FiRUTHE GEORGE WRIGHT M Volume 16 •M999* Number 4
THE JOURNAL OF THE GEORGE WRIGHT SOCIETY
Dedicated to the Protection, Preservation and Management of Cultural and Natural Parks and Reserves Through Research and Education The George Wright Society
Board of Directors RICHARD WEST SELLARS • President Santa Fe, New Mexico JOHNj. DONAHUE • Vice President Warsaw, Virginia LAURA E.SOULLIERE • Treasurer Natchez, Louisiana ROBERTJ. KRUMENAKER • Secretary Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
MARIE BERTILLION COLLINS • Piedmont, California DENNIS B.FENN • Reston, Virginia GARY LARSON • Corvallis, Oregon NEIL W. P. MUNRO • Halifax, Nova Scotia RICHARD B. SMITH • Placitas, New Mexico
Executive Office P. 0. Box 65, Hancock, Michigan 49930-0065 USA s 1-906-487-9722; fax 1-906-487-9405 info@georgewright. org • http://www.georgewright. org David Harmon • Executive Director Robert M. Linn • Membership Coordinator
The George Wright Society is a member of US/ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites—U.S. Committee), IUCN—The World Conservation Union, and The Natural Resources Council of America
© 1999 The George Wright Society, Inc. All rights reserved. (No copyright is claimed for previously published material reprinted herein.) ISSN 0732-4715
Editorial guidelines may be found on the inside back cover. Text paper is made of 50% recycled fibers. Printed by Book Concern Printers, Hancock, Michigan
The production of this volume was greatly enhanced with the support of the Southeast Archeological Center, National Park Service. THE GEORGE WRIGHT FORUM .. Volume 16 • 1999 • Number 4
Society News, Notes & Mail 2 Box Sixty-Five: The USNPS Natural Resource Challenge: It's Not About Money, It's About Priorities Karen P. Wade 5 ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE NATIONAL PARK IDEA: CHALLENGES FOR MANAGEMENT AND INTERPRETATION Guest Editor: John H.Jameson, Jr. Introduction John H. Jameson, Jr. 8 Loving it to Death: The Gran Pajaten Predicament Warren B. Church 16 The Battle for Sydney Harbour Denis Gojak 28 Management Strategies and the Component of Indigenous Sacred Places: The Dreaming and Aboriginal Involvement in Site Management Within Northern Territory National Parks, Australia Ken Mulvaney 3 7 Expanding Horizons: Environmental and Cultural Values within Natural Boundaries Judith Powell 50 Archaeology and Rocky Mountain Ecosystem Management: Theory and Practice Martin Mame 67 History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and Interpretation in British National Parks Harold Mytum 77 The Genius of the Place: Managing a "Mini-National Park" at Bede's World Peter Fowler and Miriam Harte 91 Developing a Management Plan for the Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage Site Marion Blockley 107 Reinterpreting the Cultural Landscape ofChalmette Batdefield: Landscape Management Strategies for Parks with Multiple Layers of Histoiy Kevin Risk 121 On the Cover: Carlton George, a Mirriuwung man, standing against his own hand stencil, produced when he was a small boy camping at the Nganalum sacred site, Keep River National Park. See Mulvaney, page 37.
Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 1 Sswty New/, Nrte/ ScMaiit
Letter to the Editor: Mountain Connections Slighted To the Editor: The otherwise excellent article by Pisanty-Baruch et al. ("Reporting on North America: Continental Connections," Vol. 16, no. 2) omitted a very im portant set of connection initiatives—those involving mountain ranges. As Vice-Chair for Mountains in the World Commission on Protected Areas for IUCN, my mountain hackles rose up. How could you, folks? In addition to birds and butterflies in migration flyway connections, and the marine path ways used by pelagic fishes and marine mammals, surely the great mountain spines of the western USA, Canada, and Mexico are continental connections that facilitate the flow of genes and species through wild and semi-wild mountain lands. These cross borders, and have suggested corridor initiatives such as Yellowstone to Yukon, Sky Islands of the Southwest and links to the Sierra Nevada Oriental, the greater northern Cascades, and so forth—transborder connections, which even permit movement of large carni vores, such as wolf and mountain lion, and hosts of other terrestrial animals. And let us not forget plants. As global warming occurs, these terrestrial path ways are an essential part of North America's continental connections. Lawrence S. Hamilton Island and Highlands Nature Consultancy, Charlotte, Vermont The Canon National Parks Science Scholars Program: New Round of Scholarships The Canon National Parks Science Scholars Program will award scholarships to eight doctoral students in 2000. Each student selected will receive $25,000 per year for up to three years to conduct dissertation research in the national parks. In addition, four Honorable Mentions will be awarded a one-time scholarship of $2,000. The competition will focus on four research topics within the biological, physical, social, and cultural sciences. The research topics are of critical importance to the management of the National Park Sys tem and are selected by the National Park Service. Students applying for 2000 scholarships must submit dissertation proposals that address these topics. For an application and guidelines, contact Dr. Gary Machlis, Program Coordina tor, Canon National Parks Science Scholars Program, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science, National Park Service, 1849 C Street NW (MIB 3127), Washington, DC 20240; email [email protected], or visit
2 The George Wright FORUM www.nps.gov/socialscience/waso/acts.htm. Applications are due 1 June 2000. Winners will be announced shortly after 7 August 2000. The Canon National Parks Science Scholars Program is underwritten by Canon U.S.A., Inc. Ad ditional partners are the National Park Service, the National Park Foundation (the official non-profit partner of the National Park Service), and the Ameri can Association for the Advancement of Science.
Krumenaker, Soulliere Returned to Board Incumbents Bob Krumenaker and Laura Soulliere will each serve a second three-year term on the Society's Board of Directors after they went unchal lenged in this year's round of elections. No nominations were received in re sponse to the call published last spring in the FORUM. Because of this, the Board decided that it would be a waste of the Society's (and our members') time and money to go through the motions of sending out ballots simply to confirm a foregone conclusion. Therefore the Board decided to cancel the balloting and return Bob and Laura for a second term, after consulting the By- Laws and finding nothing to prohibit this course of action. (However, for the future the Board feels it would be best to formalize this procedure within the By-Laws—see next item.) Bob is deputy associate regional director in the NPS office in Philadelphia; Laura is superintendent of Cane River Creole Na tional Historical Park in Louisiana. Their second term runs from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2002.
Two Proposed Changes to Society By-Laws At the 1999 Board of Directors meeting, held in Halifax in October, the Board decided to propose to the membership two changes in the By-Laws. The first would allow (though not require) the Board to expand from the cur rent set number of nine (six elected and three appointed) to as many as twelve (with a majority elected and no more than five appointed). The intent of this change is to give the Board latitude to introduce a broader range of expertise and experience to its ranks. The second change formalizes a procedure whereby the Board may cancel the annual elections in cases where incumbent elected directors face no opposition (for further explanation, see the item above). We ask all GWS members to read the following proposed changes carefully:
FIRST PROPOSED CHANGE: Revision of Article X-Board of Di rectors, Section 1, Number, Election and Term of Office, paragraph la CURRENT WORDING: (a) The business of this organization shall be managed by a Board of Di rectors consisting of nine (9) directors, a majority of whom must be Volume 16* Number 4 1999 3 elected, and as many as three (3) of whom may be appointed. The terms of office of the directors shall be for three (3) years. These terms shall be staggered in such manner as will allow three (3) directors to be elected or appointed each year. PROPOSED NEW WORDING: (a) The business of this organization shall be managed by a Board of Di rectors consisting of no fewer than nine (9) and no more than twelve (12) directors, a majority of whom must be elected, and as many as five (5) of whom may be appointed. The terms of office of the directors shall be for three (3) years. These terms shall be staggered in such manner as will al low no fewer than three (3) and no more than four (4) directors to be elected or appointed each year. SECOND PROPOSED CHANGE: Addition to Article X-Board of Directors, Section 3, Nomination and Elections PROPOSED NEW SECTION 3 (f) (f) In instances where one or more incumbent Directors are running for re-election, and no additional nominations of candidates to oppose the in cumbents are received by the deadline as detailed in Section 3 (a) of this Article, the Board may, at its discretion, issue a finding that the intent of the Membership is for the incumbents to be re-elected. Based on this finding, the Board may then, at its discretion, cancel the election proce dure detailed in Section 3 (b) of this Article and declare the incumbents to have been re-elected. This declaration shall have the same effect as if the election procedure detailed in Sections 3 (a-b) of this Article had been fully carried through. The Board shall publish and send to the Member ship both its finding and its declaration in accordance with Section 3 (e) of this Article.
The Board will hold a special meeting to decide whether to enact these changes after considering comments from the membership, which we wel come and encourage. Please send them to Dave Harmon at the GWS office: by mail, P.O. Box 65, Hancock, MI 49930-0065 USA; by phone, 1-906-487- 9722; by fax, 1-906-487-9405; or by e-mail, [email protected]. The deadline for receipt of comments is March 15, 2000.
4 The George Wright FORUM Karen P. Wade
Box 65: Commentary from the GWS Office and Our Members
The USNPS Natural Resource Challenge: ItÕs Not About Money, ItÕs About Priorities
he USNPS Natural Resource Challenge, announced by Director Bob Stanton in August 1999, is now off and running. We have high hopes of major budget increases to enhance natural resource man- Tagement within the Service, perhaps as high as $100 million over five years. We can wait for the new money and wait for top-down directives, but now is the opportunity to transform the way we manage the national parks and the way the public views its responsibility to them. It’s not Washington’s responsibility—it’s ours. That responsibility is twofold – managers of the next generation will stewardship and education. know what scientific questions to ask There’s no doubt that increased before their parks are on the brink of funding will allow us to add more another threat – or, more likely, will natural resource specialists, acquire have a trusted chief of resource man- more data sets, contract for more re- agement at their decision table who search. But no amount of additional they turn to regularly and who is in- funding can make a manager use sci- volved in all facets of park manage- entific information; that’s something ment. we need to believe in. Fortunately, The Organic Act requires the there are many good examples of USNPS to conserve … unimpaired parks that have found creative ways for the enjoyment of future genera- to build scientifically sound natural tions. The Congress and the federal resource management programs courts have consistently told us that without huge base increases. Hats off our first priority must always be to to superintendents Alan O’Neill of conserve, and to provide for visitors Lake Mead, Jack Linahan of Buffalo within that context. The Challenge is River, and Roy Weaver of Bandelier, about making the commitment to who made science-based resource resource preservation so that parks management their priorities because will always have unimpaired re- they needed to have the facts on their sources for future visitors to enjoy. side when they went out into the That commitment to preservation public arena to defend their parks means that sometimes we’ll need to from new threats. The best park prepare our publics for hard choices,
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 5 and that we’ll have to face political the way nature functions, and yes, pressure which wants more devel- wonderful places where people from opment or accommodation at the all parts of the world community en- expense of a wetland, a few old joy themselves on vacation. growth trees, more fragmented For the Challenge to be success- habitat, or more air or water pollu- ful, we have to share our enthusiasm tion. We’ll have to be prepared to about park natural resources with the work with neighbors and partners to public, our partners, and govern- develop acceptable alternatives and ment officials at all levels. We need to come to the negotiating table with tell our stories widely, and invite our scientific information that backs up political delegations and the media our position. into our parks so they better under- The American public loves its na- stand our issues. We need to talk in tional park system. We have not every park about the Service and the done, however, a very good job of System, not just about our park, and educating that same public about share stories of where having access what it takes to keep park ecosystems to professional resource expertise has functioning in an increasingly frag- made a positive difference. We need mented landscape. Rather than spell to create learning centers with our out forecasts of gloom and doom, partners as places where scientists, parks can build understanding and educators, park staff, and the public support by inviting the public to of all ages exchange information and participate actively in preservation. ideas. While the Challenge may spe- Resource seminar series at Acadia cifically be about natural resources, and Shenandoah, for example, have in reality it encourages an environ- built committed park supporters, ment where we emphasize resource many of them neighbors, who now stewardship regardless of discipline. understand that parks are complex, The first steps have already begun on functioning, and vulnerable biologi- a parallel program for cultural re- cal systems providing beautiful scen- source stewardship. In fact, our ery as well. The All Taxa Biological commitment to natural and cultural Inventory project at Great Smoky resource inventory, monitoring, and Mountains has generated tremen- the use of scientific/scholarly infor- dous excitement and support be- mation to support management deci- cause it is a bold idea that welcomes sions is required by the 1998 Tho- participation, challenges people’s mas Bill. It’s also the only way to assumptions about their park, and protect parks in the future and ulti- says, in effect, “together we can learn mately it is the public’s responsibility and by learning we can protect the to protect public parks. place we love.” The national parks The Challenge strongly supports are the best places for Americans to park-based resource protection and learn about our natural heritage and interpretation, not just resource
6 The George Wright FORUM management programs. It encour- Ironically, however, if we make that ages an integrated vision of parks that commitment and demonstrate its collectively make up the fabric of wisdom through success in protect- America’s natural and cultural heri- ing parks and building park support- tage. We can and must consider the ers, we will be that much more likely resources first in each and every de- to see reliable, recurring base in- cision we make as park managers. creases proposed in the Natural Re- That doesn’t require any more source Challenge. How’s that for in- money or staff than we have now. centive?
Ed. note: For more on the Thomas Bill, refer to David Harmon’s article “The New Research Mandate for America’s National Park System” in Vol. 16, No. 1.
Karen P. Wade is regional director of the U.S. National Park Service Intermountain Region. Previously she was superintendent of Great Smoky Mountains National Park.
Reminder: this column is open to all GWS members. We welcome lively, provocative, informed opinion on anything in the world of parks and protected areas. The submission guidelines are the same as for other GEORGE WRIGHT FORUM articles—please refer to the inside back cover of any issue. The views in “Box 65” are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position of The George Wright Society. 1
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 7 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE NATIONAL PARK IDEA: CHALLENGES FOR MANAGEMENT AND INTERPRETATION Guest Editor: John H. Jameson, Jr.
John H. Jameson, Jr.
Introduction What This Theme Issue Is About n January 1999, I organized a symposium during the fourth World Ar- chaeology Congress (WAC-4) meetings in Cape Town, South Africa. The title of the symposium was “Archaeology and the National Park IIdea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation.” During this in- ternational session, we examined the unique challenges and problems of man- aging and interpreting archaeological resources in national parks and similar protected areas. Eight presentations from four countries examined the rele- vance and effectiveness of differing strategies for management and public presentation as well as the primary motivations for management and public interpretation strategies (e.g., compliance with laws and regulations, preser- vation, tourism, politics, etc.). According to feedback received during and after the session, the symposium was useful for the South African members of the audience in recognizing the effectiveness of a variety of management ap- proaches and in not “reinventing the wheel.” This special issue of THE GEORGE WRIGHT FORUM includes several papers that were delivered at the symposium (Jameson, Mulvaney, Powell, Fowler and Harte, and Blockley) plus four contributed papers (Church, Gojak, Mytum, and Magne). While the focus is on national myriad of ways according to social, parks, the authors also discuss and political, cultural, geographical, and give examples of other protection empirical criteria. Some are formal designations where archaeology designations, such as in defining and plays a key role in understanding the laying out the boundaries of a na- importance of places and episodes in tional monument; others are less ab- the human experience. What is sig- solute, such as in the identification of nificant or worthy of protection and the “Dreaming Places” among the public concern can be defined in a indigenous peoples of Australia 8 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
(Mulvaney). We hope that these dis- South Africa, as in many other places cussions provide relevant and useful of the world, archaeological knowl- comparative information in terms of edge has sometimes been used for what has worked (and what has not) political purposes. Because of the in the physical protection of sites and years of limited academic freedom in programs to promote public inter- under apartheid, any link to the “old pretation and appreciation—the rai- establishment” archaeology as a dis- son d’être for conservation efforts cipline is seen by many in the coun- around the world. try as a tool of racism and exclusive- Setting of the WAC-4 ness. This has resulted in a limited Symposium popular base for archaeology (SAAS That WAC-4 met in Cape Town 1998). is particularly significant. The con- Although special conservation ar- gress was formed in 1986 as a conse- eas have been set aside in South Af- quence of the international rift in the rica since the 1890s, serious prob- discipline that followed a worldwide lems have always existed in carrying boycott of South Africa during the out effective management. These latter years of apartheid. In South problems are exacerbated today with Africa today, as in many parts of the the turnover of politics and govern- world, attention to “new ethnicities” ment. However, impressive efforts at the turn of the millennium is re- are now being made in South Africa sulting in a renewed discovery of ar- to challenge and overcome persisting chaeology as a source of information stereotypes of the country’s past; ar- on a wide variety of national and chaeologists and archaeology edu- cultural heritage issues (SAAS cators are working hard to more ef- 1998). fectively engage the public. These In archaeological circles, South efforts are presenting archaeology as Africa is best known for the fossil something more than just a sterile man discoveries of the Leakeys and and academic pursuit. More and others in the Transvaal region. Much more in contemporary South Africa, hoopla was made of the discovery in archaeology is seen as a tool for dis- 1997 of a trail of fossilized footprints covering the unwritten heritage of left more than 100,000 years ago by the country from the earliest homi- an anatomically modern human on nids to the material traces of the re- the shore of a South African lagoon. cent past (SAAS 1998). Our “hats South African archaeology has in- are off” to our South African col- deed made major contributions to leagues who bravely embrace the dif- the understanding of Early Man and ficult issues of park management in African prehistory. Unfortunately, in the new and rapidly evolving politi-
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 9 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation cal and socioeconomic climate of order to facilitate the collection and their country. handling of comparable data and to improve international communica- The Nature of National tions. IUCN uses the categories to Protected Area Systems update its authoritative United Na- Worldwide tions List of National Parks and Pro- In many countries at the national tected Areas, which is revised about level, a variety of designations is used every three years. There are about for resource conservation. Inevitably, 9,900 protected areas worldwide the same designation may mean dif- (WCMC 1999). ferent things in different countries, and different designations in different Definition of a Protected Area countries may be used to describe IUCN’s definition of a protected the same category of protected area. area is: “An area of land and/or sea Because of this, an internationally especially dedicated to the protection recognized system of categories, de- and maintenance of biological diver- fined by management objectives sity, and of natural and associated rather than depending on titles, is in cultural resources, and managed use (IUCN 1994). This category through legal or other effective system was devised by IUCN–The means.” IUCN defines nine pur- World Conservation Union—a union poses for protected area manage- of governments, government agen- ment: cies, and nongovernmental organiza- • tions working at the field and policy Scientific research; • levels for worldwide conserva- Wilderness protection; • tion—through its World Commis- Preservation of species and ge- sion on Protected Areas (WCPA). netic diversity; • The WCPA works “to promote the Maintenance of environmental establishment and effective manage- services; • ment of a worldwide, representative Protection of specific natural and network of terrestrial and marine cultural features; • protected areas as an integral contri- Tourism and recreation; • bution to the IUCN mission.” In Education; • performing this mission, WCPA Sustainable use of resources from strives to establish itself as “the natural ecosystems; and • world’s recognised source of guid- Maintenance of cultural and tra- ance, support and expertise on pro- ditional attributes. tected areas” (WCPA 1996). The IUCN defines a “national park” as a category system is intended to oper- protected area managed mainly for ate in the same way in all countries in ecosystem protection and recreation,
10 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation including maintenance of ecological archaeological sites represent the integrity, exclusion of resource ex- sole source of new information on a ploitation, and preservation of spiri- particular cultural group or time tual, scientific, educational, recrea- period. Professional archeologists tional values (IUCN 1994). use scientific methods to identify and analyze the residue of human Problems in International behavior. Data collected by arch- Comparisons of Protected area Designations aeologists are used to supplement, One of the problems in making modify, and correct humanity’s international comparisons is the written record. Historical archae- widely varying types of protected ologists blend existing historical area designations. For example, in accounts with archaeologically de- the USA, several categories exist for rived information to produce new units of the National Park System interpretations of history. that contain archaeological sites: na- Archaeologists study material tional park, national monument, na- remains within the cultural system tional historic site, etc. Meaningful that produced them. A common international or cross-cultural com- misperception of archaeological sites parisons are difficult without detailed is that they are “invisible” and understanding of the cultural and therefore should be treated as sociopolitical atmosphere sur- separate entities from the above- rounding a particular resource or ground or “built” environment. issue. The location of a resource While we often must, in fact, look within the boundaries of a protected under the present-day ground area does not remove it from both surface in order to study and evaluate artificial and natural forces that might archeological remains, archaeological degrade it. We can hope that “im- materials can be both below and portant” sites, however they are de- above the ground surface as part of fined culturally or politically, are ex- the cultural landscape. periencing less degradation and en- Archaeological sites are non- hanced public appreciation by their renewable: once they are disturbed inclusion in national parks and other or destroyed they cannot be brought protected area designations. back. Even the scientific methods of archaeology, such as systematic Archaeology and Conservation excavation, are destructive in the Archaeology, as a sub-field of sense that they remove archae- anthropology, is the study and ological materials from their original reconstruction of past human life- physical context. In recent years, a ways as reflected in material culture conservation ethic has developed and artifacts. In many instances, where archaeologists usually sample Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 11 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation only a portion of a site, leaving the lished in 1906, contains elaborate remainder for future archaeologists stone villages or “cliff dwellings” in armed with more advanced methods the sheltered alcoves of a steep can- and procedures that can yield more yon in Colorado. The culture repre- accurate interpretations. sented at Mesa Verde reflects more Archaeology Conservation and than 700 years of history (approxi- Interpretation in the U.S. mately AD 600 through 1300). National Park Service Ocmulgee National Monument in The U.S. National Park System Georgia is an example of a park unit contains a great variety of archaeo- that owes its existence to work done logical sites from early prehistoric by the Works Progress Administra- times (+10,000 BC) to nineteenth- tion in the 1930s. One of the primary century battlefields and twentieth- attractions at Ocmulgee is the recon- century settlements. Of the approxi- structed earthlodge dating to about mately 380 units of the System, AD 1100. nearly all contain archaeological re- Ninety Six National Historic Site sources. U.S. National Park Service and Fort Vancouver National His- (NPS) programs provide national toric Site are examples of parks that leadership and coordination for the rely heavily on archaeology to supply protection, preservation, and inter- details in the interpretation of signifi- pretation of America’s archaeological cant events and periods of U.S. his- resources inside the National Park tory. Ninety Six contains the remains System and beyond. Programs seek of an eighteenth-century frontier to broaden public understanding, outpost, including a reconstructed protect and preserve sites and arti- stockade fort (Figure 1). From 1825 facts in place, and strengthen com- to 1849, Fort Vancouver in Wash- munity relations while recognizing ington state was the western head- cultural diversity (NPS 1999). quarters of the Hudson’s Bay Com- Knowledge gained from archaeologi- pany’s fur trading operations and the cal research in the parks is used to center of political, cultural, commer- evaluate and protect threatened sites cial, and manufacturing activities in and to broaden knowledge as back- the Pacific Northwest. A major pro- ground to enhanced public inter- gram of reconstructions has followed pretation programs and exhibits. comprehensive archaeological work. While the archaeological sites Since the 1930s, NPS architec- protected by NPS may number in the tural historians, archaeologists, and hundreds of thousands, some are interpreters have debated the validity internationally known for their pre- and appropriateness of reconstruc- historic importance. For example, tions, whether on-site or off-site. Al- Mesa Verde National Park, estab- though they can be very useful tools 12 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 1. Reconstructed Stockade Fort at Ninety Six National Historic Site, South Carolina. in public interpretation, reconstruc- in these art forms, they are often no tions have long been a source of less conjectural than technical inter- controversy in NPS and have nearly pretations and have the benefit of always been allowed only when sub- providing visual and conceptual im- stantial archaeological and architec- agery that can communicate contexts tural details are known (Jameson and and settings in a compelling way. We Hunt 1999). can look at archaeology’s connec- The practice of archaeology, as tions to art and music as a different well as archaeologically derived in- way of valuing and defining the re- formation and objects, can inspire a source and making it more mean- wide variety of artist’s conceptions ingful to the public. The National ranging from straightforward com- Park Service has used artistic ren- puter-generated reconstructions and derings of archaeological findings, traditional artists’ conceptions to such as original oil paintings and other art forms such as poetry and other forms of interpretive art, as opera (Finn 1999; Ehrenhard and public interpretation tools. Such art Bullard 1999). Although some level works are used in conjunction with of conjecture will always be present interpretive wayside exhibits, public Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 13 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 2. Interpretive rendering of the burial of a Confederate prisoner-of-war; details of the scene are based on archaeological evidence. Fort Pulaski National Monument, Georgia. awareness posters, book covers, and NPS is the newly developed archeol- other presentations as eye-catching, ogy–interpretation shared compe- educational devices (Figure 2). tency curriculum. Archaeologists, A unique program to cross-train interpreters, and educators are archaeologists and interpreters in trained together in the “basic tools”
14 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation for developing effective presentations sensitive interpretation to multicul- and programs that meet federal stan- tural audiences. The goals of this dards and agency missions. Stressed program are to strengthen the rela- in the curriculum is the need for co- tionship between archaeology and operative communications between public interpretation and ultimately disciplines, the importance of team- to improve how archaeology is pre- work, and the need for accurate and sented to the public (Jameson 1999).
References Finn, Christine. 1999. “Digging”: A poetry and archaeology workshop. World Archaeological Congress (WAC-4), Cape Town, South Africa, January. Ehrenhard, John, and Mary Bullard. 1999 Archaeology and opera: Zabette. Web site:
John H. Jameson, Jr., Southeast Archeological Center, National Park Serv- ice, 2035 E. Paul Dirac Drive, Tallahassee, Florida 32310 USA; [email protected] 1
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 15 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Warren B. Church Loving it to Death: The Gran PajatŽn Predicament
n developing nations preoccupied with the enormous challenges of po- litical, economic and social reorganization and recovery during the 1990s, caring properly for natural protected areas and archaeological heritage is Inot always a high priority. In Peru, the search for revenues during the past decade has taken a significant toll on the nation’s natural and cultural resources, a trend that culminated in the recent controversy over the Lima government’s plans to expand tourist infrastructure at the Inca “palace” of Machu Picchu, arguably South America’s greatest tourist attraction. Yet while a political storm drawing international interest raged over Machu Picchu, a quieter but similar dilemma had begun emerging decades earlier at another remarkable ancient settlement in the eastern Andean cloud forests of northern Peru. The equally spectacular Chachapoyas site of Gran Pajatén was targeted for tourism development soon after its 1964 discovery. The site has so far been spared de- ticipation in archaeological investi- velopment by virtue of its remote lo- gations within the park since 1985, and cation and difficult access, and its in- from avid observation of political corporation in 1983 within a protected developments affecting both research area, the Rio Abiseo National Park and conservation. Most of Gran Pa- (Figure 1). This is indeed fortunate, as jatén’s problems epitomize a single the political forces seeking to turn Gran dilemma facing cultural resource Pajatén into an economic asset have so managers in national parks and pre- far failed to understand the fragile serves around the world. How can we nature of this cultural resource. Several facilitate public access to fragile ar- articles have highlighted threats to the chaeological sites without fatally Rio Abiseo National Park as a compromising their historical and protected area (Leo 1992; Young et al. scientific integrity? 1994), but the following article details problems that distinguish the Gran Pajatén conservation status of the park’s The archaeological site of Gran archaeological resources. My Pajatén is a prehispanic settlement perspective is derived from par- perched on a high terraced ridge top
16 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 1. Map of the Rio Abiseo National Park.
