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By Caroline Cox pulses across the junctions between nerves. (given over a one-year period). The high- This causes loss of muscular coordination, est dose at which no adverse effects were In 1966, four years before the convulsions, and ultimately death.5 The observed (called the NOEL) was 0.02 mg/ 11 aldicarb was registered for use in the United AChE inhibition is said to be reversible be- kg/day, about one-tenth of the LD50. States, researchers were using the chemical cause the aldicarb disassociates from the There is evidence that people may suf- on an experimental basis.1 One researcher AChE within several hours. This occurs even fer acute symptoms when exposed to even brought a small amount home and his wife if death has occurred. in- lower levels of aldicarb. In humans who applied it to the soil under a backyard rose secticides ( and , for ex- consumed aldicarb-contaminated water- bush. Over three weeks later she ate a sprig ample) have the same mode of action ex- melons, clinical signs of aldicarb - of mint from a plant growing nearby. Within cept that the AChE inhibition is not as ing were found in individuals consuming half an hour she was suffering from vomit- readily reversible.7 as little as 0.002 mg/kg of the aldicarb ing, diarrhea, and involuntary urination. Her Aldicarb is a systemic insecticide. It is metabolite aldicarb sulfoxide. This pupils closed to pinpoints, her muscles applied as granules below the soil surface amount is one-tenth the NOEL in the twitched, and her breathing was difficult. and is then absorbed by plant and beagle study.12 After hospitalization and treatment with the translocated throughout the plant, killing in- Chronic antidote atropine, she recovered. However, sects and mites that feed on three grams of the same mint plant was the plant.8 In addition to its sufficient to kill a rabbit.1 While it might Figure 1 acute toxicity to animals’ seem that a that caused this kind Acute Toxicity Aldicarb and nervous systems, aldicarb of incident is a poor candidate for managing can also have long-term Aldicarb is “one of the CH3 O - pests on crops, aldicarb has been ex- most acutely toxic = delayed behavioral ef- CH3S-C-CH=N-OCNHCH3 tensively used for over 20 years on both - registered” according to CH fects. Two studies of 4 3 food and nonfood crops. EPA. The oral LD50 (the aldicarb-exposed chicks, Aldicarb, 2-methyl-2-(methylthio)- dose required to kill 50 per- aldicarb one in which chicks were propionaldehyde O-methylcarbamoyloxime cent of a population of test exposed during the first (see Figure 1), is currently manufactured in animals) is between 0.3 and CH3 O week after hatching and = the U.S. by Rhone-Poulenc Company and - one in which chicks were 0.9 milligrams per kilogram CH3N-CH2CH2OCCH3 sold under the trade name Temik. It is reg- 9 - (mg/kg) of body weight. If CH exposed before hatching, istered for use on citrus, cotton, beans, sor- humans are equally sensitive, 3 showed that aldicarb acetylcholine: ghum, , sugarbeets, and sweet po- less than a thousandth of an the neurotransmitter caused changes in the tatoes.2,3 The U.S. Environmental Protec- ounce of aldicarb would be mimicked by aldicarb chicks’ gait.13,14 The tion Agency (EPA) estimated that between sufficient to kill a typical (60 5.2 and 5.6 million pounds of aldicarb were kg) adult. 4 Figure 2 used nationwide in 1988. Use of aldicarb In humans, signs of Use of Aldicarb in California During 1990 during 1990 (totalling almost half a million aldicarb poisoning include (pounds) pounds) in California is shown in Figure 2. dizziness, salivation, excessive sweating, nausea, abdominal Ornamentals Mode of Action 2,472 Beans Sugarbeets cramps, vomiting, diarrhea, 4,518 29,844 Aldicarb is a insecticide and blurred vision, pinpoint pu- Other (pesticide used to kill mites). Like pils, difficult breathing, and 988 all members of this chemical family, it in- muscle twitching. Death fol- Cotton hibits the action of an that is an lows if exposure has been Cotton Sugarbeets essential component of both insect and high enough.10 435,481 Beans mammal nervous systems. The enzyme, ace- A sensitive sign of tylcholinesterase (AChE), controls the chemi- aldicarb poisoning is mea- Ornamentals cal reaction that transforms acetylcholine, a surement of AChE activ- Other neurotransmitter, into .5 (Aldicarb and ity. This can be done by acetylcholine have similar chemical struc- laboratory analysis of blood tures.6 See Figure 1.) Without functioning and other tissue samples. In AChE, acetylcholine accumulates and pre- laboratory animals vents the smooth transmission of nerve im- (beagles), AChE inhibition Source: State of California. Environmental Protection Agency. has been observed at doses Department of Pesticide Regulation. Information Services Branch. Caroline Cox is JPR’s editor. as low as 0.05 mg/kg/day 1990. Pesticide use report. Sacramento, CA.

