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Mass Notification and Crisis Communications Emergency Management Walker Mass communication in the midst of a crisis must be done in a targeted Mass Notification and timely manner to mitigate the impact and ultimately save lives. Based on sound research, real-world case studies, and the author’s own experiences, Mass Notification and Crisis Communications: and Crisis Planning, Preparedness, and Systems helps emergency planning Crisis Communications Crisis professionals create a crisis communications plan that works by establishing upfront relationships with responders, enacting protocols, and Mass Notification Communications and utilizing technology to effectively message the intended audience. Providing communication best practices to professionals, the book: Planning, Preparedness, and Systems • Reviews the challenges organizations face with communications in the face of various types of disasters • Helps to outline the target audience of the communiqué • Describes different communication techniques used throughout history during peace and wartime • Provides methods for getting the right message across the first time • Explores how social media can be a powerful tool in message dissemination Denise C. Walker, D.B.A. • Examines the legal landscape to ensure managers are in compliance with international, federal, state, and local regulatory requirements Aligned with the U.S. Department of Homeland Security’s National Emergency Communications Plan—as well as the U.S. strategic plan to improve emergency response communications—the book provides recommendations to key decision makers given all considerations that must be weighed and factored in during a crisis. K13446 ISBN: 978-1-4398-7438-7 90000 www.crcpress.com 9 781439 874387 www.crcpress.com K13446 cvr mech.indd 1 11/15/11 10:03 AM Mass Notification and Crisis Communications Planning, Preparedness, and Systems This page intentionally left blank Mass Notification and Crisis Communications Planning, Preparedness, and Systems Denise C. Walker, D.B.A. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20111017 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-7439-4 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmit- ted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright. com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com This book is dedicated to you. This book is also dedicated to my husband Alfred, my children Charles, Anthony, Crystal, and Marvin, and my father Samuel Chatam whose steadfast love and support made this book possible. This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface xxi Chapter 1 History of Communications 1 History of Communications 1 Communications—3500 BC to 1 BC 2 Heliographs 3 Paper, Newspapers, and Magazines 3 Telegraph Service and Morse Code 4 Telegraph Service 4 Morse Code 5 Mail and Parcels 6 Facsimile (Fax) 7 Telephone 8 Mobile Phone 9 Copy Machine 9 Loudspeakers 10 Magnetic Recording 10 Radio 11 Amateur Radio 14 AM Broadcasting 17 FM Broadcasting 18 Telephony—Cellular and Satellite Phones 20 Cellular Phones 20 Satellite Phones 21 Navigation 22 vii viii Contents RADAR 22 Data (Digital Radio) 23 Unlicensed Radio Services 25 Radio Control (RC) 26 Wireless 26 Other Radio 27 Television 27 Satellites 29 Information Science and Computers 30 Internet 32 Communications for People with Disabilities and Others with Functional and Access Needs 32 Hearing Impaired 33 Hearing Aid 33 Text Telephone 33 Speech Impaired 34 Visually Impaired 34 Braille 34 Elderly 34 Summary 35 Endnotes 35 Chapter 2 Disaster Communications—Two-Way Conversations 37 Emergency Broadcasting 39 Universal Emergency Calling Number 40 History of the Universal Emergency Calling Number 40 Universal Emergency Calling Number—United Kingdom 41 Universal Emergency Calling Number—North America 44 9-1-1 Emergency Operator Procedures 51 Enhanced 9-1-1 51 9-1-1 A Vulnerable Target 52 9-1-1 and First Amendment Rights 52 Silent 9-1-1 Calls 53 Contents ix 9-1-1 Internet Address Purchased for Profit 54 Blocking Inbound Calls to 9-1-1 54 Other Vulnerabilities to Emergency Calling Systems 56 Next Generation 9-1-1 (NG 911) 57 Emergency Requests for Help around the World 57 Australia 57 Europe 57 Summary 58 Endnotes 58 Chapter 3 Dynamics of Communications and Concepts of Operations 61 Effective Communications 62 Crisis Communications 66 Crisis Communications Planning 68 Emergency Communications Characteristics 71 How to Recognize When a Message Is Not Being Communicated 73 Crisis Communications in the Midst of Violent Events 74 Emergencies Related to Violence by Journalists 74 Crisis Communications for War Preparation 76 Propaganda 77 Summary 78 Endnotes 79 Chapter 4 Challenges to Effective Communications 81 The Cost of Quality 83 Communications for People with Disability and Others with Functional and Access Needs 87 Primary Groups 89 Speech Disabilities 89 Mentally Disabled, Developmentally Disabled, and the Cognitively Impaired 90 Hearing Impaired 95 Visually Impaired 98 Mobility Challenged 101 x Contents Other Groups 101 Non-English Speaking 101 Limited English Proficiency (LEP) 102 Culturally or Geographically Isolated 104 Homeless 105 Medically or Chemically Dependent 106 Children 107 Elderly 107 Communications Methods for Populations with Disabilities and Others with Functional and Access Needs 108 Summary 109 Endnotes 112 Chapter 5 Changing Realities in Emergency Communications 115 2009 Worldwide Catastrophes Statistics 116 Disaster Types Predicted over the Next 25 Years 119 Earthquakes 119 Volcanic Disruptions 121 Tsunamis 123 Atmospheric Conditions 125 Superstorms 126 Solar Flares 127 Comets, Asteroids, and Meteor Strikes 129 Shortages of Key Resources 130 Water Shortages 130 Food Shortages 133 Power Shortages—Blackouts and Brownouts 133 Health Disasters 135 Aging Infrastructure 135 Pipeline 135 Waste Treatment Facilities 137 Wastewater Sewer Lines 137 Roads, Bridges, and Transit Systems 138 Contents xi Cyber Attacks and Cyber Warfare 139 War/Conflict 141 Disaster Planning 143 The New Mobility 147 Communications in the Future 148 Satellites 151 The New Mobility Pushes the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Changes to 9-1-1 Services 152 Summary 153 Endnotes 154 Chapter 6 Emergency Communications Framework 157 Putting the Framework into Operations 160 Sending Messages 162 Receiving Warnings from Trusted Sources 164 The National Warning System (NAWAS) 164 National Weather Service (NWS) 164 State Government and Local Notification 165 Notification of Local Officials 165 Organizations and Individuals 165 Dissemination of Warnings to the Public 166 When to Activate 166 Activations for People with Disabilities and Others with Functional and Access Needs 169 Warnings to Outside Agencies 170 Phases of Emergency Management 171 Preparedness 172 Response 173 Recovery 174 Mitigation 174 Prevention 175 Organization and Responsibilities 176 Assignment of Responsibilities 177 Department Heads 177 Office of Emergency Management (OEM) 177 xii Contents The Emergency Management Coordinator (EMC) or Director 177 External Entities 178 Joint Information Center (JIC) 178 Direction and Control 179 Readiness Levels 179 Green (Level III)—Normal Operations 180 Yellow (Level II)—Increased Readiness or Partial Activation 181 Red (Level I)—Maximum Readiness or Full-Scale Activation 181 Emergency Communications and Record Keeping 182 Training and Education 182 Security, System Maintenance, and Capacity Building 184 Summary 185 Endnotes 186 Chapter 7 A Crisis Occurs … Now What? 187 The Ws of Effective Communications 188 Why 189 The Scenario 189 Who 190 What 191 Situational Crisis Communication Theory and Attribution Theory 192 What to Avoid Saying 194 When 194 Where 195 How 196 The Message and the Messenger 198 Moral and Ethical Reflection 201 Preparation Is Key 203 Lessons Learned and
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