Figure 2. Map of archaeological site of Gran Pajatén. Note the helicopter pad and campsite used in 1966 and 1990.
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 17 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation overlooking the Montecristo River hostile environments. The complex of Canyon (Figure 2). The Montecristo at least 26 stone buildings. most of lies within the Abiseo River drainage, which are circular, crowns a crescent- which empties into the Huallabamba shaped ridgetop hewn into ascending tributary of the Central Huallaga. At terraces, skirted by staircases, and 2,850 m, Gran Pajatén lies deep within entirely paved with slate slabs (Figure the tropical Andean cloud forest where 3). Ornamenting the building walls are temperature averages between 6 and inlaid slate mosaics depicting a variety 12 degrees Celsius, and annual of geometric shapes, bird motifs, and precipitation ranges from 2,000 to rows of human figures each with 4,000 mm. Rain and thick mists are sculpted sandstone-tenoned heads almost daily occurrences, even during (Figures 4 and 5). The mountain the dry season between May and slopes below the settlement are also October. Dense forest covers masonry terraced, giving the entire built constructions at Gran Pajatén and complex a total extent estimated at 50 other archaeological sites within the ha. The exact size of the settlement surrounding valley. This region is remains unknown, but it does not mostly uninhabited today, as the exceed 2 ha. rugged terrain, high humidity and The interest awakened by the dis- unstable soils of the upper forests have covery of this “lost city” brought about been unattractive to Andean farmers. two government-sponsored expedi- Government agencies responsible for tions during 1965 and 1966 led by evaluating natural resources describe high government officials, including the upper forests as virtually useless several from Peru’s tourism industry from an economic standpoint sector. The Peruvian military, (ONERN 1976). Consequently, both especially the Air Force, had a scholars and lay persons tend to celebrated role in clearing the forest assume that the region has always been from the ridgetop, building a landing uninhabited, perhaps utilized only site, and providing helicopter access sporadically by temporary or transient for the government officials. A popular populations. image of Gran Pajatén subsequently Gran Pajatén has been known to reproduced in widely distributed science only since the American ex- posters and pamphlets shows the plorer Gene Savoy (1965) publicized Peruvian flag flying atop the ridge its discovery by local villagers from where it was planted within Building Pataz. Most extraordinary about the No. 1, the most prominent construc- site was the unexpected sophistication tion at the site. As news of the spec- of its architecture given its remote tacular discovery spread around the location within one of Earth’s most globe, Gran Pajatén became a source
18 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 3. Gran Pajatén’s Building No. 1 and its staircase entryway in 1985. Slate-paved plaza and stela in foreground. of great national pride. Its discovery The helicopter-landing site was built coincided with then-President Fernan- on top of buildings at the north end of do Belaúnde Terry’s social programs the site, and a camp with latrines was to promote colonization of the jungle. established along the northeastern The site was regarded as monumental edge. Expedition personnel produced testimony to the fortitude and several magazine articles, a few brief indomitable spirit of the ancient scientific reports (Pimentel 1967; Peruvians who conquered an Rojas 1967), a TV documentary by the environment which has repeatedly British Broadcasting Corporation, and, thwarted contemporary attempts at most importantly, one monograph colonization. (Bonavia 1968) describing the results During their brief visits, expedition of concurrent archaeological investiga- personnel and supporting Pataz tions at the site. Always one of Peru’s villagers cleared vegetation over an most outspoken scholars, Bonavia was estimated area of 6,000 sq m and neatly especially critical of expedition stacked the collected masonry rubble activities that damaged the site’s con- lying within and around the buildings. structions. The plan to prepare Gran
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 19 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Pajatén for use as a tourist attraction park’s area of 274,520 ha is delimited was quickly forgotten in Peru’s shifting by the natural boundaries of the Abiseo political landscape. River watershed (Mendoza and Between 1966 and 1985, numerous Lozano 1997). At 4,200 m elevation, expeditions of tourists and ar- its western edge coincides with the chaeologists visited Gran Pajatén and political boundary separating La Lib- reported other archaeological sites ertad and San Martín departments (Deza 1976; Kauffmann 1980; Leo (technically referred to as Regiones), and Ortiz 1982). Largely due to the while its eastern boundary lies 70 lin- efforts of Leo, Ortiz, and other dedi- ear km distant within San Martín’s cated Peruvian naturalists, the region lowland tropical forest at 500 m ele- was set aside as a national park in 1983. vation. The World Wildlife Fund has The creation of the Rio Abiseo helped fund a staff of locally recruited National Park provided a refuge for the park guards and an administrative endangered yellow-tailed woolly director that succeeded in removing monkey (previously thought extinct) livestock and discouraging the frequent and for other rare and threatened burning of the forest. Although the animals and ecological systems. The park lies completely within San Martin
Figure 4. Stone mosaic frieze with seated anthropomorphic figures on the exterior walls of Building No. 1, Gran Pajatén.
20 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 5. Stone mosaic frieze of bird on the exterior walls of Building No. 2, Gran Pajatén. department, its administrative head- and the National Agrarian University- quarters was established in the La Molina began a much publicized, highland village of Pias because all long-term multidisciplinary research access (and therefore virtually all project in the park that included the threats) to the archaeological sites is identification of more sites, as well as exclusively through the highland vil- test excavations at La Playa, Gran lages of La Libertad. Topographic Pajatén, Manachaqui Cave, and barriers in the lower Abiseo valley have several others (Lennon et al. 1989; so far thwarted twentieth-century Church 1991, 1994, 1996, 1999). attempts to create access to Gran The new data undermine accepted Pajatén from San Martín by means theories that characterize cloud forest other than helicopter. sites such as Gran Pajatén as late- In 1985, scientists from the Uni- fifteenth-century agricultural colonies versity of Colorado–Boulder, Yale established by highland populations University, the University of Trujillo, who were forced into the forest by the Asociación Peruana para la Con- environmental or demographic stress servación de la Naturaleza (APECO), or were seeking access to lowland crop
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 21 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation production zones (e.g., Bonavia and government expeditions publicly Ravines 1967; Bonavia 1968; Kauff- decried the site’s “abandonment” and mann 1992; Moseley 1992). There is claimed that the foreign research now overwhelming evidence that in- project had done nothing (e.g., Mejía digenous cloud forest societies (1) have 1990). Antagonisms escalated as utilized the forests since 8,000 BC ; (2) ecotourism entrepreneurs teamed with settled deep within the forest at Gran San Martín politicians to undermine Pajatén as early as 200 BC; and (3) built APECO’s credibility by publicly many settlements far larger than Gran accusing the association of embezzling Pajatén, indicating that a thriving research funds (e.g. Radio Programas population numbered in the many del Perú 1990). Further, the pro- thousands on the eve of the Spanish development faction repeatedly conquest. Yet despite the scientific claimed that plant regrowth was theories devised to explain cloud forest destroying Gran Pajatén’s buildings, settlement, an aura of mystery, mostly which urgently required cleaning. perpetuated by the Peruvian media, The mounting clamor culminated continues to surround Gran Pajatén. in a 1990 re-enactment of the “con- quest” of Gran Pajatén, led again by Historical Perspective the Air Force and facilitated by a tele- In response to several different vision crew from the Peruvian weekly factors, a predicament began to emerge television news magazine Panorama. at Pajatén during the early 1990s. An Soldiers again cleared the 1960s heli- undercurrent of tension between copter pad and other portions of the scientists and administrators on the one site, set up camp in the same location, hand, and local politicians and and scraped vegetation off of the developers on the other, had already building walls with machetes, hands become evident owing to the Ministry and fingernails. These loud pro- of Agriculture’s closing of the park to ceedings were witnessed from a dis- public access in recognition of the tance by Peruvian biologists attempting region’s environmental fragility. field studies in the valley below Gran Consequently, Gran Pajatén and the Pajatén. The television spectacular Colorado-led research project became aired on 10 August 1990. Shortly “political footballs.” During the 1989 afterward, newspapers informed by the elections, political candidates from biologists reported the illegal intrusion Pataz drew attention to themselves by into the national park, and noted that denouncing the looting of Gran the expedition not only lacked proper Pajatén by “foreigners with authorization, but failed to notify park backpacks.” Simultaneously, several administrators (Expreso 1990). original members of the 1960s To assess the new damage done by
22 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation the 1990 expedition, the National departmental authorities should be Institute of Culture (INC) office in guiding the destiny of the site and the Trujillo sent an archaeologist to join national park. park administrators at the site. Among The dismemberment in 1992 of the the damages reported at Gran Pajatén, Sendero Luminoso and Tupac Amaru it was observed that some sculptures revolutionary movements cleared the were indeed missing, and that the way for a national economic expansion sandstone-tenoned heads were eroding that further stimulated entrepreneurs rapidly without the cover of vegetation and politicians to seek access to the (Briseño 1991). It was also observed park. Intense political pressure now that every cleaning of the mosses and originated from the department of San lichens removes surface grains from the Martín, where the regional economy moist sandstone sculptures. There has long been isolated and depressed. were, on the other hand, some positive Beginning in 1996, the Ministry of developments about the same time, Agriculture’s Institute of National most notably UNESCO’s recognition Resources (INRENA), under the aus- of Rio Abiseo National Park as a pices of Peru’s National Fund for World Heritage Site, first in 1990 for Natural Protected Areas of the State its natural features and again in 1992 (PROFONANPE), held a series of for its cultural attributes. In 1991, the meetings and workshops in Lima and University of Colorado and the Fun- San Martín (including both politicians dación Peruana para la Conservación and scientists) aimed at developing a de la Naturaleza (FPCN) jointly plan for public use of the park published a management plan for Rio (INRENA 1996). The meetings were Abiseo National Park (University of accompanied by “fact-finding” expe- Colorado and FPCN 1991). This was ditions to examine Gran Pajatén followed by an international sym- (Mendoza 1997). These activities posium in Lima sponsored by APECO culminated in two government-spon- and the World Wildlife Fund. There, sored studies conceived to analyze of scientists and administrators united to all of the factors involved with creating discuss the results of the research responsible, sustained public access undertaken since 1985, and make (i.e., tourism) to the park. These were recommendations for the future contracted to the nongovernmental (Aguilar 1992). Despite these devel- organizations ANDESTUDIO (to opments, however, Gran Pajatén was study the easternmost portion of the increasingly viewed as an untapped park; ANDESTUDIO 1997) and economic resource, especially by APECO (to study the westernmost politicians in San Martín who felt more portion). I participated in the latter strongly than ever that their study (APECO 1999) in which I
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 23 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation advocate a landscape conservation Some conflicts that threaten site approach (Church 1999). conservation in the Rio Abiseo Na- tional Park are more imagined than The Pajatén Predicament real, yet even false perceptions can One might hope that Gran Pajatén’s inflict damage. Many people and in- dual World Heritage status as a cultural stitutions see the problem of prohibited and natural site, protected by both the public access as residing in a small, Peruvian INC and INRENA, would selfish group of APECO and FPCN ensure the site’s integrity in the face of a conservationists trying to prevent the wide variety of threats. However, the public from enjoying its rightful access INC and Ministry of Agriculture have to the park. Actually, the founders of not communicated effectively with one APECO foresaw the park’s tourism another with regard to granting access potential (Leo and Ortiz 1982), and to archaeological sites and conservationists now struggle mostly to development planning. The Ministry prevent the kinds of thoughtless of Agriculture, in the form of INRENA atrocities committed by past expedi- with PROFONANPE, has taken the tions. The event with greatest potential lead in terms of planning because it is for negative impact was the 1997 simply better equipped to do so. This relocation of the park’s administrative seems appropriate since Gran Pajatén headquarters from highland Pias, La has certainly benefited from the park’s Libertad, to Juanjuí, San Martín, at the underdeveloped, but nominally pro- behest of San Martín politicians. As a tective, infrastructure. Due to lack of consequence of weakened vigilance at governmental support, Peru’s INC the western boundary, consulting central office with its appointed staff of scientists in 1998 encountered cattle archaeologists has historically been grazing among the archaeological ruins unstable, and therefore unable to at 2,650 m elevation, deep within the maintain long-term conservation ini- park (APECO 1999). tiatives. However, neither INRENA San Martín and its regional INC nor the INC’s San Martín office office views itself as engaged in a maintain staff archaeologists, and there struggle for control of the park with the is no clear legal mechanism to govern INC’s La Libertad office. The conflict the quality of the cultural resource is one manifestation of the wide management so critical to the process political rift between these two underway. Finally, a latent threat exists departments which were to be ad- in Peru’s own Ministry of Industry and ministratively joined in the early 1990s Tourism’s 1997 mandate to generate under Peru’s “regionalization” plan revenue from the nation’s cultural —until San Martín reasserted its resource assets. autonomy in a public referendum.
24 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Opponents of the plan argued that the Montecristo Valley’s high altitude, administrative coupling made no sense capricious weather, lack of appropriate given the lack of economic and landing locations, and fragile ecology transportation linkages. In this politi- preclude systematic helicopter access. cized context, Mendoza’s (1994, It remains to be seen how San Martín 1997) repeated assertions that the will administer conservation activities ancient inhabitants of Gran Pajatén and regulate entry while being denied spoke the language of early historic direct access to Gran Pajatén by im- lowland (San Martín) Cholón Indians mutable topography. seems to be a reaction to the perception From a technical standpoint, Gran of La Libertad’s historical domination Pajatén’s predicament is even thornier. of political, economic, and cultural Pro-development factions, backed by affairs. Mendoza’s assertion con- the popular media, have perpetuated tradicts more popular interpretations the idea that it is better to cut the of cloud forest occupations as vegetation off of the ruins rather than colonization by highland Quechua- let it recover from its 1965-66 shear- speakers (from La Libertad). The ing. However, botanist Kenneth desire to lay claim to the site’s ancestry, Young, who is familiar with the park, as well as to its present administration, observes that the secondary regrowth is reflects the intense feelings of national dominated by crowded stands of and regional pride connected with bamboo and light-demanding shrubs Gran Pajatén. Actually, the INC La with voluminous root systems. These Libertad office has traditionally systems tend to penetrate and burst the administered projects in the Rio masonry walls of archaeological Abiseo National Park at the request of structures. Presently, Gran Pajatén’s investigators because research projects primary constructions are in dire need are based at coastal universities in La of emergency stabilization. Subsequent Libertad and Lima. Most importantly, maintenance may require that a however, scientists are forced by resident caretaker cut the bamboo and geographic reality to enter the park shrubs constantly, allowing only the from the western (La Libertad) side. growth of strategic tree species that will From the coast it takes four travel-days restore the forest canopy. However, by air, car, horseback, and foot, not maintaining an individual and his or counting days necessary for staging her family in such an isolated place for activities in Pataz or Pias. Construction extended periods of time may not be of a road into the park is out of the practical for many reasons. Stra- question for reasons well-known to all tegically important sectors of the site but the most obdurate pro- must be covered with roofs that can development advocates. The upper withstand exposure to severe weather.
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 25 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
With a slate pavement and an elaborate antiquities. Fortunately, looters have covered drainage system, Gran Pajatén so far overlooked many of the park’s was built to shed water efficiently. The vulnerable antiquities that remain in drainage system might be restored, but situ. What has kept looters at bay, and the site’s slate covering is brittle, and what will most likely keep significant the deterioration of passages and stair- numbers of tourists away indefinitely, ways is accelerating with the passage of is the park’s remote location. The visitors with heavy footgear. Further question then remains: Who will damage might be avoided by provide the large sum of money constructing alternative access or ele- required to deal with Gran Pajatén’s vated walkways. urgent conservation needs given the Most troublesome of all, how will complex political landscape and the access and visitation to the sites be unlikely probability of recovering the effectively controlled if vigilance is not investment through a viable tourism based at the point of greatest threat to concession? Without the immediate the park’s resources (i.e., highland La implementation of a cautious con- Libertad)? The recently televised servation program, Gran Pajatén will scientific recovery of Chachapoyas suffer inevitable disintegration through mummies from cliff tombs at nearby a tragic combination of neglect and Lake of the Condors has stimulated more of the same kinds of abuse that great public interest in cloud forest have characterized its recent history.
References Aguilar, P. (ed.) 1992. Programa y Resumenes de los Trabajos Presentados. Symposio Biodiversidad, Historia Cultural y Futuro del Parque Nacional Rio Abiseo. 17-20 August 1992. Lima, Peru. Lima: Copy Rey. ANDESTUDIO. 1997. Diagnóstico Situacional para un Plan de Uso Público en el Sector Oriental del Parque Nacional Rio Abiseo y sus Areas de Influencia. Vols. 1 and 2. Report on file with Ministerio de Agricultura. Lima, Peru. APECO [Asociación Peruana para la Conservación de la Naturaleza]. 1999. Diagnostico Situacional para un Plan de uso Público del Sector Occidental del PNRA y Zonas de Infl uencia. Vols. 1 and 2. Report on file with Ministerio de Agricultura. Lima, Peru. Bonavia, D. 1968. Las Ruinas del Abiseo. Lima: CONCYTEC. Bonavia, D., and R. Ravines. 1967. Las fronteras ecológicas de la civilización Andina. Amaru 2, 61-69. Lima. Briseño, J. 1991. Informe Técnico de la Supervisión al Parque NacionalRio Abiseo. Trujillo, Perú: Instituto Nacional de Cultura-La Libertad. Church, W. 1991. La ocupación temprana del Gran Pajatén. Revista del Museo de Arqueología 2, 7-38. Facultad de Ciéncias Sociales de la Universidad Nacional de Trujillo. Trujillo, Perú. ———. 1994. Early occupations at Gran Pajatén, Peru. Andean Past 4, 281-318. Cornell Latin American Studies Program. Ithaca. ———. 1996. Prehistoric Cultural Development and Interregional Interaction in the Tropical Montane Forests of Peru. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Yale University. ———. 1999. Mas allá del Gran Pajatén: Conservando el paisaje Prehispánico Pataz-Abiseo. Revista del
26 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Museo de Arqueología, Antropología e Historia 7(1997), 203-246. Facultad de Ciéncias Sociales de la Universidad Nacional de Trujillo. Trujillo, Perú. Deza, J. 1976. “La Playa,” un complejo arqueológico de la cuenca del Abiseo. Boletín del Seminario de Arqueología del Instituto Riva Agüero Nos. 17-18. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. Lima. Expreso. 1990. Jaque al Pajatén. Semana 7: Revista dominical de Expreso, Expreso 1:26, 7, 14 October. Lima, Peru. University of Colorado and FPCN [Fundación Peruana para la Conservaciónde la Naturaleza]. 1991. Plan Operativo 1990-1992. Parque Nacional Rio Abiseo. Volumen I. Lima: Parques Nacionales del Perú. INRENA [Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales]. 1996. Bases para la Planificación del Uso Público en el Parque Nacional del Rio Abiseo. Memorias del taller realizado en Juanjuí del 26 al 28 de abril de 1996. Lima: Dirección General de Areas Naturales Protegidas y Fauna Silvestre, Ministerio de Agricultura. Kauffmann, F. 1980. “Los Pinchudos:” Exploración de ruinas intactas en la selva. Boletín de Lima 7, 26- 31. Lima. ———. 1992. Historia del Perú Antigüo: Una Nueva Perspectiva. Vols. 1 and 2. Lima: Editorial Monterrico. Lennon, T., W. Church, and M. Cornejo. 1989. Investigacionesarqueológi cas en el Parque Nacional Rio Abiseo, San Martín. Boletín de Lima 11(62), 43-56. Leo, M. 1992. Problemática del Parque Nacional de Rio Abiseo. Amazonía Peruana 11(21), 109-144. Lima. Leo, M., and E. Ortiz. 1982. Un Parque Nacional “Gran Pajaten.” Boletín de Lima 4(22), 47-60. Mejía, A. 1990. Saquean tumbas del Gran Pajatén. Domingo en Expreso, Expreso, 28 January. Lima, Peru. Mendoza, A. 1994. Abiseo: Patrimonio Mundial en Emergencia. Pueblo Comunicaciones. Moyobamba, Perú. ———. 1997. Pajatén Encanto y Misterio: Crónica de una Expedición. Moyobamba, Perú: Edwin Vargas Dávila. Mendoza, A., and A. Lozano. 1997. The Rio Abiseo National Park, Peru. The George Wright Forum 14(3), 54-58. Moseley, M. 1992. The Incas and their Ancestors: The Archaeology of Peru. New York: Thames and Hudson. ONERN [Oficina Nacional de Evaluación de Recursos Naturales]. 1976. Mapa Ecológico del Perú. Lima: ONERN. Pimentel G. 1967. Pajaten. Fenix (Publicación de la Biblioteca Nacional) 17, 34-41. Lima. Radio Programas del Perú. 1990. Interview of Geno Ruiz Reátegui and José Landeo on program Comunicando. 31 October 31. Lima. Rojas, P. 1967. The ruins of Pajaten. Archaeology 20(1), 9-17. Savoy, G. 1965. El Gran Pajaten Expedition: A lost pre-Inca civilization in the eastern Andes. Andean Air Mail and Peruvian Times 25(1294), 34. Lima. Young, K., W. B. Church, M. Leo, and P. Moore. 1994. Threats to Rio Abiseo National Park, northern Peru. Ambio 23(4-5), 312-314. Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Stockholm.
Warren B. Church, Department of Psychology, Sociology, and Anthropology, Columbus State University, Columbus, Georgia 31907 USA; [email protected] 1
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 27 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Denis Gojak The Battle for Sydney Harbour
I was much surprised at the fortifications of Sydney Harbour. Fortifi- cations, unless specially inspected, escape even a vigilant seer of sights, but I, luckily for myself, was enabled specially to inspect them. I had previously no idea that the people of New South Wales were either so suspicious of enemies, or so pugnacious in their nature.... But in view- ing these fortifications, I was most especially struck by the loveliness of the sites chosen. One would almost wish to be a gunner for the sake of being at one of those forts. —Anthony Trollope, Australia, 1873
he 2000 Olympics will bring unprecedented international attention to Sydney, the largest and oldest city in Australia. A key feature of the proposed creation and selling of Sydney’s media image is an Temphasis upon the harbour, even though it will only be a venue for yachting and the main Olympic venue will be some kilometres away. In pre- paring for this new level of scrutiny, great effort has been made by public ag- encies, state and local government, and corporations to present the best pos- sible picture for visitors and international media viewers. By doing so they are making choices regarding what image they emphasise and what characteristics they downplay. This is not new, as the process of selection and emphasis has been going on for more than a century and remains a strong structuring prin- ciple for park management in its social and political context in Australia. Former defence lands around quisition, the National Parks and Sydney have been taken into public Wildlife Service of New South Wales ownership, notably incorporation (NPWS) has managed the land pri- into Sydney Harbour National Park. marily for its natural values, but has The defence lands form a significant been far more tentative in deciding proportion of the land surrounding how the major cultural sites within the harbour and, because they have the park should be managed. This escaped development, are generally paper focuses upon one area within well-vegetated with native and exotic Sydney Harbour National Park, the vegetation, standing out from subur- headlands known as Middle and ban sprawl and industry. Since ac- Georges Heads, and examines the
28 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation management history of its cultural drives and picnic spots. There was heritage, especially the defence heri- no apparent ambiguity or uncertainty tage of the area. in presenting nature in both its un- This paper contends that, al- touched and completely artificial though the bulk of Sydney Harbour forms and representing that under National Park is made up of former the single heading of a “park.” The defence reserves and contains na- creation and promotion of national tionally significant historic coastal parks in Australia at the end of the defences, this fact has been under- nineteenth century can best be played in the debates and decisions understood as part of a Victorian about the long-term management of ideology which held that nature ex- the land at the expense of its natural isted both as a backdrop against heritage significance. The solution which civilisation operated and de- remains to be offered, but the role of veloped and as a contrast to the deg- NPWS in drawing attention to the radation of city living which pro- greater significance of cultural heri- vided renewal and revitalisation tage of the park through interpreta- (Ashley et al. 1991). tion and education needs to be en- Around Sydney there were a hanced. Initial steps in that direction number of similar parks established have been taken, but whether they to provide an escape from the per- are effective will only be revealed ceived congestion and pollution of with time. the city. Trains and ferries allowed cheap and regular access to these Natiiionalll Parks iiin Australlliiia sites. Formal recreation favoured and Parks Around Sydney picnics, fishing, boating, walks, and National parks have a history in rides, while informal recreation in- Australia almost equal to that of cluded the establishment of artists’ North America. In each continent, camps, surf and river bathing, and early national parks sought to achieve camping. The archaeology of early two goals: reserving outstanding park planning consists of large scenic landscapes from development, “flats”—terraces defined by substan- and encouraging tourism and recrea- tial retaining walls next to rivers tion as a social good. The first where picnics and festivities could be Australian national park was the held—kiosks and shelters, rockeries Royal, to the south of Sydney, dedi- and gardens, pavilions and lookouts. cated in 1879. It combined what was Most tracks built were so robust they then undeveloped coastal forest and are still in regular use decades later river valley land with heavily modi- (Ashley et al. 1991). fied areas forming picnic grounds Within the broader ambit of rec- and artificial boating lakes, scenic reation the reserved lands were also
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 29 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation an important setting for escape from and historic sites. The latter could the city in other ways. During eco- either be places of national historical nomic depressions many reserves significance, or places of importance were occupied by the unemployed, for Aboriginal spiritual values. While who built small shanty towns, such it was recognised that national parks as “Happy Valley” at La Perouse, were likely to contain structures and eking out a subsistence living from other evidence of historic land use, fishing or hunting rabbits and grow- they were primarily established for ing vegetables. When sea bathing nature conservation and recreation, was forbidden in daylight hours, se- reflecting the reality of the past sev- cluded coves were important for rec- enty years. reational swimmers. Along with sea bathing, many of the locations be- Sydney Harbour Natiiionalll Park came important as “beats” for homo- and iiits Defence Heriiitage sexual men to meet with less fear of Sydney Harbour National Park homophobic violence. These sorts of was developed as a result of transfers activities were only tolerated because of Commonwealth (federal) land to they took place in remote settings the New South Wales government and form one of the undercurrents of commencing in 1979. Military bases park management even today. occupied the various locations until In the twentieth century, national strategic changes in defence planning parks and nature and wildflower re- had made these uses redundant. It serves were declared throughout the consists of discrete headland reser- country, although most commonly in vations, with some interconnection the economically marginal and by narrow foreshore strips above the rugged lands bordering the main east high-water mark. coast mountain range. In 1967, The arrival of Europeans—first a NPWS was established. Its formation sail-past by Captain Cook in the En- was largely driven by politicians, deavour in 1770, and then by Cap- senior bureaucrats and envi- tain Arthur Phillip, at the head of the ronmental campaigners who had First Fleet, in 1788—marked the es- been impressed by the successes of tablishment of a major British colony the U.S. National Park Service in at the farthest reaches of Empire. developing natural areas as tourist The development of fortifications to attractions, and for the successful defend the harbour against enemy management of large land areas. The attack was rapid, the urgency legislation establishing NPWS was prompted by the commencement of strongly influenced by U.S. experi- war against France, and exacerbated ence. The main reserve categories by the presence of Irish convicts with were national parks, nature reserves, strong separatist politics.