JOURNAL OF PESTICIDE REFORM / SUMMER 1992 / VOL. 12, NO. 2 31 changes in locomotion persisted after monella typhimurium, a 24 Figure 3 AChE inhibition could no longer be mea- bacteria. Effects of Aldicarb on the Immune System sured, over 40 days after treatment.13,14 While chemicals that 1000 damage genes often also Suppression of the Immune System 900 cause cancer, aldicarb ex- Note that the 800 smallest aldicarb In 1986, epidemiologists in Wiscon- posure has not been as- dose had the largest effect. sin studied how well the immune system sociated with an increase 700 was functioning in women who were in cancer incidence in drinking water from wells that were con- tests conducted by the 600 taminated by low levels of aldicarb. They National Toxicology 500 25 found that consumption of aldicarb-con- Program. Even though 400 taminated water was associated with one carcinogenicity tests sub- 300 immune system abnormality (an increase mitted in support of in the number of T8 cells). This abnor- aldicarb’s registration do 200 mality could not be correlated with any not meet current stan- 100 clinical evidence of adverse health effects dards, California’s De- (Number of plaque forming cells in the spleen) 0 (self reported doctor visits, drug prescrip- partment of Pesticide 0 1 10 100 1000 Aldicarb Dose tions, illnesses, etc.). The researchers con- Regulation concluded in (Parts per billion in drinking water over a 34 day period) cluded that “the public health implica- 1987, “Although no one tions of continuing to expose large popu- study is unacceptable, the lations to potential immuno–modulating collective data from the 100 environmental contaminants warrants several studies provide 90 15 careful review.” sufficient evidence on the 80 The epidemiological study was lack of an oncogenic ef- 70 prompted by a study of the effects of fect.” Several unexpected aldicarb on the immune system of mice.16 tumors were observed in 60 In this study, consumption of water con- a reproduction study in 50 taminated with as little as 1 part per bil- rats completed in 1991; Immune System Function (averages with standard errors) 40 lion (ppb) of aldicarb affected one pa- Rhone-Poulenc has re- 30 rameter of immune function, the plaque ported to EPA that the forming cell response. Interestingly, the tumor findings “might 20 effect was strongest at the lowest concen- possibly reflect an adverse 10

23 of activity in untreated mice) percent tration (1 ppb). Three subsequent mouse effect….” Because very 0 (Stimulatory activity of macrophages as a studies found effects of aldicarb (at doses small doses of aldicarb 0 0.00001 0.00010.001 0.01 0.1 as low as 0.0001 micrograms of aldicarb cause death, it may be Aldicarb Dose per mouse) on another immune system very difficult to detect a (micrograms given in a single injection) 17-19 Sources: component, macrophage activity. (See carcinogenic effect in Olson, L.J. et al. 1987. Aldicarb immunomodulation in mice: an inverse dose-response to parts per billion levels in drinking water. Arch. Environ. Contam. Figure 3.) laboratory tests. Toxicol. 16:433-439. A recent follow-up study to the Wis- Dean, T.N. et al. 1990. Aldicarb treatment inhibits the stimulatory activity of N-Nitrosoaldicarb, macrophages without affecting the T-cell responses in the syngeneic mixed consin epidemiology study found that im- formed by a reaction be- lymphocyte reaction. Int. J. Immunopharm. 