missionary Society”, (3 vols., London Christ did not die on the cross”; Judas was 1899-1916, vol. 2) where it is gratuitously asserted transformed into the likeness of Jesus and cru- on p. 171. cified, while everybody thought he was Jesus; 42 John Mill had amassed a greater collection of ma- the Qur'ân is thereby constructed as denying terials. In 1720, Richard Bentley wrote that variant the crucifixion of Jesus. readings indicated only about two hundred minor The six volumes of “The Demonstration of differences where the true text can be a matter of the Truth' served as a summary of all charges doubt. In 1730 Johann Jakob Wettstein’s designation against Christianity and were used like an en- of manuscripts, made it possible to condense refer- cyclopaedia. This stretched Qur'ânic criticism ences. In 1742 John Albert Bengel gives textual principles: antiquity of witnesses; diversity and ages of the “corruption of the Bible” to the novel from which readings come; number of witnesses; the conclusion that the biblical texts are totally origin of a corrupt reading must be sought to recon- distorted, corrupted and unreliable in all their struct the original; “The native appearance of the historical, dogmatic and narrative passages. genuine reading;" a difficult reading preferred to an Up to today despite the more nuanced assess- easy one. In J. J. Griesbach’s study of internal evi- dence: the shorter reading was to be preferred; the obscure reading was to be chosen; readings support- 43 “C'est le grand ouvrage de base qui a servi et con- ing controversies to be carefully examined; readings tinue à servir d'arsenal pour les apologistes musul- seemingly imported from the Latin to be rejected. mans de la fin du 19e siècle jusqu'à nos jours“G. C. Lyle O. Bristol, ‘New Testament Textual Criticism Anawati, “Polémique, Apologie et Dialogue Islamo- in the Eighteenth Century,’ Journal of Biblical Liter- Chrétiens”, Positions Classiques Médiévales et Posi- ature, 69 no 2 Jun 1950, 101-112. tions Contemporaines, Euntes Docete, 22/1969, 420. 26

ment of Tabari, Qurtubi, Razi, Ibn Taymiyya link between medieval Qur’ân criticism and and Qutb,44 Muslim polemics generally pursue historical criticism of the Bible. Reference to this attitude: contending that Christian theolo- Islam is no coincidence. He recognizes gians admit that the Bible, as we have it today, Reimarus' equivalence of these two fields of is full of errors, contradictions and wilful dis- investigation. Real biblical history, according tortions. to both, is common history loosed from reli- gious superimpositions. Thenceforth NT texts Critical study of new testament but not of were read with an attitude inherited from me- Qur’ân dieval, critical reading of the Qur’ân. Strauss' Eager Islamic application of Strauss’ decon- biography of Reimarus confirms that such structive, historical criticism of the NT seldom reading had a crucial influence on the devel- grasps that Strauss’ method, and its succes- opment of biblical criticism. Muslim contro- sors, rooted in the rationalistic Deism of Her- versialists accepted the results of Strauss’ mann Reimarus (1694-1768), implies a similar method but not the method itself, which if historical-critical reading of the Qur’ân as of true, as embracing its results implied, would any religio-historical text. Muslim commenta- be applicable to all religious texts, including tors rejoiced in the results of this method as their own. applied to the NT, but rejected the method it- self. Reimarus had demanded that the Bible be Different views of Islam read in the same way as other literature, but Sir William Muir (1819-1905) believed that his examples in the Wolfenbüttel Fragments if missionaries were successfully to “refute” are mostly taken from his study of the Qur’ân Islam they needed more accurate resources where he adopted the criteria of Riccoldo da than those available to their predecessors. Monte di Croce’s Confutatio Alcorani Christians could use Islam's own “best (c.1300), then the most influential work in this sources” to prove to Muslims: “that they are field, retranslated as recently as 2010. deceived and superstitious in many important Reimarus asserted that the Bible must be points”.46 His perspective in “The Moham- read according to those principles with which madan Controversy”47 was unreconstructedly Western scholars then read the Qur’ân.45 He colonialist both politically and religiously. directed his criticism of the lack of consisten- “The fourth grand era of the connection of cy in biblical writings along the lines of Christianity with Islam arose with the domin- Qur’ân criticism: the real religion behind the ion of Europeans in India. And here every cir- Qur’ân must be identical with a natural reli- cumstance was in our favour.” This was Chris- gion; thus the standard according to which tianity of a conspicuously British Protestant such texts shall be interpreted must be found hue: “Now, at least, we might have expected outside the writings themselves. He follows that Christian Europe would early have im- every rule and criterion Riccoldo uses in his proved her advantages for evangelising the analysis of the Qur’ân, emphasizing that the East; that Britain, the bulwark of religion in same criteria must be applied to both Qur’ân the West, would have stepped forth as its and Bible. champion in the East”. He is unselfconscious- Unlike several later commentators on the ly jealous that in India, British Protestants birth of critical, biblical research, Strauss, in were preceded in this task by Portuguese applying Reimarus' principles, still notes the Catholics: “It is certainly not very flattering to our national pride that the Portuguese should

