Table of Contents
Preface...... xv
About the Authors ...... xvii
Section 1: ABO: The Birth of Blood Groups
1. Blood Groups—From Then ’Til Now ...... 1
Discovery ...... 1 Response and Reconsideration ...... 2 Beyond ABO ...... 4 M, N, and P ...... 5 Rh ...... 6 The Antiglobulin Test ...... 7 The Plot Thickens ...... 7 References ...... 8
2. Karl Landsteiner, Father of Blood Groups ...... 9
Beginnings ...... 9 Medical School ...... 11 The Young Researcher ...... 13 Priority Issues ...... 16 Decastello and Sturli: Another Blood Group ...... 18 Other Directions ...... 19 Life in Vienna ...... 21 References ...... 23
3. ABO Grows Up ...... 27
Transfusion History, 1600 to 1920 ...... 27 The Blood Groups Gain Attention ...... 29 Transfusion in World War I ...... 37 Advances in ABO Blood Group Serology ...... 39 References ...... 47
4. Genetics, Eugenics, and Blood Groups ...... 51
Heredity, 1900 ...... 52 The Rise of Genetics ...... 52 Genes and Blood Groups ...... 53 viii BLOODY BRILLIANT!
Genes and Populations ...... 59 References ...... 62
5. Karl Landsteiner in New York ...... 65
At “The Rockefeller” ...... 65 Landsteiner Returns to the Blood Groups ...... 68 The Nobel Prize ...... 71 The Laureate at Work ...... 73 References ...... 74
6. Out, Damned Spot! Early Forensic Applications of ABO ...... 77
What Blood Can Tell ...... 78 Is It Blood? ...... 78 Is It Human Blood? ...... 79 Whose Blood Is It? ...... 81 References ...... 85
7. Who’s Your Daddy? ABO and Paternity Testing ...... 87
Establishing Paternity ...... 87 Paternity Testing and the Courts: Europe ...... 89 Paternity Testing and the Courts: Britain ...... 91 Paternity Testing and the Courts: United States ...... 92 Lights! Camera! Action! ...... 96 References ...... 98
8. Blood and Race: Seroanthropology in the First Half of the 20th Century ...... 101
The Hirszfelds and the Beginnings of Seroanthropology ...... 101 Seroanthropology in Continental Europe ...... 106 Seroanthropology in North and South America ...... 116 Seroanthropology in Britain and Her Empire ...... 122 Seroanthropology in Asia ...... 128 References ...... 130
9. Sugars and Splice: The Biochemistry and Immunochemistry of ABO ...... 137
Early Attempts: 1920s and 1930s ...... 137 1940s: Morgan, Watkins, and Kabat ...... 139 The Three “L’s”: Lewis, Lutheran, and Lectins ...... 143 Cracking the Specificity ...... 150 Bombay—the ABH Null Phenotype ...... 155 Epilogue: Morgan, Watkins, and Kabat ...... 157 References ...... 159 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
Section 2: Rh and Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
10. Monkey Business: The Discovery of Rh ...... 165
Landsteiner, Wiener, and the Rhesus Monkey ...... 165 The Rhesus Connection ...... 168 Levine and Erythroblastosis Fetalis ...... 170 Priority ...... 173 LW: A Sticky Wicket in the Discovery of Rh ...... 175 Rh Goes Public ...... 177 End of the Landsteiner Era ...... 178 References ...... 179
11. Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn: Cause and Treatment ...... 183
Erythroblastosis Fetalis—Historical Aspects ...... 183 Treatment ...... 189 Conclusion ...... 197 References ...... 197
12. Britain, Blood, and Bombs (1930-1945) ...... 201
Britain and the Blood Groups ...... 201 World War II and Blood Transfusion ...... 204 Wartime Blood Grouping ...... 212 References ...... 219
13. A Rh-ose by Any Other Name: Rh Specificity and Terminology ...... 221
Not Just Rh+ and Rh– ...... 221 Rh in America, 1940-1943 ...... 221 Rh in England, 1940-1943 ...... 224 For and Against: Anti-e and Anti-d ...... 228 The International Rh Conference ...... 230 Wiener’s Campaign ...... 232 References ...... 236
14. Detecting Rhand Beyond ...... 239
Early Detection Methods ...... 239 Blocking vs Incomplete Antibodies ...... 240 Advanced Detection: Capillary Tubes, Slides, and Albumin ...... 242 The Antiglobulin Test ...... 243 References ...... 250
15. There A-Rh-ose Such a Clatter: More Rh Antigens! ...... 253
DU ...... 253 Subdivisions of D ...... 254 Compound Antigens and More ...... 255 x BLOODY BRILLIANT!