12(3):337-348. mune system abnormalities continued in tween aldicarb and so- women whose exposure to aldicarb con- dium nitrite (see Figure 4), is also muta- tinued.20 genic in Salmonella26 and causes sister- tion levels in drinking water wells, al- chromatid exchanges in human cells.27 In though the study was not sufficient to Mutagenicity and Carcinogenicity rats, consumption of N-nitrosoaldicarb conclude that aldicarb was the cause.30 In human cells, aldicarb causes an in- has been associated with an increased in- Aldicarb has also caused reproductive crease in the number of three different cidence of stomach cancers.28 problems in laboratory rats. Doses of kinds of chromosome abnormalities: sis- aldicarb as low as 0.001 mg/kg caused ter-chromatid exchanges, chromatid Effects on Reproduction inhibition of AChE in fetal brains and breaks, and chromosome breaks.21,22 and Development livers. This dose is a thousand times lower In other mammal cells, no evidence After over 1000 consumers of aldicarb- than the adult LD50. Doses of 0.01 mg/ was found linking aldicarb exposure to contaminated watermelon became ill in kg caused inhibition that continued for three types of genetic damage: mutation July 1985, stillbirths were reported by two 24 hours following exposure.31 Fetuses frequency of Chinese hamster ovary cells, women who had suffered acute symp- were more sensitive than their mothers to chromosome aberrations in mouse bone toms.29 In addition, epidemiological stud- aldicarb’s effects. In addition, aldicarb ex- marrow cells, and unscheduled DNA syn- ies of New York residents found an in- posure of rats during pregnancy caused thesis in rat liver cells. 23 crease in the frequency of miscarriages mothers’ food consumption and body Aldicarb damages DNA in cells of Sal- associated with high aldicarb contamina- weights to decrease. The weight of their

32 JOURNAL OF PESTICIDE REFORM / SUMMER 1992 / VOL. 12, NO. 2 shock.12 Six deaths and two stillbirths were control and Colorado Figure 4 reported following the poisoning episode. beetles. By 1986, about 2,500 wells in Aldicarb Metabolites and Contaminants Illnesses were reported by individuals who the area had been found to be contami- had consumed watermelons with aldicarb nated with concentrations exceeding New O CH3 O residues too low to detect with laboratory York state health guidelines. Rhone- - = = 12 CH3S-C-CH=N-OCNHCH3 analyses. The incident was “the largest Poulenc provided carbon filters for resi- - 43 CH3 recorded North American outbreak of dences using water from these wells. foodborne pesticide illness.”35 Use of aldicarb was suspended on Long aldicarb sulfoxide The source of the aldicarb contamina- Island in 1979. Studies in 1983 and 1984 tion was difficult to identify. Since showed that while aldicarb contamina- O CH3 O aldicarb is not registered for use on mel- tion had declined in some wells, those in - = = CH3S-C-CH=N-OCNHCH3 ons, illegal use may have been respon- areas with a deep water table (about 30 - = O CH3 sible. In at least one case, contaminated meters) had concentrations that were still watermelons were found in a field that increasing.44 About 1,400 wells were still aldicarb sulfone was adjacent to a cotton field on which contaminated above the state guidelines aldicarb had legally been used. It appeared in 1986.43 CH3 that the melons had been contaminated Aldicarb’s chemical characteristics - CH3S-C-CH=NOH when contaminated ground or surface wa- make leaching to groundwater likely. It is - CH3 ter moved from the cotton field to the moderately persistent (as are its metabo- watermelon field.36 lites),45 highly water soluble,46 and mo- aldicarb oxime In addition, aldicarb contaminated cu- bile in soils.41 Since the contamination of cumbers from Nebraska (two different in- the New York wells were first reported, Cl cidents), British Columbia,37 and Cali- aldicarb has been found in the ground- = H-C-H fornia38 have caused illnesses. Aldicarb is water in 26 other states. (See Figure 5). Cl= not registered for use on cucumbers. Under the Safe Drinking Water Act, In 1990, Rhone-Poulenc withdrew EPA has proposed a Maximum Contami- (methylene chloride) aldicarb’s registration on potatoes after nant Level Goal (MCLG; the contami- field tests found residues above tolerance nation level at which “no known or an- levels.3 The American Academy of Pedi- ticipated adverse effects on the health of CH3 O NO =