44 Abdullah Saeed, ‘The charge of distortion of Jew- ish and Christian scriptures,’ The Muslim World, 92 46 Clinton Bennett, “Victorian Images of Is- no 3 - no 4 Fall 2002, 419-436. lam”, International Bulletin of Missionary Research, 45 Timo Eskola, “Quran criticism, the historical- 15 no 3 Jul 1991, 115-119. critical method, and the secularization of biblical 47 Full text accessible at theology” Journal of Theological Interpretation, 4 no https://archive.org/details/mohammedancontro00mui 2 Fall 2010, 229-251. r 27 have so long preceded us in the endeavour to other religion should constantly "turn the mir- place the arguments for our faith before the ror in upon himself.” Mohammedans.” His attitude was questioned by Charles For- A muslim translating the Bible ster (1787-1871) in “Mahometanism Un- Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) “was im- veiled” (1829) which Muir reviewed in an ar- pressed by the overall fairness of Muir’s ticle, later republished in “The Mohammedan work”48 if profoundly challenged by it49 and Controversy” (1897). In describing the debates responded to Pfander’s and Muir’s call for a between Pfander and the ‘ulema, Muir credit- Muslim study of the Bible. The issue of the ed Pfander with victory, suggesting that with Bible’s accuracy had become central after the better sources at their disposal, the position of 1854 Agra debate with form-criticism increas- Christian missionaries was unassailable. ingly exploited by Muslim scholars to contend Different views of Islam adopted by these that it was a corrupt, unreliable text. Sayyid two were due less to encounter or lack of en- Ahmad Khan also wrote in defence of Islam, counter with Muslims, than to their theologi- but convinced of the genuineness of the pre- cal assumptions. Muir, as did William St. sent Biblical text, he distinguished tahrif-i Clair-Tisdall (1859-1928) and John Drew Bate lafsi – corruption of the text – from tahrif –i (1836-1923), identified strongly with Henry ma’nami – corruption in the interpretation; Martyn, Muir’s “champion of England's hon- and also came to a different understanding of our.” Muir was also influenced by the Apolo- abrogation. He began publishing his commen- gy of Al-Kindi, which he translated into Eng- tary, Tabyin al-kalam, in 1862,50 intending to lish. Forster was influenced by his awareness dispel distrust between the two communities of creative exchange that took place in Moris- heightened by the events of 1857. It was ini- co Spain. In his view, Islam's origin, success tially conceived as a commentary on the and permanence, no less than Christianity's, whole Bible, seeking to instruct Muslims re- was explicable only by: “the special superin- garding the place of Judeo-Christian Scrip- tending providence of God.” Forster's work at- tures in a Muslim understanding of divine rev- tracted fierce criticism as well as cautious elation. At the same time, it was intended to praise, remaining a debating point throughout assure Christians that Muslims respected the the century. authority of the Bible as divine revelation. John Frederick Denison Maurice (1805- Three volumes were published. The first 1872) began with a premise not dissimilar to deals with the authenticity of the Christian Forster's: all religions have their origin in the scriptures; charges of corruption and the ques- divine. Each stresses a vital aspect of divine tion of abrogation, demonstrating that Muslim truth while only Christianity holds all aspects scholars in ages past taught that falsification together in harmony. All are “in Christ” of the scriptural text by Christians had not tak- whether they know it or not. Reginald Bos- en place, only deliberate misinterpretation of worth Smith (1839-1909) saw Islam as an ally, the text. The second is a commentary on Gen- attracting the gratitude and appreciation of esis 1-2 giving the Hebrew text and an Urdu Muslims who found his picture of Muhammad interlinear translation, followed by an English one they could believe. Those same commen- version. The third is a commentary on Mat- tators considered Muir an “avowed enemy of thew 1-5, extant only in Urdu. The language Islam.” Other historians criticized Muir for failing to apply to his own tradition the critical apparatus he applied to Islam. He employed 48 A Series of Essays on the Life of Muhammad,’ redaction criticism in reading the Qur’ân but (London, 1870). 49 wrote of the Pentateuch as the work of one William Muir, “The Life of Mohamet and the His- hand. Smith, maligned by the missionary tory of Islam to the Fall of Belgrade”, (London, press, was well received by Orientalists who 1861; repr. Osnabrück, 1988). 50Alan M. Guenther, “Christian responses to Ahmad regarded it as axiomatic that the student of an- Khan's Commentary on the Bible” Comparative Is- lamic Studies, 6.1-2 (2010) 67-100. 28

of his commentary is Qur’ânic, not that of increasing frequency by Muslim contemporar- Christian exegesis. He holds that the Bible ies. But respondents generally interpreted the contains the original text: “except that there commentary in the light of their own efforts to remain a few passages that...have not been bring Christianity to India. Their response to brought back into correspondence with the the uniqueness of a Muslim commentary on original texts and others that are still obscure the Bible fell short of Sayyid Khan’s expecta- (mustabih)...”51 tions. They saw his efforts as a development Accepting the integrity of the Christian in Muslim thought, bringing it closer to the scriptures raised the question of where they truth of Christianity and felt that he had little stand vis-a-vis the Qur’ân. He appealed to the to offer in explaining the biblical text: a sign distinction between wahy matlu – verbal reve- that Muslim prejudices against Christianity lation – and wahy ghair matlu – the term usu- were weakening; that the conversion of India ally applied to Hadith; and further distin- was progressing. guished passages that are khas matn or merely riwayat: only the former considered wahy Representations of Muhammad matlu. This view of “the heavenly books” hav- The life of Muhammad best known in eight- ing a common origin in God but a different eenth century Britain was that of Humphrey revelatory character, posed for Muslims the Prideaux (1679). Prideaux’s Muhammad was problem of belief both in the superiority of the above all an imposter.53 George Sale’s “Ko- Qur’ân and in the revealed character of other ran” with massive notes, was the standard scriptures. Here he adopts Shah Wali Ullah’s English version for a century and a half. Un- distinction between one din and many like Sale who never left England, E.W. Lane shar’iahs, but differs from him regarding went to Egypt to study Arabic and published naskh and therefore argues the permanent sig- “Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyp- nificance of pre-Qur’ânic scripture. Naskh for tians” (1836). Later editions of Pfander’s Mi- Sayyid Ahmad Khan was “the passing of the zan-al-haqq included unhappy references to period for an appointed hukm.” He illustrates the work of Gustav Weil (1808-89) whose un- this in detail in his commentary on Matthew seemly portrayal of Muhammad was followed 5:17-20.52 Thus Islam must assess the present in some nineteenth-century books. By then Jewish and Christian scriptures positively. In flexibility in theological thinking was modify- assessing the NT apostolic writings, he some- ing the attitude of some missionaries in India. what downplays differences, but insists that The assumption that the missionary image of the Qur’ân’s use of tahirf does not warrant the Muhammad was merely a continuation of me- view that the NT Scriptures are totally cor- dieval polemics, fails to take into account new rupted and must be entirely rejected. By ap- access to primary sources Europeans had by plying proper exegetical methods, he argues, the mid-nineteenth century. A. Sprenger and the genuine injil can be discerned within the Muir utilized MSS from libraries in northern four gospels of the NT. India to prepare new biographies of Muham- Christians who responded, lauded his clarifi- mad, applying Western historiographical cation from writings of medieval Muslim methods.54 scholars that the Judeo-Christian Scriptures A comparison of Thomas Patrick Hughes had not been corrupted, a charge voiced with (1838-1911) and Elwood Morris Wherry