30 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation The pattern of defence from 1788 from Home (meaning Britain, and onwards follows several general always spelled with a capital “H”). themes (NPWS 1999; Gojak 1995; While this was a satisfactory ar- Gojak, forthcoming). The first is the rangement for a growing colony that gradual spread of defences further was gradually maturing and dis- out from the main settlement. The covering independence, whenever short range of guns, requiring any Britain got into a tense diplomatic attacker to close in on the settlement situation with another imperial to pose any real threat, necessitated power, Australians always felt that this. As gun ranges increased they would be an early target for an through the nineteenth century, and attack. During the nineteenth cen- as Sydney grew, defences needed to tury, therefore, a pattern of crises in be located farther outward in order defence preparedness took place, to stop bombardment. This culmi- always in response to rising hostility nated with the development of the between Britain and another power. Sydney Fortress in the late 1920s The usual colonial response in and 1930s. This relied upon a de- such a crisis was to hurriedly seek to centralised layout of powerful gun complete previously unfinished gun batteries, supported by observation batteries and defences or build new posts and command stations, that ones without plans or much thought. allowed the entire coast around Syd- Soon enough the crisis would be ney to be protected (Fullford 1994). over and the emergency funding The consequence of the gradual would dry up. The archaeological movement of defences farther and legacy is a succession of poorly farther from the city is a pattern of planned and hastily erected defences, defence lands and fortifications of some unfinished. Each marks a par- different dates in a wide range of lo- ticular crisis and the response by the cations. While some locations have colonial authorities. An example is at been built upon again and again, Bradleys Head, where the arrival of leaving a complex archaeological two U.S. warships unannounced in palimpsest to unravel, most only rep- the Harbour in 1839 provided suffi- resent one or two phases of con- cient demonstration of the vulnera- struction, followed by abandonment bility of the town from a sneak attack for active defence. that a hurried round of gun battery The second theme of importance construction took place over the next in understanding Sydney’s defences year (NPWS 1993). These con- is the mentality of the “scare.” Many structions were unplanned and never Australians for a very long time finished, being sited more to provide thought of themselves as British reassurance for the citizens than to people on the other side of the planet intimidate attackers.
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 31 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation A third theme that can be identi- technology, both in the form of the fied as being present throughout the defences and their patterning across entire history of the defences is the the landscape. Similarly, there is a adoption and modification of designs clear demonstration of the psyche of and principles from British exem- the colonial mind in the response to plars, and the purchase of British scares, and in the interplay between military equipment. This is itself un- growing independence from Britain surprising, but the two significant and the definite sense of being part of breaks from the pattern demonstrate Britain’s extended empire. how effectively it was enforced. The first was in the period from 1870, Management and Conservation when British garrison troops were History of Middle Head withdrawn from Australia, to 1877, Middle and Georges heads, as when British military advisers were two contiguous headlands opposite sent back in. The second instance the entrance to Port Jackson, and was during the Second World War. commanding the passage down Syd- At the same time as Australia’s prime ney Harbour towards the city centre, minister, John Curtin, was making had a crucial role in the defence his- his speech that Australia’s destiny lay tory of Sydney. The archaeology of with the United States of America, the two headlands spans the period the Army was for the first time buy- of Aboriginal occupation in the ing bulk equipment from the USA Holocene, subsequent significant and beginning to adopt and adapt attempts at establishing an Aborigi- American tactical doctrine in a range nal farming community, and defen- of military operations. In both of ces and military establishments these cases the archaeology reflects a spanning ca. 1800 to the 1960s. The short horizon of technology and de- defences dominate the headland, sign that runs counter to the pre- having shaped nearly all of the level vailing “Britishness” that is the norm areas with gun batteries, parade from 1788 onwards. grounds, and clear fields of fire Therefore the resulting legacy of (NPWS 1999). the military defences of Sydney is Prior to the transfer of Middle and more than a collection of interesting Georges heads to NPWS, the Army gun batteries, showing a gradual demolished a large number of change from smooth bore to rifled buildings and structures in both barrels, and increasing gun size as areas (Gojak 1985; NPWS 1997, the nineteenth century progressed. It 1999). Retained were the self-evi- represents a resource that demon- dently historic buildings and gun strates the gradual development of emplacements, i.e., those more than nineteenth- and twentieth-century seventy years old. Maintenance
32 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation wound down from the mid-1970s, tion has continued to increase as allowing the argument that the more people find out about the site buildings removed were incapable of and its scenic views. No interpreta- repair. Following transfer, NPWS tion has been installed on the site, did not undertake any substantial making it difficult to understand conservation works on any of the what the concrete bunkers and pits buildings, and only undertook mini- represent. There is a general under- mal work that was needed for public standing that these are old gun em- safety and management, including placements and previous Russian mowing of the main grassed areas, and Japanese threats are involved. As repairing those buildings to be used well as visitors seeking either the as staff residences, and fencing some harbour views, there has been a of potential danger spots. The regen- strong history of access by fishers, eration of bushland was generally not nude sunbathers, teenagers doing checked, leading to a gradual loss of teenage things, squatters in vacant open space (Bourne 1999). premises and rock shelters, and The first historical and archaeo- homosexual men at an established logical survey to investigate the area “beat.” Relatively few visitors have took place in 1985 (Gojak 1985; made the trek to see the defences, Harvey 1985; Wilson 1985). This and many of these come with others identified the complexity of the cul- who know the main access points tural remains that had been present (personal observation). and still survived. The survey sup- In the past ten years, the majority ported the claim that the defence of management work has been con- heritage was of national significance, strained by lack of resources to tackle and the themes that have been ex- the substantial amount of work re- pounded above began to be articu- quired to conserve cultural sites. The lated in support of the understanding majority of work has been bushfire of the site. From 1989, tours of the hazard reduction, continued grounds headlands—the “Tour de Forts”— maintenance, basic drainage and have been run by NPWS on a regular other maintenance work, and further basis, accessing tunnels and safety. Several large capital-intensive emplacements that are normally not projects have taken place on signifi- made accessible to the public (Cun- cant defence sites, notably the 1880s ningham 1991). armoured casemate at Georges Access to the Middle Head sec- Head, plus metals conservation tion of the park has always been diffi- (NPWS 1997; NPWS Annual Re- cult, as it required finding an un- ports 1979–present). The funding for formed track that led around an ac- these has had to be found separately tive Army base. Despite this, visita- within the agency or from external
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 33 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation sources, as it has not been able to be prevalence of the “nature first” ar- met from the available operating gument, if it can be so termed, is a budget. concern. Education of the com- Immediately adjacent to the munity on the important values that NPWS-owned parts of Middle and are present on the existing part of the Georges heads are other recently va- park is a priority, but because of the cated defence establishments. The lack of previous development of in- eventual fate of these lands has not terpretative, recreational, and educa- been determined, but the current tional opportunities, this has had to Commonwealth position is that the be planned almost from the begin- less developed, i.e., the more “natu- ning. The guided fort tours are cur- ral,” areas will be transferred to the rently the only program offered by state for addition to the park, and the NPWS, and there are no self-guided remaining land which has defence tours or signage. housing or is developed will be made Funding was received from the available for housing. Public debate NPWS internal cultural heritage re- on this position has been vigorous, search grants program to prepare a and reveals that the land is still seen model interpretation plan for Middle as being largely natural. Recognition and Georges Heads (Bickford et al. of the importance of the cultural 1999). Consultants were engaged to sites, especially the more recent de- prepare the plan based upon recently fence heritage, is often absent or only developed best-practice guidelines developed as a minor issue (see Uren for park interpretation (DNREV 1999 as one example of many letters 1999). to newspapers and minor editorials). The model interpretation plan, At its most extreme, community ar- following the best-practice guide- guments represent the position that lines, took an integrative approach to the area should be returned to park- significance assessment (Australia land and developed into a fully natu- ICOMOS 1994, 1999). Existing re- ral area, i.e., removing cultural evi- search on natural values, Aboriginal dence that may show that the area and non-indigenous heritage signifi- has not been coastal forest since the cance, and contemporary social im- Pleistocene. portance was supplemented where necessary with new research. The Progress in Interpretation primary structure for the interpreta- and Management tion is the presentation of Middle For a park management agency and Georges Heads as representing which will eventually take over some different scales of time, with geologi- of this land and be required to man- cal time scales, Aboriginal time and a age and conserve all the values, the long recent past / present. Aboriginal
34 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation time, for example, is represented in safe and accessible to allow visitors to relation to Aboriginal cosmological see a range of different attractions. belief in the shape of the land repre- Signage, publications, Web sites, senting spiritual activities from the and guided and self-guided tours are Dreaming which still resonate in the all identified as products to meet the present, thus tying in the geological demands of different possible users time scale into a separate but parallel of the site. The interpretation plan narrative based upon a different offers the prospect of encouraging value system. The elaboration of the understanding of defence heritage in story of Aboriginal people on the site a way that gets away from a focus on after European settlement also aims guns and war to its wider context in to ensure that it is incorporated into Sydney’s history (e.g., Uzzell 1989). the historical narrative (Bickford et al. 1999, 31-34). Conclusion While the defence heritage man- Trollope’s quote at the head of agement issues will dominate future this paper indicates that right from management of the site, as the infra- the start the defence lands were ac- structure is decaying and requires cessible to the public. The imple- considerable conservation resources mentation of the interpretation plan be directed to it, the interpretation will commence soon, although it will aims to place it into context. The be too late for the Olympics. During separation of conservation effort the period of military occupation, from interpretative effort is an im- gaining access to the land was far portant principle, even in such sim- more difficult, but it remained an ple matters as making sure that when important place for many users. conservation works are being carried During the course of the late out they are explained and incorpo- nineteenth and early twentieth cen- rated into the presentation of the site tury clearing, military activity, and and what is being done to retain its construction transformed this land. heritage values. It also will reduce the When the military moved away, it disciplinary dominance of conserva- provided an opportunity for the bush tion practice, and allow community and the weeds to grow back, making values greater scope for leading fu- it superficially look like the military ture research and management (see had never been there. With its in- English and Veale 1998 for compa- corporation into Sydney Harbour rable issues in Aboriginal site man- National Park, this process of trans- agement). formation has been completed, cre- The interpretation plan, then, de- ating a justification for perceiving the velops specific themes and require- land as being primarily an important ments for making particular locations piece of bushland within the city.
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 35 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation The problem for archaeologists, tation to alter the public’s perception heritage managers, and site managers and make them more aware how has been to begin to use the tools of many other important things there conservation planning and interpre- are on Middle and Georges heads.
References Ashley, G., D. Gojak, and C. Liston. 1991. An Outdoor Museum: Historic Places in the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service Estate. Sydney: NPWS. Australia ICOMOS. 1994. The Australia ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance (the Burra Charter); Guidelines to the Burra Charter: Conservation Policy. N.p.: Australia ICOMOS. ———. 1999. Proposed Revision of the Burra Charter. N.p.: Australia ICOMOS. Bickford, A., H. Brayshaw, and H. Proudfoot. 1999. Middle and Georges heads model interpretation plan and application. Unpublished report. Sydney: NPWS. Bourne, J. 1999. Nature Conservation management plan—Middle and Georges heads. Unpublished report. Sydney: NPWS. Cunningham, D. 1993. Making conservation pay. Australian Ranger 26, 22-24. DNREV. [Department of Natural Resources and Environment Victoria]. 1999. Best practice in park interpretation and education. Report prepared by Earthlines Consortium Victoria to the ANZECC Working Group on Best Practice for national parks and protected areas management. N.p.: DNREV. English, T., and S. Veale. 1998. Conserving people’s places and pasts: Working with communities in NSW parks. Pp. 57-62 in Celebrating the Parks: Proceedings of the First Australian symposium on Parks History, E. Hamilton-Smith, ed. South Carlton: Rethink Consulting. Fullford, K. 1994. We Stood and Waited: Sydney’s Anti-ship Defences 1939-1945. Manly: RAAHS. Gojak, D. 1985. Sydney Harbour fortifications study, stage II: Archaeological survey. Unpublished report. Sydney: NPWS. ———. 1995. Defending the indefensible: An archaeological approach to Sydney’s historic coastal defences. Paper presented to the First Military Archaeology Conference of Australasia and the Pacific, Albury. ———. Forthcoming. The coastal defences of Sydney. Bulletin of the Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology. Harvey, ___. 1985. Sydney Harbour fortifications—archival study: Final Report, Part 2. Unpublished report. Sydney: NPWS. NPWS [National Parks and Wildlife Service of New South Wales]. 1993. Draft Bradleys Head defence heritage conservation plan. Unpublished report. Sydney: NPWS. ———. 1997. Sydney Harbour National Park Plan of Management. Sydney: NPWS. Uren, T. 1999. Struggle on for harbour foreshore. Letter to Sydney Morning Herald, 13 September, 14. Uzzell, D. L. 1989. The hot interpretation of war and conflict. Pp. 33-47 in Heritage Interpretation, Volume 1: The Natural and Built Environment, D. Uzzell, ed. London: Belhaven Press. Wilson, ___. 1985. Sydney Harbour fortifications archival study: Part 1. Unpublished report. Sydney: NPWS.
Denis Gojak, National Parks and Wildlife Service of New South Wales, P.O. Box 1967, Hurstville, NSW 2220, Australia; [email protected] 1
36 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Ken Mulvaney Management Strategies and the Component of Indigenous Sacred Places: The Dreaming and Aboriginal Involvement in Site Management within Northern Territory National Parks, Australia
The obvious absence of these features [settlements and political struc- ture] gives the invader (settler, administrative officer, missionary) the impression that the natives are almost cultureless and that whatever he does can interfere but little with them (Elkin 1951, 165). This time white-European must come to Aborigine, listen Aborigine and understand it. Understand that culture, secret, what dreaming. No-matter we dead but that law you got to keep it.... And you can’t change it no-matter anyone, no-matter rich man whatever, no-matter is king, whatever king, but that law e can’t break (Neidjie 1989, 78- 80). he government manages national parks in the Northern Territory of Australia primarily for the enjoyment of visitors. Natural beauty, biodiversity, and cultural heritage are seen as assets that can be ex- Tploited to bring tourists with their money into the region. For Abo- riginal people, with their traditional country covered by national parks, there are unique issues. To the colonising population, the archaeology of Australia provides an interesting record of human adaptation and development within a hunter-gatherer society over a very long period (ca. 40,000-60,000 years). The rock art provides a spectacular vision of another culture. However, for the indigenous people, these same sites may form part of their sacred and ceremonial life. National park development strategies and the desire to im- press the tourist are often in conflict with traditional appropriateness for places of religious significance. Within the Northern Territory ess; certain sacred sites are inappro- (see Figure 1), particular legislation priate for public access. However, exists that is intended to provide for for other places, the involvement of the protection of such places and to the Aboriginal custodians not only recognise the rights of the indigenous prevents conflict but also enhances people in the decision-making proc- the public interpretation and enjoy-
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 37 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 1. Map of the Northern Territory showing locations mentioned in the text. ment derived from the site. Trends circumstance of Aboriginal sacred in the Northern Territory of Austra- sites, focusing on the management lia are toward the recognition of and public development of these spiritual association and for the in- places by the national parks authori- volvement of the indigenous people ties within the Northern Territory. in the management and presentation of archaeological sites. Historical Background Cultural and political differences To understand the particular between Aboriginals and park man- cultural circumstance of the indige- agers has in the past resulted in the nous people of this part of Australia, sometimes unintentional desecration one must look at the colonial history of sacred sites, a situation of non-co- of the region. Unlike the southeast- operation, and, at times, outright ern portion of Australia, the north is confrontation. This paper presents a sparsely populated. The first British background to the social and cultural attempt at settlement was that of Fort 38 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation Dundas on Melville Island (1824-8). possible that Chinese voyages came Established as a military and trading to the shores of Australia many cen- settlement, it was no more than an turies before the Europeans, al- outpost of the New South Wales though there is only circumstantial government centred at Sydney some evidence for this (Powell 1982). 4,600 km sailing distance away. Prior In any event, it was not until the to the permanent settlement of Dar- mid-nineteenth century that the inte- win (Palmerston) in 1869, there were rior of the Northern Territory was several other unsuccessful colonies explored (Stokes 1839; Leichhardt established on the north coast (Pow- 1844-5; Gregory 1855-6; Stuart ell 1982). Like Fort Dundas, they 1860-2; Giles 1872-4; Gosse 1873; were short lived. Both Fort Wel- Favenc 1878-9; Forrest 1879-80). lington (1827-9) and Victoria Set- The survey of the route and subse- tlement (1838-49) were situated on quent construction of the Overland the Coburg Peninsula. The fourth Telegraph line (1862-72) between settlement was that of Escape Cliffs Adelaide in the south and Darwin (1864-6) on Cape Hotham. did much to open up the inland, The influences on the Aboriginal each of the telegraph stations be- people in the vicinity of these nine- coming outposts of white settlement. teenth-century settlements was lim- Some, like Alice Springs and Ten- ited and of no more effect than that of nant Creek, resulted in the develop- the Macassan trepang fleets that an- ment of population centres that con- nually visited the north coast over the tinue to this day. Favourable reports last few centuries (Macknight 1976). of the existence of extensive pastoral Exotic items entered the ceremonial lands as reported by a number of the exchange system and there is some exploration parties hastened the linguistic evidence for the adoption opening up of the Northern Terri- of words, but little else (Mitchell tory. These reports lead to the estab- 1995). It is possible that contact with lishment of cattle enterprises over other cultures occurred by way of much of the Northern Territory and landfalls prior to the documented east Kimberley region of Western exploration and mapping voyages Australia from the 1880s. Such under the Dutch (in the early to mid- towns as Wyndham (founded 1886) seventeenth century) and British in the east Kimberley were estab- (from the late seventeenth century). lished to support the fledgling cattle Portuguese and Spanish seafarers enterprises. Others, such as Timber may have reached the Australian Creek (1897) with its police station, coast prior to the seventeenth cen- were established to lend support and tury. Certainly they were present in protection to a stores depot that had the islands to the north. It is also been operating since the early 1890s
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 39 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation supplying the newly created pastoral though employment and food ra- stations. It was a rough and ready tions, but also changed the ecosys- time: contact with the indigenous tem, with the associated loss in avail- Australians was limited and often ability of traditionally utilised fauna came at the end of a gun (Willshire and flora. 1896). Nevertheless, it was the particular Within the Northern Territory, European settlement and historic there was not the major disruption to land use patterns of the Northern social cohesion or the organised re- Territory that has ensured the conti- moval of people from land as had nuity of Aboriginal laws, customs, occurred in other parts of Australia. and practises. Over much of the Of significance is that the South Northern Territory encounters with Australian government, in the initial other cultures is a relatively recent development of the Northern Terri- event, and, until late in the nine- tory through the Northern Territory teenth century, was spatially limited Crown Lands Act (SA) of 1890, pro- and short-term. In fact, today there vided to the indigenous people com- remain a few people who recall their pensation, land reserves, and the first encounters with white people, right to hunt and otherwise utilise and for many the initial cross-cultural the land taken up for pastoral activi- contact is only one or two genera- ties. By this it was hoped that the tions removed. The sparse European injustices and devastation to the settlements and the pastoral practises Aboriginal people that occurred in of the cattle industry have ensured the eastern states of Australia would that people remain on or close to not manifest itself. This is not to say their traditional lands. that the indigenous inhabitants expe- Uniquely to the Northern Terri- rienced no adverse effects from tory, almost 50% of the area is under European settlement (Elkin 1951). direct administrative control of Abo- Death occurred both as a result of riginal communities. The Aboriginal punitive expeditions against them Land Rights (NT) Act of 1976 pro- following livestock spearing and be- vides for the granting of land for the cause they contracted introduced benefit of Aboriginals and affords diseases. People, especially males, control of mining interests and other were removed from their communi- developments on the granted Abo- ties on murder or livestock stealing riginal Land. In addition, provisions charges, and taken as labour in the within the Crown Lands Ordinance pearling, pastoral, and buffalo hide (No. 3) (NT) section 24(2) of 1978 industries. In addition, the estab- continue to guarantee the rights of lishment of cattle stations not only Aboriginals to enter and be on leased changed people’s domestic patterns land and to hunt and forage for food
40 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation or ceremonial purposes. places of cultural significance. Cer- tain areas and features in the land- Aboriginal Country scape are held to have a sacred na- Unlike the popular misconception ture which is associated with the as- of the Australian Aboriginal as a no- cribed spiritual forces. The term “sa- madic primitive, presence on the cred sites” has come into common land was not a truly random event, usage to identify these localities. unconnected to economic, cultural, Maddock (1974, 27) observed that or religious life. True, Australian “Aborigines regard land as a relig- Aboriginal society was a ious phenomenon. The earth owes hunter–gatherer culture, utilising its topography to the acts of world- stone, bone, and wood implements, creative powers who appeared mys- and, in the main, did not establish teriously and moved about on the permanent settlements (Hallam surface before sinking into the 1975; Oconnor 1987; Plomley 1966; ground or the water or rising into the Clarke 1994). However, people sky, leaving a formed and populated clearly identify with particular tracts world behind them.... The land as a of country, associate with certain whole is nameless, but the many features and places within the land- spots at which powers acted and scape, and hold to a notion of in- gave form (for example crags, water- heritance of cultural knowledge and holes, caves) are named and are re- estates. As Justice Lee commented, ligiously significant as evidence of “Aboriginal inhabitants were distrib- the Dreaming.” For Aboriginal Aus- uted throughout significant areas in tralians, the landscape is viewed as organised communities with elabo- an amalgam of events acted out on rate and obligatory laws and cus- the topography. The acquisition of toms, each having a defined area of knowledge of this metaphysical ra- land recognised by other groups as tionale of the landscape is attained, in the homeland of the respective com- part, through participation in cere- munities used by them for social, monies. Throughout life, a person ritual and economic purposes” continues to gain ritual knowledge (1998, 43). which is placed in a topographic per- Aboriginal people, through kin- spective that validates both the my- ship, inherit “ownership” to country thology and the bond between the for which they hold particular rights, person, the Dreaming, and the land. above other persons, to access and Within Northern Territory Abo- utilise resources. Attached to those riginal society, responsibilities for the rights are the responsibilities to protection of Dreaming places (sa- maintain (physically and spiritually) cred sites) is an integral part of these and protect Dreaming sites and other peoples’ lives. As Elkin (1951, 164)
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 41 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation observed many years ago, “imitation conservation, and protection of for the native is ... of the traditional, places and objects of prehistoric, of the cultural, of the ways of the protohistoric, historical, social, aes- cult-heroes or ‘Dreamings’ as the thetic, or scientific value. Australian Aborigines call these.” In the majority of instances, sa- This is manifest in the customs and cred sites comprise unmodified natu- practises of these communities. For ral features that may include moun- them, maintenance of the country tain ranges, waterways, or even iso- and ritual performances are part of lated single trees and rocks. Other the linked association of the spiritual than by reference to the Aboriginal and tangible world. For aboriginal custodians (see Figure 2), there is no people, there is the coexistence of way of identifying the location and two domains: one of the physical extent or the nature of significance of world inhabited by humans and ani- such places. However, in regard to mals, the other occupied by the those places associated with the pre- Dreaming figures, ancestors, and historic occupation of the Northern other spirits. Physical damage to Territory, these archaeological places or incorrect ritual perform- places are evident by the presence of ances, even inadvertent actions, can cultural material or by way of scien- result in sickness or death to indi- tific investigations. Nevertheless, viduals and groups responsible un- blanket protection is provided for der Aboriginal tradition for the site both sacred sites and archaeological or Dreaming concerned. places within the Northern Terri- tory, regardless of whether or not Sacred Site Protection they have been “declared,” “regis- Protection of cultural heritage is tered,” or otherwise brought to offi- enshrined in several laws of the cial attention. Northern Territory. The Northern In addition to the problem of the Territory Aboriginal Sacred Sites physical setting of a sacred site, Act of 1989 establishes a procedure statutory rights are conferred upon for the protection and registration of Aboriginal custodians. In relation to places of current cultural significance areas that fall within the definition of (sacred sites). In addition, the act a sacred site, rights under the North- provides for conditions of entry into ern Territory Aboriginal Sacred Sites such places and establishes a proce- Act of 1989 include: dure for the avoidance of such places • The right of access to sacred in the development and land use. sites in accordance with Aborigi- The Heritage Conservation Act of nal tradition, regardless of the 1991 provides a system for the iden- underlying land tenure (s. 46) tification, assessment, recording, (see Figure 3);
42 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 2. Carlton George, a Mirriuwung man, standing against his own hand stencil, produced when he was a small boy camping at the Nganalum sacred site, Keep River National Park.
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 43 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation • The right to authorise other National Park Case Studies people (both Aboriginal and Two examples of cross-cultural non-Aboriginal) to cross any interaction and site management in land, whether it be public or pri- national parks within the Northern vate, for the purposes of entering Territory are Kakadu National Park, a sacred site (s. 47-4); a World Heritage Site (declared October 1981, consolidated Decem- • The right to refuse permission ber 1992) administered by the for persons to enter or remain on Commonwealth government’s Parks a sacred site (s. 43); and Australia, and Keep River National • The right to determine the na- Park, controlled by the Northern ture and extent of works (if any) Territory Parks and Wildlife Com- that may be undertaken on or in mission. the vicinity of a sacred site (s. The background to Kakadu National 20). Park is that there had been a long- standing interest in the establishment It is also an offence for a person to of a national park in the northern obstruct an Aboriginal custodian part of the territory. Following on from exercising these rights or for an from the Alligator Rivers Region individual or company to knowingly environment fact-finding study of desecrate or otherwise carry out 1972-3, and the Ranger Uranium works within a sacred site area. The environmental inquiry of 1977, a structure of the 1989 act accommo- park was established. Stage 1 of dates the particular relationship in- Kakadu National Park was pro- digenous inhabitants of the Northern claimed in 1979, encompassing an Territory have with land, as well as area of 6,144 sq km. Kakadu Stage 2, the link between the social, cultural, an additional area of 6,929 sq km, and religious spheres attached to was proclaimed in 1984. Stage 3, features within the landscape. Legis- which encompassed the Goodparla lative framework and administrative and Gimbat pastoral leases, was procedures that protect sacred sites added in 1987, providing a total area and archaeological places specifically of 18,960 sq km. allow for the involvement of Aborigi- The National Parks and Wildlife nal custodians and the traditional Conservation Act of 1975, subsec- owners of country regardless of the tion 11-8, identifies the following underlying land tenure. This situa- objectives for the park: tion is particularly pertinent in the • Encouragement and regulation of management approaches to cultural the appropriate use, apprecia- heritage within national parks. tion, and enjoyment of the park by the public;
44 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 3. Map showing the main land tenure of the Northern Territory.
