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Lipner, Julius. 2010. Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, the United States, it closely aligned itself with black 2nd ed. London: Routledge. nationalism, black consciousness, and Pan-Africanism. Majumdar, R. C., ed. 1951–1969. The History and Culture of the This is perhaps most obviously observed in the founding Indian People. 11 vols. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. of Afrika Bambaataa’s organization, the Universal Zulu Mittal, Sushil, and Gene Thursby, eds. 2004. The Hindu World. New York: Routledge. Nation, on the principles of Garveyism and the philoso- Ramakrishna Institute of Culture. 1958–1972. The Cultural phy of self-reliance and unification among black popula- Heritage of India.5vols.Calcutta:RamakrishnaInstituteof tions throughout the world. However, hip-hop is no Culture. longer (and perhaps never was) confined to the African American community, and over the years prominent white artists, such as the Beastie Boys and Eminem, have Klaus K. Klostermaier (2013) University of Manitoba emerged to challenge the monopoly of black performers and help the music move closer to mainstream popular culture. There is a developing field of literature concerned HIP-HOP CULTURE AND exclusively with hip-hop and rap music that some have RAP MUSIC christened hip-hop studies (e.g., Forman and Neal 2004). Tricia Rose’s seminal book Black Noise (1994) Hip-hop is a cultural movement that materialized in the provides a sociohistorical analysis of the contexts in socially marginalized black and Latino neighborhoods of which hip-hop emerged. Black Noise is regarded as the New York City in the late 1970s (Chang 2005). The touchstone text of this emerging canon and became music first appeared when DJs (disc jockeys) started the centerpiece of a small wave of research published in making ‘‘’’ by looping small portions of songs the 1990s. Along with Rose, the most prominent hip- emphasizing a percussion pattern on two turntables while hop authors, based on book sales and influence, are an MC (master of ceremonies) rhymed in time with the Murray Foreman and Mark Anthony Neal (2004), who new sound. Hip-hop is more than just a musical form, give attention to the political side of rap, approaching however, and includes four central elements: MCing hip-hop lyrics as a form of oppositional politics. Overall, (often referred to as ), DJing or , authors working within this genre have shown a strong art, and break dancing. Hip-hop expressions have tendency to act as cultural critics by either criticizing hip- expanded to include other creative arenas, such as spo- hop as nihilistic and destructive (e.g., McWhorter 2003) ken-word poetry, theater, fashion, and activism. Rap has or celebrating it as prophetic, empowering, and full of emerged as the most visible (and audible) component, educational potential (e.g., Ginwright 2004). and in popular usage rap is often mistakenly used as a synonym for hip-hop. Initially, hip-hop grew underground, with distribu- THE EMERGENCE OF HIP-HOP AND RAP MUSIC tion conducted via bootlegging and marketing by word The roots of rapping can be found in earlier forms of of mouth. But it quickly progressed over a couple of African American music, including the practice of signi- decades to become one of the most popular musical fying, jazz poetry, the call and response of religious cultures on the planet, with its seemingly ubiquitous sermons, and the conversational styles of some blues presence often cited as evidence for processes of cultural songs. Some researchers have even traced the influence globalization and global homogeneity. Someone who back farther to traditional African vocal forms, with participates in or has a devoted interest in at least one parallels often drawn to the griots of West Africa, who of the four central elements mentioned above, along deliver cultural histories in poetry form. with a keen appreciation of the musical and cultural The distinctive hip-hop sound stands apart from heritage of hip-hop, is known as a ‘‘hip-hop head’’ or these earlier forms of music and was developed by the simply a ‘‘head.’’ creative innovations of a small number of musical pio- In both popular and academic discourse, hip-hop neers. The most important of these ‘‘founding fathers’’ has overwhelmingly been represented and understood as are widely recognized as DJ Kool Herc, Afrika Bambaa- black music. This is unsurprising, given its African cul- taa, and Grandmaster Flash. It is generally accepted that tural roots and the tendency among many artists to the first hip-hop event took place on August 13, 1973, at articulate and promote Afrocentric beliefs, values, atti- 1520 Sedgwick Avenue in the Bronx, in New York City, tudes, and experiences. Hip-hop also enjoys close links to when Chris Campbell, a tall and muscular teenager nick- African American inner-city cultures and often dissem- named Hercules, played records at his sister’s back-to- inates representations of urban African American real- school party under the moniker DJ Kool Herc. During DJ ities. From the outset, as hip-hop began to emerge in Kool Herc’s set, his friend, Coke La Rock, began shouting