51 ‘Tayim al kalam’ vol. 1 p.150 as cited by C.Troll, 53 Here as elsewhere in this article I am summarizing ‘Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) and the Nine- what various scholars wrote and not offering my teenth Century Renewal of ‘ilm al-Kalam,’ in ID.’ own view. Prideaux’s views as well as many others Aspects of Religious Thought in Modern Muslim have long been surpassed. India,’ (Sang-e Meel, Lahore, 2025) 6-35, pp. 14-15. 54 Alan M. Guenther, “The Image of the Prophet as 52 C. Troll, ‘Sayyid Ahmad Khan on Matthew 5:17,’ Found in Missionary Writings of the Late Nine- in ‘Aspects of Religious Thought in Modern Muslim teenth Century”, Muslim World, Vol. 90, Spr., 2000, India,’112-117. 43-70. 29

(1843-1927) indicates how theological pre- logue with Muslims of various, sectarian suppositions pre-determined one’s view of backgrounds. While their image of Muham- Muhammad. Hughes published his “Diction- mad was similar, difference in approach re- ary of Islam” in 1895 but his first major sulted in diverging conclusions. Hughes at- statement on Islam was a review of Bosworth tributed misunderstandings of Christianity Smith's “Mohammad and Mohammadanism” among Muslims, to the methods peculiar to (1874). That book was more "conciliatory" Protestant Evangelical missionary work. towards Islam, in contrast to the "confronta- Wherry remained rooted in evangelical pre- tional" approach of Muir. Hughes recognized suppositions. He had "everything to teach and that the reason biographies by Sprenger and nothing of importance to learn." Muir differed from those by Ahmad Khan and Amir 'Ali was their different sources. The New movements former two looked to al-Waqidi (d. 822) and The Deoband Seminary, established 1867, his Kattb, Ibn Sa'd (d. 845). Ahmad Khan and also contributed to a climate of polemic. Deo- Amir 'Ali preferred Ibn Hishäm (d. 834) as did band initially pursued: “a strategy of turning most Muslims. For Hughes: “Mohammad was within, eschewing for the time being, all con- one of the greatest men the world has pro- cern with the organization of the state and re- duced." Not only did Muhammad genuinely lations with other communities.”56 By the end believe he was inspired by God, the graphic of the century, Deoband had spun off some account of his first revelation compels the un- two-dozen other seminaries across the sub- prejudiced: “to admit that it bears evidence of continent. The `ulema who founded this truth.” school, by employing fatwas, increasingly dis- He distinguished clear developments in Mu- seminated through print, responded to inquir- hammad’s stance. Chronological arrangement ies from followers with advisory opinions. of the surahs of the Qur’ân disclosed how The emergence of a professionalized ‘ulema Muhammad began as an earnest religious re- class belonging to a new Islamic school within former, but in Medina became a legislator and a decade of 1857, holding public debates with warrior, subjecting: "conscience, reason, appe- Hindus and Christians, dents the thesis that tite and affection to ambition, love of power Deoband continuously emphasized the per- and sensuality."55 This was reflected in chang- sonal over the public.57 es in the Qur’ân’s style: "poetry often gives The polemical tone of nineteenth century way to prose, and obedience to God is then exchanges was not softened by the rise of the coupled with obedience to God's Apostle." Ahmadiyya.58 The earliest reactions against Elwood Morris Wherry a missionary with Ghuläm Ahmad came from fellow Muslims the American Presbyterian Mission in the Pun- but by the middle of 1895, Ahmad had also jab (1868-1922), addressed the Prophet's as- engaged in controversies with Christians and sumed sinlessness. From the Qur’ân, he Aryas, reaching their apex during 1898-‘9. demonstrated that Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Ahmed’s frequent use of the printed word was Moses had either sinned, or requested God's in line with other contemporary religious and forgiveness - thereby illustrating the centrality political leaders in a development partly influ- of “sin” in his theology. Sin, requiring divine enced by the Christian missionary move- forgiveness, disqualified from being an inter- cessor on behalf of other sinners. Reliance on 56 Barbara Metcalf, Islamic Revival in British India: quotations from the Qur’ân to determine nor- Deoband 1860-1900 (Princeton: Princeton Universi- mative Islam is indicative of his Biblicist the- ty Press, 1982), 11-12, cf. 5-6. ology. 57Muhammad Qasim Zaman, ‘The 'Ulama in Con- Both Hughes and Wherry distanced them- temporary Islam: Custodians of Change,’ (Princeton: Princeton Uni. Press, 2002), 12-13. selves from earlier writing by researching 58 original Muslim sources, in a continuous dia- Spencer Lavan, “Polemics and Conflict in Ahmad- iyya History: The 'Ulama, The Missionaries, and the British (1898)”, The Muslim World, vol. LXII Oc- 55 Cf. notes 22 & 39. tober, 1972 No. 4, 283 -303. 30