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 45 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation • Recognition of the interests of small area, it nonetheless includes the traditional aboriginal owners diverse and spectacular landforms. and of other Aborigines; and Management of these lands is cur- • Preservation of the park in its rently vested by way of the Territory natural condition and the pro- Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act tection of its special features. (NT) of 1994. Of relevance here is that there have been two plans of Aboriginal communities, held un- management drawn up, by one in der provisions of the Aboriginal 1982 and the second in 1991. Spe- Land Rights (Northern Territory) cific reference to Aboriginal rights Act of 1976, own much of the and interests is contained within Kakadu Park area. It is leased back to these documents. They acknowledge the Commonwealth Government for the particular role of Aboriginals in the purpose of maintaining a national the management and protection of park. There are some ten Aboriginal sites of spiritual and cultural signifi- residential settlements existing cance. However, in practice, Abo- within the park, and several indige- riginal involvement has come at a late nous-owned enterprises assist these stage in planning and often at the as well as operate tourist ventures insistence of the indigenous custodi- (Press et al. 1995, 6). A majority of ans. Very recently (24 November Aboriginals are on the board of man- 1998) a federal court finding held agement, with other traditional own- that native title exists over Keep ers of the park employed as rangers. River National Park, in essence rec- Management of the park is described ognising that Aboriginal land inter- as a community-based conservation ests in the area have remained intact project where the Aboriginal owners since prior to the Crown claiming are given the opportunity to partici- sovereignty (as part of the colony of pate fully (Press et al. 1995, 239). New South Wales in 1825). It is too Certainly the evidence is there to in- early to assess what, if any, effect this dicate that a cooperative and pro- will have on the management of the ductive relationship in regard to site park. management issues has prevailed. Since the park’s inception, five Keep River National Park, located community living areas have been on the Western Australia border, was established in or adjacent to the park. established in 1979 by way of trans- The park management raised much fer of land from the existing Newry opposition to these settlements, with pastoral lease. An additional area was attempts made to restrict traditional surrendered to the Territory in practises such as hunting and forag- 1987, providing a total park area of ing and burning of country. Al- 293 sq km. Although a relatively though a board of management is
46 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation required under provisions of the rock art. For the Aboriginal people, park, it rarely convenes. There is these locations were of important only one Aboriginal representative religious significance. In one case, on this body, a person who was cho- the Nganalum site, not only are some sen not by the Aboriginal people but of the images on the rock wall of rit- appointed by the park management. ual importance and belong to the In essence, the planning and man- Dreaming, they are also directly agement of Keep River have been linked to known people. In addition, without Aboriginal input. The certain physical features at the place Northern Territory Aboriginal Sa- are associated with a Dreaming tra- cred Sites Act of 1989 has been the dition. Construction of walkways, only means that custodians have had barriers, and interpretive signs were to ensure restriction of inappropriate in place before Aboriginals were access or development of areas aware of the development. The Mir- within the park. riuwung people view these as inap- propriate works. Some adjustment to Cross-cultural Acceptance what was in place has been re- Despite the existence of legisla- quested, but to date nothing has tion intended to protect Aboriginal changed. Custodians also expressed cultural places, and national park their willingness to assist the park management practices that mandate management in providing additional the involvement of indigenous peo- interpretive material, placing the site ple, conflicts do arise. Often it is the in a wider context of the mythologi- park managers’ recognition of the cal nature of the location and assist- spiritual value of places and accep- ing with understandings of much of tance of the Aboriginal wishes for the rock art. It would seem that such them—or lack thereof—that deter- cultural perceptions about a place mine the process and outcome. In could only be of interest and benefit specific cases, such as with mineral to visiting tourists. Not only is the extraction, political intervention and intransigence of the park managers at public opinion impinge on or sway odds with accepted practise, their management practices. current action may be seen as dese- Several park developments within cration of a sacred site. Keep River have been proposed that Misconceptions about the nature have brought park managers in direct and reality of sites of sacred signifi- conflict with the Aboriginal custodi- cance are often at the root of any de- ans of sites within the area. In many velopment conflict. One letter to the of the instances, the park managers editor of an Australian newspaper in intended to open for public access a regard to the Jabiluka mining pro- number of locations that contained posal expressed not only a total lack
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 47 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation of understanding of Aboriginal cul- pany, it was a source of mineral ture, but also the attitude that the wealth (Figure 4). In this case, the Aboriginals, not the development, cultural values of the site and the must give way. The writer remarked natural heritage values of the area that “mining has to take place where won out. the ore body is located, on the other hand Dreaming should be possible Conclusion just about anywhere. It would be The non-Aboriginal settlement wrong and irresponsible for any gov- history and land use structure of the ernment to forego the tangible bene- Northern Territory has ensured the fits of a mining operation for the very maintenance of a vibrant and cohe- dubious value of primitive supersti- sive society in which attachment to tions” (Canberra Times, December land and the link between the spiri- 1998). tual and physical world are impor- Unfortunately, attitudes like this tant elements. are not that uncommon. Ten years Legal and administrative struc- ago, a similar debate was focused on tures to protect indigenous heritage Coronation Hill, a proposed gold places have been developed that ac- mine in the southern area of Kakadu knowledge the particular situation of National Park. For the Jawoyn, the traditional cultural integrity. The location is an important sacred site; legislation empowers the Aboriginal for the government and mining com- owners to participate in the manage-
Figure 4. Cartoon appearing in the Northern Territory News during the time of the Coronation Hill confrontation, Kakadu National Park, amply parodying the divergent views. (August 15 1990, p. 8. Used by permission.)
48 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation ment process and to determine what can be acrimonious. Nevertheless, is appropriate. However, as evi- the prevailing situation is that places denced with the two case studies, of sacred significance are protected attitudes of park managers have a under legislation and the Aboriginal bearing on the process. It can either custodians do have the controlling be harmonious and cooperative, or it voice.
References Clarke, A. 1994. Romancing the stones: The cultural construction of an archaeological landscape in the Western District of Victoria. Archaeology in Oceania 29(1), 1-15. Elkin, A. P. 1951. Reaction and interaction: A food gathering people and European settlement in Australia. American Anthropologist 53, 164-186. Hallam, S. J. 1975. Fire and Hearth. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. Lee, J. 1998. Ward & ors v state of Western Australia & ors [1998]. 1478 FCA (24 November). Macknight, C. C. 1976. The Voyage to Marege. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. Maddock, K. 1972. The Australian Aborigines: A Portrait of Their Society. N.p.: Penguin Books. Mitchell, S. 1995. Foreign contact and indigenous exchange networks on the Cobourg Peninsula, north-west Arnhem Land. Australian Aboriginal Studies 2, 44-48. Neidjie, B. 1989. Story About Feeling. Broome: Magabala Books. Oconnor, S. 1987. The stone house structures of High Cliffy Island, north west Kimberley, W.A. Australian Archaeology 25, 30-39. Plomley, N. J. B. (ed.), 1966. Friendly Mission: The Tasmanian Journals and Papers of George Augustus Robinson, 1829-1834. Hobart: Tasmanian Historical Research Association. Powell, A. 1982. Far Country. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. Press, T., D. Lea, A. Webb, and A. Graham (eds.). 1995. Kakadu Natural and Cultural Heritage and Management. Darwin: North Australian Research Unit. Willshire, W.H. 1896. The Land of the Dawning. Adelaide: Thomas & Co.
Ken Mulvaney, Aboriginal Areas Protection Authority, P.O. Box 1890, Darwin, Northern Territory 0801 Australia; [email protected] 1
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 49 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Judith Powell Expanding Horizons: Environmental and Cultural Values within Natural Boundaries
ndigenous communities have much to teach heritage professionals about the identification and management of cultural heritage values. A holistic approach to cultural heritage has long been promoted by indigenous Icommunities: recent discussions in the professional heritage world about social and aesthetic value and debates about cultural landscapes all have pre- cursors in indigenous concepts of cultural heritage. Since 1992, a number of states in in Southeast Queensland, two pro- Australia have been engaged in re- jects have identified principles and gional assessments of the environ- protocols concerning the manage- mental, heritage, social, and eco- ment of cultural heritage values in the nomic values of forests. These as- forests. sessments aim at providing expert advice upon which decisions about Natural and Cultural Values in the future use of these forests will be Protected Area Management made. The inclusion of cultural Many years before I had any in- heritage assessments as part of the volvement in heritage issues, I spent a overall resource assessment is nota- week walking the 129-km White Peak ble. Regional resource studies such as Way within Peak National Park in the the regional forest agreement (RFA) United Kingdom. The park, declared process (incorporating assessments of in 1951, was the first area of Britain to natural, cultural, social, and eco- be designated a national park, and the nomic values) provide an opportunity White Peak Way traverses some of its to adopt a more “holistic” approach most beautiful parts. It also, much to to cultural heritage management. In my astonishment, passes working this as in other matters, indigenous farms and towns and settlements. In- communities appear to be leading the deed, the walk is planned to allow way, with the development of walkers to spend each night in a catchment resource management Youth Hostel and the published models and co-management guide to the walk includes a pub tour! strategies. As part of the RFA process This all came as a shock to someone
50 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation raised in Australia, for whom the tional parks and conservation reserves concept of a national park involved (Young 1996, 84). “natural” and “untouched” land- scapes with natural features and ex- Southeast Queensland’s Forests amples of vegetation being inter- For thousands of years, the forests preted for those traversing park tracks. and woodlands of Southeast Queen- By contrast, the symbolic feature of sland have been the home of indige- the White Peak was the patchwork of nous peoples. Subtle landscape styles in farm fences, the changes are clearly demonstrable “chequerboard of light-grey drystone over time and include, in particular, walls” (Haslam 1982, 8). Although those relating to the use of fire. Two nature is celebrated in Peak National distinctive vegetation types are pat- Park, people have a place there: they terned in the landscape, both as a re- live and work within the park and no sult of fire management. Hardwood one in the U.K. is surprised by this. (mostly eucalypti) forests are inter- The “landscape” of the Peak District spersed with softwood (native pine) is a cultural one and continues to be and rainforest “scrubs.” Regular so. burning by indigenous people en- Australia has one of the oldest na- couraged the former and reduced the tional parks systems in the world: the extent of the latter. In the process, Royal National Park near Sydney was more open forests were created with declared in 1879 as a place of recrea- grassy groundcover attractive to kan- tion and for nature conservation, and garoos and other game. was modelled more on the British In particular areas, the forests and urban park system than the American trees were the focus of religious activ- Yellowstone model (Frawley 1989, ity. In the Bunya Mountains and 17). In 1880 in Queensland, a similar Blackall Range to the north and reservation of land occurred at Mount northwest of modern Brisbane, trien- Coot-tha close to the capital city of nial festivals attracted Aboriginal Brisbane. In all parts of Australia, it groups from throughout the South- was the forests that were first east. The massive bunya pine trees considered for reservation, either be- (Araucaria bidwilli) belonged indi- cause they were considered suitable vidually to Aboriginal groups, and areas for health and recreation, or only members of that group could because concerns were felt at their climb the trees to harvest the pine impending disappearance. Today, cones that were an important source although only 5% of Australia’s land of food and feasting at the time of is still forested, forests and woodlands these festivals. account for 25% of the country’s na-
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 51 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
When the surveyor John Oxley sumed (often incorrectly) were rich entered the Brisbane River in 1823 soils beneath these stands of timber investigating potential sites for a new (Figure 1). Clearing and ringbarking convict settlement, he commented (i.e., girdling the trees to kill them) favourably on the stands of hoop pine were government-sponsored policies (Araucaria cunninghammii) lining aimed at “taming” the forests and the banks of the river. Timber, making the land “useable” for intro- whether for building or export, was duced forms of pastoralism and agri- one of the earliest commodities ex- culture, and this decimation soon far ploited in the new settlement of exceeded the extent of forest destruc- Moreton Bay, and the search for tim- tion associated with the extraction of ber supplies influenced early explo- timber. The wastage of timber was ration and expansion from the set- particularly extreme when distance tlement. Cedar cutters had already from rivers and coasts made the opened up areas along the coast be- movement of logs to milling centres tween Sydney and Brisbane; Andrew uneconomical. Petrie reported on the stands of bunya Two conflicting strands in gov- pine found on his exploratory trips ernment policy are clear in Queen- with Aborigines north of Brisbane to sland. On the one hand, regulations Fraser Island and the Mary River. All on timber cutting began as early as along the coastal strip timber was 1839, prohibitions on the cutting of rafted and floated eastwards down bunya pine were declared in 1842, rivers to the Pacific for shipment and timber land began to be reserved south to milling centres in Brisbane in the 1880s. A conference on forest and Sydney; it can be argued that the conservancy was called in 1873 and decentralised nature of Queensland’s reported to Parliament in 1875. On settlement reflects in part this pattern the other hand, the government ac- of early timber transportation. tively pursued a policy of expanded Forests and timber have had a land settlement and selectors on re- profound effect on the development sumed land were required to under- of Queensland, influencing settle- take “improvement” such as clearing. ment patterns, transportation net- The creation, in 1900, of a Forestry works, building styles and aesthetic Branch within the Department of sensibilities. At the same time Queen- Public Lands underlines this conflict, slanders, like settlers in other areas of that is, those charged with preserving Australia, had a profound antipathy and managing the forests were work- to the forests, often seeing them as ing within a department whose pri- “wastelands.” Settlers followed tim- mary aim was the expansion of agri- ber getters, attracted by what they as-
52 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation culture and settlement, often at the In 1906, the State Forests and Na- expense of those same forests. tional Parks Act created a situation unique in Australia, whereby pro-
Figure 1. Clearing for settlement. (DPI Forestry Library G1) ductive forests (state forests and tim- otic species. By the late 1950s and ber reserves) were administered by 1960s, however, the concept of bio- the same organisation that adminis- diversity was becoming more widely tered national parks. By 1930, when understood, and it was now recog- the National Parks Association was nised that an important function of founded by Romeo Lahey and other national parks should be to “reserve conservationists and bushwalkers, permanently typical examples of all over 330,000 acres of national park the main environments, including the had been declared in the state (Figure less scenic” (Annual Report of Di- 2). The early parks movement in rector of Forests 1963-64, 15). Australia and Queensland was influ- What role did people play in na- enced by issues of public health, rec- tional parks and state forests? The reation, and enjoyment, and was of- principle of “multiple-use,” espoused ten eager to “improve” on nature in since the 1930s, allowed for a range much the way that the acclimatisation of activities besides timber harvesting societies aimed to improve the quality within state forests, including grazing, and variety of Australia’s fauna and bee-keeping, recreational pursuits flora through the importation of ex- such as horse-riding, and other ac- Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 53 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation tivities. Although there may have the extent to which the landscape of been little recognition, or conserva- Australia was shaped by humans, in tion, of cultural heritage, people were particular by the fire management a common part of the landscape. Na- regimes developed as part of Abo- tional parks, on the other hand, were riginal land management. Fire exclu- seen to be places for “retreat,” where sion, however, was the foresters’ “the greatest charm ... lay in their creed, and not until the 1960s did primitiveness.... [A]ny development prescribed burning regimes come to of the Parks should be based on the be widely practised. It has taken time principle that they must be preserved for a recognition that the country has as far as possible in that simplicity and been managed in some form or an- unspoilt beauty that make them other for thousands of years, and that unique” (Anonymous 1969). therefore “passive management of It is now widely recognised, of fauna and flora results in a decline in course, that this “unspoilt” quality so the conservation values of parks and desired in national parks was never reserves” (Baker and Mutitjulu “untouched.” The work of Pyne Community 1996, 65). (1997) and others has clearly shown After their separation from the
Figure 2. Field naturalists club, McPherson Range, 1918. (Environmental Protection Agency 11/28) 54 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Department of Public Lands in 1957, sulted from “the dominance of eco- state forests and national parks were logical criteria in the assessment of the responsibility of the Queensland environmental values, and the broad- Forest Service until 1975 when the ening of our historical perception of Queensland National Parks and landscape from isolated sites to whole Wildlife Service was established. For cultural patterns” (Griffiths 1991, the first time since 1906, national 17). Deep ecology and “wilderness” parks and state forests were managed movements stressed the natural over by separate authorities. In the mid- the cultural and were, in one sense, 1990s, the Forest Service underwent “misanthropic” (Griffiths 1991, 18). a series of changes leading to a situa- The idea of “cultural landscape” tion whereby the Department of Pri- protection, however, threatened to mary Industries became responsible become the vehicle by which special- for the commercial aspects of forestry interest groups could seek to promote (plantations and native hardwood), exploitative and destructive land and the Department of Natural Re- management practices (Frawley sources became responsible for the 1989; Russell 1993). non-commercial aspects of state for- Although the idea of cultural land- ests. Three government departments scapes is not new (see, for example, are now, therefore, responsible for Ross 1996; Taylor and Tallents the management of public forests. 1996; Lennon 1997) and derives The bureaucratic separation of as- from a long tradition of historical ge- pects of forest management in many ography, the idea that cultural land- ways reflects concerns that a conflict scapes should be considered as part of of interest might exist if the managers cultural heritage management is a of productive forests were also re- relatively recent phenomenon. Just as sponsible for the management of na- taxonomy and taxidermy gave way to tional parks. It also reflects a desire to dioramas and finally to the idea of separate economic values of forests community museums, and the study from the conservation or recreational of individual species gave way to the values. If the conservation and pro- investigation of complex ecosystems, duction values of forests were seen as site-specific heritage concerns have divergent, with the potential for con- given way to the current recognition flict, it is interesting to consider where of the broader “landscape” within the cultural values of forests might fit. which heritage values reside. Char- acteristically, disciplines undergo Cultural Landscapes such expansions of definition as levels By the 1960s, a conflict between of complexity and inter-connections natural and cultural values had re- with related disciplines are un-
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 55 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation covered, and cultural heritage man- Given that many past settler activities agement is no different. within the landscape were exploita- The World Heritage Committee tive or destructive (e.g., pastoral ac- adopted the concept of “cultural tivity on marginal lands), mainte- landscape” in 1992, and the Asia- nance of such practices in the name of Pacific Regional Workshop on Asso- preserving cultural landscapes is seen ciative Cultural Landscapes (Austra- by many commentators as question- lia 1995) “recognised that the con- able (Frawley 1989) sideration of properties of outstand- ing universal value needs to be con- The National Forest Policy textual (recognising a place in its Statement, Ecologically broader intellectual and physical Sustainable Forest Management, context) rather than specific (as in the and the Montreal Process limited approach to viewing heritage Forests are the subject of intense solely as monuments or wilderness)” debate. In Australia, three-quarters of (ICOMOS 1995). Uluru Kata-Tjuta the forest estate is on public land, so National Park in the Northern Terri- any controversy over the use of the tory is now included on the World forests has powerful political dimen- Heritage List for its associative cul- sions. tural values, in addition to its prior In 1992, Australia endorsed a se- listing for natural values. The cultural ries of principles and objectives ar- landscape work undertaken in the ticulated at the United Nations Con- Wingecarribee Shire located between ference on Environment and Devel- Sydney and Canberra is a model for opment in Rio de Janeiro. Agree- the identification, assessment, and ments at this conference related to management of historic cultural land- biodiversity, climate change, defor- scapes (Taylor and Tallents 1996). estation, and forest management, and The argument over cultural land- the succeeding Montreal Agreement scapes is by no means at an end, how- established criteria and indicators ever. As recently as 1988, the Austra- against which forest practices could lian National Parks Council carried a be measured in order to determine resolution to “increase the awareness the extent to which forests were man- of, and provide a united opposition aged in a sustainable way. The to, the continuing campaign by or- Commonwealth, states, and territo- ganisations promoting cultural heri- ries jointly signed the National Forest tage issues to incorporate into Na- Policy Statement in 1992 and since tional Parks activities incompatible then a series of RFAs have been initi- with the conservation of natural val- ated in Tasmania, Western Australia, ues” (cited in Griffiths 1988, 30). Victoria, New South Wales, and
56 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Queensland (Department of Natural (CRAs) of environment, heritage, Resources et al. 1998). and socioeconomic issues (theoreti- In 1998, a framework of regional- cally across all tenures) are meant to level criteria and indicators of sus- provide the framework for political tainable forest management covering decisions concerning the develop- national parks, state forests, Crown ment of conservation reserves and the leasehold, and freehold land was de- use of forests. Criticisms of the proc- veloped and agreed to by the states ess certainly abound. According to participating in the RFA process the pre-eminent forest historian, John (Commonwealth of Australia 1998). Dargavel, time constraints have se- Three sets of indicators (the first im- verely limited the assessment process, mediately reportable, the other two indigenous rights have generally been requiring further research and devel- ignored, and community consultation opment) will be used to report on the has been poor. Private land has been implementation of a national ap- largely ignored in the process and the proach to sustainable forest manage- Montreal indicators on sustainability ment. Of the 37 indicators, 20 relate will be difficult to apply to freehold broadly to issues of biodiversity, wa- tenure. Finally, while the assessment ter catchments, or ecosystem health. process has been a visible one, the Six indicators relate to timber pro- decision-making process, he argues, duction and forest products, seven is “opaque” and prone to criticisms relate to socioeconomic forest values, that decisions are the result not of and three relate to cultural values. scientific assessment but of political Although 10% may not appear a rep- trade-offs (Dargavel 1998a, 28, 29). resentative number, the recognition Nonetheless, the RFAs constitute of cultural values in overall resource “the largest environmental planning management and planning is a key and management endeavour in Aus- component of the process; indeed the tralia” (Dargavel 1998b, 24). In envi- Commonwealth is keen to stress that ronmental terms, the fact that cultural indigenous issues in particular are heritage has been incorporated in the paramount. The current native title identification and assessment phase is debate is recognised as relevant to this significant. Whereas historical data process and there is a recognition that can be used to illustrate disturbance “native title issues need to be ad- history and other forest processes dressed in implementing manage- (Lennon 1998, 40), the full range of ment strategies” (Commonwealth of interdisciplinary projects has not yet Australia 1998, xii). been fully realised. Still, for the first As part of the RFA process, Com- time in Queensland, natural and prehensive Regional Assessments cultural values are being identified in
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 57 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation a regional survey as part of the same in Southeast Queensland identified process. over 800 historic cultural heritage Comprehensive Regional sites, of which 76 were considered of potential National Estate (NE) sig- Assessment—Cultural Heritage nificance. Community workshops The cultural heritage component identified 455 places of social value, of the CRA of Southeast Queensland of which 25 were of potential NE sig- comprised a series of reports, targeted nificance (Figure 3). The study of field work, community workshops places of aesthetic value considered and consultation, and the develop- 163 places, of which 47 were consid- ment of a set of management guide- ered of potential NE significance. lines and protocols to cover indige- nous and non-indigenous cultural The indigenous projects were heritage values (Table 1). managed by the three native title rep- The non-indigenous projects were resentative bodies responsible for undertaken by staff in the Department areas within Southeast Queen- of Environment and Heritage, along sland—namely, FAIRA (Foundation with external consultants (Forest As- for Aboriginal and Islander Research sessment Unit 1998a and 1998b; Action), Gurang Land Council, and Powell 1998; Kerr 1998). Field work Goolburri Land Council. Indigenous
Table 1. Heritage values in the CRA of Southeast Queensland
Indigenous Cultural Heritage • Data audit of known places of cultural heritage value in Southeast Queensland • Management guidelines
Non-Indigenous Cultural Heritage • Background contextual studies: Overview Thematic History, Travel Routes, Forest Towns and Settlements, Sawmills and Tramways • Studies of potential National Estate (NE) significance: places of historic value, social value, or aesthetic value • Management guidelines
58 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 3. Community workshop, Bundaber. (Environmental Protection Agency) groups were not desirous to identify they want to ensure that appropriate places for a variety of reasons, most protocols are applied. notably because of concerns about confidentiality. Many of the sites of Management Guidelines significance in Southeast Queensland (Non-indigenous and Indigenous) are sacred and secret places and The guidelines for the manage- knowledge of them is retained by tra- ment of non-indigenous cultural ditional communities. What limited heritage were developed by an inde- archaeological survey work has been pendent consultant (Lennon and As- undertaken in the region has not al- sociates 1998). A workshop of land ways been done with appropriate managers from the three government authorisation from traditional owners departments responsible for forest and has usually been undertaken as management provided input. The part of the EIS (Environmental Im- conclusions of the process high- pact Study) development process. lighted the need for: Although communities are keen for • Further studies to identify cultural cultural surveys to be undertaken, heritage places and make land-
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 59 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation scape assessments; • Improved training of field staff in • A co-ordinated approach to heri- identification, assessment, and tage management; and management of cultural heritage places. Table 2. Specific principles outlined by indigenous communities during workshops
• Recognition of the holistic and evolving nature of Aboriginal cultural heritage and indigenous cultural landscapes. • Preservation of native title rights. • Acknowledgment of Aboriginal associations with forested land, whether that association is traditional or historic. • Guaranteed access to places of cultural importance. • Ongoing direct involvement in planning and management of forests across all tenures. • Traditional stories, knowledge, and management practices influencing how the land and forest resources are cared for (because “clean water, fauna and flora, medicine plants and other resources are cultural resources”). • Expansion of plantation forestry in preference to logging native forests, especially if this can be done on cleared or degraded lands where cultural heritage will not be damaged. • Management of cultural heritage places “as part of the whole forest landscape, and the spiritual, social, and economic environment in which they exist.” • Cultural surveys under the supervision and control of traditional owners. • Identification and protection of cultural heritage of the forests, with surveys as part of long-term land use decision-making. • Cultural clearances (i.e., approval by traditional owners) for development activity. • Involvement of the appropriate people from an area in negotiation and management. • Importance of forests in educating children and others about Aboriginal cultural heritage. • Employment of Aboriginal people as part of this process.