- - atrics later calculated that a child con- persons occur”) of 0.001 milligrams per CH3S-C-CH=N-OCN - - suming a potato with aldicarb residues as liter (equal to about 1 part per billion). CH CH3 3 high as had been measured would con- The MCLG is based on the beagle study N-nitrosoaldicarb sume a dose equal to about one-tenth of and the watermelon poisoning episode 11 the LD50 and well above the toxicity discussed earlier. MCLGs for aldicarb threshold.39 Residues above the tolerance sulfoxide and aldicarb sulfone were pro- offspring was also reduced, and the ba- levels were also found on bananas in 1991, posed at the same level.11 bies suffered from skeletal abnormalities, prompting Rhone-Poulenc to stop delayed bone formation, and ruptured aldicarb use on bananas.40 Environmental Fate blood vessels.32 Agricultural workers are also exposed The half-life of aldicarb (the time re- Similar kinds of effects have been noted to aldicarb. While EPA’s Pesticide Inci- quired for half of the aldicarb applied to in birds. In ducks, application of aldicarb dent Monitoring System was operating either be transformed to another com- to eggshells during incubation caused (1966-1982) 165 incidents involving pound or leave the sample area) was esti- shortening of a foot bone (the tarsus) and aldicarb were reported.41 More recently, mated to be between 1.5 and 2 months the middle toe.33 Treatment of young between five and nine cases of aldicarb in soils from tomato fields and vineyards chicks for one week with aldicarb reduced poisoning per year have been reported in in central California.47 In Florida citrus their growth for forty days after treat- California. Several fatalities have also been groves, the half-life of aldicarb in the soil ment had ended.13 reported in California.36 A monitoring was longer, approximately eight months.48 study of German greenhouse workers In the California study, some aldicarb resi- Human Poisonings found that a decrease in AChE activity dues were found in the soil for as long as In July 1985, aldicarb made headlines could be detected up to ten days after a year after application. In potatoes, al- when almost two thousand people (mostly aldicarb was applied.42 falfa, mint, mustard, and radishes, resi- in Oregon34 and California35) became ill dues of aldicarb and its metabolites were after eating watermelons that were con- Contamination of Groundwater found up to 408 days after application.49 taminated with the insecticide. Symptoms In 1979, aldicarb residues were de- included nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, tected in wells in a potato-growing area Effects on Nontarget Organisms sweating, muscle twitching, slow heart- on Long Island, New York where the pes- Birds: Acute toxicity of aldicarb to beat, seizures, loss of consciousness, and ticide had been used for just four years to birds varies among species but is always