ment.59 Ahmad held his first debates with Modern tafsir and Christian beliefs Christian missionaries at Sialkot. Through the Modern tafsir is robustly critical of Christian pages of Nür-i-Afshän, published since 1873 beliefs. Al-Alusi (d. 1854) departs from clas- several Indian Christians, connected both with sical exegesis to offer criticism of Jacobite and the American Presbyterian Mission and the Orthodox Christologies. He dismisses the CMS in the Punjab, had already spoken of the formula that Jesus’ “nasut” was crucified but growing influence of Ahmad. his “lasut” was not,’ as if targeting Is- At Batäla, Ahmad began a prophesying de- ma’ilism. In his view, both Jews and Christ- bate with Fath Masih a protege of H. U. Weit- ians are “full of doubt” regarding the crucifix- brecht-Stanton. Believing he had bested Fath ion. There may be a link here to Al-Suyuti’s Masïh because the latter could not admit to anachronistic attempt to trace the origin of having received direct revelations, Ahmad re- Christian sects to Ibn “Abbas” legend that mained in Batála with the aim of challenging when Jesus asked for volunteers to be cruci- any European Christian to debate. Henry fied in his place, three stepped forward: these Martyn Clark accepted, the date set for May- were the originators of Nestorians, Jacobites June 1893. Ahmad would represent the Mus- and Muslims. lims and 'Abd-Alläh ‘Äsim, the Christians. Al-Alusi (d.1854) includes Zamakshari’s Ahmad would explain his claim that “every analysis of Qur’ân 4:157 without crediting religion should prove its truth with living Zamakshari, but does not dwell on it, though signs” and would question the divinity of Je- the same could be said of al-Razi [v.i] – giving sus. ‘Äsim would question Ahmad on the it only as one statement among many. Yet he claim of the Qur’än being the Word of God is clear that wa lekin shubbiha lahum is God’s and of Muhammad being a messenger of God. counter-assertion against the Jews’ perfidious As the debate progressed, relations became claims. He writes that both Christians and acrimonious. Ahmad told of a “sign” received Jews were full of doubts and clearly prefers from God, that of the two parties to the debate Substitution, making no reference to the work the one who was deliberately following a of al-Razi and avoiding subjects and scholars falsehood would within fifteen months, each he prefers not to discuss. As with much con- month corresponding to a day of this debate, temporary polemics on this question, “Selec- be severely disgraced if he did not turn to the tive and superficial treatment of the earlier ex- “truth” On the night that Ahmad’s prophecy egetes depends for its success upon a lack of expired, ‘Abd-Allah ‘Âsim was in better familiarity among al-Alusi’s readership.” 60 health than he had been for a long time. The Modern tafsir refrains from citing Hadith, most contentious issue followed publication of reflecting contemporary scholarship regarding a tract entitled ‘Ummahät al-Muminïn’ appar- their historicity. Overall it seeks to be rational, ently written by an Indian Christian, Ahmad reflecting the episteme of the period. The Shäh Shaykh, in the style of an earlier banned trend was to minimize the value of Traditions pamphlet of 1892. Muslims condemned it for especially those dependent on Isra’iliyyat. “abusing the Prophet ... and circulating this Several versions of the Substitution legend fall work among the Muhammadans,” to wound into this category since they are related on the their religious feelings. Nür-i-Afshän gloating- authority of Jews and Christians. For Bint al- ly replied that so many orders had been re- Shafi: ‘to be avoided are all sectarian interpre- ceived for the pamphlet that it was now out of tations and all intrusive Isra’iliyyat (Jewish or stock. Christian materials) that were forced on the

59 Some have speculated that the Ahmadîya- standpoint originated in the rationalism of Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob Paulus (1761-1851) who main- tained that Christ ‘has shown himself to his disciples 60 Todd Lawson, “The Crucifixion and the Qur’an”, as somebody being revived from the dead”. p. 122. 31

books of tafsir’. “Only what agrees with the displays critical concern buttressed by polemi- text may be accepted”61. cal argument. His commentary on 4:157 has Substitutionism is based on traditions de- two sections: the first, along the lines of tradi- monized by al-Katir as Ira’iliyyat. Thus Wahb tional interlinear exegesis; the second, a po- ibn Munabbil (d.732) known for his lemical tafsir which while lacking the gram- knowledge of Judaism and Christianity, is the matical analysis of the rationalists, criticises source of many traditions dealing with biblical the Christian creed in detail. He eschews Mus- subjects, in modern times anathemized. Ironi- lim tradition which reads “messenger of God” cally, most influential traditions denying that in 4: 157, as Jewish insolence, stating that it is Jesus was crucified are traceable to his author- a Qur’ânic affirmation of Jesus’ apostleship ity. Al-Tabari gives two accounts of the cruci- and thereby a rejection of his divinity as as- fixion which differ in crucial areas. In the first cribed by Christian faith. 63 and preferred account, a disciple volunteered He holds that “they” did not kill Jesus but a to take the place of Jesus after God changed double, al-shabah.’ Thus far, Rida merely re- all the disciples into the likeness of Jesus. In peats the Traditions, even if polemically, the second – which has the most “Christian,” while allowing that it is not possible to say read “apocryphal,” information – Judas is what really happened. For Rida doubt was changed into the likeness of Jesus. This con- complete. None of the witnesses were free of tains the longest Hadith. While Wahb certain- it. Those who followed conjecture glazed over ly had a detailed knowledge of Biblical tradi- what happened with disagreement or fancy. tion, his books are questionable as to author- This doubt surrounding the crucifixion is in- ship. They were used by ibn Ishaq regarding decision, taraddad, as to whether Jesus or an- the origins of Christianity but avoided as a other was killed. Despite repeatedly question- source in the Sirat Rasul Allah. ing the reliability of the NT he quotes Matt 26:31 “You will all fall away [doubt] from me Nineteenth-century modernists this night. His Arabic translation gives “kulli- The views of nineteenth-century modernists kun tashakuna fiya fi hadhihi al-layla.64 such as Muhammad ‘Abduh were adopted in Though it is not impossible that a case of mis- significant measure by several later thinkers. taken identity occurred, the whole story is This approach demythologizes by interpreting based on an imperfectly transmitted account. tradition metaphorically. Ahmad Mustafa al- On this point he argues, the musaffirun bi’l- Maraghï, offers a rationalistic view: what is ma’thur are in disagreement because their in- meant by Christ's return to the earth and his formation came from Jews and Christians nei- rule over it is: "the domination of his spirit and ther of whom had certain knowledge. Curious- the mystery of his message over humanity in ly he then turns to a literalist interpretation of order that men may live by the inner meaning the mi’raj and reliance on pseudo-Barnabas, of the law (sharia) without being bound by its the first exegete to do so.65 He breaks with the outer shell."