60 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Guidelines for the development of It is easy to highlight differences in protocols and principles concerning the approaches taken by indigenous the management of indigenous cul- and non-indigenous communities to tural heritage interests were also de- cultural heritage issues. Indigenous veloped by an independent consult- communities are concerned with ant (Sullivan and Associates 1998). A confidentiality and ownership issues total of 34 formal and informal com- regarding traditional knowledge, and munity workshops were held with with how to identify traditional own- indigenous communities throughout ers and the “right” people with whom the biogeographic region and man- to negotiate. Non-indigenous com- agement protocols and principles munities are, in general, keen to were developed (Figure 4). Many of identify sites and places and are less the issues raised by indigenous com- concerned with the release of such munities (Table 2) parallel those information. raised in the social values (non-in- Far more useful, however, is to digenous) community workshops. recognise areas of similarity. There Some of the views expressed by both are many of these, reflecting perhaps communities correspond to devel- the concerns of the broader commu- opments at the theoretical level con- nity as regards heritage conservation. cerning cultural landscapes, social value and other broad cultural heri- • The need for a broad definition of tage issues. cultural heritage. At the non-in- digenous community workshops, Indigenous communities make no people identified “heritage” in its distinction between types of land ten- broadest sense (it was considered ure or the government department to be about “lifestyle,” “leaving responsible for decision-making. Nor some of yesterday for tomorrow,” does flora or fauna. Forests rely on “past and present,” “education”). water; land and sea are indivisible. It Similarly, indigenous people makes no difference whether geo- stressed the “holistic” nature of graphic or responsibility demarca- cultural heritage (it was consid- tions between government instru- ered to be about “land,” “stories mentalities or agencies exist or and oral history,” “teaching chil- not—indigenous communities see dren,” as well as sites). these as irrelevant. The boundaries • Ownership issues. Heritage is that indigenous communities do rec- seen as belonging to people; it is ognise are geographic and natural; not separate or static. Indigenous many of these have determined tradi- communities see heritage as living; tional land ownership or use. non-indigenous communities also
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 61 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
see cultural heritage as an on-go- Other Regional Models of ing process (“keeping alive the old Cultural Heritage Management skills”; Forest Assessment Unit One of the aspects of the RFA 1998b, 183). Cultural heritage process in Queensland that appears to places often are best preserved provide the most useful prospect for through use—as the non-indige- future planning and management of nous guidelines plead, “Don’t turn land is the interdisciplinary nature of it into a museum ... if it’s a build- the environment assessment (in- ing use it, get some one to occupy cluding both natural and cultural val- it and care for it” (Lennon and As- ues) and the regional approach in- sociates 1998, 42). Ownership volving a range of government de- and context are connected. partments. In both these instances, however, there is much to be learned • Recognition of both expert and from indigenous communities. Two community knowledge. Expert recent examples in Southeast Queen- and specialist knowledge is wel- sland show how indigenous commu- come, but not when it is imposed nities can provide excellent lessons in from outside or is out of touch the co-ordination of natural and cul- with community perceptions. tural heritage management. This is not to suggest that expert Quandamooka. The area known opinion cannot influence com- as Quandamooka includes Moreton munities—indeed this happens Bay, the islands of the bay, and eve- commonly. But the relationship rything within it. Aboriginal people of needs to be a negotiated partner- Quandamooka have lived and ship. managed the sea and land resources there since the beginning of time. To • Co-ordination. Communities sel- the people of Quandamooka, cultural dom take into account artificial or heritage is “the sustainable use of the governmental boundaries, even resources of the land and waters that when they fully understand them! make up Quandamooka.... An impact There is broad community sup- on one element of Quandamooka port for better co-ordination be- adversely affects other components of tween government departments the system.... Given that the and communities. management of food resources is a significant element of Quandamooka • The need for community in- heritage, cultural heritage volvement in management and management therefore requires con- planning. This is commonly servation of the catchments of that stressed at all levels. resource” (Ross and Members of the
62 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 4. Indigenous workshop, Landsborough. (Environmental Protection Agency)
Quandamooka Aboriginal Commu- pation, common ground, unity of nity 1996, 1, 5). In 1998, the Quan- purpose, negotiation, expertise, so- damooka Land Council established cial and economic development, liv- the Quandamooka Land and Sea ing culture, and respect for others. Management Agency. The key ob- Currently, members of the Quan- jectives of this agency are: mainte- damooka community are involved in nance of a clean and healthy envi- environmental monitoring pro- ronment, recognition of the Quan- grammes with the Brisbane River damooka community as indigenous Management Group. These include custodians in a modern world, and water quality monitoring and assess- maintenance of a unique lifestyle ing how water quality affects seagrass (QLSMA 1998). levels and therefore dugong numbers. The agency takes what it calls a Community members are involved in “bottom-up” approach to resource the identification of endangered management, and promotes the con- freshwater and marine creatures. cept of collaborative management of Fitzroy Basin. At the other end of all resources within an integrated Southeast Queensland, similar moves catchment area. The guiding princi- are underway to develop organisa- ples upon which the agency operates tions that can monitor the heritage of are almost exactly the same as those the Fitzroy River catchment. enunciated by indigenous communi- Over the last few years, the Queen- ties during the RFA proc- sland Mining Council, the Australian ess—namely, native title, connected- Heritage Commission, and the De- ness, self-determination, evolving partment of Environment and Heri- process, future generations, partici- tage have jointly sponsored the in-
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 63 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation volvement of Aboriginal groups nities within the Fitzroy Basin are no within the Bowen Basin area in the different from those articulated by the identification and protection of cul- people of Quandamooka, or by the tural heritage sites (Brown, Godwin, communities involved in the RFA and Porter 1998). The Bowen Basin process. They include: is rich in mineral products and nu- merous development projects are • Involvement in key regional plan- either underway or planned. Previous ning activities; archaeological work in the area, • Protection of cultural heritage; undertaken as part of Environmental • Keeping the waters and the envi- Impact Assessments, had solicited ronment healthy; little or no involvement from Abo- • riginal communities. Since the advent Responding better to new devel- of native title, there is “a legal basis, opments; founded in both common and statu- • Resolving native title conflicts; tory law, for involving Aborigines and above and beyond other interest • Improving social and economic groups (e.g., conservation groups) in conditions for the community. the planning process” (Brown, God- win, and Porter 1998, 400). Conclusions In 1997 an Aboriginal Steering The RFA processes underway Committee was established to un- throughout Australia are a response dertake a range of tasks relating to to political controversy at the Inter- cultural heritage work, and in the national, National, and Regional lev- course of this work it became clear els. Despite the difficulties of reaching that “there was a real need for a strong agreed solutions to the problems of body of elders to continue the re- forest use, some of the processes un- gional dialogue with other resource dertaken along the way may provide users about resource management positive models for future land and problems” (Gummoowongara resource management. Newsletter 1998). The Fitzroy Basin Indigenous communities have a Elders Committee has been the result. holistic view of their environment and Their concern is “to make sure that do not separate cultural, envi- the land, the rivers and all of the ronmental, social, or economic is- natural and cultural resources of the sues. In many different places and Fitzroy Basin are managed properly through a number of different proc- for all future generations” (Gum- esses, indigenous communities are moowongara Newsletter 1998). The articulating this view and attempting priorities of the Aboriginal commu- to work across what they see as artifi-
64 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation cial boundaries. The adoption of a sociated with important past activi- “catchment” or “natural boundary” ties. But without community in- approach to resource management is volvement, any such conflict will be one that the broader professional exacerbated. community could usefully adopt. Cultural heritage is, itself, a cul- A regional resource approach that tural construct and as such it should recognises and welcomes community come as no surprise that changing input is the one most likely to suc- concepts of our heritage parallel ceed. Whether state forest or national changes in other aspects of society park, management that includes local and culture. Multiculturalism, recon- people will safeguard the broad cul- ciliation, and native title are just as tural heritage values within those likely to influence our understanding boundaries. Conflict will never be of cultural heritage as concepts of entirely removed from the manage- ecology and biodiversity will influ- ment of protected areas, and differing ence our understanding of natural views will always exist on the balance values. Cultural and natural heritage between cultural and natural values, practitioners are learning to expand whether they be on the question of their horizons and are developing indigenous hunting in national parks broader concepts of the interface (Ross 1994), the presence of histori- between nature and culture. Indige- cally significant pastoral activity nous and many non-indigenous (Frawley 1989; Griffiths 1991), or communities already know this. the presence of exotic vegetation as- Acknowledgments I would like to thank friends and colleagues within the Environmental Pro- tection Agency whose ideas and discussions have assisted in the writing of this paper. In particular, I want to thank Shane Coghill and David Cameron (For- est Assessment Unit), Jeff Bedford (Ecologically Sustainable Forest Manage- ment Unit), Penny Cook, Mike Rowland and Stewart Armstrong (Cultural Heritage Branch). Thanks also to Jane Lennon, heritage consultant. The input of all these people was invaluable. Any deficiencies I claim as my own. [Ed. note: A modified version of this paper is being prepared by the author for publication in the International Journal of Heritage Studies.] References Anonymous. 1969. Some notes on the early history of national parks in Queensland. Forestry File 1A:NR, 1/33. N.p. Baker, Woenne-Green, and Mutitjulu Community. 1996 (first published 1992). The role of Aboriginal ecological knowledge in ecosystem management. Pp. 65-73 in Aboriginal Involvement in Parks and Protected Areas, Jim Birckhead et al., eds. Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Report Se- ries. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press.
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Commonwealth of Australia. 1998. A Framework of Regional (Sub-National) Level Criteria and Indicators of Sus- tainable Forest Management in Australia. Canberra: Pirie Printers Pty Ltd. Dargavel, John. 1998a. Replanning the forests. Australian Journal of Environmental Management 5, 24. ———. 1998b. Politics, policy and process in the forests. Australian Journal of Environmental Management 5, 25- 30. Department of Forestry. 1964. Annual Report of the Department of Forestry for the Year 1963-64. N.p. Department of Natural Resources et al. 1998. Background to assessment of Queensland’s ecologically sustainable forest management systems and processes. N.p. Forest Assessment Unit, Department of Envi ronment. 1998a. National Estate: Place documentation—Aesthetic, historic and social values, A report for the Joint Commonwealth and Queensland RFA Steering Commit- tee. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Environment. ———. 1998b. National Estate: Social values, A report for the Joint Commonwealth and Queensland RFA Steering Committee. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Environment. Frawley, Kevin J. 1989. ‘Cultural landscapes’ and national parks: Philosophical and planning issues. Australian Parks and Recreat ion 25(3), 16-23. Griffiths, Tom. 1991. History and natural history: Conservation movements in conflict. Pp. 16-32 in Packaging the Past? Public Histories, John Richard and Peter Spearritt, eds. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. Gummoowongara Newsletter. 1998. Gummoo Wongara Newsletter One Waater (One People), November. Haslam, Robert. 1982, The White Peak Way: An 80 Mile Circular Walk in the Peak National Park. Cumbria, U.K.: Cicerone Press. Kerr, J. 1998, Forest industry heritage places study: Sawmills and tramways, South East Queensland. A report for the Queensland Department of Environment. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Environment. L’Oste-Brown, Scott, Luke Godwin, and Carl Porter. 1998. Towards an Indigenous Social and Cultural Landscape in the Bowen Basin. Bowen Basin Aboriginal cultural heritage project, Cultural Heritage Monograph Se- ries Vol. 2. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Environment. Lennon, Jane. 1997. Case Study of the Cultural Landscapes of the Central Victorian Goldfields, Australia. State of the Environment Technical Paper Series (Natural and Cultural Heritage). N.p.: Central Queensland Uni- versity Publishing Unit, Commonwealth of Australia. ———. 1998. History, cultural heritage and the regional forest assessment process. Australian Journal of Environ- mental Management 5, 38-46. Lennon, Jane, and Associates. 1998. Protecting cultural heritage values and places in South East Queensland forests. A report for the Joint Commonwealth and Queensland RFA Steering Committee. N.p. Lennon, J., and M. Townley. 1998. National Estate: Aesthetic values. A report for the Joint Commonwealth and Queensland RFA Steering Committee. N.p. Powell, J. 1998. People and trees: A thematic history of South East Queensland with particular reference to forested areas, 1823-1997. A report for the Joint Commonwealth and Queensland RFA Steering Committee. N.p. Pyne, Stephen. 1997. Frontiers of fire. Pp. 19-34 in Ecology and Empire: Environmental History of Settler Societies, Tom Griffiths and Libby Robin, eds. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. QLSMA [Quandamooka Land and Sea Management Agency]. 1998. Brisbane River and Moreton Bay wastewater management study: Indigenous consultation program, a response. N.p.: QLSMA. Ross, Anne. 1994. Traditional hunting in national parks and the cultural heritage paradigm. Ngulaig 11, 1-19. ———. 1996. Landscape as heritage. Tempus 5, 9-17. Ross, Anne, and Quandamooka Aboriginal Land Council. 1996. Aboriginal approaches to cultural heritage manage- ment: A Quandamooka case st udy. Tempus 6, 107-112. Russell, Jim. 1993. Challenging history: An environmental perspective. Public History Review 2, 35-53. ———. 1997. Towards more inclusive, vital models of heritage: An Australian perspective. International Journal of Heritage Studies 3(2), 71-80. Sullivan, Kate, and Associates. 1998. RFA Cultural heritage project: Guiding principles for forest management for FAIRA, Gurang and Goolburri Land Councils. A report for the Joint Commonwealth and Queensland RFA Steering Committee. N.p. Taylor, Ken, and Carolyn Tallents. 1996. Cultural landscape protection in Australia: The Wingecarribee Shire Study. International Journal of Heritage Studies 2(3), 133-144. UNESCO. 1995. The Asia-Pacific regional workshop on associative cultural landscapes. A report by Australia ICOMOS to the World Heritage Committee, 27-29 April. Web site:
Judith Powell, Biodiversity Planning Unit (Cultural Heritage), Environmental Protection Agency–Queensland, 160 Ann Street, Brisbane, Albert Street, Queensland 4002, Australia; [email protected]
66 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Martin Magne
Archaeology and Rocky Mountain Ecosystem Management: Theory and Practice
he benefits that could be obtained by a collaborative relationship between archaeological sciences and ecosystem management prin- ciples are only just beginning to be realized. Examination of current Tapplied and theoretical directions reveals common concepts that need to be developed more firmly, at the same time that archaeology needs to express more confidence in its potential contributions as well as be more ex- plicit about its limitations. Examples of archaeological knowledge applied to ecosystem issues in the Canadian Rocky Mountain National Parks are dis- cussed here, indicating where substantial research is yet required. Issues • Employing historical and ar- Having legislated in 1988 the pri- chaeological research in a ority of ecological integrity in all multidisciplinary context to management decisions, Parks Can- contribute to ecological integrity. ada is now engaged with creating fundamental principles and stan- Background dards regarding management of na- Ecological management of na- tional parks ecosystems. I discuss tional parks can take two extremes: here four topics central to the ongo- allowing “nature to take its course” ing debates, focusing on the role that with no active human management, archaeological research can play. or intervening constantly and delib- The principal topics are: erately to maintain a “slice in time.” Within our national parks system, we • Natural regulation versus adap- have examples approaching each of tive management of the environ- these extremes. In between them is a ment; tremendous range of practices and • Factoring past human interac- philosophies. There are, for exam- tions with the environment into ple, many instances of various prac- contemporary management prac- tices aimed at restoring communities, tices; structures, or processes. The variety • Understanding historical vari- of management options we apply de- ability in ecosystems; and rive from real management needs as
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 67 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation well as political realities. “the condition of an ecosystem There is in our day no escaping where the structure and function of the need to employ all our resources the ecosystem are unimpaired by to understand ecosystems. A recent stresses induced by human activity, article in Science (Vitousek et al. and the ecosystem’s biological diver- 1997) reports that humans have sity and supporting processes are modified one-third to one-half of the likely to persist” (Parks Canada Earth’s surface, carbon dioxide is up 1998, 23). 300% since the Industrial Revolu- Yet we really do not know how tion, and humans use one-half of all resilient the mountain ecosystems are fresh water. The paper concludes by to human disturbance. There must stating that “there is no clearer illus- have been some variation in the tration of the extent of human domi- past—climatic, human, catastrophic, nance of Earth than the fact that or all of those. Can we tell? The po- maintaining the diversity of ‘wild’ tential of archaeology and the paleo- species and the functioning of ‘wild’ sciences to contribute meaningfully ecosystems will require increasing to ecosystem management, I believe, human involvement” (Vitousek et al. lies in part in their ability to describe 1997, 499). This applies to our “baselines” at different points in Rocky Mountains—without specific time, points in time for which hu- active interventions, they will suffer mans are a significant component. considerably; and this we know since From these baselines the effects of previous interventions such as fire human influence, and of natural oc- suppression have greatly contributed currences, can be charted against to the ecological problems the parks particular locations, species, or sys- now face. tems, using more precisely docu- DeLeo and Levin (1997) state mented data available for more recent that, “in managing ecosystems, the times. goal should not be to eliminate all Mountain parks ecosystem man- forms of disturbance, but rather to agers have proposed significant in- maintain processes within limits or terventions to manage wildlife and ranges of variation that may be con- vegetation. Employing background sidered natural, historic, or accept- literature studies and computer gen- able.” This appears to be the goal of erated models, key actions are being Parks Canada’s “ecological integrity” advanced as the most feasible, and policy, a key component of which is representing the least public risk, for to manage contemporary human elk population reduction, carnivore disturbances. In Parks Canada’s enhancement, and vegetation re- State of the Parks Report (1998), newal. Archaeological information “ecological integrity” is defined as has been used in studies undertaken
68 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation by biologists and figure prominently burning practices. Third, interpreta- in their conclusions, but the cultural tions of the 13,000-year-old pollen information employed in these stud- record are remarkably coarse and ies and models requires proper con- finer resolution is required to illumi- sideration of the roles of aboriginal nate patterns or events at the 10- to peoples in past landscapes, of the 100-year level. The dendrochro- limitations of the archaeological re- nological record that forest managers cord, and an awareness of the nature of the mountain parks use to infer of paleoenvironmental knowledge. aboriginal burning patterns is only There is, for example, excellent 600 years old at the most. anthropological evidence for Abo- riginal burning in mountain envi- Kay’s Theory of ronments of Alberta and British Co- Aboriginal Overkill lumbia. This evidence is not volumi- As a prime example, I will focus nous but it is fairly extensive, ranging on the faunal management hypothe- from the southern east and west sis held by Charles Kay (Kay 1994; slopes of the Rockies to the northern Kay, Patton, and White 1994; Kay east slopes. The literature points to and White 1995), that aboriginal aboriginal burning of many different people “overkilled” elk in the kinds: fires to encourage certain mountains and were responsible for fruiting bushes, to encourage ungu- the apparent low ungulate popula- late forage, to drive animals for tion levels witnessed by early explor- hunts, or accidental fire from camps. ers of the West. This is highly debat- Any or all of these would account for able. It may on the surface appear the “mosaic” observed in times past, that elk population levels were low, but direct evidence of Aboriginal but there are several difficult prob- fires is, in fact, slim. Vegetation man- lems in need of further investigation agers are making great use of proxy before this “overkill hypothesis” can data: changes in fire regimes as indi- be taken seriously: cated by tree ring studies, macro- 1. Why did the elk populations not charcoal in pollen cores, and so recover following the drastic de- forth. There are three main problems cline of aboriginal populations in here. First, attributing agency to the the early historic period? fire patterns is extremely difficult. 2. Why does the archaeological re- Biologists and archaeologists are cord not show an “overkill hori- limited to inference, no matter how zon”? If native people were kill- strong—we are lacking the smoking ing elk in this manner, where are torch. Second, to date very little di- the bones? rect consultation with local aborigi- 3. Did early European hunting, or nal people has taken place about past the introduction of horses, sig-
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 69 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation nificantly modify the environ- eastern slopes of Alberta and the ments employed by elk? mountain national parks and tabulate 4. How can taphonomic effects be the evidence available. We derived accounted for in the archaeologi- conclusions at odds with Kay and his cal record that Kay cites? The co-workers. From 49 sites in western different ways that people proc- Alberta and eastern British Colum- essed bones, in different places, bia, some with multiple components, for different reasons, in different a total of 401 bison MNI (minimum times of the year, and the differ- number of individuals) are apparent ent depositional regimes in and 54 elk. If we look at the three which they have lain, all have mountain parks and one national considerable effect on what we historic site in Canada with pre- see today. served faunal remains, including Now, I do not have the degree of some sites that Kay et al. (1994) did faunal expertise that Lyman not examine, the pattern is quite dif- does—expertise that he used in his ferent from what one would expect remarkable study of mountain goats from their findings: 125 bison MNI and national parks policies in the compared with 74 elk MNI (Table Olympic Mountains of Washington 1). state (Lyman 1995)—but, ta- Given that we know bison were phonomic effects aside, let us exam- extremely populous and were the ine the Rocky Mountain faunal data ungulate mainstay of this part of the from an archaeological perspective. world, and also given the robusticity I had two graduate students with of bison bone, the pattern shown faunal analysis expertise re-examine above in fact indicates substantial elk the archaeological literature from the populations as well. Kay (1994) may
Table 1. Comparison of bison and elk MNI in the Canadian Rockies
Location Bison MNI Elk MNI Ratio 49 sites in Western Al- 401 54 7:1 berta and BC Waterton Lakes NP 54 9 6:1 Banff NP 34 16 2:1 Jasper NP 2 13 1:7 Rocky Mountain 35 36 1:1 House NHS TOTAL 526 128 4:1
70 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation believe that the evidence points to Kay’s studies and our own show that Aboriginal overkill of elk (and by far most of the bone to be found moose), but the archaeological re- in the sites he examined is fragmen- cord is not at all clear on this point. It tary and unidentified. Maybe it is may simply be evidence of bison out- elk? We have started work on DNA competing elk in certain environ- to see if we can tell. When my stu- ments, of differential bone preserva- dents looked at the Parks Canada tion, or of other causes. data, we found that most faunal re- Kay (1994) cites some 1,600 ar- mains had never even been analyzed chaeological reports from the moun- and that some had been misidenti- tains and eastern slopes as evidence fied. of his overkill hypothesis, yet beyond At the regional level, most of the the questions posed above, there are archaeological reports that Kay ex- other problems with taking archae- amined were consulting reports de- ology at face value as a source of eco- scribing small-scale, linear projects. system knowledge. These are prob- Very few regional studies have been lems that can be overcome in some undertaken in Alberta’s mountains or instances, but one needs the aware- Eastern slopes. In addition, many ness that they exist, not some naïve sites outside the national parks also gathering of data that appears to have faunal remains that have never support one’s theories. been examined. When fairly large Archaeological sites are far from projects have been undertaken, the perfect records. If we look at what is questions asked of the faunal data are desirable in archaeological sites for those of interest to archaeologists, ecosystem reconstruction purposes not to ecosystem managers, and that and compare it with what is normally influences how the data are gathered found, we have something like the in the first place. All of these con- discrepancies outlined in Table 2. straints impose serious bias not
Table 2. Characteristics of archaeological sites
Desirable Normal Stratified Single Component or Mixed Bone samples Stone only Identifiable bone Fragmentary bone Pollen No preservation Dendrochronological wood No preserved wood C14 Dates No dates or artifact types, estimates only
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 71 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation only on interpretations, but also on knowledge of mountain ecosystems how anyone else can use those is rather poor. results. Table 3 outlines what we Traditional environmental knowl- would like to have available for edge of aboriginal peoples with re- regional archaeological evidence and spect to the Canadian Rocky Moun- what is the norm. tains has not been systematically at- One of the constraints with the tempted. Traditional environmental regional archaeological evidence is in knowledge is only occasionally re- the kinds of sites archaeologists garded as a potential management choose to investigate. These are bi- tool in the mountain parks, but is an ased, in the case of the mountain accepted and useful component of parks, toward relatively large, valley- land management in the Northwest bottom campsites that probably rep- Territories and Yukon, and, in- resent late-summer-to-fall occupa- creasingly, in British Columbia. A tions. We do not have representative study being completed at Waterton assemblages for other seasons. Lakes is the only comprehensive one ever undertaken in the Canadian Traditional Knowledge mountain parks. The Waterton-Gla- in National Parks cier Ethnoarchaeological Project by A key component of ecosystem B.O.K. Reeves has resulted in a archaeology should be traditional much-improved picture of Blackfoot environmental knowledge held by land uses and interests there, with a aboriginal peoples. To include such focus on plants and ethnogeography. knowledge is, however, quite rarely Kootenay National Park’s current done in Canada’s Rocky Mountains. environmental history study includes Although there is increasing collabo- consultations with Ktunaxa Elders ration by government, academic, and concerning ungulate history and private archaeologists, the state of plants, and has grown to include information concerning aboriginal Ktunaxa involvement in prescribed
Table 3. Characteristics of regional archaeological evidence
Desirable Normal Well-described settlement and sea- Biased settlement pattern repre- sonality patterns sentation Representative universe sampling Linear projects Judgmental sampling Biased sampling Good knowledge of human popula- Sketchy culture histories, ambigu- tion interactions and regional envi- ous reconstructions of environ- ronmental effects on humans mental effects
72 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation forest burning. The Stoney, Sarsi, way of managing today. As Hunter Metis, Beaver, Slave, and Cree peo- (1996) has expressed it, how to ap- ple of western and northern Alberta ply knowledge of aboriginal man- should also have significant contri- agement methods depends on what butions to make to our knowledge of our objectives are: lighting fires to ecosystem processes in the mountain drive game is not the same objective parks. as lighting fires to encourage aspen Table 4 points out that we have a growth. ways to go in integrating traditional The question indeed largely environmental knowledge with park remains: What roles did aboriginal management. The ethnographic re- peoples and early Europeans play in cord is useful, but in some cases very shaping the mountain ecosystem? limited to what the particular ob- Certainly, both groups were an server was interested in recording. I integral part of it. But whether they think it is also worth mentioning that had long-lasting but small-scale progress with traditional environ- effects, large-scale and long-term mental knowledge would have bene- effects, or temporary local effects are fits beyond ecosystem management. all questions we can only have Working together would enhance opinions on at the present time. mutual relationships and serve to There are positive aspects to help preserve knowledge that is in cultural systems as environmental danger of permanent loss. Dedicated proxies, though, that we should learn research into traditional environ- to make the most of. Gunn (1994) mental knowledge may also show us points out that cultural systems can where it has its limits, which is worth respond more quickly to climatic keeping in mind since we need to change than can some biological realize that a traditional way of doing systems such as forests—there is no something may not in fact be the best time lag. Cultural responses may
Table 4. Characteristics of aboriginal relations and traditional environmental knowledge in Rocky Mountain national parks
Desirable Normal Traditional environmental knowledge Poor or no traditional environ- well studied mental knowledge Traditional environmental knowledge Late-19th-century ethnographic has direct links to archaeology and data only ecosystem research Close relationships with First Nations Fair relations
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 73 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation be better indicators of change than It helped to delineate the bounds of pollen diagrams. Some of these re- our knowledge to provide focus for sponses may be captured in prehis- work in areas where information is toric patterns we see but don’t rec- lacking. The workshop concluded ognize as such. Other patterns may with three main recommendations: be captured in knowledge retention, 1. Policy. There is a recognized particularly in societies that have need for development of policy been in place for a long time. Exam- in the area of recognizing human ples here are Haida stories about influences on ecosystems moving across grassy areas, walking through time. between villages that are only acces- 2. Aboriginal peoples. Mountain sible by water now, or of moving vil- parks should make greater efforts lages when waters were ris- to work with aboriginal groups ing—situations occurring 12,000 to towards ecosystem management 6,000 years ago. goals. 3. Communications. At all levels, What to Do? from senior management to the To identify alternative models of general public, more communi- human–environment dynamics with- cation is required regarding what in the larger Rocky Mountain ecosys- research is taking place, and tem requires a thorough multidisci- why. plinary programme involving the body of scientific and historical The mountain parks need to de- disciplines that relate to population velop a long-term multidisciplinary and community dynamics—biology, research strategy to address the role ecology, anthropology, history, and of humans in the mountain ecosys- archaeology. A professional work- tem over time. This would involve: shop has been held recently to frame • Working with other ecosystem the key management issues within an researchers, historians, and park understandable perspective and to managers to identify the research begin testing models with regards to questions of most pressing com- a longer-term perspective. Forty mon interest, and to identify our people came together in Jasper knowledge gaps; National Park to offer 29 discussions • Reviewing known archaeological over three days, covering topics site information to identify key ranging from bison fat to marsh sites with the potential to address sampling to highway impacts. This such questions; workshop sought to reach agreement • Carrying out archaeological site on what is “natural variation” and surveys to identify new sites for how this was represented in the past. time periods or environments of
74 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation interest where there are no more expansive environmental and known sites, ecological understanding. With such • Carrying out multidisciplinary an understanding, it is possible to excavations at selected sites; make more informed management • Analyzing results focusing on decisions with regard to public im- changes or lack thereof in hu- pacts within a national park envi- man–ecosystem interactions ronment. Current trends in both eco- through time; and system sciences and archaeology • Integrating results with other have made the time ripe to allow ecosystem specialist studies, and meaningful collaboration. Just as integrating results into natural ecologists have tended to view hu- and cultural resource manage- mans as “stressors” on ecosystems, ment practices. archaeologists have been guilty of viewing ecosystems as “condition- In several cases we are doing ex- ers” of human adaptation. We need actly some of those things. Archae- to step outside of our disciplinary ologists in Banff National Park have straitjackets to find solutions, and we searched for and found sites with need to teach developing profession- clear strata and identifiable ungulate als how to do so as well. bones; near Kootenay National Park What should not be ignored in waterlogged deposits have been our efforts is what I consider to be found that contain an unusually rich highly misinformed criticism of abo- assemblage of carnivores, ungulates, riginal peoples’ relationships with and fish remains. What we are lack- the environment. A recent Toronto ing is an explicit strategy to integrate Globe and Mail article (Widdowson the entire suite of interests with the and Howard 1998) entitled “Natural overriding objective of ecological stewards or profit-makers?” is subti- integrity. tled “Aboriginal peoples haven’t lost Conclusions their spiritual bond with the land: A key issue in parks management they never had one.” The principal is the mediation of human recrea- argument is that aboriginal people tional use and impact with biodiver- have knowingly made poor decisions sity and ecological integrity. With the or profit-oriented ones in certain in- growth of public utilization of park stances where they have asserted resources, the importance of ad- their prerogatives. It is true that abo- dressing the interrelationships of riginal people are people and that cultural and ecological systems will mistakes will be made, but that is not only increase. Archaeology and his- the issue with respect to their cul- tory are in a good position to situate ture’s long-term connection to the human cultural systems within a land. It is also true that aboriginal
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 75 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation people no longer live by “stone axes damaging resource management and snowshoes” and that contempo- practices. rary resource extraction and man- The establishment of baseline agement require contemporary solu- criteria for ecological integrity pur- tions. But by using the alarmist poses requires very firm and defensi- method of generalizing a few cases to ble information on the relative stabil- the entire situation, this kind of criti- ity, agents of change, and natural cal approach ignores the bulk of tra- variability in the mountain ecosys- ditional knowledge, the widespread tem. Proper evaluation and applica- respect that aboriginal people do tion of the evidence require team ap- show for the land, and the many in- proaches with full awareness of in- stances where they have opposed herent scientific and cultural biases.