JOURNAL OF PESTICIDE REFORM / SUMMER 1992 / VOL. 12, NO. 2 33 64 high. LD50s for the most sen- Figure 5 sulfone is less toxic. sitive species (house sparrows States Reporting Aldicarb Contamination Manufacturing and grackles) are 0.8 mg/kg of Groundwater of body weight, approximately One of the intermediar- equal to the oral LD50 for ies used in the manufacture rats. The least sensitive spe- of aldicarb is the highly re- cies, white leghorn chickens, active compound methyl 5 have an LD50 approximately isocyanate (MIC). On De- 10 times larger (9.0 mg/kg) cember 3, 1984 a toxic than that of the rat.50 One cloud containing MIC and granule of Temik is sufficient other reaction products es- to kill over 80 percent of the caped from a Union Carbide house sparrows tested in one plant in Bhopal, India that study and 40 percent of the manufactured aldicarb and red-winged blackbirds.51 In ,65 another carbam- ate insecticide. Between general, young birds are more Sources: susceptible than adult birds.50 1. Food Chemical News, Inc. 1990. Aldicarb residues in 2500 and 5000 people died 3.9% of wells near use, Rhone-Poulenc notes. Pesticide Fish: Aldicarb is also toxic and Toxic Chemical News (June 6):11-12. as a result of the accident, to fish; LC s (the concen- 2. Food Chemical News, Inc. 1990. Aldicarb found at 14 and up to 200,000 people 50 p.p.b. in well near Alabama potato field. Pesticide and tration of aldicarb in water re- Toxic Chemical News (August 8):15. were injured. Injuries in- quired to kill 50 percent of 3. Hind, R. and E. Evans. 1988. Pesticides in groundwater: EPA files reveal tip cluded respiratory problems, of a deadly iceberg. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Public Interest Research Group. test aquatic animals) ranged 4. Parsons, D.W. and J.M. Witt. 1989. Pesticides in groundwater in the United eye damage, fetal and new- States of America. Corvallis OR: Oregon State University Extension Service. from 41 parts per billion 5. U.S. EPA. Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances. 1988. Aldicarb special born deaths, suppression of (ppb) for sheepshead min- review technical support document. Washington, D.C. (June.) the immune system, and nows to 2420 ppb for Barbus changes in blood chemistry.66 conchonius.50 In at least one species, juve- A smaller but similar accident occurred the amount of free amino acids, decreased niles are more sensitive than older fish.36,52 the following year at Union Carbide’s the amount of phenols, and decreased the Studies on fish have also demonstrated a aldicarb and carbaryl plant in Institute, concentration of Vitamin C.59 variety of other adverse effects caused by West Virginia and 135 people were hos- exposure to aldicarb. Aldicarb caused liver Contaminants pitalized.65 damage53 and several changes in blood Summary cells54 in the rosy barb, a freshwater fish, Temik contains dichloromethane (also Aldicarb is one of the most acutely at a concentration one-third of the LC50, called methylene chloride; see Figure 4) and was more injurious than an organo- as a contaminant.60 Dichloro–methane is toxic pesticides registered in the U.S. Less phosphate and an organochlorine insecti- an active ingredient in a fumigant used than one thousandth of an ounce is a cide also tested.53 At 20 percent of the on strawberries and grain,2 and is also an for a human. In laboratory animals, it causes chronic damage to the LC50, exposure to aldicarb caused an in- “inert” (secret) ingredient in over 1,750 crease in cholesterol levels in the blood, pesticide products.61 In humans, exposure nervous system, suppresses the immune ovary, and liver, as well as increases in to dichloromethane causes changes in system, and adversely affects fetuses. In liver lipids in Barbus conchonius.55 blood cell counts, decreases in hearing and human cells, aldicarb causes genetic dam- Invertebrates: Aldicarb is also highly vision, lack of coordination, and death. age. It is also toxic to birds, fish, shrimp, toxic to shrimp,56 earthworms,50 