Rashïd Rida (d.1935) is cautious about tak- to support unlikely arguments. Later Rida actively ing the traditions regarding the ascension and 62 promoted Wahhabism in contrast to ‘Abduh's de- return of Jesus, metaphorically. His tafsir nunciation of it for coarse literalism. Rida was much less tolerant than ‘Abduh of the ‘Other,’ making vi- 61 Issa J. Boulata, “Modern Qur’an Exegesis, A cious accusations against oriental Christians. Ana Study of Bint al-Shati’s Method,” Muslim World, Belén Soage, ‘Rashid Rida's Legacy,’ The Muslim 64, 2, 1974, 103-113, 105. World, Vol. 98, Jan. 2008, 1-23. 62 Some consider Rashid Rida as ‘Abduh’s succes- 63 Lawson, op cit., 123-128. sor, Assad N. Busool, “Shaykh Muhammad Rashid 64 The text. Rida’s Relations With Jamal Al-Din Al-Afghani and is: Πάντες ὑµεῖς σκανδαλισθήσεσθε ἐν ἐµοὶ ἐν τῇ νυ Muhammad ‘Abduh,” The Muslim World, 66 no 4 κτὶ ταύτῃ: it reads ‘scandalized’ so arguably ‘doubt’ Oct 1976, 272-296. Rida’s biography of ‘Abduh in that sense, but not in the sense of mistaken identi- contains several instances where he designates him- ty. self as successor even invoking ‘Abhuh’s authority 65 To be studied in another paper. 32

legends of the mufassarin with their Jewish on these two verses by admitting that the and Christian provenance, yet asserts the non- Qur’ân itself is not firm, lam yabath, on the crucifixion of Jesus solely on the basis of question. psuedo-Barnabas. Nonetheless he concedes that the Qur’ân is not definitive on this ques- Twentieth century tion. Rida even uses the Ahmadiyyan argu- Sayyid Qutb was executed by the Nassar re- ment that Jesus’ tomb is in Kashmir. Earlier gime in 1966. His complete tafsir of the Sayyed Ahmad Khan had written: “it is certain Qur’ân is in the nature of an enormous collec- that at that moment he was still alive” i.e., af- tion of sermons still very influential. Qutb’s ter 3-4 hours of crucifixion when Jesus was conceptual framework was the aesthetic ap- taken down from the cross66. preciation of the Qur’ân, focused on its ca- In Rida’s championing of pseudo-Barnabas, pacity to move individual sensibilities through as exemplified in the translations he commis- the beauty of its imagery. He is explicit about sioned, he dispenses with evidence undermin- the novelty of his approach: the early com- ing its reliability, in particular omitting the 76- mentators were too preoccupied with “word- page critical, scholarly introduction of the first ing” and “meaning” and the internal ordering English translation.67 A tendency developed of the Qur’ân to notice “the comprehensive among succeeding writers to shortcut exegeti- rule” which governed its disparate compo- cal discussion by appealing to pseudo- nents. Qutb “aestheticizes” Islamist assertion: Barnabas, though without applying to that text tafsir holds the individual in “beautiful accord, the rigorous historical criticism they enjoyed implementing within his consciousness a radi- seeing applied to the canonical Gospels. Rida cal transformation of belief and religious sen- inconsistently postulates the NT as unreliable sibility.”69 but affirms psuedo-Barnabas as authentic and He sees 4:157-8 as a divine reprimand to the acceptable. In a second discussion he repudi- Jews but reads these verses as also singling ates the crucifixion – though seemingly to at- out Christians for their conjecture about the tack the Christian doctrine of redemption, re- crucifixion. Contrary to Rida, he holds “mes- peating his view that the NT is untrustworthy. senger of God”; was spoken in ridicule, add- This combination of philology and tradition- ing that no one has spoken of the crucifixion alism lacks grammatical analysis as well as with certainty – it being very difficult to de- reference to the rationalists’ discussion of the termine exactly what happened. For Qutb the irrationality of identity transfer. Rida actually environment of the NT is one of fear and the argues for Substitution citing past judicial er- texts, especially the fourth gospel, and not rors regarding mistaken identity. He affirms above suspicion, al-shababat. He dismisses al-Radi’s argument that Jesus was not raised the Gospel of John’s account of the crucifix- to a “place.” Yet by contrast with al-Radi’s ion as disgusting, qabih. Qutb also accepts demythologization of locomotive ascension, pseudo-Barnabas’ version that the image and Rida in referring to 3:55 re 4:157, argues that voice of Jesus were cast upon Judas. While he Jesus was raised in body and spirit. The basis argues that we cannot be certain about these of his argument is that Muhammad saw Jesus events, since the Qur’ân does not offer any de- during the mi’raj – though he “saw” all the tails about Jesus being raised to God, he still other prophets too.68 Rida ends his discussion holds to substitution: pace Ayoub, it is the de- tails in the fables that he discounts. 66 J.M.S. Baljon, “Modern Muslim Koran Interpreta- Engaging in speculative tafsir was contrary tion 1880-1960,” (Brill, Leiden, 1975), 13 as cited to the philosophy of fi Ziläl il-Qur’än. Com- by Todd Lawson op. cit., p.115. 67 Lonsdale & Laura Ragg, The Gospel of Barnabas, (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1907). of the Overlooked Fatwa,’ Journal of Ecumenical 68Mahmoud Shaltut, in discussing the issue of the Studies, 46, 3, Summer 2011. Night Ascent and Muhammad's meeting with the 69John Qutb, “Qur’anic Aesthetics in the Thought of earlier prophets, insisted that the meeting was spir- Sayyid Qutb,” Religious Studies and Theology, 15 itual, not physical. Khaleel Mohammed, ‘The Case no 2 - no 3 Dec 1996, p 61-76. 33