G ...... 256 Deletions and Nulls ...... 258 Rosenfield’s Numerical Notations ...... 259 References ...... 262
16. Preventing HDN: RhIG ...... 265
Theories and Early Treatment ...... 265 Development of Rh Immune Globulin ...... 268 The US Trials ...... 274 Encore: Rh Immune Globulin before Delivery ...... 277 Rh Immune Globulin and the Blood Bank ...... 277 References...... 279
Section 3: Blood Groupers
17. Blood Bank Organizations ...... 281
International Activity ...... 281 Activity in the United States ...... 287 References...... 298
18. Medical Technologists to the Fore ...... 301
Training in the United States—The Early Years ...... 301 US Laboratory Workers and the ASCP ...... 302 Local, State, and Regional Educational Efforts ...... 311 Blood Bank Reagent Companies and Education ...... 314 Training for the Military Blood Bank ...... 321 Workers in Great Britain ...... 322 References ...... 324
19. AABB Scientific Programs ...... 327
The AABB Annual Meeting ...... 327 The AABB Awards ...... 333 AABB Standards and Accreditation ...... 337 AABB Publications ...... 337 References ...... 340
20. Rare Donor Programs and Immunohematology Reference Laboratories ...... 343
Rare Blood Donors ...... 343 Immunohematology Reference Laboratories to the Rescue ...... 344 Immunohematology Reference Laboratory Standards ...... 352 Reference Laboratories and Rare Donor Programs Outside the United States ...... 352 Learning and Sharing: ICII and SCARF ...... 360 References ...... 375 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi
21. In a Fine and Nobel Tradition: Blood Groupers on Parade ...... 379
Blood Groupers in Britain ...... 380 The British Mafia and Other Ex-Patriots ...... 393 Blood Groupers in the United States ...... 409 References ...... 418
Section 4: Blood Grouping
22. Slide, Tile, and Tube: Test Systems,1950-2000 ...... 423
Slides and Tiles ...... 423 Test Tubes ...... 427 Pipets ...... 430 Racks and Tube Holders ...... 431 Centrifuges ...... 432 Cell Washers ...... 435 Grading Reactivity ...... 436 References ...... 438
23. Clump Together Now: Improving Antibody Detection ...... 439
Enhancing Agglutination ...... 439 The Antiglobulin Test ...... 440 Elution ...... 445 Polybrene, LISS, LIP, and PEG ...... 447 Red Cell Modification ...... 449 Serological Approaches to AIHA ...... 450 References ...... 455
24. Beyond the Tube ...... 459
Capillary Tubes ...... 459 Eldon Cards ...... 460 Microplates ...... 461 Automation ...... 463 Solid Phase ...... 467 Column Agglutination ...... 470 References ...... 475
25. Applications of Serological Tests ...... 479
The Crossmatch and the Antibody Screen ...... 479 Antibody Identification ...... 483 Reagent Antisera ...... 488 Monoclonal Reagents ...... 491 References ...... 494 xii BLOODY BRILLIANT!
26. Beyond ABO—Medicolegal and Anthropological Applications of Other Blood Groups ...... 497
Forensic Serology ...... 497 Parentage Testing ...... 502 Non-Red-Cell Markers ...... 505 The Advent of DNA Testing ...... 509 Anthropology beyond ABO ...... 511 Blood Group Population Studies in the Second Half of the 20th Century ...... 513 References ...... 519
Section 5: The Blood Groups
27. Some Historical Highlights of the Blood Group Systems ...... 523
Organization and Terminology of the Blood Groups ...... 523 ABO, H, Lewis, P1PK, Globoside, FORS, and I Systems ...... 525 MNS System [MNS] ...... 532 Rh, LW, and RHAG Systems [RH, LW, RHAG] ...... 546 Lutheran System [LU] ...... 552 Kell and Kx Systems [KEL, XK] ...... 557 Duffy System [FY] ...... 562 Kidd System [JK] ...... 569 Diego System [DI] ...... 572 Yt System [YT] ...... 575 Xg System [XG] ...... 576 Scianna System [SC] ...... 577 Dombrock System [DO] ...... 579 Colton and Gill Systems [CO, GIL] ...... 581 Gerbich System [GE] ...... 582 Chido/Rodgers, Knops, Cromer, and JMH Systems; Cost Collection; and Sda ...... 584 Indian System [IN] ...... 590 Ok System [OK] ...... 590 Raph System [RAPH] ...... 591 Lan and Jr Systems [LAN, JR] ...... 591 Vel System [VEL] ...... 592 CD59 System [CD59] ...... 594 AUG System [AUG] ...... 594 Unaffiliated Antigens ...... 594 References ...... 598 ABO, H, Lewis P1PK, Globoside, FORS, and I Systems [ABO, H, LE, P1PK, GLOB, FORS, I] ...... 598 MNS System [MNS] ...... 599 Rh, LW, and RHAG Systems [RH, LW, RHAG] ...... 600 Lutheran System [LU] ...... 601 Kell and Kx Systems [KEL, XK] ...... 601 Duffy System [FY] ...... 602 Kidd System [JK] ...... 604 Diego System [DI] ...... 605 Yt System [YT] ...... 605 Xg System [XG] ...... 605 Scianna System [SC] ...... 606 Dombrock System [DO] ...... 606 TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii
Colton and Gill Systems [CO, GIL] ...... 606 Gerbich System [GE] ...... 607 Chido/Rodgers, Knops, Cromer, and JMH Systems; Cost Collection; and Sda Antigen ...... 607 Indian System [IN] ...... 608 Ok System [OK] ...... 609 Raph System [RAPH] ...... 609 Lan and Jr Systems [LAN, JR] ...... 609 Vel System [VEL] ...... 609 CD59 System [CD59]...... 609 AUG System [AUG] ...... 609 Unaffiliated Antigens ...... 609
28. Final Notes ...... 611
Index ...... 613
Additional Resources
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