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playing on a turntable. This advance is generally credited to Grandmaster Flash’s prote´ge´ Grand Wizzard Theo- dore, who attributes his discovery to childhood instances when his mother complained about the loud music being played in his bedroom. Instead of instantly turning the volume down, Grand Wizzard would stop the record with his hand and notice an interesting and appealing scraping sound. He worked to develop this scratching manipulation, and other DJs soon appropriated it.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIP-HOP Since its emergence, hip-hop has expanded and diversi- fied to incorporate numerous offshoots and interpreta- tions, with hip-hop heads, writers, and journalists all working to codify and catalogue the various styles. By the early 1990s, commentators started talking and writ- ing about an old school, a new school, and a golden age. Intuitively, the first musical epoch is often referred to as the ‘‘old school’’ (or ‘‘old skool’’), when rap music first became popularized in the United States and began to be heard around the world. The Sugarhill Gang’s ‘‘Rapper’s Delight,’’ released in October 1979, with its catchy open- ing line, ‘‘I said a , a hippie, a hippie to the hip hop,’’ signaled the arrival of hip-hop into mainstream popular culture. The sound at this time was heavily influenced by and , and the dominant themes were partying and having a good time. Compared to the music that was to come, this era is distinguished by unsophisticated rapping techniques, simple rhythms, and a small number of syllables per bar. The Smithsonian National Museum of American History launches its first hip-hop exhibit initiative, 2006. DJ Kool The appearance of Run-DMC and similar groups Herc speaks at a news conference to launch ‘‘Hip-Hop Won’t signaled a departure from the old school. This so-called Stop: The Beat, The Rhymes, The Life,’’ the first ever hip-hop new school (or ‘‘new skool’’) had a markedly different initiative at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of American style from earlier hip-hop music: it was more aggressive History in New York. The project traces the history and culture of and assertive, less dependent on funk samples, and had a hip-hop music from its origins in the 1970s. AP IMAGES. strong political element, often offering insightful socio- political commentaries in lyrics. The songs during this period regularly contained taunts and boasts and tended out the names of audience members during the instru- to be shorter and more commercial-sounding than pre- mental breakdowns of the soul and funk songs being vious rap records. Prominent artists during this phase played. After this successful and popular performance, include Rakim and Public Enemy, both of whom high- Kool Herc’s notoriety grew, and by the summer of 1974 light how the image of the performer shifted to a tougher he was regularly playing to growing crowds in Cedar Park persona. Public Enemy’s ‘‘Fight the Power’’ (1989) is the and local nightclubs. It was during one of these early most discernible and standout example of the new polit- performances that Kool Herc created the , ical fervor found within 1980s hip-hop. This song rep- extending the percussion breakdown of a track by alter- resented a call to action among the African American natively spinning two copies of the same record. This population. Although many musicians pursued this novelty proved instantly popular with audiences and was theme, one noteworthy exception was KRS-One, who to become the building block for future hip-hop music. set up the Stop the Violence Movement and through Afurtherinnovationthatwasessentialtothedevel- his lyrics worked to promote a message of community opment of the hip-hop sound was the technique of organization and pacifism. ‘‘scratching.’’ This noise is made when a DJ moves a The golden age of hip-hop was more diverse than record back and forth with his or her fingers while it is these previous eras and is distinguished by its