menting on the narrative on Zakariyya and al content” would have epistemological and Maryam, Qutb refused to follow commenta- theological implications especially in relation tors who filled pages of tafsir with specula- to substitution by divine rescue, identity trans- tion: “We are not going to involve in probing fer, locomotive ascension and second physical into the nature of sustenance which Maryam advent. was getting through the divine source. All we Al-Tabataba’i (1903-1981) asserts that it know through the Qur’ânic text is that she was was the Romans, not the Jews who were re- being taken care of by the special grace of Al- sponsible for killing Jesus, a point of view lah”. Similarly, he refused to engage with var- taken up by some Christian commentators. ious divergent views about the true position of Consequently he confronts neither Jews nor Jesus, whether he is dead, alive; with God, in Christians. His highly conjectural specula- the grave and whether or not he would come tions, replete with conditional statements, that back to this world. 70 the stories relating to Jesus refer to two men He insists that we have no Qur’ânic details called Christ who lived five hundred years as to who the substitute was. All we have is apart - the earlier was the true Messiah, nei- Qur’ân 3:55 but this gives no details about the ther killed nor crucified; the later, false Messi- death. In his view, we cannot be certain about ah, was crucified - leaves his contribution dif- these events nor can we ascertain who dis- ficult to assess. He adds the get-out clause, agreed about them, so rather than resort to un- “and God knows best.” trustworthy fables, asatir, he will take refuge “in the shadow of the Qur’ân.” He specifies Confrontation of two scriptural funda that: “as for the manner of his death and as- mentalism sumption, these are matters belonging to the In the nineteenth-century Muslim-Christian unseen, ghaybiyya, and they fall in the catego- encounter, especially in the Subcontinent, a ry of obscure, mutashabbihäf, verses, whose possible engagement of two religions of the exegetical meaning, ta’wil, is known to God heart, each in dialogue with the Enlighten- alone.” ment, was eclipsed by the confrontation of two Al-Faruqi (1921-1986), surpasses “Super- scriptural fundamentalisms. Dard's fluid path, cessionists” and “Revisionists” in an ecumeni- keenly aware of the unique nature of individu- cal position endorsing religious pluralism in al experience, stressed a universality of pur- principle.71 He sought to derive from the pose that encourages unity and disassociates Qur’ân an ethical system adequate for today’s itself from ideas of reform and revivalism. Of Muslim. Every seeming contradiction or vari- the three dynamics shaping the British ant, including what is understood as naskh, is Protestant missionary enterprise one was one of differentiation at the level of meaning, “high church” in inspiration. Selective in what to be superseded in: “a systematic restatement it brought from the West, it sought to respect of the Holy Qur’ân’s valuation content”.72 In indigenous customary life. A second was a relation to discussions of Qur’ân 4:157, he “settled modernization”. Economic develop- identifies as a shortcoming that Qur’ânic vers- ment and religious transformation would go es dealing with death are rarely cited. The re- hand in hand. The third emphasised the expe- sultant restatement of the Qur’ân‘s “valuation- rience of conversion in the “sinner's” response to evangelistic preaching. It was often the lat- 70 Badmas ‘Lanre Yusuf, ‘A History of Fi Zilâl al- ter that encountered an Islam itself increasing- Qur'àn,’ Hamdard Islamicus νo1. XXV, No. 2 pp. ly in the grip of scripturalist reformism. 17-27. Evangelical Protestant Christianity over- 71 David A. Kerr, “Islamic Da’wa And Christian looked the extensive theological history de- Mission: Towards A Comparative Analysis”, Inter- veloped by Catholic theologians73 by relying national Review Of Mission, Vol. Lxxxix, 2000, No. 353 Pp 150 – 171. 72 Ishma’il R. al-Faruqi, “Towards a new Methodol- 73 Initially Catholicism felt as threatened by ogy for Qur’anic exegesis” , Islamic Studies 1, (1), Redaktionsgeschichte as Protestantism but whereas 1962, 35-52. it deconstructed the literalist biblicism of evangelical 34

exclusively on a literal appeal to Scripture74 From the first decade of the twentieth centu- and found a similar bias among Muslims who ry, the issues debated at Agra seemed recast their historic engagement with Sufism, dormant. From the 1960s onwards they began in a reformist mould, sited within anticolonial being debated again: “to the dismay of those resistance. Some Sufi-oriented cultural trends on both sides who are in search of “dialogue” continued to embrace the wider, spiritual lega- rather than “controversy”.”76 Often the out- cy of India but to a great degree, the reformist right denial of the crucifixion and the shape of movements defined themselves in opposition the discourse seemed rooted in a rejection of to these as to the rational sciences. Christian soteriology rather than in dispas- Following the eighteenth century liberaliza- sionate exegesis. In the event, a clash of fun- tion of European theology, Muslim apologet- damentalisms regrettably led to a quite new ics reorientated itself and contextually insup- towards utilizing the portable angle of inter- results of western pretation of Qur’ân critical scholarship 4:157 as denying a pu- regarding the histo- tatively, false Christian ricity of NT texts belief that Jesus had with a view to dis- been crucified. proving central Christian tenets. The induction of pseudo- Barnabas and the rise of the Ahmaddiyya further complicated the traditional discus- sion. Despite this transformation of the dogma of tahrîf, nonetheless the work of Say- yid Ahmd Khan endorsed the ancient argu- ments from Qur’ân and Hadith as to the relia- bility of the Christian Scriptures.75 His com- mentary on the Bible did not go unnoticed, but was ungenerously hailed as evidence that the missionary project was finally yielding fruit. We thank the author who sent this article to The contribution of Crowther’s group of Afri- be published in the SEDOS bulletin. can colleges likewise deserves a higher place in the history of the debate alongside expo- nents such as Pfander and Muir in India.

Protestantism, ultimately it endorsed the Catholic emphasis on ecclesiology and tradition, as well as on Christ rather than the NT text, as the primary revela- tion. 74 Already in De rationibus fidei contra Saracenos, Graecos et Armenos ad Cantorem Antiochenum, (1264), accessible at http://www.catholicapologetics.info/apologetics/isla 76 Avril Ann Powell, “Muslims and Missionaries in m/rationes.htm, Thomas Aquinas had written that; Pre-Mutiny India” (Press, London, 1993) (London ‘it would be useless to quote passages of Scripture Studies on South Asia No. 7), p. 298. Cf. Christian against those who do not accept this authority. W. Troll, “New Light on the Christian-Muslim Con- 75 Christine Schirrmacher: “Mit den Waffen des troversy of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Century” Gegners”, (Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Verlag, 1992). Die Welt des Islams 34 (1994), 85-88. 35