water In laboratory animals, exposure causes eye honey bees, and earthworms. Aldicarb’s fleas56 and honeybees.50 In a water flea irritation, kidney and liver damage, dam- primary metabolite is almost as toxic as native to Florida ponds, Daphnia laevis, age to genes, and cancer. EPA classifies aldicarb itself. Aldicarb’s agricultural for- mulation contains a toxic contaminant, the EC50 (the concentration required to dichloromethane as a probable human immobilize half of the animals) was less (Group B2).62 dichloromethane, that causes damage to than one-fourth the concentration re- hearing, vision, kidneys, and livers and is quired to kill Daphnia adults.57 Degradation Products both carcinogenic and mutagenic. Plants and Bacteria: Aldicarb also has In plants, , and ani- Aldicarb has contaminated groundwater the potential to affect nonanimal species. mals, aldicarb is transformed into several in 27 states and has caused the largest Laboratory studies of the nitrogen-fixing bac- related compounds. The most common recorded episode of foodborne pesticide terium, Rhizobium meliloti, showed that ex- are aldicarb sulfoxide, aldicarb sulfone and poisoning in the United States. Aldicarb posure to aldicarb caused changes in the aldicarb oxime.63 (See Figure 4). The sul- manufacturing accidents have resulted in bacterium’s carbohydrate , im- foxide and the sulfone have a mechanism thousands of deaths and many thousands pacting the plant-microbe interaction.58 In of toxicity similar to that of aldicarb it- of injuries. It is critically important to potatoes, aldicarb treatments decreased the self. The sulfoxide is as toxic as aldicarb implement sustainable alternatives to concentrations of reducing , increased in both acute and long-term tests; the aldicarb’s use now. ■

34 JOURNAL OF PESTICIDE REFORM / SUMMER 1992 / VOL. 12, NO. 2 References toxicology data : Aldicarb (Temik). Sacramento, insecticide aldicarb in soil and water. Environ. CA. (August 13.) Pollut. 61:127-155. 1. World Health Organization. 1991. Aldicarb. En- 24. Rashid, K.A. and R. O. Mumma. 1986. Screen- 46. Moye, H.A. and C.J. Miles. 1988. Aldicarb con- vironmental Health Criteria 121. Geneva, Swit- ing pesticides for their ability to damage bacte- tamination of groundwater. Rev. Environ. zerland: International Program on Chemical rial DNA. J. Environ. Sci. Health B21(4):319- Contam. Toxicol. 105:99-146. Safety. Pp. 69-70. 334. 47. Jones, R.L. 1987. Central California studies on 2. Farm Chemicals Handbook. 1991. Willoughby, 25. Haseman, J.K. 1987. Comparative results of 327 the degradation and movement of aldicarb resi- OH: Meister Publishing. chemical carcinogenicity studies. Environmental dues. J. Contam. Hydrol. 1:287-298. 3. U.S. EPA. Public Affairs. 1990. Joint statement Health Perspectives 74:229-235. 48. Jones, R.L. et al. 1987. Movement and degrada- by EPA, Food and Drug Administration, and 26. Seiler, J.P. 1977. Nitrosation in vitro and in tion of aldicarb residues in the saturated zone U.S. Department of Agriculture. Environmental vivo by sodium nitrite, and mutagenicity of ni- under citrus groves on the Florida ridge. J. news. Washington, D.C. (April 11). trogenous pesticides. Mutation Research 48:225- Contam. Hydrol. 1:265-285. 4. U.S. EPA. Office of Pesticides and Toxic Sub- 236. 49. Reference #1. p.37. stances. 1988. Aldicarb: Special review technical 27. Cid, M.G., D. Loria, and E. Matos. 1988. 50. Baron, R.L. and T.L. Merriam. 1988. Toxicol- support document. Washington, D.C. (June.) Nitroso-aldicarb induces sister-chromatid ex- ogy of aldicarb. Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 5. Cremlyn, R.J. 1991. Agrochemicals: Preparation changes in human lymphocytes in vitro. Muta- 105:3-70. and mode of action. Chichester, England: John tion Research 204:665-668. 