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innovations and the quality of its production, with lyrics, these deaths became iconic and gave hip-hop a many of hip-hop’s most famous artists at their creative tragic dimension. peak. The songs of the golden era are characterized by Later, another style, called ‘‘,’’ which emerged fast-paced rhymes and beats and the tendency among in Memphis, , gained mainstream success and prominent artists (including De La Soul, A Tribe Called had a major impact on the world of hip-hop. This Quest, and Gang Starr) to write about political mili- unique category is signified by its heavy bass lines and tancy and black activism. by the call-and-response and shouting vocals adopted by There is disagreement about the exact periodization the MC. Influenced by bass music and often enlisting a of these phases, and many writers have instead decided to , the tempo of crunk is usually slower than separate hip-hop into categories that defy distinct time- in other types of hip-hop. In addition, the songs tend to frames. The most commonly used categories are main- focus on the beats at the expense of lyrics, which often stream, underground, conscious, and gangsta. The terms take on only a minor role. Lil Wayne is the most famous mainstream and underground are usually employed to crunk artist, with his 2008 album Tha Carter III selling indicate whether the music is commercially successful or over a million copies in its first week. not. Consequently, underground hip-hop is usually asso- ciated with independent record labels and artists who are GENDER more prone to produce socially conscious music. Over the years, misogyny, machismo, and violence Conscious hip-hop distinguishes itself by focusing on against women have proved popular themes among many social issues and promoting nonviolence. Although artists, resulting in a gender imbalance in hip-hop. Along most conscious artists are underground, the fraternity with ‘‘battling’’ and other competitive aspects of the includes artists like KRS-One, Mos Def, Common, culture, these themes have worked to exclude women. Tupac Shakur, and Talib Kweli, who all gained commer- Swimming against the tide, a number of female MCs cial success. rose to prominence during the 1990s. Most, like Foxy By offering violent parables that featured social com- Brown of the Firm and Lil’ Kim of Junior M.A.F.I.A., mentary, Ice-T helped pioneer in 1984 with followed the trend of rhyming about violence and sex. ‘‘Killers,’’ the B-side to the single ‘‘Body Rock.’’ In 1985, They departed from their male counterparts only in dress Schoolly D, a Philadelphia-based rapper, helped estab- by abandoning baggy clothes and baseball caps in favor of lished this subgenre when he included gangsta stylings on more suggestive attire. his record ‘‘P.S.K. What Does it Mean?’’ In the latter Missy Elliott’s debut album Supa Dupa Fly (1997) part of the 1980s, NWA (Niggaz with Attitude) helped and her colorful dress and style represented something further popularize this rapping style with the infamous completely different from other female MCs and pro- track ‘‘Fuck tha Police,’’ which violently expressed the vided the foundations for much of the experimentalism disdain for police authority felt by many young urban found in early-twenty-first-century hip-hop. During the males. Despite its huge success, this subgenre has been 1990s, Lauryn Hill, another accomplished female MC, accused of glorifying crime and has been widely con- became one of the most popular rappers in the world, demned for its violent themes by large sections of the showing that hip-hop had the potential to champion media and political establishment. female artists. Queen Latifah, who over the years has developed a strong, intelligent, and independent persona, The focal point of hip-hop in the 1990s was the so- called East Coast/West Coast rivalry. The hostility can released her first album in 1989, when she was nineteen. be traced back to 1991, when Marion ‘‘Suge’’ Knight Her third album, Black Reign (1993), was the first album founded Death Row Records in Los Angeles and Sean by a female MC to go gold, and this breakthrough ‘‘Puff Daddy’’ Combs set up the Bad Boy record label paved the way for other women to achieve mainstream in New York City. The feud is crystallized by the success in hip-hop. Queen Latifah has also enjoyed animosity between Tupac, who was signed to Death notable crossover success with an extensive film and tele- Row, and Biggie Smalls (the Notorious B.I.G.), who vision career. was signed to Bad Boy. Both talented wordsmiths were Despite the success of these performers, organiza- murdered within six months of each other in 1996 and tions such as the NAACP and the National Congress of 1997. Although no one was ever arrested for these Black Women have protested the image of black women crimes and no direct link was formally established, the presented in rap music, particularly gangsta rap. These murders were viewed by many as the outcome of the groups argue that, beginning in the 1980s, hip-hop East Coast/West Coast rivalry. In part because both artists’ depiction of black women deteriorated as hip- Tupac and Biggie prophesied their demise in their hop became more commercially successful and as record