DOCUMENTS

Christian witness in a multi-religious world: recommendations for conduct

Preamble A basis for Christian witness Mission belongs to the very being of the 1. For Christians it is a privilege and joy to church. Proclaiming the word of God and wit- give an accounting for the hope that is within nessing to the world is essential for every them and to do so with gentleness and respect Christian. At the same time, it is necessary to (cf. 1 Peter 3:15). do so according to gospel principles, with full respect and love for all human beings. 2. Jesus Christ is the supreme witness (cf. Aware of the tensions between people and John 18:37). Christian witness is always a communities of different religious convictions sharing in his witness, which takes the form of and the varied interpretations of Christian wit- proclamation of the kingdom, service to ness, the Pontifical Council for Interreligious neighbor and the total gift of self even if that Dialogue (PCID), the World Council of act of giving leads to the cross. Just as the Fa- Churches (WCC) and, at the invitation of the ther sent the Son in the power of the Holy WCC, the World Evangelical Alliance Spirit, so believers are sent in mission to wit- (WEA), met during a period of 5 years to re- ness in word and action to the love of the tri- flect and produce this document to serve as a une God. set of recommendations for conduct on Christ- ian witness around the world. This document 3. The example and teaching of Jesus Christ does not intend to be a theological statement and of the early church must be the guides for on mission but to address practical issues as- Christian mission. For two millennia Christ- sociated with Christian witness in a multi- ians have sought to follow Christ’s way by religious world. sharing the good news of God’s kingdom (cf. The purpose of this document is to encour- Luke 4:16-20). age churches, church councils and mission agencies to reflect on their current practices 4. Christian witness in a pluralistic world in- and to use the recommendations in this docu- cludes engaging in dialogue with people of ment to prepare, where appropriate, their own different religions and cultures (cf. Acts guidelines for their witness and mission 17:22-28). among those of different religions and among those who do not profess any particular reli- 5. In some contexts, living and proclaiming gion. It is hoped that Christians across the the gospel is difficult, hindered or even pro- world will study this document in the light of hibited, yet Christians are commissioned by their own practices in witnessing to their faith Christ to continue faithfully in solidarity with in Christ, both by word and deed. one another in their witness to him (cf. Mat- thew 28:19-20; Mark 16:14-18; Luke 24:44- 48; John 20:21; Acts 1:8).

6. If Christians engage in inappropriate methods of exercising mission by resorting to deception and coercive means, they betray the gospel and may cause suffering to others. Such departures call for repentance and re- 36 mind us of our need for God’s continuing 5. Discernment in ministries of healing. As grace (cf. Romans 3:23). an integral part of their witness to the gospel, Christians exercise ministries of healing. They 7. Christians affirm that while it is their re- are called to exercise discernment as they car- sponsibility to witness to Christ, conversion is ry out these ministries, fully respecting human ultimately the work of the Holy Spirit (cf. dignity and ensuring that the vulnerability of John 16:7-9; Acts 10:44-47). They recognize people and their need for healing are not ex- that the Spirit blows where the Spirit wills in ploited. ways over which no human being has control (cf. John 3:8). 6. Rejection of violence. Christians are called to reject all forms of violence, even Principle psychological or social, including the abuse of Christians are called to adhere to the follow- power in their witness. They also reject vio ing principles as they seek to fulfill Christ’s lence, unjust discrimination or repression by commission in an appropriate manner, particu- any religious or secular authority, including larly within interreligious contexts. the violation or destruction of places of wor- ship, sacred symbols or texts. 1. Acting in God’s love. Christians believe that God is the source of all love and, accord- 7. Freedom of religion and belief. Reli- ingly, in their witness they are called to live gious freedom including the right to publicly lives of love and to love their neighbor as profess, practice, propagate and change one’s themselves (cf. Matthew 22:34-40; John religion flows from the very dignity of the 14:15). human person which is grounded in the crea- tion of all human beings in the image and 2. Imitating Jesus Christ. In all aspects of likeness of God (cf. Genesis 1:26). Thus, all life, and especially in their witness, Christians human beings have equal rights and responsi- are called to follow the example and teachings bilities. Where any religion is instrumentalized of Jesus Christ, sharing his love, giving glory for political ends, or where religious persecu- and honour to God the Father in the power of tion occurs, Christians are called to engage in the Holy Spirit (cf. John 20:21-23). a prophetic witness denouncing such actions.

3. Christian virtues. Christians are called to 8. Mutual respect and solidarity. Chris- conduct themselves with integrity, charity, tians are called to commit themselves to work compassion and humility, and to overcome all with all people in mutual respect, promoting arrogance, condescension and disparagement together justice, peace and the common good. (cf. Galatians 5:22). Interreligious cooperation is an essential di- mension of such commitment. 4. Acts of service and justice. Christians are called to act justly and to love tenderly (cf. 9. Respect for all people. Christians recog- Micah 6:8). They are further called to serve nize that the gospel both challenges and en- others and in so doing to recognize Christ in riches cultures. Even when the gospel chal- the least of their sisters and brothers (cf. Mat- lenges certain aspects of cultures, Christians thew 25:45). Acts of service, such as provid- are called to respect all people. Christians are ing education, health care, relief services and also called to discern elements in their own acts of justice and advocacy are an integral cultures that are challenged by the gospel. part of witnessing to the gospel. The exploita- tion of situations of poverty and need has no 10. Renouncing false witness. Christians place in Christian outreach. Christians should are to speak sincerely and respectfully; they denounce and refrain from offering all forms are to listen in order to learn about and under- of allurements, including financial incentives stand others’ beliefs and practices, and are en- and rewards, in their acts of service. couraged to acknowledge and appreciate what 37 is true and good in them. Any comment or 2. build relationships of respect and trust critical approach should be made in a spirit of with people of all religions, in particular at in- mutual respect, making sure not to bear false stitutional levels between churches and other witness concerning other religions. religious communities, engaging in on-going interreligious dialogue as part of their Chris- 11. Ensuring personal tian commitment. In certain discernment. Christians contexts, where years of ten- are to acknowledge that sion and conflict have created changing one’s religion is deep suspicions and breaches a decisive step that must of trust between and among be accompanied by suffi- communities, interreligious di- cient time for adequate re- alogue can provide new oppor- flection and preparation, Mission belongs to tunities for resolving conflicts, through a process ensur- the very being of restoring justice, healing of ing full personal freedom. the church. Pro- memories, reconciliation and claiming the word peace-building. of God and wit- 12. Building inter- nessing to the religious relationships. world is essential 3. encourage Christians to Christians should contin- for every Chris- strengthen their own religious ue to build relationships tian. At the same identity and faith while deep- of respect and trust with time, it is neces- ening their knowledge and un- sary to do so ac- people of different reli- cording to gospel derstanding of different reli- gions so as to facilitate principles, with gions, and to do so also taking deeper mutual under- full respect and into account the perspectives of standing, reconciliation love for all human the adherents of those reli- and cooperation for the beings. gions. Christians should avoid common good. misrepresenting the beliefs and practices of people of different Recommendations religions. The Third Consultation organized by the World 4. cooperate with other reli- Council of Churches and gious communities engaging in the PCID of the Holy See in collaboration interreligious advocacy towards justice and with the WEA and with participation from the the common good and, wherever possible, largest Christian families of faith (Catholic, standing together in solidarity with people Orthodox, Protestant, Evangelical and Pente- who are in situations of conflict. costal), having acted in a spirit of ecumenical cooperation to prepare this document for con- 5. call on their governments to ensure that sideration by churches, national and regional freedom of religion is properly and compre- confessional bodies and mission organiza- hensively respected, recognizing that in many tions, and especially those working in interre- countries religious institutions and persons are ligious contexts, recommends that these bod- inhibited from exercising their mission. ies: 6. pray for their neighbors and their well- 1. study the issues set out in this document being, recognizing that prayer is integral to and where appropriate formulate guidelines who we are and what we do, as well as to for conduct regarding Christian witness appli- Christ’s mission. cable to their particular contexts. Where pos- sible this should be done ecumenically, and in consultation with representatives of other reli- gions. 38