51. Balcomb, R. R. Stevens, and C. Bowen. Toxic- Wiley and Sons Ltd. Pp. 123-124, 149. 28. Lijinsky, W. and D. Schmähl. 1978. Carcinoge- ity of 16 granular to wild-caught 6. Reference #1. p.67. nicity of N-nitroso derivatives of N- songbirds. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 7. Morgan, D.P. 1989. Recognition and manage- methylcarbamate insecticides in rats. Ecotoxicol. 33:302-307. ment of pesticide poisonings. Fourth edition. Wash- Environ. Safety 2:413-419. 52. Landau, M. and J.W. Tucker. 1984. Acute tox- ington, D.C.: U.S. EPA. Office of Pesticide Pro- 29. U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser- icity of EDB and aldicarb to young of two es- grams. Health Effects Division. Pp. 12-13. vices. Public Health Service. Centers for Disease tuarine fish species. Bull. Environ. Contam. 8. Reference #1. Pp.20-21. Control. 1986. Aldicarb food poisoning from Toxicol. 33:127-132. 9. Reference #1. Pp.52-53. contaminated melons — California. Morbidity 53. Gill, T.S., J. Pande, and H. Tewari. 1990. 10. Reference #1. p.69. and Mortality Weekly Report 35(16): 254-258. Hepatopathotoxicity of three pesticides in a fresh- 11. U.S. EPA. 1991. National primary drinking wa- 30. Risher, J.F. 1987. The toxicological effects of water fish, Puntius conchonius Ham. J. Environ. ter regulations — monitoring for synthetic or- the carbamate insecticide aldicarb in mammals: Sci. Health A25(6):653-663. ganic chemicals; MCLGs and MCLs for aldicarb, A review. Environ. Health Pers. 72:267-281. 54. Gill, T.S., J. Pandee, and H. Tewari. 1991. aldicarb sulfoxide, aldicarb sulfone, pentachlo- 31. Cambon, C., C. Declume, and R. Derache. Hemopathological changes associated with ex- rophenol and barium. Federal Register 1979. Effect of the insecticidal carbamate de- perimental aldicarb poisoning in fish (Puntius 53(125):3600-3614. (January 30.) rivatives (, pirimcarb, aldicarb) on the conchonius Hamilton). Bull. Environ. Contam. 12. Jackson, R.J. and L. Goldman. 1986. Aldicarb activity of in tissues from Toxicol. 47:628-633. poisoning. JAMA 256(23):3218. pregnant rats and fetuses. Toxicol. Appl. Pharm. 55. Pant, J., H. Tewari, and T.S. Gill. 1987. Effects 13. Farage-Elawar, M. 1989. Toxicity of aldicarb in 49:203-208. of aldicarb on the blood and tissues of a fresh- young chicks. Neurotoxicology and teratology 32. Reference #1. Pp.59-60. water fish. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 38:36- 10:549-544. 33. Chambers, P.L., K.P. Twomey, and C.M. Cham- 41. 14. Farage-Elawar, M. 1990. Effects of in ovo injec- bers. 1989. A preliminary study of the translo- 56. Reference #1. Pp.76-77. tion of on chick embryo hatchabil- cation of aldicarb across the duck eggshell. 57. Foran, J.A., P.J. Germuska, and J.J. Delfino. ity, esterase enzyme activity and locomotion of Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 18:296-304. 1985. Acute toxicity of aldicarb, aldicarb sulfox- chicks. J. Appl. Toxicol. 10(3):197-201. 34. Green, M.A. et al. 1987. An outbreak of water- ide, and aldicarb sulfone to Daphia laevis. Bull. 15. Fiore, M.C. et al. 1986. Chronic exposure to melon-borne pesticide toxicity. AJPH Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 35:546-550. aldicarb-contaminated groundwater and human 77(11):1431-1434. 58. Thüar, A., S.B. Rosas, and N.E. Ghittoni. 1988. immune function. Environmental Research 35. Goldman, L.R. 1990. Pesticide food poisoning Effects of aldicarb on the biochemical composi- 41:633-645. from contaminated watermelons in California, tion of Rhizobium meliloti. Bull. Environ. 