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companies began to cater to the fantasies of suburban BIBLIOGRAPHY white males, who constitute the most lucrative market. Androutsopoulos, Jannis, and Arno Scholz. 2003. ‘‘Spaghetti Funk: Appropriations of Hip-Hop Culture and Rap Music in Europe.’’ Popular Music and Society 26 (4): 489–505. GLOBAL HIP-HOP Chang, Jeff. 2005. Can’t Stop, Won’t Stop: A History of the Hip Since its inception, hip-hop has become familiar the Hop Generation.NewYork:St.Martin’sPress. world over, with the culture’s many conventions and Chang, Jeff, ed. 2006. Total Chaos: The Art and Aesthetics of distinctive vernacular widely disseminated and con- Hip-Hop.NewYork:BasicCivitas. sumed, attracting people from a full range of socioeco- Condry, Ian. 2001. ‘‘A History of Japanese Hip-Hop: Street Dance, Club , Pop Market.’’ In Global Noise: Rap and nomic, national, and ethnic backgrounds. Hip-hop’s Hip-Hop Outside the USA,editedbyTonyMitchell. inclusiveness is in part explained by its distinctiveness in Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. relation to other musical cultures in requiring neither Elflein, Dietmar. 1998. ‘‘From Krauts with Attitudes to Turks formal training (e.g., learning to read or write music) with Attitudes: Some Aspects of Hip-Hop History in nor expensive instruments (e.g., guitars, drum kits, and Germany.’’ Popular Music 17 (3): 255–265. keyboards). In addition, hip-hop has proven to appeal to Fenn, John, and Alex Perullo. 2000. ‘‘Language Choice and Hip those who experience social or political marginalization Hop in Tanzania and Malawi.’’ Popular Music and Society 24 (Osumare 2007). (3): 73–93. Forman, Murray, and Mark Anthony Neal, eds. 2004. That’s the Some academics have adopted grounded approaches Joint! The Hip-Hop Studies Reader.NewYork:Routledge. to look at various hip-hop scenes outside the United Ginwright, Shawn A. 2004. Black in School: Afrocentric Reform, States. The key debates found within these works revolve Urban Youth, and the Promise of Hip-Hop Culture.NewYork: around how hip-hop is used to construct identity and Teachers College Press. how processes of localization result in adapting the McWhorter, John H. 2003. ‘‘How Hip-Hop Holds Blacks music and culture to fit into new environments. In terms Back.’’ City Journal.AccessedJune17,2011.Availablefrom of identity construction, Ian Condry (2001) finds http://www.city-journal.org/html/13_3_how_hip_hop.html that Japanese young people use hip-hop and African Osumare, Halifu. 2007. The Africanist Aesthetic in Global Hip- Hop: Power Moves.NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan. American identity as a way to distance themselves from Perullo, Alex. 2005. ‘‘Hooligans and Heroes: Youth Identity and what they see as a homogenous and conservative Asian Hip-Hop in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.’’ Africa Today 51 (4): culture. Similarly, John Fenn and Alex Perullo (2000) 75–101. describe how Malawi youths use the terms and idioms of Rose, Tricia. 1994. Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture hip-hop to differentiate themselves from their national in Contemporary America.Middletown,CT:Wesleyan culture. Dietmar Elflein (1998) departs from these two University Press. studies by showing how Turkish-German young people embrace hip-hop not to distance themselves from their Gary W. Pritchard (2013) preexisting social identity, but as a vehicle to embrace Newcastle University, UK and celebrate it. The overwhelming majority of scholarly work on non-American hip-hop has emphasized processes of localization or ‘‘glocalization,’’ highlighting the blend of HISTORICAL TRAUMA global and local influences that infuse various scenes Historical trauma is generally defined as the long-term, throughout the world. Some authors have explored how collective adverse impact of certain historical events, such aesthetics are adapted in order to suit national cultures as genocide, on a particular social group. Its symptoms and localized conditions. Jannis Androutsopoulos occur over the lifespan of individuals and are transmitted and Arno Scholz (2003), for example, in analyzing from generation to generation, especially when a group Italian hip-hop album covers, observed that while has collectively experienced, or is still experiencing, his- artists use some of the symbolism found in mainstream toric situations of extreme humiliation, persecution, prej- US hip-hop, such as baseball caps worn backward udice, oppression, anger, and, in some cases, massive and graffiti-style lettering, they also display distinct Ital- extermination. The effects of historical trauma include ian identity markers, like sitting around a table eating such feelings as numbness, anger, rage, fear, helplessness, pasta. Further research, such as that by Alex Perullo anxiety, low self-esteem, and suicidal ideation. Research- (2005), has shown how the messages within hip-hop ers have proposed a set of social indicators that show that lyrics are often tailored to articulate local social issues the rates of mental illness, unemployment, poverty, heart and political concerns. disease, drug abuse, suicidal behavior, and other forms of SEE ALSO Black Consciousness; Black Popular suffering are generally higher among groups that suffer Culture (US). from historical trauma.

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