Appendix – Background to the document 4. The second, an inter-Christian consulta- tion, was held in Toulouse, France, from 8 to 1. In today’s world there is increasing col- 12 August 2007, to reflect on these same is- laboration among Christians and between sues. Questions on Family and Community, Christians and followers of different religions. Respect for Others, Economy, Marketing and The Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dia- Competition, and Violence and Politics were logue (PCID) of the Holy See and the World thoroughly discussed. The pastoral and mis- Council of Churches’ Program on Inter- sionary issues around these topics became the religious Dialogue and Co-operation (WCC- background for theological reflection and for IRDC) have a history of such collaboration. the principles developed in this document. Examples of themes on which the PCID/IRDC Each issue is important in its own right and have collaborated in the past are: Interreli- deserves more attention that can be given in gious Marriage (1994-1997), Interreligious these recommendations. Prayer (1997-1998) and African Religiosity (2000-2004). This document is a result of their 5. The participants of the third (inter- work together. Christian) consultation met in Bangkok, Thai- land, from 25 to 28 January 2011 and finalized 2. There are increasing interreligious ten- this document. sions in the world today, including violence and the loss of human life. Politics, economics and other factors play a role in these tensions. efefefefefefefef Christians too are sometimes involved in these conflicts, whether voluntarily or involuntarily, either as those who are persecuted or as those participating in violence. In response to this the PCID and IRDC decided to address the is- sues involved in a joint process towards pro- ducing shared recommendations for conduct on Christian witness. The WCC-IRDC invited the World Evangelical Alliance (WEA) to par- ticipate in this process, and they have gladly done so.

3. Initially two consultations were held: the first, in Lariano, Italy, from 12 to 18 May 2006, was entitled “Assessing the Reality” where representatives of different religions shared their views and experiences on the question of conversion. A statement from the consultation reads in part: “We affirm that, while everyone has a right to invite others to an understanding of their faith, it should not Ref: be exercised by violating others’ rights and re- http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifica ligious sensibilities. Freedom of religion en- l_councils/interelg/documents/rc_pc_interelg joins upon all of us the equally non-negotiable _doc_20111110_testimonianza- responsibility to respect faiths other than our cristiana_en.html own, and never to denigrate, vilify or misrep- resent them for the purpose of affirming supe- riority of our faith.”

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NEWS TODAY One of the new Saints of the Church

Elisabeth of the Trinity (born: Elizabeth On 8 December 1901 she was clothed with the Catez) was a French professed nun of the Or- religious habit and given the name Elisabeth der of Discalced Carmelites, a mystic and spir- of the Trinity. In the monastery she grew in itual writer, and has been described as the sis- her union with the Most Holy Trinity in the ter in the spirit of St. Thérèse of Lisieux. She depths of her soul. Gazing upon the Blessed was born on 18 July 1880 in the military base Mother, she learned to safeguard ever more at Avord, near Bourges in France, and was the presence of the living God and each day to baptized four days later. In 1887, a short time do the Lord’s will with generosity, as she con- after the family moved to Dijon, her father templated the “excessive great love” manifest- died. On 19 April 1891, she received her first ed in Jesus Crucified. A short time after her Holy Communion: that day Elisabeth began a religious profession on 11 January 1903, Sis- difficult struggle to “overcome herself for ter Elisabeth displayed the first symptoms of love”, learning to con- Addison’s disease, which trol her willful, fiery and led to her death following impetuous temperament. extreme suffering. She ac- Increasingly drawn to cepted everything peace- Christ, Elisabeth made a fully and abandoned her- private vow of virginity self with confidence to the in 1894. Believing that mercy of God, seeing in she was called to reli- her illness a propitious oc- gious life, she asked her casion to conform herself mother for permission to to her Crucified Spouse, enter the Carmel of Di- as she ardently desired to jon. Obedient to her pass over into the Trinitar- mother, who had pro- ian joy of the communion hibited her from visiting of saints. Sister Elisabeth the monastery, Elisabeth of the Trinity died on 9 did not enter until 2 Au- November 1906 at the age gust 1901. Before enter- of 26. ing Carmel, Elizabeth Her last words were: “I received several offers am going to Light, to of marriage but declined Love, to Life!” She also them to fulfill her desire said before her death: “I to give herself wholly to God as a cloistered think that in heaven my mission will be to contemplative religious. A capable and prize- draw souls by helping them to go out of them- winning pianist, and joyful and active in the selves in order to cling to God by a wholly parish and social life of her city, she passed simple and loving movement, and to keep the time before her entrance into the monas- them in this great silence within which will al- tery learning how to discover Christ in all low God to communicate Himself to them and things, giving her heart to him alone, even to transform them into Himself.” A true con- though she was busy with many activities, par- templative, she once wrote: “We shall not be ticipating in dances and spending time with purified by looking at our miseries, but by friends. After entering the monastery she said: gazing on Him who is all purity and holiness.” “I find Him everywhere, while doing the wash as well as while praying.”

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