Acknowledgments I would like to thank Sherri Lensen and Mark Diab for their help with compiling faunal data.
References DeLeo, Giulio A., and Simon Levin. 1997. The multifaceted aspects of ecosystem integrity. Conservation Ecology [online] 1(1), 3. Gunn, Joel D. 1994. Global climate and regional biocultural diversity. Pp. 67-97 in Historical Ecology: Cultural Knowledge and Changing Landscapes, Carole L. Crumley, ed. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press. Hunter, Malcolm Jr. 1996. Benchmarks for managing ecosystems: Are human activities natural? Conservation Biology 10(3), 695-697. Kay, Charles E. 1994. Aboriginal overkill: The role of Native Americans in structuring western ecosystems. Human Nature 5(4), 359-398. Kay, Charles E., Brian Patton, and Clifford A. White. 1994. Assessment of long-term terrestrial ecosystem states and processes in Banff National Park and the central Canadian Rockies. Unpublished manuscript. Banff, Alta.: Heritage Resource Conservation, Banff National Park. Kay, Charles E., and Clifford A. White. 1995. Long-term ecosystem states and processes in the central Canadian Rockies: A new perspective on ecological integrity and ecosystem management. Pp. 119-132 in Sustainable Society and Protected Areas: Contributed Papers of the 8th Conference on Research and Resource Management in Parks and Public Lands, Robert M. Linn, ed. Hancock, Mich.: The George Wright Society. Lyman, R. Lee. 1995. Determining when rare (zoo-)archaeological phenomena are truly absent. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 2(4), 369 - 424. Parks Canada. 1998. State of the Parks 1997 Report. Ottawa: Public Works and Government Services Canada. Vitousek, Peter M., Harold A. Mooney, Jane Lubchenko, and Jerry M. Melillo. 1997. Human domination of Earth’s ecosystems. Science 277, 494-499. Widdowson, Frances and Albert Howard. 1998. Natural stewards or profit-makers? Globe and Mail (Toronto), 2 May. Martin Magne, Parks Canada, 552-220-4 Avenue SE, Calgary, Alberta T2G 4X3, Canada; [email protected] 1
76 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Harold Mytum History, Politics and Culture: Archaeology and Interpretation in British National Parks hen national parks were established in England and Wales, their roles were defined as “preserving and enhancing the natural beauty of such areas and promoting their enjoyment by the W public” (National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949). In this regard, the assumptions behind the setting up of national parks were similar to that in North America. National parks in Britain are unusual in a world context, however, because the areas within their responsibility are not publicly owned. This has clearly restricted their ability to carry through policy, but has perhaps made them more sensitive to local as well as national public opinion. It is significant that the preserving and enhancing of natural beauty was placed alongside promoting enjoyment by the public. The brief of national parks was to wildlife and cultural heritage of the protect largely upland and agri- area,” but also “to promote the quiet culturally marginal areas. The basic enjoyment and understanding of the assumption that these were largely area insofar as it is not in conflict with untouched, and represented areas the primary purpose of conservation” with limited human impact, was (Edwards 1991). The role of quickly challenged, but it took some conservation had become dominant time before the archaeological as well in British national parks, linked to as the historic built environment was their planning role. incorporated within policies. During National parks now operate under the same period, the greater rather different conditions from those availability of private transport, prevailing at their founding, and have increase in leisure time, and the a range of planning responsibilities widening range of outdoor activities which dominate much of their carried out in the parks led to a budgets and attention, and which redefinition by the National Parks have been recently extended with the Review Panel in which the roles latest bout of local government should be “to protect, maintain and reorganisation. Nevertheless, the twin enhance scenic beauty, natural themes of conservation and interpre- systems and land forms, and the tation play a part, particularly as all
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 77 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation the parks are heavily tourist based. Planning With the apparently inexorable The statutory requirements within decrease in upland agricultural the planning process absorb a great incomes, tourism is becoming the deal of the attention of the English major factor in the economy of some national park staff, including that of national parks, and in all the need to their archaeologists. In Wales, the encourage but yet control and situation is slightly different, with the manage visitor numbers is a critical local archaeological units being responsibility. It is within this context responsible for planning control, with that provision of and interest in the Gwynedd Archaeological Trust, archaeology needs to be considered. for example, providing the service Archaeology is a recognised issue within Snowdonia National Park, in all national parks, and all but one Cambrian Archaeology (formerly the employ an archaeologist to cover the Dyfed Archaeological Trust) giving subject within the authority (and that such a service to the Pembrokeshire one exception has several archaeo- Coast National Park, and the Clwyd- logically trained employees on its Powys Archaeo-logical Trust staff). The role of archaeology has advising the Brecon Beacons National some common threads over all Park. It is worth noting that within all national parks, but as one moves away these the parks various educational from the most central and statutory initiatives have proved possible, requirements, then devel-opments whilst they have been achieved in a relate to interests and opportunities more limited extent in most English seized by individuals, and links to authorities. other organisations and individuals. Many upland areas have been long Education has increased in im- recognised as repositories of great portance within national parks, as this archaeological riches, but few large- has been seen as a service needed and scale academic landscape studies acknowledged by the community. have been undertaken in recent years. Planning controversies can often lead The most notable exceptions are to the parks appearing bureaucratic, those by Fleming on Dartmoor and in uncaring, and against the individual Swaledale in the Yorkshire Dales and local community, but education (Fleming 1988; 1998). The Royal helps to give the parks a positive Commissions have already covered image. Archaeological material fig- some key areas (Taylor 1991) but ures in many programmes, but is modern methods of aerial, surface, often subsumed within other subjects and geophysical survey now allow far which are specifically targeted within more sites to be identified, accurately the national curricula.
78 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation located, and non-destructively invest- there is less protection for landscapes. igated. Some areas including archaeological In order to be able to carry out the remains have gained some protection, planning control, particularly for however, as environmentally sensitive extensive threats such as forestry, areas or sites of special scientific national park archaeologists in both interest (White 1991). Management England and Wales have often agreements with farmers, often with commissioned surveys of the payments attached, have also archaeological resource to augment provided a solution. that already known. This has often involved funding from English Conservation and Interpretation Heritage and Cadw respectively, and has been carried out by the Royal Archaeologists have been closely Commission staffs, contracted involved in the conservation of major archaeologists, or employees of the monuments within the national parks. National Parks. In every case, large These projects may have also numbers of additional features have included substantial elements of been found, ranging from Mesolithic detailed survey, buildings recording, flint scatters to World War II relics. or excavation, or may have involved These are then incorporated within less primary study and only an input management plans as well as local into the design and management of Sites and Monuments Records and schemes. the National Monuments Record. At the Roman military camps at Whilst these may have a research and Cawthorne, North Yorkshire, educational role, they are primarily attempts at interpretation are used for landscape management and constrained by concerns over planning guidance. An example of conservation and visitor manage- survey increasing the number and ment. This is a site purchased and range of known sites can be indicated cleared of regenerated woodland by by the work on the Brecon Beacons. the North York Moors National Park The common of Mynydd Illtyd to ensure the most effective protection covers 625 acres, and systematic field for the excellently preserved but walking increased the number of fragile earthworks. A car park for only known sites (Dorling 1991). 20 cars some distance away Whilst British legislation minimises visitor impact, and for part emphasises sites in the preservation of the visitor trail, Terram, a process, and many archaeological permeable membrane, has been used remains are scheduled ancient to minimise wear (Cartwright 1991). monuments within national parks, The site is regularly monitored and
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 79 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation measures taken to minimise as Iron Age iron smelting structures degradation by both animals and and water-powered pumping and people, and vegetation control is by winding engines, and the Clydach both sheep-grazing and hand- ironworks in the Brecon Beacons was spraying of chemicals (Lee 1994). A a relatively early example of wide range of erosion prevention consolidation on some scale (Wilson strategies have been employed in the 1988). The charcoal-fired iron Yorkshire Dales on sites of various smelting furnaces with bellows periods and character (White 1994). powered by a water wheel at Duddon Industrial archaeology, particular- have been excavated, conserved, and ly for quarrying and mining, abounds displayed. Here, Lake District in the upland areas of Britain. It is National Park obtained the site on a therefore not surprising that some of 50-year lease, and has sensitively the most extensive, and expensive, carried out work but does not wish to conservation and interpretation encourage mass tourism (Lowe projects by national parks have been 1991). Management agreements have in this field. It is with the industrial been negotiated with land-owners in heritage that it has been most easy to the case of three lead smelting obtain interest and resources to complexes, including the Old Gang combine archaeological conserva- and Surrender mills in the Yorkshire tion, research, and interpretation. Dales National Park, and English Industrial monuments can be Heritage has grant-aided consoli- stabilised and displayed in a resilient dation (White 1989). state and can withstand at least small With stretched staff and financial numbers of visitors. Moreover, many resources, and an archaeological are located in locations that can record both diverse and often fragile, combine other experiences expected the presumption is for preservation from a national park: spectacular and no interpretation. Only key sites scenery, (at least apparent) isolation, such as those discussed above, can be and a confrontation with nature and accorded sufficient attention to be the elements. Some such sites have resilient to attrition caused by visitors. been taken into guardianship by So, recent research by Kingston organisations such as English (1997) has shown why Lake District Heritage and the National Trust, but National Park considers that no others are managed by the national element of interpretation should be parks themselves. given to indicate the location, nature, In Snowdonia National Park, and extent of the famous Neolithic excavation and consolidation have stone axe quarries and working areas taken place on sites as different in date at Great Langdale. The quarry faces,
80 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation and the huge screes of debris, with facilities to cope with many including rough-outs and waste thousands of visitors each year. flakes, are under threat from walkers At Carew Castle, a range of and others unaware of the standing remains are available for significance of the site, but it was felt inspection, together with a famous that any on-site or nearby notices early-medieval cross and a post- would only attract more visitors and medieval tide mill. Archaeological potential collectors. Interpretations excavations were carried out during that identify places of past human the 1980s to discover the early history activity within the wider cultural and of the site and as a planning condition natural landscape are rare in national prior to the construction of tourist parks because of the density of facilities, including toilets (Gerrard visitors, and the fact that these sites 1991). These have now been often lie on private land where completely covered over, however, farmers are attempting to run viable and so their contribution to the businesses. The problems of erosion understanding of the site has not been of archaeological deposits on open as great as they might have been. moorland are widespread in the parks Despite being a multi-period site, the (Griffiths 1994). castle interpretation is primarily National parks have tended to concentrated on the early Tudor avoid ownership of archaeological period; having a Welsh origin, this monuments, with all the management dynasty of British monarchs links and interpretation responsibilities local, Welsh, and British interests, that this entails. Apart from some of and thus appeals to a wide range of the industrial sites described above, visitors (Davis 1987). the most notable exceptions are both Castell Henllys Iron Age fort had in Pembrokeshire Coast National already been operating as a tourist Park. Here, the medieval and Tudor attraction, in conjunction with stone castle at Carew, and the Iron archaeological research and training Age fort with adjacent Roman native excavations, prior to its acquisition by farmstead at Castell Henllys (Figure the national park. The style of 1), are both crucial parts of the park’s interpretation has changed radically, publicity and identity (Pembroke- and has resulted in greater investment shire Coast National Park 1999). in high-quality display panels along Both also play important roles in well-managed routes, though at the educational provision, and are loss of flexibility and personal discussed further under that heading engagement between owner and below. Moreover, they are also visitor (Mytum 1999a). Excavations interpreted for the general public, have continued (Mytum 1999b), with
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 81 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 1. Castell Henllys is an Iron Age inland promontory fort with substantial defences, well-preserved evidence of internal occupation and buildings, and a monumental gateway of stone. the result that they play an important been vital in the interpretation of the part of the summer period attractions, site and reconstruction of buildings when most tourists (as opposed to on the site, continuing the work of the schools) visit the site. Here, the previous owner. As a result of this linking of a project run by the collaboration, the richness of the University of York and the national information, and the diversity of park has allowed a large-scale project experiences gained by all sorts of to have the continuity of planning in visitors, Castell Henllys won the terms of facilities, access, and Heritage in Britain award at the 1996 resources. This has involved the park British Archaeology awards (Figures in relatively little expense, as the 2, 3, and 4). research institution and principal As part of the conservation ethic, investigator obtain most of the research excavation is not generally resources and undertake the encouraged within national parks, a administration of the project. The policy also supported by English archaeological expertise has also Heritage and Cadw. There have, 82 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 2. Archaeological excavations at Castell Henllys. nevertheless, been several notable National Park, where a long-term excavations within national parks investigation of a particular farm was which have often involved assoc- undertaken over many years by the iations with the organisations, and Sheffield University, and resulted in a these have had valuable benefits for detailed understanding of this interpretation. Projects which have element of the landscape (Hodges not involved substantial direct 1991). This resulted in the Peak Park national park input have been taking into ownership some of the excluded here. land, and the selling off of other parts The first notable research with legal conditions on its excavations which incorporated and management to ensure preservation then led to even greater interpretation of the identified archaeological were at Royston Grange in Peak resource and access for education
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 83 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 3. The Iron Age chevaux-de-frise (arrangement of small standing stones) defences, preserved under a later defensive earthwork at Castell Henllys, is the only excavated example in Europe and is now on display to the public.
84 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 4. Reconstructed structure at Castell Henllys. and research (Smith 1991). The (Sheffield University 1999). archaeological research highlighted Archaeological interpretation at a the significance and potential of the more general level is present in the site, and led to its incorporation literature for many of the parks, but is within direct national park man- often merely the noting of sites of agement. The use of a small number interest on suggested walks, such as of low-level interpretation panels, lime kilns and promontory forts on and some building plans recovered Pembrokeshire Coast National Park’s from excavation visible on the footpath guides, or within the context surface, are results of this collab- of general tourist literature. Most oration. national park archaeologists have The Royston Grange research neither the time nor the specific project has ended, but Sheffield training to interpret for the public. As University has begun another the only professional archaeologists collaborative project with Peak in isolated regions, however, they are National Park at Gardom’s Edge. often asked to identify or comment on Here again, interpretation is an finds made by local people of artefacts important element. In this case, and structures, and many are involved access can be most easily gained via in the support of local amateur the Web site on the excavation groups. Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 85 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Education Within this context, archaeology can Interpretation specifically for be found within the history children is an aspect which has curriculum, but can also be relevant become increasingly important in other subject areas, such as local within national parks. To justify studies, which link to geography, funding and to ensure sufficient geology, and the environment. demand from schools with limited Some national parks have a range time to give within a compressed of facilities for all age groups, though curriculum, resources offered are any archaeological element is often closely linked to specified educa- only available at keystage 2, because tional requirements of the national of the curricula. Lake District curricula for England and Wales. National Park offers units, lasting a
Figure 5. School party visits the excavations at Castell Henllys, with explanation by a national park guide.
86 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 6. Excavation of the Iron Age gateway at Castell Henllys, which the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park intends to interpret with a full-scale in situ reconstruction/simulation. half or whole day, at the primary and ering the context of Lake secondary level, and for more Windermere. All incorporate a advanced students in further and mixture of natural and human higher education. The range of impacts on the landscape over time current modules can be seen on the (Lake District National Park 1999). Web, with the Discovery walks for Northumberland National Park keystage 2 including a valley such as has many assets, such as Hadrian’s Borrowdale, contrasting two valleys Wall, within its area, but many of its near Glenridding (including much features are well maintained and industrial archaeology), or consid- interpreted for the public and school
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 87 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation parties by English Heritage (1997). reconstructed buildings. The The park has concentrated on University of York training landscape issues, linking art, excavation for British and European geography, history, and literacy in Union students (from school and programmes for keystages 2 and 3 universities as well as some mature which contain, to varying degrees, students) runs every summer, as does elements which are archaeological a credit-bearing field school for (Northumberland National Park overseas university students which 1999). has a wider remit (University of York Those sites owned by national 1999). The Castell Henllys training parks where research excavation and excavation is the largest of its kind interpretation have taken place have running in Britain at present, and that often been given particular attention is only possible because of the with regard to education. This has support given by Pembrokeshire been externally recognised in a Coast National Park. number of awards, such as the Virgin The Brecon Beacons archaeo- Award at the British Archaeological logist is himself running a small Awards, given for Castell Henllys in archaeological education project 1996, and the McGregor Award for linked primarily to keystage 2. This contribution to environmental edu- allows children of ages 5 and 6 to cation, given for the Gardom’s Edge participate in excavation and finds excavation in the Peak District in handling at an Elizabethan manor 1999. house, as well as study standing At Castell Henllys, investment has remains, the surrounding historic been on a significant scale, with a landscape, and documentary sources purpose-designed education centre (Brecon Beacons National Park (Anonymous 1994) and the 1999). The Snowdonia National provision of full-time and several Park archaeologist has directed part-time staff to allow a wide range of training excavations, largely aimed at schools to be taught through the the adult education market, which medium of either English or Welsh. have been conducted largely on Iron There is also a video and teaching Age industrial sites. pack (DCCED 1993). The main emphasis is on keystage 2, particularly Conclusion the history curriculum, but also offers There are many exciting initiatives links to a range of other curricula in national parks which involve (Mytum 1999a), and the experience activities beyond the core for school parties includes elements responsibilities of planning control, of role play, crafts, and study of the conservation, and encouraging
88 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation tourism. Interpretation of both wider private sponsors. Even if some such cultural landscapes and individual projects are inevitably temporary, sites has grown considerably during many have outcomes which can last the 1990s, and education pro- considerable periods of time. The grammes are now beginning to flagship projects, such as Royston include archaeological elements Grange and Castell Henllys, offer a where appropriate for the curricula. lead which others may follow if the With so many commitments, the commitment is there to seize national park archaeologists are torn opportunities as they present in many directions. But it is possible themselves. Despite renewed finan- to gain additional staff and promote cial pressures on recurrent funding, activities through opportunistic exciting times lie ahead for applications for funding from the archaeology within British national European Union, English or Welsh parks. government agencies, the lottery, and References Anonymous. 1994. A hand-made link to the Iron Age. The Architects’ Journal (6 July), 29-39. Berry, A. Q., and I. W. Brown, eds. 1994. Erosion on Archaeological Earthworks: Its Prevention, Control and Repair. Mold, Wales: Clwyd Archaeology Service. Brecon Beacons National Park. 1999. Web site:
Volume 16 ¥ Number 4 1999 89 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Note: Web addresses quoted above were all accessible during November 1999.
Harold Mytum, Department of Archaeology, University of York, The King’s Manor, York YO1 2EP, United Kingdom; [email protected]. 1
90 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Peter Fowler Miriam Harte The Genius of the Place: Managing a "Mini-National Park" at Bede's World \/Vv ede's World could well become part of a World Heritage Site early J) in the twenty-first century, but it is not a national park, nor does it y\ aspire to be one. It nevertheless shares much of the basic philosophy ) \ /y of national parks regarding purpose, objectives, and management, and finds inspiration in their existence and their doings. Bede's World is both a place and a where he spent the whole of his life project, not unambiguous as a project after early childhood became one of though a very small place compared sanctity and pilgrimage. with national parks: about 80 acres The small area of land encapsu (32 ha) all together. It is founded on lated by the name "Bede's World" the life and works of one man, the may look far removed from the char Venerable Bede, the genius of this acteristics of a national park, but it is place in what is now a markedly post- nevertheless precious to many— industrial landscape in northeast scholars, local communities, and England. His was the name above all distant pilgrims, for example. The associated with the fame of Jarrow in vision for its development and man the decades either side of AD 700. agement as a public place of educa Then the monastery which he tion and recreation is infused by served, founded by a royal grant of thinking similar to that of those in land in the Anglian Kingdom of volved in National Parks. We also Northumbria, lay at the heart of the believe that a few green acres tucked remarkable intellectual and artistic into a visually scarred and socially flowering conveniently known as deprived post-industrial landscape in "the Golden Age of Northumbria" the middle of tens of thousands of (Blair 1970, 1976; Bonner et ah people's homes may in its own way 1989; Hawkes 1996; Higham 1993). be as important a social asset as the Subsequently, Bede's reputation as protected, rural spaces in rural back scholar, saint, and commentator on pack country, by definition distant the Scriptures grew, and the place from the urban milieu.
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We appreciate, of course, that we active places of worship rather than cannot re-create the spiritual or in mere ancient monuments. Another tellectual worlds known to Bede, but one of them is the church of St. Pe believe we can justifiably attempt to ter, just 16 km (10 miles) to the effect, however impressionistically, south. Thirteen hundred years ago, aspects of a more tangible Bede's then overlooking the estuary of the world: his physical environment and River Wear, it was the focal point of some of its workings (Chippindale the original monastic foundation of a 1994, 7; Fowler 1999). That belief is two-part monastery. The second part in a way as much a matter of faith as was built a few years later at Jarrow, was the Abbot's, Benedict Biscop, Gyzvre, on a low-lying site overlook when he founded a monastery at Jar- ing extensive mud-flats where the row in AD 681. River Don met the Tyne. A new Benedictine monastery was The Site built at Jarrow in the twelfth century, Bede's World encompasses a and it is the ruins of that, overlying complex of buildings, land uses, ten the outlines of the archaeologically ures, and expectations. At its core, excavated Early Christian one physically and conceptually, is the (Cramp 1969), that are the obviously church of St. Paul where, marvel "old" part of Bede's World. The ru lously, the long tradition of Christian ins lie beside St. Paul's, a church to worship on this site continues. which they were physically and func- The nave is largely nineteenth tionallyjoined until the mid-sixteenth century, but it stands above the century, when the monastery was monastery's original basilican church dissolved. (Taylor and Taylor 1965, 338-49). In addition to history and religi Here the famous Jarrow lectures oc osity, a strong "green" element runs cur each May, continuing Bede's tra through the Bede's World concept dition of scholarship (Sherley-Price and its implementation. The River 1955). The north aisle contains an Don itself has been cleaned up and exhibition of sculpture from the landscaped. Along it, we are trying to Early Christian monastery. The recreate some of the former mud-flat chancel was originally a free-standing habitat attractive to wader birds. The chapel or small monastic church, extensive tidal mud-flats which Bede dated AD 681 by its extant original would have looked out on are now foundation stone. Plausibly, it is the filled in. Our efforts may be environ actual building in which Bede wor mental gesturism, but they have shipped. Few late-seventh-century helped recall the monastery's riverine buildings stand in Western Europe. connection from its harbour to the There are even fewer which are still sea, and the estuarine setting in
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which Bede worshipped and worked ranean and to Late Classical antiquity (Figure 1). in the architecture of the new mu The secular focal point lies 400 seum building knowingly renew this yards slightly uphill at Jarrow Hall, a link (Figure 3). late-eighteenth-century family house Landscape (Figure 1). This held the museum All such relative sophistication in until 1998, essentially to present re Bede's world would have been real sults from the monastic excavations. ised against the backcloth of the Significantly, its achievement came mundane daily life of an agrarian es about through co-operation—from tate; and so is it still, for at Gywre in the Church, local community, aca- the twenty-first century as in the sev demia, outside funding, and financial enth we are trying to run an "Anglo- and other support from the Local Saxon farm," not as a static stage-set Authority. Essentially, those compo but as a working "model" of what nents remain in place for the twenty- might once have been (Figure 4). It is first century. on heavily polluted land formerly Beside the Hall (Figure 2) a multi- serving various industrial functions, million-pound new museum building occupied into the 1980s by huge pet by architects Evans and Shalev rol storage tanks. Vast amounts of (Singmaster 1995, 30) opens in May soil were removed and replaced. The 2000, four years after Phase 1 (Figure specifically agrarian landscape was 3) was opened in May 1995. This conceived in 1991, mechanically indoor part of the "Museum of Early shaped in 1992 and 1993, and Medieval Northumbria" presents not planted up in 1993 with mainly de just the monastic excavations prop ciduous hardwoods (attested as ex erly for the first time but also acts as a isting before AD 700 in northern display case for an important phase of England). By ca. 2025 the landscape English history which at the moment with its trees and artificial stream does not benefit from a major pres should look as if it is a farmed valley entation in a professional museum in where the fields have been cleared the region. New to many will be out of woodland. Already the setting Northumbria in its European con looks old and the stream entirely text, focusing on the journeys of natural as its babbles its way through Benedict and Wilfred between Eng modern but historically authentic land and Rome. This was their es (planted) meadow flora into its "An sential prelude to the foundation of glo-Saxon" pond, now with unin Jarrow-Monkwearmouth monastery vited but very welcome wildlife (Fig as a modern establishment up-to-date ure 4). in its architecture, facilities, and lit The concept was based on a urgy. The references to the Mediter familiar archaeological landscape
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Figure 1. Plan of Gywre, the "Anglo-Saxon farm," showing Jarrow Hall and Phase 1 of the new museum building with, to their north, "pre-medieval" fields on an axial lay-out, standing oaks (cog-wheel symbol), a stream and pond, the sites of the four experimental buildings (a = Thirlings A, b = New Bewick grubenhaus, c = Hartlepool monastic "cell," d = Yeavering hall), and a "Bronze Age" burial mound, all high above the mud-flats of the tidal River Don flowing northwards to the Tyne.