16. Olson, L.J. 1987. Aldicarb immunomodulation 1985. Arch. Environ. Health 45(4):229-236. Contam. Toxicol. 41:286-290. in mice: An inverse dose-response to parts per 36. Letter from K.W. Kizer, Director of California 59. Marwaha, R. 1988. induced changes billion levels in drinking water. Arch. Environ. Dept. of Health Services to Clare Berryhill, Di- in the chemical constituents of potato tubers. Contam. Toxicol. 16:433-439. rector of California Dept. of Food and Agricul- Plant for Human Nutrition 38:95-103. 17. Selvan, R.S. et al. 1989. Aldicarb suppresses mac- ture. November 21, 1985. 60. MSDS reference for crop protection chemicals. rophage but not natural killer (NK) cell-medi- 37. Reference #1. Pp.41-43. Fourth edition. 1992. New York: Chemical and ated cytotoxicity of tumor cells. Bull. Environ. 38. “Cucumber caused Portlander’s illness.” The Or- Pharmaceutical Press. Contam. Toxicol. 43:676-682. egonian, April 16, 1988. 61. U.S. EPA. Office of Public Affairs. 1985. EPA 18. Dean, T.N. et al. 1990. Immunosuppression by 39. Letter from Richard Jackson, Chair of the Ameri- announces full-scale investigation of methylene aldicarb of T cell responses to antigen-specific can Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Envi- chloride risk. Environmental News. (October 9). and polyclonal stimuli results from defective IL- ronmental Hazards, to Linda Fisher, U.S. EPA 62. U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser- 1 production by the macrophages. Toxicol. Appl. assistant administrator. April 20, 1990. vices. Public Health Service. Agency for Toxic Pharm. 106:408-417. 40. Food Chemical News, Inc. 1991. U.S. import Substances and Disease Registry. 1991. Toxico- 19. Dean, T.N. et al. 1990. Aldicarb treatment in- of aldicarb-treated bananas stopped. Pesticide and logical profile for methylene chloride. Washing- hibits the stimulatory activity of macrophages Toxic Chemical News (June 12): 26-27. ton, D.C. without affecting the T-cell responses in the 41. U.S. EPA. Office of Pesticides and Toxic Sub- 63. Reference #1. Pp. 36-38, 47-48. syngenieic mixed lymphocyte reaction. Int. J. stances. Office of Pesticide Programs. 1988. Pes- 64. Reference #1. p.67. Immunopharmac. 12(3):337-348. ticide fact sheet: Aldicarb. Washington, D.C. 65. Mehta, P.S. et al. 1990. Bhopal tragedy’s health 20. Mirkin, I.R. et al. 1990. Changes in T-lympho- (June 22.) effects: A review of toxicity. cyte distribution associated with ingestion of 42. Wagner, R. and H. Hermes. 1987. Exposure of JAMA 264(21):2781-2787. aldicarb-contaminated drinking water; A follow- gardeners during and after application of dichlo- 66. Everest, L. 1985. Behind the poison cloud: Union up study. Environmental Research 51:35-50. rvos, and aldicarb in hothouses. Carbide’s Bhopal massacre. Chicago, IL: Banner 21. Cid, M.G. and E. Matos. 1984. Induction of Z. gesamte Hyg. 33:255-257. Press. sister-chromatid exchanges in cultured human 43. Jones, R.L. and T.E. Marquardt. 1987. Moni- lymphocytes by aldicarb, a carbamate pesticide. toring of aldicarb residues in Long Island, New Mutation Research 138:175-179. York potable wells. Arch. Environ. Contam. 22. Cid, M.G. and E. Matos. 1987. Chromosomal Toxicol. 16:643-647. aberrations in cultured human lymphocytes 44. Pacenka, S. et al. 1987. Changing aldicarb resi- treated with aldicarb, a carbamate pesticide. due levels in soil and groundwater, eastern Long Mutation Research 191:99-103. Island, New York. J. Contam. Hydrol. 2:73-91. 23. California Department of Pesticide Regulation. 45. Mink, F.L., J.F. Risher, and J.F. Stara. 1989. Medical Toxicology Branch. 1991. Summary of The environmental dynamics of the carbamate

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