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Figure 2. Careful design and landscaping has brought about a visually interesting juxtaposition between, centre, the "old," Jarrow Hall, now (May 1999) a restaurant, offices, archive, and library, and, left, the pergola fronting the neo classical entrance to the new museum building. model in corporating ideas of demonstrably existing as relics in a palimpsest, succession, survival, Northumbrian landscape of ca. AD rupture, and continuity. Its design 700 (Figure 1; Fowler and Mills, in also had to bear in mind that this new press). There are no problems of and contrived landscape has to archaeological reference points for "work" in the late twentieth century such landscape detail. Documentary and beyond as an Anglo-Saxon farm, evidence is brought into play too. an educational resource, and a tourist attraction. The constructed Anglo- The pond and its adjacent ford, Saxon landscape therefore had for example, lead to discussion of the features built into it from prehistoric topographical detail in Anglo-Saxon and Roman times of the sort land charters.
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Figure 3. The atrium, the main feature of the entrance into the new museum building, is, in Mediterranean mode, open to the skies above its mosaic-lined pool. To some, a near-pure statement of Classicism creating a place of quiet and contemplation; to others, a waste of space and money badly needing to be "useful."
Buildings erate on a site which is open to the We have also constructed build public throughout the year and ings: practical ones which we have to which must comply with several have as farmers, and experimental statutory requirements concerning ones for scientific and tourism pur access, safety, and animal welfare. poses (Figures 4, 5, and 6). With the We also have to generate revenue. latter, we build from primary evi Some basics are nevertheless quite dence and first principles, knowing clear in our construction work. We that our work will at best produce a began by relating to the concept of model that may or may not "work." "authenticity." That continues: but We are constrained by having to op now "honesty" rather than just
96 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation authenticity is the key word, that is, modern steel-framed, breeze-block being able not just to quote a refer buildings which, complete with elec ence hut also to explain and be frank tricity, are necessary to meet our in interpretation and open in pres statutory obligations as keeper of entation. animals (Figure 4). Interpretation of So far three buildings are properly them for visitors states that the experimental, though some of the buildings have been made to look ostensibly modern buildings serve an appropriate but are neither authentic interpretative purpose. We have nor experimental; and people seem to carefully disguised with clap-hoard appreciate such honesty. ing and thatch, for example, two The three experimental Anglo-
Figure 4. The "Anglo-Saxon landscape" in 1999 looking south from the rush-edged pond towards the first part of the new museum building and the second part, left, under construction, with the chimneys of Jarrow Hall beyond. The unenclosed ground to the right is arable for cereal crops. The sheds, centre left, both modern and non-experimental, are respectively a pig-sty and work-shop; that to the right is a byre in a post-and-pole enclosure for the Dexter cattle (see Figure 8). All the hurdling is used in genuine animal control, but the anachronistic rope barrier and sign are statutory requirements for modern humans.
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Figure 5. Gywre in summer 1999, with home-made hurdling, genuine stream-side flora originating in 1993, and statutorily necessary modern stock buildings of "Anglo-Saxon" appearance and proportions, visually dominated by a very tall pylon and power line.
Saxon buildings are based on exca such resources as would have been vated ground plans of a hall-house available to an Anglo-Saxon estate (Figure 6), a grubenhaiis (sunken- owner (Fowler and Mills, in press). featured building), and a monastic We learnt early on that such re "cell" (Figure 7). The experiment so sources would have included skills in far is limited to putting them up in long-term silvicultural management, controlled circumstances, and re for straight timbers 3 m long and 40 flects the hard reality of 1:1 experi cm in diameter—our specifications ment. An enormous amount of work, from the archaeological evi material, and skill is needed to do dence—don't just grow on trees! In anything "for real"; and Bede's other words, we had some difficulty World simply does not command in sourcing our requirements. At
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1999 prices, our "Anglian hall" (Gates and O'Brien 1988), cost about (O'Brien and Miket 1991), a not-so- £7,000. Our experience suggests simple four-bay timber building, cost such buildings could be knocked up about £60,000, the price-range of a relatively cheaply and quickly with small, but new, three-bedroom house out the need for great skill or access in Tyneside today. In contrast, our to specialist resources. Perhaps that grubenhaiis, based on the archaeo is why archaeologically they are so logical evidence at New Bewick common.
Figure 6. Thirlings A: the completed building experimentally constructed on a ground plan of ca. AD 600 recovered from an archaeological excavation. Everything above ground level is, at best, sound inference; at worst, probably wrong. Practically every detail about the nearer gable, for example, is controversial except the spacing of the vertical oak posts. The proposed Yeavering hall will enclose some three times the floor area of this building. The cross in the background is a modern sculpture inspired by Northumbrian crosses of Bede's world and later.
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Figure 7. Site signage on the Anglo-Saxon farm: clear, short, informative, up-to- date, flimsy, cheap, temporary, and easily changed at the press of a few keys on an in-house desk-top computer.
The third building is based on construction scheduled to continue one from the monastic settlement on during 2000-2001. the headland at Hartlepool (Figure 7; Management Daniels 1988). We now have the ex Our corporate aspirations are perience, the confidence and, re somewhat dryly expressed in our markably, the money to proceed mission statement: much quicker than expected to at The purpose for which the Company tempt our long-term ambition to [Jarrow 700 AD Ltd] is established is to erect a building based on the ground protect, preserve and improve for the plan of one of the large halls at the benefit of the public the Church of St. royal site of Yeavering (Hope-Taylor Paul's, Jarrow, Bede's World, and the monastic remains and other historical 1977; Building A4). This project is and vernacular buildings in the vicinity in the planning stage (July 1999) with and to plan, develop, maintain, manage
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Figure 8. Bede's World traction-power: three Dexter cattle resting between regular stints of training to pull farm implements. Though genetically inauthentic for Anglo-Saxon stock, they are of appropriate size and proportions as indicated by archaeologically excavated cattle bones. and improve the surrounding area as a Fowler). This has delegated execu centre of historical, religious, educa tional and cultural importance with a tive responsibility to a small execu view to fostering public awareness, tive committee, both are advised by understanding and appreciation of the an estate committee, which also has life, times and works of the Venerable delegated powers within board poli Bede. cies, and several panels covering It is very much in the spirit of our various specialist areas such as edu own times that such a mission is pur cation, community liaison and muse- sued in partnership with others, and ological and academic matters. Other through marketing as much as ad hoc mechanisms are set up and through high ideals. dispersed as appropriate, e.g., to deal We are a small organisation. with the concept and design of the Eighteen trustees form the board of new museum exhibition with con directors under a chairman (Peter sultants in 1999. Apart from the
Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 101 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation board and executive, all the other and a very sound base, but how we groups include non-trustees, so our deliver that vision and manage the "management constituency" directly many elements to it must constantly includes several dozen people be challenged and cjuestioned. Bede's bringing a wide range of expertise World is compounded of healthy and interests. There is considerable tension, and must thrive on it or die. interaction between these honorary The physical management of the managers and the 16 staff, and be diverse elements of the site, and spe tween both and various consultants, cifically the farm, is itself challenging. all guided by the single, full-time We are daily (and nocturnally) con professional director (Miriam Harte). cerned about the safety and security Running a place while developing of the site and the physical well-being a concept like Bede's World is a ma of staff, visitors, and animals. The jor balancing act. Balancing the site is exposed, petty crime is com books is an obvious necessity, not mon in the neighbourhood, there are least because we are a registered on-site hazards (e.g., open water; charity as well as a business and we Figure 4), and staffing is thin. On the have to earn to exist. We have not yet other hand, if everything was behind grown sufficiently to attain critical fences and ropes, how can we hope mass, yet are already effectively the to give people the experience of a recipient of several millions pounds seventh-century landscape? Indeed, sterling of capital investment. The how should we interpret the site? next three years are critical finan One way is to let them simply absorb cially, as returns on that investment it, but will they have enough knowl must become apparent, not least to edge to appreciate what they are our many backers and the public. We looking at? To what extent should are not, however, going to dwell fur we seek to involve people actively? ther here on the purely financial as Or do we use signs that again can so pects of our operation, though any easily be inappropriate (cf. Figure 4) reader must be as aware as we are and permanent? Information points that the bottom line really counts. tend to result in erosion hollows. We The balancing act is very much have received considerable profes concerned with the conflicting de sional criticism for our style of on- mands, needs, requirements, objec site interpretation that is based on tives, priorities, and expectations of the principle of being non-intrusive our many constituents. We know that and easily (and cheaply) replaced basically there is no one single tem (Figure 7); but things change on a plate for success, apart from constant farm, seasonally, daily, and we wish change and self-analysis. We firmly to share these changes with our visi believe that we have a strong vision tors.
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The best form of interpretation, how something would (or could) perhaps especially here with a com have been clone as part of the inter plex and intellectually quite de pretation, while keeping the site manding experience to hand, is un looking its best by developing and doubtedly guiding. This is, however, working as efficiently as possible with a very labour-intensive option, and the available workers. If we were to we have neither the staff nor the ap go indiscriminately in this direction, propriately trained volunteers to of course, we would deservedly lose maintain such a facility every day. our credibility as a place of academic Nor have we yet been able to afford study, research, education, and reli audio guides. They could be ideal able interpretation. The trick—and it over the whole site, and we are has to be a trick—is to sharply define watching technical—and cost— specific activities that are kept developments carefully. We are very "clean" (some aspects of the crop struck not only by the efficacy of the management and timber building, for "wands" now provided at Stone- example) while we explain and are henge, for example, but also by their honest about the rest. remarkable effect on visitor behav Every day, within the context of iour. the "big dilemmas" of the sort out Another physical conflict on our lined above, small incidents raise sig site is how to do all the work basic to nificant issues. Recently, for exam an agrarian life-style while using ple, a group of visitors had been authentic methods—methods based booked in and catered for, but be on a large, local, mainly free labour cause they spent two hours on the force that would have been available farm, they had no time to go to the to Anglo-Saxon estate owners. And cafe. Should we be upset by the fact while we try to do our best in labour- that this group was so enthralled by intensive activities like daub-produc the farm that its members did not tion (Figure 6) and trying to plough spend any money in the cafe? As nar clayland with a small wooden ard and row-minded "business managers" the two recalcitrant cattle (Figure 8), we answer is probably "yes," for we lost simultaneously must ensure our em out financially on that visit; but in the ployees' and volunteers' health and wider context of what Bede's World safety. We have to compromise, for is actually about, we can but be glad example, by using a string-trimmer about our visitors' interest and hope on a day when we are closed to the that this might translate into a return public. Provided a process is not part visit. of our serious experimentation, The very diversity of the site af managerially we conclude that the fects visitor management. Our ideal important thing is to demonstrate visitor would arrive by public trans-
Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 103 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation port at 10 AM, visit the church, enjoy sense and promulgate the "genius" of a coffee, visit the museum, break for a the place, while enjoying with our bought-lunch in our excellent restau neighbours a sense of locality. rant, then spend a couple of hours on All that said, our major difficulty is the farm before buying some high- in attracting people to Jarrow. Once quality souvenirs and books in the we manage to entice the visitor in shop, relax over tea and cake, and (which is our key need—to attract finally leave in late afternoon (the new audiences), our objective must order indicated may be adjusted to be to keep them as long as possible taste!). Only a minority attain this and make sure they leave with a status of ideal visitor, for few come burning desire to come back soon with sufficient time allowance for the (bringing their friends), maybe to whole experience (which minimally check progress on a pet project on now needs half a day and can easily the farm, or to come to a special lec absorb six hours). But all our evi ture or exhibition that they saw ad dence is that most people are enthu vertised when they visited. They siastic once they get over the major should also leave having signed up as hurdle (physically and "information- a Friend, if not a volunteer! That ally") of getting to Bede's World in should be our ambition for every the first place. visitor, with special emphasis on We know the mantra of "Loca family tickets for example. We must tion, location, location": our dilemma ensure that every element of the site is that the area around St. Paul's is making this a high-quality, enjoy church is the only possible location able experience, whatever the needs, for Bede's World, yet it is almost the knowledge, and aspirations of the very last place anyone would deliber visitor. ately attempt to realise the sort of The delivery of this high-quality project in which we are involved. experience is entirely dependent on The word "Jarrow" unfortunately the people the visitor meets at every does not immediately spring to mind point in his or her journey, whether when thinking of an enjoyable day they be staff or volunteers. Finding, out or of the great cultural icons of developing, keeping and motivating our age. Grand Canyon, Taj Mahal, high-quality staff is a major challenge Stonehenge, Jarrow; no, it does not for an organisation such as this, but quite ring true—yet. Nevertheless, entirely possible. We do not have Bede's World is very consciously one many of the tools of big and rich or item in a "cultural renaissance" being ganisations, such as good pay, long- encouraged along the Tyne. Fur term career development, travel, and thermore, because we are actually in bonuses, but what everyone can have the only possible location, we can is a sense of self-worth, respect for
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knowledge and expertise, pride in The biggest balancing act of all is their service to their customers, and a how to allocate scarce resources, recognition that others are relying on people, and money among all the them. We have to try to be creative in different activities on the site. Who "enhancing" jobs with things other should take priority? We have to ask than money, such as training oppor ourselves, "What would make the tunities and involvement on a special single biggest difference to the visitor project, and chances to give new in in the long term?" We agree about sights and broaden their experience. the question and about the need to An example of the constant ques ask it, but we each have different an tioning and re-interpretation of our swers. Bede's World, as we said, will vision that is needed would be our thrive on ideas and tension. education programme. Education is East across the Don is a vast park for at the core of Bede's World's phi the products of a Nissan car factory. losophy and its activities; it has al South from the church is a large ways been a key strength, we have commercial timber yard. Our neigh always been good at it, knowing what bour on the northwest is a Shell pet we were doing (Fowler 1999). Our rol storage facility with large, round, education service's purpose is "to above-ground tanks. On the north, support the mission of Jarrow 700 AD between our boundary and the Tyne, Ltd by promoting and developing is a marine works, and the whole site Bede's World as an educational cen is straddled by electricity supply ca tre for the study and appreciation of bles (Figure 5). It is difficult to ig the life, times and works of the Ven nore this environment; and we do erable Bede." That includes provi not, for we are part of it. Were it not sion of educational input to museum that this whole area is in a post-in displays, exhibitions, historic recon dustrial phase, with high unemploy structions, publications, and interac ment as labour-intensive work has tive learning developments. Now we ceased, the sort of government and must look to our strengths, examine European money on which Bede's needs and unmet demands, and de World has been initiated would not velop programmes that will fulfil have been available. The fact that them. If we just continue to do what Bede's World developed where it is we have always done, we will fail. in the 1990s is because the opportu Education must be totally re-in nity to do so is itself a post-industrial vented. phenomenon.
Acknowledgments Our considerable debt is to all who are helping develop Bede's World.
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References Blair, P. H. 1970. The World ofBcde. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . 1976. Northumbria in the Days ofBcde. London: Gollancz. Bonner, G., et al., eds. 1989. St. Cuthbcrt: His Cult and His Community to AD 1200. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press. Chippindale, C. 1994. Editorial. Antiquity 68, 6-9. Cramp, R. 1969. Excavations at the Saxon monastic sites of Wearmouth and Jarrow, Co. Durham: An interim report. Medieval Archaeology 13, 21-66. Daniels, R. 1988. The Anglo-Saxon monastery at Church Close, Hartlepool, Cleveland. Archaeological Journal 145, 158-210. Fowler, P. 1997. Farming in early medieval England: Some fields for thought. Pp. 245-268 in The Anglo-Saxons from the Migration Period to the Eighth Century. An Ethnographic Perspective, J. Flines, ed. Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press. . 1999. Bede's World, UK: The monk who made history. Pp. 245-257 in Tlic Constructed Past: Experimental Archaeology, Education and the Public, P. G. Stone and P. G. Planel, eds. London: Routledge. Fowler, P., and S. Mills. In press. An early medieval landscape at Bede's World: A late 20th century creation with 7th century fields and buildings. Gates, T., and C. O'Brien C. 1988. Cropmarks at Milfield and New Bewick and the recognition ofgrubenhauserin Northumberland. Archaeologia Acliana 5 16, 1-9. Hawkes, J. 1996. The Golden Age of Northumbria. Warkworth, Northumberland: Sandhill Press. Higham, N. 1993. The Kingdom of Northumbria, AD 350-1100. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Alan Sutton. Hope-Taylor, B. 1977. Yeavering: An Anglo-British Centre of Early Northumbria. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. O'Brien, C, and R. Miket. 1991. The Early Medieval settlement of Thirlings, Northumberland. Durham Archaeological Journal 7, 57-91. Sherley-Price, L. 1955. Bede: A History of the English Church and People. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Singmaster, D. 1995. Museum dedicated to the life of the Venerable Bede. The Architects' Journal (June), 30. Taylor H. M., and J. Taylor. 1965. Anglo-Saxon Architecture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Peter Fowler and Miriam Harte, Bede's World, Church Bank, Jarrow, Tyne and Wear NE32 3DY, United Kingdom; [email protected]
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Marion Blockley
Developing a Management Plan for the Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage Site
\s s>v y the end of the eighteenth century, Coalbrookdale in Shropshire J) was famous. It had one of the largest ironworks in England—an en- ^Nterprise symbolized by the renowned Iron Bridge, the first such JJL U structure ever built on a large scale (Figure 1). Abraham Darby's Coalbrookdale Company pioneered the mass production of iron following the breakthrough in coke smelting in 1709. The ironmasters of the East Shrop shire Coalfield went on to make the first iron wheels, rails, boat, aqueduct, and steam locomotive, as well as early steam cylinders. The great Iron Bridge was a key step in the use of iron in construction, and has become a universal symbol of the Industrial Revolution. Other industries, based on locally sour- ced materials, an industrialised working population, an advantageous trans port network, and local entrepreneurs, also prospered. Coalport China (Fig ure 2) and decorative tile ware in particular gained an international reputa tion.
Figure 1. The Ironbridge reflected in the River Severn. The bridge is currently swathed in scaffolding for a repaint. The Institute is using the opportunity for a detailed survey and record of the structure.
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Figure 2. Bottle kilns at the former Coaiport China Works, now a museum. Part of the site has been converted into a youth hostel for visiting school groups. This site illustrates the difficulties of physical access to historic buildings. The circular footings of the middle kiln raise the debate over restoration and reconstruction of historic monuments.
But this prosperity gradually the Ironbridge Gorge Museum ebbed away, and so did the popula Trust. Other buildings and areas tion. As people moved away to find were protected under the powers of new jobs, buildings fell into disre the planning acts. pair. By the time the New Town In 1986, the international impor (later to be named Telford) was cre tance of the area was recognised by ated in 1963, the Ironbridge Gorge UNESCO through its designation as had become an industrial backwater, a cultural World Heritage Site. This but many monuments to early in followed a nomination by the U.K. dustry survived. From the late government, which is a party to the 1960s, the furnaces and other major World Heritage Convention. This industrial archaeological sites were provides for the identification, pro directly protected and managed by tection, conservation, and presenta-
108 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation tion of cultural and natural sites of the first time a unified framework for outstanding universal value. management of this unique asset. A prerequisite for World Heritage status is the existence of effective le A management plan is also needed gal protection and the establishment to satisfy the U.K.'s obligations un of a management plan to ensure the der the World Heritage Convention. site's conservation and presentation. UNESCO, through its subsidiary In the U.K., legal protection is bodies, the International Centre for achieved through controls such as the Study of the Preservation and the listing of buildings and schedul Restoration of Cultural Property ing of ancient monuments, the estab (ICCROM), and the International lishment of conservation areas, and Council on Monuments and Sites by the outstanding international im (ICOMOS), has produced a set of portance of the site being taken into management guidelines for cultural account as a key consideration by World Heritage Sites. These guide local planning authorities. A man lines stress the importance of long- agement plan enables all the agencies and short-term management plans to involved with the World Heritage resolve conflicts and protect the Site to co-ordinate their activities and cultural value of each site. The or helps ensure that the site is managed ganisation of the Ironbridge Gorge to the highest possible standards. management plan reflects the guide lines published by UNESCO. The Need for a Management Plan It is intended that the manage The Ironbridge Gorge today is a ment plan will provide an overall scenic cultural landscape, but its framework of objectives and actions former industrial character has been for the site, but it is not in itself a concealed by the natural regenera statutory document. It does not tion of the landscape. The tenure of confer any new powers; it can only the land is complex: the Gorge has advise, inform, and promote. Each an existing residential community of individual agency has its own set of over 3,500, and receives 800,000 aims and priorities, but it is intended visitors annually. The management that the plan will help to foster effec plan is intended to guide the long- tive partnerships (Table 1) to make and short-term management of this best use of scarce resources. The complex landscape. It will be a management plan can only operate working document that will com with the direct support and co-op plement the existing programmes of eration of all the agencies, and of the the responsible agencies, and foster many individual residents and users partnership work by establishing for of the site.
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Table 1. Key partners in the development of the Ironbridge Gorge management plan
Telford 8c Wrekin Council Local planning authorities Shropshire County Council Bridgnorth District Council English Heritage Advisor to the government on heritage policy Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust Established 1968; manages most of the key industrial monuments Severn Gorge Countiyside Trust Established 1991; owns and manages most of the countryside throughout the World Heritage Site Ironbridge Institute University of Birmingham Environment Agency Department of Culture, Media and Sport ICOMOS UK
The aim of the management plan • Encourage the integration of dif is to: ferent agencies' management and • Express the special significance maintenance programmes set of the Ironbridge Gorge World clear objectives and high stan Heritage Site; dards of management for future • Encourage public discussion and action in the World Heritage commitment; Site; and • Balance the many and varied in • Establish a context for research, terests and pressures in the funding, and bidding. Gorge; To fulfil this brief, a number of • Establish a clear and sustainable task groups were set up to look at framework for the future man themes and areas of work identified agement of the World Heritage by the inter-agency group as impor Site; tant to developing a management • Coordinate existing policies for strategy for the Gorge. Officers from the conservation and manage different agencies worked together ment of the World Heritage Site, and produced a series of short re and review and widen their ports. These working papers pro scope as necessary; vided a framework within which the
110 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation core team could develop ideas and about the upkeep of buildings within strategies. There has been a large the World Heritage Site and about amount of source material for the the key role played by the bridges core team to draw on in the prepara over the river in linking communities tion of the plan. The material covers throughout the Gorge. Many people a broad range of subjects, including felt that to facilitate good decisions archaeology and historical develop about the management of the World ment, planning and transport policy, Heritage Site, all those who work woodland and countryside manage and live in the Gorge should have ment, and ecology, and reports on access to the fullest information. A tourism and land instability. key aim of the management plan is to In June 1997, a consultation both inform and involve the local document was published. Based on community. The lead agencies have key issues that reflected the areas signed up to: where damage to the special qualities • Conserve the industrial heritage of the World Heritage Site could oc in its distinctive semi-natural cur, the Ironbridge Gorge Initiative landscape; also highlighted the commitment to • Interpret it as a whole for a wide partnership working between the public; agencies. A copy was circulated to • Contribute actively to the eco every home in the Gorge, to all the nomic, social, and environmental Friends of the Museum, and was quality of a diverse community; publicised widely. Three hundred • Work together to achieve high pre-paid responses were received; standards; 89% of respondents fully supported the stated aims and actions. • Protect the heritage while en suring that, wherever possible, it The content of the first draft of remains accessible to all; and the management plan is based on the • Actively engage people and consensus achieved by the key man agencies in the management of aging agencies in producing the the Gorge for present and future Ironbridge Gorge Initiative, and re generations. flects the priorities and issues ex pressed during the consultation. The Statement of Significance consultation responses endorsed the —World Heritage Values proposal that there must be a more The identification of the Iron- integrated approach to management bridge Gorge as a site of cultural sig of the World Heritage Site. Trans nificance forms the raison d'etre of port-related issues were high on the the management plan. To ensure that agenda of respondents. Local resi the special value of the site is not di dents were particularly concerned minished, there must be an under-
Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 111 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation standing of why the site needs careful Industrial Revolution for the stewardship and management many thousands of visitors who through the implementation of a are attracted to the area each management plan. The Ironbridge year. Gorge was inscribed as a World Re-assessing Values Heritage Site in 1986. UNESCO Since the inscription of the Iron- measured the Gorge against six crite bridge Gorge as a World Heritage ria that assessed the universal signifi Site, appreciation of its importance cance and cultural importance of the has evolved. Whilst the above rea area. These were identified as com sons for designation have retained pelling reasons for its designation their force, it is the total landscape under four of the criteria: and what it contains and represents • The discovery of coke iron in that is now seen increasingly as its 1709 by Abraham Darby, and singular distinguishing feature. The the first successful large-scale Gorge is a unique landscape of sites structural use of cast iron in the and monuments, buildings and Iron Bridge of 1779, are master spaces, woodlands and open land, pieces of creative genius. which together manifest the proc • The techniques embodied in esses of industrialisation in Britain these advances had worldwide and worldwide. application and were of consid Although the Gorge must be erable international influence in viewed as a whole, it is possible to the growth of industrialisation. discern three principal dimensions • The physical evidence of the that underpin its significance: its in historical evolution of mining, dustrial archaeological resource, its manufacturing processes, trans historic character, and its natural en port networks, and social proc vironment. esses that are so much a part of The industrial archaeological the existing fabric provide a fas resource. Specific technical innova cinating summary of the devel tions that occurred within the Gorge opment of an industrial region in relate particularly to the iron indus modern times. try, but other innovations found • The dramatic topography and more general application, such as the landscape, the river, the distinc pioneering application of the steam tive form and pattern of the set engine. With its vital geological coin tlements, and the presence of in cidence of high-quality coal, iron dustrial monuments such as the stone, and clay, the Gorge also con Iron Bridge, combine to act as a tains important mining remains. The world-renowned symbol of the Iron Bridge itself stands as a power-
112 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation ful symbol of the innovative spirit retains its own identity reflecting its fostered in the area. Many of the specific historical experience. products of the Gorge were of con The natural environment. The siderable artistic quality, whilst nature conservation value of the some, such as ceramic tiles and espe World Heritage Site woods and open cially Coalport china, achieved inter spaces is significant and is strength national fame. Together, the buried ened by their overall size and diver remains and standing historic build sity. Several nationally designated ings and surviving products docu sites of special scientific interest ment the evolution of the Gorge from (SSSIs) and numerous locally desig the sparsely populated mining area of nated wildlife sites are present. An the seventeenth century to the mixed cient semi-natural woodland and residential, manufacturing, retail, woodland on ancient sites are par and recreational functions of today. ticularly important in the World The historic character. The Heritage Site. Many important non- combination of history, building woodland habitats are also present, materials, form and pattern of the including valuable grasslands and buildings, layout of roads and tracks, heathland. The River Severn itself and the relationship of the buildings continues to play a major role in the and routes to the river and to areas of local environment—it remains a rela open space and woodlands gives the tively "natural" river, and is a prime Gorge a special historic character. wildlife site throughout its length. This historic fabric and the docu The ICOMOS-ICCROM guid mentation of the activities in the area ance suggests that the significance of stand as a very significant resource in each World Heritage Site creates im illustrating the effects of industriali portant "cultural values" for the pre sation on social behaviour, values, sent day which need careful steward and structures. Continuity of use, ship and management. These values with frequent adaptations but little have both a historical and contempo wholesale renewal, is a recurring rary dimension. feature in the Gorge. It has resulted in the survival of a high proportion of Historical Continuity the original building fabric, and there Historical identity. The Gorge are currently seven scheduled an has a clear identity as the "Birthplace cient monuments and 406 listed of Industry." Its pioneering role in buildings within the World Heritage iron production and industrialisation Site. No one character dominates in is internationally recognised. The the diverse built landscape of the Iron Bridge itself is the supreme World Heritage Site and each area symbol of the Industrial Revolution.
Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 113 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Archaeological richness. The visitor attraction in the region, at evidence contained within the land tracting over half a million visitors scape of the Gorge for the origins each year. It is estimated that the per and development of ironworking and annum direct and indirect economic subsequently for wider industrialisa impact of the visitors amounts to tion is unrivalled. The survival of 1,500 full- and part-time jobs and comprehensive documentation en £20 million spent within the Wrekin hances the importance of the remains District alone. The identity of the by providing a source for study that Gorge as the "Birthplace of Indus is complementary to the physical re try" provides a significant marketing source. advantage, with local industry and Rare character. The combination services playing an important role in of history; the form and pattern of the life of the community. the settlements; the dramatic topog Educational value. Of the raphy and river landscape; the local 256,000 visitors to the Ironbridge vernacular in building forms and Gorge Museums in 1998, 60,000 materials; the relationship of build were part of formal school groups. ings to the river, open spaces, and The infrastructure provided by the woodlands; and the intricate network Ironbridge Gorge Museum for re of paths and roads gives the Gorge a ceiving educational groups is a key special character. It is a unique cul aspect of the contemporary impor tural landscape which has survived tance of the Gorge. The informal virtually intact and as such has a rare educative and learning experiences and irreplaceable value. provided by visiting the area are also of immense value, with the wider Modern Relevance ecological wealth of the area as sig Community roots. The history, nificant as the historical associations. topography, and community life of the Gorge give the area a clear sense Ownership of place and a very strong identity. The World Heritage Site cannot This identity is appreciated locally be managed by one agency alone; for the sense of community and be each has certain clear ownership and longing that it fosters, and is an im management responsibilities. To portant anchor in the evolving new date ,there has been no overall inte town and the ever-changing contem grated plan for the Ironbridge Gorge. porary world. The management plan The local planning authority devel will seek to underpin the vitality of opment plan remains the statutory this living community. planning framework for the area. The Economic potential. The heri Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust is tage of the Gorge is the foremost drawing up a series of conservation
114 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation plans for the individual sites within ued economic vitality of the area is its ownership to ensure that each the most realistic way of assuring the monument and site is managed in a resources needed to address the four way that respects its special signifi key issues. The successful regenera cance and setting. The Severn Gorge tion of the Gorge over the past 30 Countryside Trust owns large areas years illustrates that continuing eco of wooded slopes and grassland. It, nomic development can be sustain too, is building its own portfolio of able whilst preserving and enhancing management plans for these natural the special qualities of the World sites. There are, of course, numerous Heritage Site. other commercial and domestic property owners who have repaired Preservation of Character and maintained historic buildings Character is a combination of to and sites, and therefore have a con pography, landscape, social history tribution to make in the management and environment, with present-day of the World Heritage Site. But the uses and communities that gives a scale and significance of this con place its sense of identity. There has centration of land owned and man been a hugely successful programme aged by public or charitable organi of renovation and restoration of his sations is notable. toric structures in the Gorge over the In an area as complex as the past 30 years, and the character of Gorge, there are many issues to be the Gorge today has a vitality that reconciled. One of the task groups was lacking then. It is not only an devised key issues for the preserva attractive place to live, but is a place tion of the significance of the World of manufacture and commerce, as Heritage Site. These four issues—the well as an attractive recreational cen preservation of character, visitor tre for local inhabitants and visitors. management and access, land insta However, despite statutory protec bility, and management of the rivers tion, there is pressure for change and their banks—formed the back through small-scale alterations and bone of the priorities listed in the inappropriate modernisation. There Ironbridge Gorge Initiative. The are also important historic sites at the content of that document was agreed heart of the World Heritage Site that by consensus amongst those organi remain semi-derelict, most notably at sations forming the strategy group, the former tile works in Jackfield, and and endorsed by the public consul areas of neglected woodland and riv- tation exercise. Although the Heri erbanks. An over-managed or "tidy tage Lottery Fund and European ing up" approach to enhancement, Structural Funds present new op and "over-development," would portunities for funding, the contin both change the special character of
Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 115 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation the area and inhibit the natural re programmes needed to implement generation process. Recording and the management plan. understanding the resource will en The Ironbridge Gorge Initiative sure that informed decisions are document sets out the following made and that the values of the aims: to conserve the industrial heri World Heritage Site are protected. tage in its distinctive, semi-natural landscape; to interpret it as a whole Visitor Management and Access for a wide public; and to contribute The tourist business is estimated to the economic and social life of a to contribute in excess of £11 million diverse community. In order to a year to the local economy in the achieve these aims and address the Gorge, and has been a major factor in issues that have been listed, 18 ob attracting the resources needed for jectives have been identified (see Ta regeneration and conservation work. ble 2). But the environment has an intrinsic Implementing the Plan value that transcends present-day The plan is a strategic document. tourism needs. Tourism creates It will advise and influence the man pressures for change through the agement of the World Heritage Site need for physical access to sites and as a whole, whilst site managers are landscape, the need to explain and developing individual site manage present the heritage for the benefit of ment plans. These will show how, at all, and through the demands of a detailed level, sites can be managed transport, particularly parking and within the strategic objectives of the road improvements (Figures 3 and overall management plan. 4). The eighteen objectives identified above deal with real needs and pri The Framework for Managing orities that are necessary for long- the World Heritage Site term conservation. The implementa UNESCO guidelines on man tion of these objectives will be agement plans for World Heritage achieved through the ongoing work Sites advise that the plan should be of the agencies, as individual organi based on a 30-year time span, with zations and as partners, and the medium- and short-term objectives commitment of local people who live contained within the long-term strat and work in the Gorge. Their "own egy. The objectives set out here fol ership" of the plan and an acceptance low on from the description and of the values that make the area spe identification of key issues in the cial is essential to its success. Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage The partnership arrangement, at Site. The objectives are linked to an present an informal agreement be action plan that sets out projects and tween the agencies, can be used to
116 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Table 2. Objectives of Ironbridge Gorge Initiative
To conserve the industrial heritage in its distinctive semi-natural landscape:
1. Protect, maintain, conserve, and, where appropriate, enhance the built and natural heritage of the World Heritage Site and its setting. 2. Establish detailed policies and programmes of action, which will he reviewed annually. 3. Keep all designations under review by the appropriate authority to ensure that the most appro priate level of statutory and planning protection is in place. 4. Complete an analysis of the special character of built and natural heritage to inform future pol icy- and decision-making. 5. Establish practical indicators to monitor change. 6. Agree a code of practice for environmental maintenance, and foster locally the traditional craft skills needed to implement high quality projects. 7. Expand the scope of the existing visitor management strategy, and encourage appreciation of the wider environment. S. Review the transportation strategy, including provision for pedestrians and the increasing age of visitors, and identify priorities in the local transport plan. 9. Review residents' parking problems. 10. Devise a risk management strategy for coping with natural erosion and land instability. 11. Agree a management and interpretation strategy for the riverbanks and water courses. 12. Assess the condition and use of the existing bridges across the River Severn, and any long-term need for an additional foot or cycle crossing.
To interpret it as a whole for a wide public:
13. Encourage the establishment of a programme of archaeological research into the historic land scape of the Gorge and its environs, and make the results widely available. 14. Develop an integrated approach to interpreting the historic landscape. 15. Make use of emerging technologies to provide access to information and knowledge for visitors and local communities alike.
To contribute to the economic and social life of a diverse community:
16. Promote social and economic regeneration in and around the World Heritage Site that benefits the local residential and working community and enhances the environment. 17. Celebrate the local distinctiveness of the settlements and communities in the Gorge, and recog nise this in the implementation of all types of projects. 18. Further involve the community in the development and implementation of the management plan and its objectives. coordinate projects to achieve maxi schemes. It will mean more initiatives mum impact. Partnerships bring can happen at once with greater im benefits which include access to a pact, and it gives lobbying power for wider range of funding sources and the needs of the World Heritage Site. increased chances of securing suc The plan will have the support of cessful bids to the Heritage Lottery other organizations such as ICO- Fund and other discretionary MOS and the Department of Cul-
Volume 16 •Number 4 1999 117 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation
Figure 3. The Park and Ride bus scheme in the centre of Ironbridge has been only partially successful as a visitor management tool. Families with pushchairs and the less mobile find it difficult to use the buses and are reluctant to give up their cars.
Figure 4. More traditional forms of transport for carrying visitors around the Blists Hill Open Air Museum of relocated historic buildings. This museum is the main visitor attraction in the World Heritage Site.
118 The George Wright FORUM Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation ture, Media and Sport. If the secre The World Heritage Site strategy tary of state is happy with the plan, group will continue to oversee the he will submit it to UNESCO on be implementation and delivery of the half of the British government. plan. At present the agencies come The achievement of the objectives together in an interagency body listed above will be overseen by the which acts as a working group. To existing strategy group; new mecha implement projects, closer work ar nisms to facilitate the partner ar rangements may be necessary. Indi rangements and the need for a new vidual projects will also require spe post of coordinator to implement the cific teams. The composition of the plan are discussed below. The action working group will be reviewed to plan that is being developed will set ensure that all interests are repre out a short-to-medium-term (5-10 sented, including the local business years) programme of projects. It will and residential community. These indicate which agency or agencies working arrangements need to be will take the lead in implementing agreed to implement the action plan. schemes and developing strategies. A new position of coordinator is There is a need for the Ironbridge suggested to serve the working group Gorge to have a secure and sustain and coordinate the implementation able economic base that is compati of the action plan. The post will also ble with the conservation of the be responsible for monitoring and World Heritage Site. Securing the evaluation, carrying out a yearly re objectives of the plan must use the view of the action plan, and antici partnership approach to balance the pating the five-year review of the various interests and ensure that management plan itself. Similar posts World Heritage values are not di have been created at Avebury and minished. A key part of implement Greenwich World Heritage Sites. ing the action plan will be to achieve The officer reports to the World a standard of excellence appropriate Heritage Site working party. The to the World Heritage Site in all ar post includes liaison with local own eas of work from interpretation and ers and employers, maintenance of conservation through to everyday the GIS database, and identifying maintenance work. The monitoring sources of funding and bidding for and review of the action plan must grants. include an assessment of quality. The achievement of objectives The mechanisms to achieve the will be constrained by issues outside objectives are twofold: through the the scope of the plan—for example, existing working arrangements, and national planning policy or the level through the appointment of a dedi of funding necessary to achieve the cated World Heritage Site officer. desired outcome. A greater under-
Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 119 Archaeology and the National Park Idea: Challenges for Management and Interpretation standing of the potential impact of and its management arrangements by proposals on the World Heritage 2004. The success or failure of this Site will be essential to justify both plan will not be measured by the small and large changes. UNESCO quality of the document itself, but the has introduced monitoring require process of collaborative working that ments for all World Heritage Sites, is essential for its shared ownership and in the implementation and re and effective implementation. Only view of the plan there must be scope time will tell if this process has been to ensure a full assessment of the site successful.
Marion Blockley, Ironbridge Gorge Museum, Ironbridge, Telford, Shrop shire TF8 7AW United Kingdom; [email protected]
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Introduction ites which contain multiple layers of material history often do not conform to the established methodology for analyzing cultural land scapes. Such landscapes may contain historic resources—buildings, Sroads, vegetation—from multiple eras which are only loosely related developmentally. As a result, these landscapes may exhibit multiple and overlapping periods of significance. The degree of historical integrity the landscape retains from its primary period of significance may be weak, sug gesting that conventional restoration is unfeasible or ill-advised. This does not preclude the possibility, however, of an ecologically informed and creative landscape rehabilitation, which draws inspiration from historic documenta tion while addressing contemporary interpretive and management concerns. A cultural landscape report prepared for the Chalmette Battlefield and Na tional Cemetery Site during 1998-1999 provides interesting insights into such a rehabilitation and some innovative management strategies that could easily be adapted to other sites with multiple layers of history. Site Context and History utility rights-of-way, separates the Chalmette Battlefield and Na park from the St. Bernard Highway tional Cemetery Site is administered (Louisiana State Highway 46). The by the National Park Service as a mammoth refinery and waste site of management unit of Jean Lafitte Na the former Kaiser Aluminum and tional Historical Park and Preserve. Chemical Corporation bounds the The park is located in St. Bernard park to the east; Chalmette Slip, a Parish, Louisiana, approximately six ship docking and storage facility, miles southeast of downtown New bounds the park to the west. A serv Orleans in a highly industrialized ice road along the landward toe of corridor along the east bank of the the levee provides cross-park access Mississippi River (Figure 1). The between the neighboring industrial property is bounded to the south by properties. A 1.5-acre sewage treat a broadly concave arc of the river and ment facility, owned by St. Bernard by its adjacent levee, which is main Parish, stands as a conspicuous in- tained and administered by the Army holding at the southern end of the Corps of Engineers. To the north, an battlefield. approximately 200-foot-wide strip, The 142.9-acre park includes the containing highway, railroad, and commemorative battlefield and the
Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 121 Figure 1. Chalmette Battlefield and National Cemetery: Existing conditions and site context. adjacent Chalmette National Ceme 1812. The cemetery was established tery, a designed landscape which in 1864 for the interment of Union occupies a portion of the former bat soldiers killed during the Civil War tlefield (see Figure 1). The battlefield in Louisiana. The 17.3-acre ceme property serves to commemorate the tery is set apart from the battlefield Battle of New Orleans and to inter within a brick-walled enclosure along pret the strategy of this decisive the park's eastern edge. American victory during the War of Both the battlefield and cemetery
122 The George Wright FORUM occupy land that belonged to the architecturally noteworthy summer historic Chalmette and Rodriguez residence built in 1833, and archaeo plantations. It was on these two logical resources related to post-bat properties that the primary action of tle land use and subdivision. For ex the Battle of New Orleans—the last ample, a trace of Fazendeville Road, engagement of the War of 1812—was a remnant of the free black subdivi fought, on 8 January 1815. During sion of Fazendeville that existed on the battle, British troops advanced site from the late nineteenth century westward across the fields of Chal until 1964, remains within park mette Plantation, attacking the boundaries. The interpretation of American troops entrenched behind these non-battle-related features has a canal on the eastern boundary of proven problematic to the park's the neighboring Rodriguez Planta primary mission of interpreting the tion. The two-hour battle was an im battlefield landscape, yet these fea pressive victory for General Andrew tures hold historical, cultural, and Jackson and his outnumbered troops ethnographical significance in their over British forces seeking to capture own right. The cultural landscape New Orleans from the east. The report was developed, in part, to ad victory solidified American claims to dress this issue. the Louisiana Purchase and bol stered Jackson's popularity, helping Project Description— to catapult him to national promi The Cultural Landscape Report nence. A cultural landscape report is a The commemorative battlefield research document that (1) records contains a number of features associ the existing and historic conditions ated with the Battle of New Orleans: of a cultural landscape; (2) analyzes the Rodriguez Canal, which served the integrity and historical signifi as the line of entrenchment for Jack cance of that landscape against es son's troops; the partially recon tablished National Register criteria; structed American rampart and ar and (3) provides treatment recom tillery batteries; the site of the British mendations for managing the cultural attack and advance batteries; the landscape in light of historical Rodriguez Plantation archeological documentation and contemporary site; Chalmette Monument, erected management concerns. For the in 1855 to commemorate the Ameri Chalmette site, the overall goal of can victory; and Spotts Marker, historical research was to trace the erected in the 1890s to memorialize history and evolution of the various First Lieutenant Samuel Spotts's role land parcels that compose the con in the battle. However, the battlefield temporary park. Significant periods' also contains significant features not of change in the landscape were connected with the battle, notably documented, including investigation the Malus-Beauregard House, an of the site's pre-battlefield landscape
Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 123 (plantation agriculture to 1815); the in the nineteenth century. Conse battlefield scene (1814-1815); Chal- quently, the woodland swamp zone mette's post-battle history of subdivi that exists today does not contain sion and private ownership (1815- cypress trees and only loosely ap 1964); and the battlefield's long his proximates, for interpretive pur tory of private and public commemo poses, the original swamp. The levee ration (1840-present). The historical has blocked views of the Mississippi research findings were compared River to the south. with the park's existing landscape in Because of the relatively small size order to assess what resources re of the site, the battlefield setting is mained from both the battle-era noticeably interrupted by the pres landscape and from latter cultural ence of non-contributing park-era overlays. Treatment recommenda infrastructure, especially the visitor tions were then devised to suggest tour road, which circumscribes a how the park's landscape resources portion of the central battlefield, and could most effectively be treated and the complex of the visitor center, interpreted in the future. comfort station, and parking area. The tour road introduces automo Problems and biles into the battlefield setting and Management Issues hinders understanding of the recti The battlefield's natural setting linear land patterns that prevailed at has been dramatically altered by sur the time of the battle. The visitor rounding industrialization, which center, parking area, and comfort has erased the formerly rural, agri station are clustered in unfortunate cultural context. In addition, pro proximity to the Chalmette Monu gressive reinforcements of the levee ment and Rodriguez archeological have severed the landscape from its site. Though not owned by the park, connection with the river. The pres the St. Bernard sewage treatment ence of a highway and railroad to the plant also intrudes into the battlefield north of the park has further altered landscape. The Malus-Beauregard the distinctive spatial character of the House, a post-battle era construc former battlefield land. Strategically tion, poses yet another interpretive open view lines, across the once challenge to the park; its anachronis sweeping Chalmette Plain and along tic presence at the southern end of the curve of the river, have been the battlefield confounds a clear un blocked by industrial infrastructure derstanding of the historic scene. or wooded buffer zones to the east and west of the park. The cypress Summary of Findings swamp, which spatially defined the Given the highly industrialized northern extent of the battlefield and context of its surroundings, Chal- played a critical role in Jackson's mette's landscape is not readily legi battle strategy, was lost to timbering ble to the uninformed visitor; and it
124 The George Wright FORUM bears only the loosest resemblance to recommendations also propose the the landscape that existed at the time removal or relocation of the park-era of the Battle of New Orleans. Fur infrastructure that compromises the thermore, the site's connection to the spatial integrity and understanding of Mississippi River and to a broader the historic battlefield landscape. regional context—information critical The riverfront was treated as a sepa for understanding the site's early de rate management zone because of its velopment as an agricultural land spatial isolation from the battlefield scape, its evolution to post-agricul and its individual interpretive poten tural land uses, and its present con tial. Treatment recommendations dition as a relic landscape within a suggest how the riverfront might be highly industrialized corridor— more fully incorporated into the remains largely uninterpreted. The park's interpretive program and the landscape treatments proposed were visitor experience. thus devised with multiple purposes Because of its developmental his in mind: to preserve the park's tory, designed layout, and independ significant cultural resources; to pro ent spatial integrity, Chalmette Na vide a fuller and richer interpretation tional Cemetery stands apart from of the site's landscape features, con the battlefield as a distinct designed text, and multiple layers of history; landscape. Consequently, separate and to address such contemporary treatment recommendations propose planning and management concerns a rehabilitation of the cemetery's as boundary buffering, vegetation allees and planting patterns, based management, and visitor-use pat on historic documentation and pho terns. tographs. Such improvements will A carefully selected program of further distinguish the cemetery from rehabilitation was determined to be the commemorative battlefield and the most viable treatment approach will provide much needed buffering for the commemorative battlefield. from the Kaiser Aluminum property The urgent need for site buffering, a to the east. shift in visitor-use patterns, and the tightened economies of site manage Management Strategies for Parks ment required landscape treatments with Multiple Layers of History- that addressed such contemporary Lessons from Chalmette problems, yet enhanced the park's • Define separate interpretive interpretive aims. In fact, primary zones or "character areas" to and secondary interpretive themes highlight secondary interpretive were strengthened by revising visitor themes. Re-establishing historic circulation patterns and by defining circulation and vegetation pat separate spatial zones, or "character terns helps visitors to better un areas," in which differential inter derstand the development and pretation could occur. Treatment significance of a landscape on an
Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 125 experiential level, even if such natural succession to simulate a features are not explicitly inter landscape's historic spatial ar preted. For example, rehabili rangement can reduce mainte tating the historic planting pat nance costs and time. For exam terns in the national cemetery ple, releasing an additional area will enhance its distinct spatial of the "swamp zone" from active character and developmental mowing in order to sweep across identity, while buffering the site the tour road would provide from the surrounding industrial buffering along Chalmette's en development. Resources which trance sequence, would create are anomalous or anachronistic spatial and experiential variety to a park's primary interpretive for park visitors, and would theme are best placed within an complete the line of the swamp interpretive and landscape con as seen from the southern end of text of their own, not ignored or the battlefield. Differential glossed over for ease of interpre mowing patterns can be used to tation. Simplifying a site's history highlight hidden archeological for interpretive purposes does features or historic circulation not do justice to the complexity routes, a technique that is inex of a cultural landscape. Further pensive to implement and easily more, it denies the public a reversible, e.g., mowing swathes broader understanding of the through the battlefield to repre site's historical development. sent battle-era ditch lines, or Visitors may take away a false perhaps Fazendeville Road. impression if such anomalies are • Plant ecologically sustainable not expressly interpreted. For native vegetation to simulate the example, the Malus-Beauregard texture, color, pattern, or ap House is often misinterpreted as pearance of historic vegetation or a plantation house, and despite field patterns, such as by using a the park's efforts to the contrary, rowed planting of a coarse-tex some visitors probably take away tured, native clump-forming the impression that it was one of grass to simulate the appearance the battle-era plantations. Re-es and pattern of sugarcane fields at tablishing a landscape setting for Chalmette. the house and restoring the riv • Re-establish historic arrival se erfront approach will further quences, circulation patterns, distinguish the house from the and spatial arrangements. Mid- battlefield. twentieth century park develop • Use mowing patterns, natural ment often altered or eliminated successional processes, or selec earlier circulation patterns and tive planting to establish distinct spatial arrangements in order to interpretive zones. Employing accommodate increasing auto-
126 The George Wright FORUM motive tourism. In many cases, the battlefield scene from atop these changes were implemented the levee. with little regard to the integrity • Remove or relocate non-contrib of prevailing land patterns and, uting park-era infrastructure, as a result, continue to hinder the such as visitor centers, comfort visitor's understanding of the stations, picnic areas, tour roads, park's cultural landscape. For in etc., so as to minimally interfere stance, the tour road at Chal- with the spatial and experiential mette runs counter to the recti understanding of key historic linear field patterns that existed landscape patterns. Infrastruc at the time of the battle. Parks ture which must intrude into the should encourage visitors to ap spatial core of a historic land proach landscape features in the scape should be minimized so as manner in which they would to not interfere with historic cir have been accessed historically. culation patterns, spatial ar • Especially in a small park, de rangements, or archaeological re velop interpretive programs that sources. place the site in a larger regional • Preserve—and, ideally, en context. Encroaching industriali hance—existing buffer zones zation and suburbanization are along park boundaries. Many jarring realities for many parks, parks are engulfed by suburban, yet many choose to ignore these commercial, and industrial de contextual changes in their in velopment. The use of vegetative terpretive program, even though plantings to create visual buffer such changes are part of the re ing at both the micro- and gional and developmental con macro-scale from within a park text. Provide waysides or open- can be a relatively inexpensive air interpretive pavilions that al and effective alternative when low visitors to experience the additional land acquisition is not historic site from a new perspec feasible. Think about internal tive or spatial framework. Such sight lines and how vegetation interpretive sites need not be can be used to screen distant un complex, expensive, or visually desirable views, or to create dis obtrusive, and can include his tinct interpretive zones within toric photographs or documen the park. For example, planting tation that reveals the landscape trees to the rear of the Malus- as it would have appeared in the Beauregard House will help to historic period. As an example, screen it from the battlefield, set Hyacinthe Laclotte's painting of ting this post-battle-era feature the Battle of New Orleans could apart in its own character area. be effectively used to interpret Also, replanting the historic cemetery allees will provide mi-
Volume 16 • Number 4 1999 127 cro-scale buffering from the Kai moving through the park. Is the ser Aluminum plant to the east of visitor brought into contact with the park. all the historically important • Use landscape materials to inter features or aspects of the land pret hidden archeological or eth scape? If a certain landscape nographic resources. Using a feature or zone played into the simple footprint marking of historic events that occurred on contemporary brick or stone site, is the visitor encouraged to pavers to interpret a vanished explore these features? Provide historic building or structure access to the park's various eco renders an invisible feature visi logical zones. A site's cultural ble, and makes a cultural land history is never divorced from its scape more legible to the visitor, ecology. A riverfront interpretive especially when combined with site at Chalmette would provide period historic documents, such better site orientation to visitors as photographs, paintings, or arriving by riverboat, would en maps, that depict the vanished courage visitors who arrive by resource. The Rodriguez ar car to visit the riverfront, and cheological site is presently un would emphasize the river's im marked, but could easily be in portance to the battlefield scene terpreted using this technique. and the site's later development. • Lastly, concentrate on the quality of the visitor's experience while
[Ed. note: This paper, with additional figures, also was published in the 1999 GWS Conference Proceedings.]
Kevin Risk, National Park Service Southeast Region, Atlanta Federal Center, 1924 Building, 100 Alabama Street SW, Atlanta, Georgia 30303; [email protected]
128 The George Wright FORUM Submitting Materials to THE GEORGE WRIGHT FORUM
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